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Geography and Politics Author(s): Baroness J. Young Source: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 12, No. 4 (1987), pp. 391-397 Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/622791 . Accessed: 13/09/2013 10:32 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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391

andPolitics Geography BARONESS J.YOUNG LondonSW1 2AH and Commonwealth Minister Office, ofState,Foreign (Third Mackinder lecturedelivered in the School of Geography 3 February1987 to celebratethe centenaryof the firstReadership in Geography in Oxford, 1887)

MS received 24 April,1987 Revised ABSTRACT enterinto politicallanguage.A because geographicalimagesand relationships Politicsand geographyare inter-twined nation'sgeographyaffects itsview ofitselfand itsview oftheworld.Politiciansand politicaldecisionsmusttakeaccount between notonlyofpeople,butalso technologyand naturalresources.Consequently,thereneedsto be a greaterinterplay geographersand politicians. KEY WORDS: Politics,Resources,Technology,Self-images

and viceversa. ForeignOfficeMinistersusuallyprefera generaltitle activitieson ournaturalsurroundings, for a speech. Somethinglike 'Peace'; or, perhaps, And as the world gets more crowded,and techon 'Democracy'.The boldersouls among us even ven- nology enables us to change our environment the role for advisers with tureintosuchdangerousand controversial scales, territory ever-larger political as 'Peace and Democracy'.But we normallylike to good backgrounds in geographicalsciencescan only avoid a preciseor over-specific title,suchas 'British grow.This shouldlead to good long-term prospects ForeignPolicy':it is eithertoo limiting-or fartoo forgeographygraduates! It is not surprising thatgeographicalimageshave misleading! But by any standardsthe titleof my talktoday, enteredourpoliticallanguage-and therefore shape Forexample,thephrase'North-South'. 'GeographyandPolitics',is broadenough.Ifyou will ourthinking. forgivethepun,whaton earthto say?And whatin Some people use the label 'North-Southdivide' to the world to leave out? Human historyitselfis all describeregionaldisparities inBritain. IntheEuropean about the changingpatternsof humanresponseto Community we argueaboutcompetingNorth/South our physicalsurroundings and naturalresources-- claimson agricultural subsidiesand industrial investthe soil, animaland plant life-and how we have mentstrategies, as betweenthenorthern Community And at a exploitedthem;andwhatwe have done to overcome countriesand theirMediterranean partners. or takeadvantageof majornaturalobstacles,rivers, global level international developmentproblemsare oftendescribedas 'North/South' issues.Thereis not canyonsand mountains. So politics and geography are inevitablyand only North/South. Thereis East/West.Despite the we in theForeignOffice irrevocablyinter-twined.This is not to define physicalfactsof thematter, geographyin an obvious, rathernarrowsense. I ponderoverevidencethatEastandWestare'moving know thatthe subjecthas changedfromthe largely closertogether';orthattheAtlanticis 'gettingwider'; andmappingactivitiesofthefirst modem or thatBritainis 'nearer'AmericathanEurope.And, descriptive geographersin the last century;geography has of course,we bum a lot ofenergy,maybetoo much We now understand new sometimes,eitherat 'summits'or tryingto reach expandedin all directions. new chainsofcauseandeffect. Itis hard them! relationships, to drawclearlinesbetweengeography,climatology, These are familiar everydaypoliticalimages.Yet I and conservation. The basic wonder whethertheycan not be positivelymisleadecology, agriculture themelinkingthesesubjectsis theimpactof human ing. For example,take the so-called North/South Trans.Inst.Br.Geogr.N.S. 12: 391-397 (1987) ISSN: 0020-2754

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Printedin GreatBritain

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dividein Britain.Is it a questionof geography,or a Itis undoubtedly truethatthere questionofattitudes? are some severelydepressedareas in the Northof Britain(however'North'is defined).Butit is nottrue thattheyare depressedonly becausetheyare in the North. Itis all too easy forpoliticalrhetoric to runthefirst propositioninto the second.And thisdoes no-one ifnotdespairin any good. It tendsto breedfatalism people in poor Northernareas.It gives no creditto thosepeople in theNorthwho are doingwell-and thereare some very successfulareas there.It also distracts attentionfromeconomically deprivedareas elsewherein thecountry.This is notjust a semantic point.How we defineor describetheproblemshapes ouranswersto it.Is itbetterforgovernment to concentrateitsinvestment on buildingup thedepressed areasthemselves, withnewinfrastructure, newphysical capital?Or is it wise in the long termto invest mainlyin thepeoplein thoseareaswithnew training facilities, grantsforsmallbusinessesand so on? Governmentsof different politicalcomplexions here and abroad have wrestledwith these basic questionsfordecades. Indeed,in one formor other theyapplyto theNorth/South questionswithinthe EuropeanCommunityand the global North/South issuesmentionedearlier. Do notexpectme to answerthesequestions,butI mentionthem simplyto show that our language affects ourviewoftheworldandofourselves.'North' and 'South'are neat,self-excluding categories.They lendthemselves wellto politicalrhetoric, to claimsof clearanalysisand simplesolutions.And thustheycan trickus intoidentifying factswithassumptions. All this goes to show that the ways in which Geographyand Politicsoverlaparemanyand subtle, and rathertoo muchforone talk.So todayI propose to offersome generalthoughtsunderthreebroad headings: 1. how a nation'sgeographyaffectsits view of itself 2. how new technologyis transforming internationaluse ofresources, and 3. looking ahead, how geographersand politicianswillhave moreand moreto talkabout.

formations but thatthe movecompletelydifferent mentof vastplateshas createdthemap oftheworld we know today.That processhas takenmillionsof years.Butwhatwouldhappenifitsuddenlyspeeded up?Suppose thatover thenextfewyearstheUnited States driftedover to nestleup againstthe Soviet and Union;thatSouthAfricaburrowednorthwards had Africancountrieson all sides;or thatSwitzerland eased itselfdown theMediterranean and Italymoved northwards, losingitscoastline. No doubt these movementswould be accompanied by a certaindegree of practicalphysical upheaval! But what of theirimplicationsfor the politicalpsychologyofthecountriesinvolved? The Americansand the Russianscould still be bitteradversaries, buttheywould also now be neighbours,with all the problems-and opportunitieswhichthatrelationship implies.The whitesin South Africalikewisewouldfinditmuchharderto maintain theirisolationistmentalityand policies. And the Swiss would lose the securityof theirsurrounding mountains,while the cooler climateof Northern Europe could have drasticconsequences for the character and reputation ofMediterraneans. All thisis, to say the least,improbable.We find theveryidea comic.Butwhy?Not justbecause it is physicallyimpossible.Mainly because we simply can'timaginetheItaliansbeingnorthern Europeans, or theSwiss beingMediterranean, or theAmericans being simplyone part of a greatland mass: these people simplywouldn't be 'Italian' or 'Swiss', or 'American'anymore! Whatdoes thisshow?Not, of course,thatwe are all theresultof some sortof geographicaldeterminofanypeopleare ism,thatthenationalcharacteristics inevitablyand exclusivelymouldedby thephysical size and locationofthelandin whichtheylive.That overstatesthe case. Instead,my fancifulexample merelybringsout themoremodestthoughtthatthe culturalidentitiesof different countries-and hence theirpoliticalidentities-aredefinedpartlyin terms oftheirphysicalplacein theworld.

Ourselves How does this apply to the United Kingdom? Whateverthepoliticalcreedofanycountry's leaders, whateverplans they have, they startwhere their A NATION'S GEOGRAPHY AND ITS SELFnot predecessorsstopped,witha packagecomprising IMAGE onlytheactuallocationof thecountryand itsphysiOne ofthemostfascinating geographicaltheoriesfor cal resources,but also thestockof skills,beliefsand the layman is continentaldrift:the idea that the expectationsacquiredover centuriesby its present world'sland surfaceswere once joined togetherin population.

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andPolitics 393 Geography about So whoeverwinsournextelectionwillassumethe continuing the Channel Fixed Link, arguments politicalleadershipofa ratheroddly-shapedgroupof or theglee withwhichthepopularpressreportsrows islandsoffthe northerncoast of Europe.Our total withtheFrenchoverlambdeliveriesorferry services, area is 241 000 km2: about the size of Ghana but one sometimeswondersifithas changedat all! Our historically twicethe size of Cuba; one-thirdthe size of Texas; withEurope stormyrelationship one-tenththe size of Sudan; one fortieth the size of and our maritimeskills contributedto the early Canada.We have a gentleclimate-well,mostofthe developmentofBritainas theworld'sleadingtrading time!-and are relativelywell-offin termsof basic power. We certainlylooked outwards,away from naturalresourcesof energyreservesand good farm- Europe fortrade,settingup tradingnetworksthat ing land. About 56 millionpeople live here,which eventually spanned the world, from China to meansthatcompared,again,to Ghana,Cuba,Texas, Colombia,New Orleans to New Zealand,Miami to Sudanor Canada we are crammedin likesardines! Madagascar.Much of our tradedevelopedwiththe How has themostobviousgeographicalfeatureof Americans. Now thereis a boom on partsofBritain's theUnitedKingdom(ourislandstatus)influenced our east coast as tradingand otherlinkswith Europe thelargemoatroundour surgeahead.Thisneatlyreflects whatwas happening politics?Firstand foremost, islands has been a crucial factorin our national two centuries ago as Bristol, Manchester and defence:therecan'tbe manycountriesin the world Liverpoolgrewon westward-looking trade. In short,Britishforeignpolicyhas long reflected whichhave not suffered foreigninvasionsince1066! It is, of course,not easy to prove the effectsof our thiswiderculturalambivalencetowardsEurope,this relativesecurityfromoutsideattackon our political feelingof beingat once partof,but alwaysseparate culture. Butoverthecenturies ithas certainly allowed from,the ideas and values of theContinentalmainthegradualdevelopmentofinstitutions andassociated land.ThisambivalencetowardsEuropehas also,partraditions-theMonarchy,Parliament, independent ticularlysinceWorldWar II been reinforced by the and respectedas strongculturaland politicalpulloftheUnitedStates. judiciary-whichare as important ever.We have had the chanceto develop a cultural However, under the impact of our European we arenow,perhapsforthe respectforand appreciationof thelaw,publicorder, Community membership effective administration and honestyin government, firsttimein our history,startingto look activelyto which other countrieswith insecureborders and Europefortradingand politicalpartnerships. This is an enormouschange.And the Britishpublicare at politicalsystemshave sorelymissed. Second,we all learnat schoolofBritain's greatsea- long last getting used to Europe. We even see on BritishTV in foreignlanguages: faringtraditions.Nowhere in Britainis more than advertisements about 70 miles fromthe sea and, not surprisingly,VorsprungdurchTechnik!'Europe'meanssomething attitudesto thesea have influenced ourpolitics.This positive,somethingnew,somethinggrowing. stillapplies.Whateverthemilitary or technicalarguNonetheless,the tensionbetweenthe 'European mentsin favourof reorganizing defencespendingin and 'Atlanticist' views of Britain'srole stillpersists. new ways,popularsupportfortheRoyal Navy runs We ourselvesencourageit.We stilltendto see ourmaritime also gave selves as uniquelyqualified,if only for linguistic deep.Our historical pre-eminence us good practicalgroundsforarguingin favourof reasons,to act as a 'bridge'betweenEuropeand the freedomof shippingon the high seas and against UnitedStates(even thoughothersmay see us as a in shippingtrade.We remainone of self-appointedpunch-bag,absorbingheavy blows protectionism thestaunchest international upholdersofthisimport- frombothsides!).Butone way or theother,thetenantprincipletoday.And our maritime pre-eminence sion showsthroughin theebb and flowofdebateon enabledus to discover,buildandmaintainan empire. manydifferent questionsin publiclife.To takea few Needless to say, our islandstatushas also influ- examplesof the past year: the Westlandaffair;the encedour attitudesto ourEuropeanneighbours.For Americanraidon Libya;therecentEC tradedispute centuries, and rightinto thiscenturyand in the lifetime withtheAmericansoverginand otherproducts, of manyof us heretoday,thethreatto our national the question of Tridentand Britain'sindependent securityusually came fromour closest European nucleardeterrent. These are all recentexamples.Each in theirdifferneighbours:Spain,France,Holland,Germany.So we have had good reasonto be waryand distrustful of ent way shows thatthereare two 'pulls'on British ourfellowEuropeans.Again,thisattitudegoes deep policy, one towards America,the other towards and changes only slowly-indeed, judging by the Europe.The factthaton issuessuchas thesethereis

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within ourvariouspoliticalparusuallydisagreement ties as well as betweenthembringsout my point clearly:thisambivalenceis a culturalas well as an 'ideological' question,and it stemsdirectlyfromthe way ourgeographyand historyhave interacted. thispoint.ForcenturOne finalexamplereinforces ies ourislandstatushas fixedinourpoliticalculturea firmpreference formarketsand trading.So far,there has been littlepracticaldisagreement over theyears betweenUK politicalpartiesover theimportance to the UK of a world tradingsystemthatis as freeas possible. Of course, there have been periodic demandsforprotectionist measuresbut theyhave croppedup withindifferent parties.Theyhave never takenroot, thankgoodness, not least because the Britishpublic are well aware thatthe UK lives by trading (whether in goods or, increasingly,in services)and has to 'pay itsway in theworld'. So much for the impact of our geographical position on our underlyingpoliticalattitudesand Whataboutothercountries? assumptions. Othercountries is different. Itdoes not Needlessto say,everycountry followthatislandpeoples are all going to behaveas we do. Take the Japanese-far fromadopting an forlong periods outward-looking tradingmentality, in theirhistorytheyhave pursuedextremeisolationist policies.Despite theirremarkable tradingpower today, their culturalsuspicion of foreignersand attitudesare stillevident. protectionist But I would like to say a word about the two superpowersand theirgeography. First,theUnitedStates.We allknowoftheinternal oftheUnitedStatesbased on thephysical dynamism forrestless, hashistorically offered scopethatcountry cultural traof freedom. This pioneeringconcepts ditionhasgivenfreereinto theenergetic exploitation so enablingtheUnited ofAmerica'snaturalresources, States to become the global power in political, termsthatwe see today. economicand military Yet itsgeographicpositionin theworldhas,once again, introducedvarious tensionsinto American foreign policy.Theyremainalivetoday.Forexample, thereis the politicalambivalenceabout the defence of Americaand Americaninterests.If Americahas interests how is globaltrading, politicaland strategic the line to be drawnin defendingthem?Does the defenceofAmericastartin theGulf,on theRhine,in Cuba or actuallyon theUS seaboard?The capitalof inWashington Nicaraguais as close to policy-makers as is Phoenix,Arizona,hence publicanxietyin the

United States about Communistsubversion in CentralAmerica,'America'sbackyard'. In anothersense,just as Britainis subjectto the 'pull'ofbothAmericaand Europe,theUnitedStates feelsthe pull of Europeand theFar East. Therehas been plentyof debate about the 'Pacificdrift'of Americanpolicyas theeconomiccentreofgravityin theUnitedStateshas shifted westwardsto California and southwards-we are told for instance that Floridawillbe thethirdmostpopulatedstateby the year2000. Nonethelessthereare 300 000 US forces stationedin Europe,makinga majorcontribution to our defence.The UnitedStatespoliticaland military commitment to thedefenceofEuropeand to NATO remainssolid,but Europeanpolicy-makers can not affordto takeitforgranted. Securityconsiderationsagain affectthe United States'relationswithitstwo neighbours, Canada and Mexico. These borders are long and effectively impossibleto defend.This and thehistoricalpower imbalancebetweentheUnitedStatesand its neighbours have made fortraditionally pricklyrelationrelations are at rathera low US/Mexico today ships: point because of the ease withwhichillegalimmigrantsand drugsare crossingintoAmerica;and US/ Canada tradequestionsare a continuingsource of friction. Finally,a wordaboutAmerica'seconomicpolicies. The United State's culturalpropensityfor 'selfreliance' and, in particular,its enormous natural wealthhavemeantthatithasneverhadBritain's deep to Free Trade: it has neverneeded it. commitment Quite the reverse-isolationist or protectionist attitudescombinewith constantcomplaintsabout to give America'strading unfairforeigncompetition partnersa hardtime!The US budgetdeficitis behind demandsinCongress, thelatestsurgeofprotectionist so is the factthatit is a novel experienceforthe Americansto see US companiesand buildingsbeing bought up by Japanese-and British!-investors. One way or the other,we mustall hope thatthe of the latestEC/US tradequarrelsets a settlement good precedentfor keeping America'straditional instincts at bay! protectionist The Soviet Union is by farthe world's largest country,withan area of over 22 millionkm2-it is timesthe size of Great Britain!It has a vast 92.5 wealthofnaturalresources.Yet Russianleadershave been isolated politicallyand culturally historically fromEurope.Since 1917 the MarxistGovernment has repudiatedthe marketand personaleconomic freedom.Thishas createda societyhighlyinefficient

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andPolitics 395 Geography not to say eitherthe naturalor humanresourcesavailable to at all levels. It is trulyextraordinary, answerto thisproblemwas depressing,that 70 years after the Revolution them!The old-fashioned Russiansare stillobligedto queue forhoursforbasic to grabtheresourcesof one's neighbours, eitherby orbysubjugating householdgoods. annexingtheirterritory completely Afterall, thepeople on it to gain controlover theireconomic Maybe thisoughtnotto be so surprising. one problemwithrunningthelargestcountryin the activity.More recentlywe have realizedthattrade, worldis theconstantneed to worryaboutdefending scientific research,more efficient working-practices it, or simply keeping it together.Hence Soviet and simplygood old hard work can all, if rightly leaders'obsessionwithmilitaryspendingand their applied,enhancethevaluea nation'sexistingstockof permanentanxieties about securityalong their itsnaturalresources. extendedborders,whichstretchfromFinlandround This in turnhas broughtus to the trueeconomic throughEuropeto Turkey,to Iranand Afghanistan, revolutionof the twentiethcenturynamely the round to China and Japan.There are no obvious realizationthata relativeabsenceof naturalresources physicalboundariesto definemost of the Soviet need not stop a people or a countryfrombecoming Union's borders.All the Soviet Union can do is to rich!The contrastbetweenJapanor SouthKorea or maintainenormousdefenceforcesand hope to deter Hong Kongon theone hand,andtheSovietUnionon itsmanyneighboursfromcausingtrouble. the otherspeaks for itself.What counts is not so The Soviet Union's culturaltraditionof isolation much what naturalresourcesa countryphysically fromthe outside world also plays a major part in possesses, but the way its naturaland especially itssuspicionsabouttherestof theworld. humanresourcesaremobilizedand motivated. reinforcing As Mr Gorbachevis fastdiscovering,if the Soviet In short,thewholehistorical processofindustrialUnion and its EasternEuropeansatellitesare not to izationis now enteringa new phase as rapidcomfall irreversibly behind in the modern world in municationsand computertechnologybreakdown developingand usingnew technologythereis little thepreviouslyessentiallinksbetweenmanufacturing option but to open up Soviet societyto new ideas. sitesand physicalresources.Itno longermakesmuch Butthenew breathsoffreshairand freedomwhicha differencein terms of resourceswhere a multisustainedpolicy of 'openness'(glasnost)impliesare nationalfirmsitesa car-building plant:whatcountsis bound to be highlyunsettlingto manysectionsof theskilland reliability ofthework-force and theway the Soviet establishment. It remainsto be seen if thetotalcostoftheoperationis assessed(wages,tax Mr Gorbachev can introducenew ideas into his incentives,regional grants etc). The actual steel, a plastic,rubberand glass thatmake up the cars are sprawling and profoundlyconservative---with small'c'-society! is! simplyshippedto whereverthefactory Whatall thisadds up to is this:eachnation'spolitical assessmentsof its comparativeadvantage in PEOPLE, TECHNOLOGY AND RESOURCES worldtradeis now far,farharder.Thisposes immense The SovietUnion'sdifficulties inabsorbingnew tech- practicalproblemsforpoliticians.It meansthatthey nology bringsme to my second point,namelythe have to look at nationalresourcesin a totallynew changingrelationshipbetweenpeople, technology way. and naturalresources. One example fromrecent Britishpolitical life As I saidearlier, whena new government comesto should make the point. Coal-miningis a typical whichis self-evidently tiedto powertheystartwithwhattheyhave.However,they exampleofan industry will probablyhave been electedto officeat least in thephysicallocationofa naturalresource.We cannot partbecausetheyhave promisedtheelectorateto put minecoal inpartsoftheworldwherelabouris cheap the nation'sassets to betteruse thantheirpolitical ifthe coal is not therein the ground.Yet, as other opponentscould do! An all-important partof thisis energysourcesbecome cheapercoal becomesreladefiningthe economic frameworkfor using the tivelyless attractive.However, as we have seen, country'snaturaland humanresourcesand supervis- passions run very high indeed over the closureof ing tradingcontactswithothercountries:as we all 'uneconomic'pits.Thereis constantpressurefornew know, the basic theoryof comparativeadvantage investmentin such pits to make them 'economic' demonstrates how tradestandsto benefiteveryone. again.Yet in today'sworldtheintelligent calculation Of course,therehave been plentyof occasionsin is notsimplythestraight difference betweenthecost historywhen leaders have not been satisfiedwith to theGovernment ofnewinvestment to keepthepit

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moneyandwelfare thecountrieswhichcontrolthemconsiderablelevergoing,andthecostofredundancy andgold areeachgood examples. paymentsto workerslaid offifthepitcloses.Instead age. Oil, chromium have to look at theopportunity lostof Nevertheless, has a wayofinventing subpolicy-makers technology in and notinvesting new industries for new stitutes these resources or makingexistingstocks publicmoney lastlongerifsuppliesarecutto putpricesup inordintechnology. The bitterminersstrikereflectedthe dilemmaI ately. These fluidinternational economic relationissues shipshelp to explainwhy sanctionsagainstSouth posed earlierwhenI mentionedNorth/South in Britain:shouldwe be investingin physicalcapital Africaare unlikelyto be effective, and why OPEC and humanskillsto is-temporarily-in thedoldrums. (here,new mines)or inretraining In short,lackofphysicalresourcesis no longerthe equipourpeople withtalentsto takeus intothenext Of courseit is verypainfulwhenold com- dominant constrainton development for most century? munities breakup undereconomicpressurefromout- countries. Localphysicalfeatures still,obviously,dicbut tatewhatis basicallypossible and whatis not:no-one side,whichthoseaffected scarcelycomprehend, thisis now a world-widephenomenon, and,I believe will get richgrowingpalm-treesin Greenland!But is decidedby a combination ofhuman thatwe shallall have to get used to it. whatis sensible and therightincentives. We can therefore So the international blurringof the concept of ingenuity comparativeadvantagegivespoliticiansmanyhead- expectto see a world-widemovementtowardsdein different formsas the aches.How do we organizeregionalsubsidies?How regulationand privatization do we set up tax and otherincentivesto encourage growingimportanceof humancapital necessitates in managementand Arewe notobligedto the greatestpossibleflexibility businessesto investin Britain? hardaboutourtop tax ratesifourbest otherareas.Thisis notgoingto be a smoothride,but, startthinking mindsare attractedabroad by countrieswithlower as faras I can see,itis an inevitableprocess. ifwe don't actuallymakeanytaxes?Does it matter thingany more?Can we live by exportingservices, our expertise,our language, our cultureand (via GEOGRAPHERS A AND POLITICIANS: tourism)our scenery?Even if economic theory GROWING DIALOGUE? decidesthatthereis no need forus to makeanything any more,how do we accustomour people to the In the years to come politicianswill be lookingto underthisimpliesforworkingpracticesandcon- geographersforguidance.As our scientific revolution ditions,given our traditionalstrengthsin different standingof the complex relationshipbetween the land and our use of it has developed,our political sectors? manufacturing issues.Over thenextdecadeswe optionshave become less obvious.We now realize Thesearereal-life willsee continuing changein manyareasof national the importanceof clean air and clean riversforour economicand politicallife,as international competi- health.We recognizethatcertaintoxicor radioactive This substancescan cause devastatingdamage to the tivepressureforcesus to becomemoreefficient. ifnotcontrolledproperly.We now see will affecttrade unions,universities, banks,local environment carelessfarming links the between of the and national techniquesandsoil Many government. government changeswillbe painful-itis notonlyMr Gorbachev erosion. All thisnew insightmakeslifehardforthe poliwho has to contendwithvestedinterests! This is not just a problem for Britain.The ticians!They have to tryto balance the competing developingworld has to thinkhard about what it interestsof environmentalgroups, trade unions, all of whom can and scientists, wantsand how itcan bestmobilizeitsresources.Yet banks,industrialists, allofwhomsee their fre- have a legitimate interest, culturaland ideological ideas of 'self-reliance' partof as the the total of as do renewed fears run part! all-important picture exploitation deep, quently Thisappliesin international is notreallyan fromoverseas.However,self-reliance politicstoo. Thereare of a to The in world. key openingup plenty examples: option today's aid expertshave argued foryears nation'sphysicalresourcesis bringingto themthe (a) International marketplace. Self-reliance abouttheenvironmental skillsof the international typesof impactofdifferent andtheneed fordevelopingcountries, takento extremesleads to ignorance,paranoiaand cropstrategies to counterthespreadofdeserts. poverty:Albaniais theclassicexampleinEurope. Of course,thelocationoftheworld'srawmaterials (b) The countriesof Europeare engaged in detailed causes of acid Some are particularly is not irrelevant. scarce,giving discussionsto agree on the different

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rainand thebestway to reduceit.Not an easy prob- so showingthatcountrieswithcenturiesof violent betweenthemcantakepracticalstepsintheir lem:shouldBritainbe obligedto close down certain mistrust power-stationsor alternativelyshould Germans joint interests.There is also a role forthe United Nations and its specializedagenciesin centralizing drivemoreslowly? awarenessofthese (c) How can theinternational poachingand tradingof expertiseand raisinginternational sortsofproblems. rarespeciesofwildlifebe stopped? Inotherwords,politicians willhavea growingneed (d) Should the international communityas a whole advicein future: have a say inthefateoftheworld'sgreatrainforests, forexpertscientific geographersare the Amazon basin, given theirglobal particularly well-placedto give it.I hopetheywillrise particularly to thechallenge! environmental importance? can be done about the phen(e) What,ifanything, omenonof'ozone-leak'in theAntarctic region? CONCLUSION (f) What would be the long-termenvironmental consequencesof the grand Soviet plan to divert There is a lovely little aphorismby the British variousnorthern rivers? And so on. humorist Saki: All theseissuesevidentlytranscendnationalbound'Happy is the countrythat has no geography'. ariesandso arenotsusceptibleto thesolutionsofany Many people no doubt thinkthat 'happy is the one countryactingon itsown. The politicalproblem countrythathas no politicians'.Be thatas it may I is thatattemptsto set up international bodies with hope thatI have been able to show you today that formalresponsibilities in theseareasusuallyfounder Politicsand Geographyarestuckwitheachother,for ortakean inordinate lengthoftime.Themostdifficult betteror worse.Thatis as it shouldbe. We are all in issue is nationalsovereignty: countriesresentother part a productof our environment. As an Oxford countriestellingthemwhatto do on theirown terri- graduatemyself, I am thefirst to admitit! tory!It is simplynot practicalpoliticsforus to try to dictateto the Brazilianshow to look aftertheir ACKNOWLEDGEMENT trees. Nevertheless,the trendis towardsinternational The author would like to acknowledgethe help cooperation.The European Communityis doing receivedfromMr CharlesCrawfordof thePlanning workthatis quiteunprecedented intermsofharmon- Staffof the Foreign and CommonwealthOffice, izingenvironmental policiesamongitsownmembers, London.

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