Avex Air Training PPL - Human Performance & Limitations

   and 

 AVEX AIR TRAINING

PRIVATE PLOT LICENCE 

HUMAN PERFORMANCE and

LIMTATIONS  Avex Air

(Reg N 67/91

(Pty) Limted, 2004

Crer per Aveue d Zuric Rd Aepr, Spr Ext  Kempt Prk SUTH AFRCA S6° 719 E8 119 Prvte Bg X1  EDEEN, 165 Repubic  Sut Ac Te (1 1  97 9785 8555 F (11 976517 EMal avex@irccm www.vexcm Prduct Cde: AATMEDPP Frst pubised i Sut Aca b Avex Ai Taig  Revsed Mc 8 Revsed August 8 Revised Decembe 1 Revised sed September 1 1 All gts eseed.  terms   te Cprigt Act, N 93  1 978,  pr p r  tese tes m be reprduced r trasmted   r b  es, electic r mecaic cludig ptcpig, ecdg r b  irmt stge d retevl sstem, wtut te pemss i writig  te publser

An Avex Air Training Publication Private Pilt Licece Revi Revisi sio o 12/2010 12/2 010

© Avex Air Traii Traiig g 10/2004 10/2 004

PRIVATE PILOT LIENE

HUMAN PERFORMANCE  ONTENTS HAPTER

PAGES

SUET

i) i) - iv) iv)

INDEX INDEX

Gl

Gl  G

GOSSARY 



  1

 THE AVIATION ENVIRONMET

1Q1

QESTIONS

1  7

 THE HUMAN MACHINE

Q1 Q1  Q Q

QESTIONS

31  37

 THE UNGS

3Q1 3Q1  3Q 3Q

QESTIONS

1  8

 THE EARS

Q1  Q3 Q3

QESTIONS QESTIONS

5  55

 THE EYES

5Q1 5Q1  5Q Q

QESTIONS

61  63

PRESSURE

6Q1 6Q1  6Q 6Q

QESTIONS

71  7

ACCEERATION AND VIBRATION

7Q1

QESTIONS

81  813

FYNG AND HEATH

8Q1

QESTIONS

91  9 8

HUMAN INFORMATON PROCESSING

9Q1 9Q1  9Q 9Q

QESTIONS

11  16

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

1 Q1  1 Q

QESTIONS

ll

ANSWERS



3



5

6

7

8

9

1



Private Pilot Licece Revisio 12/2010

© Avex Air Traiig 10/2004

NDX

Page (i)

NDEX Accmmdatn       51 Acute fatigue                   8 Acute nsmnia           85 Acute stress              81 Adaptatn               93 Alch         88 Alimentar canal                   1 Alvei                     31 Amnesia             95 Ampula                        Anaema         7 Anaemic hpxia                           35 Angina                Angular acceeratns              5 Anxia          3 3 Antacids                         8 9 Antidiarrheas                 89 Antihstamines                         8 8 Antispasmdics           89 Anxet         8  Apnea           8  Arusa                8  Areries                     Aspirin                         8 8 Asthma        37 Astgmatism                     5 Athersclerss      5 Atmsphere 1 1 Atitudes      1 1 Audtr neve                   Autiness       55 Bartrauma 1 Behaviur        1 3 Bincuar vsn           53 Bilgical cntr sstem          9  Blnd spt 5 Bld gucse                  Bd pressure     3 Bd rhthms         8 Ble's aw              1 Brain 91 Bran stem                    91 Brnchia tree     31 Brnchitis                 37 Cafeine                              8 8 Capares               Carbn dixide            3 1 Carbn mnxde                  3 5 Cardivascuar sstem                1 Cataracts           5  Central nervus sstem                         1 Central vsin                 5  Cerebrum 9 1 Cerebelum         9 1 Cerebra cex             91 Chera 81 Chrnc fatgue                8  Chrnc nsmna                  85 Chrnc stress         81 Cia muscles    51 Crcadan dsrhhmia          8 7 Crcadan rhthms      8  Cnca insmnia      85 Csed lp sstem      97 Cchlea         Private Piot Licece Revisio 12/2010

© Avex Air raiig 10/2004

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Pa (iii) Kidys 5 Kidy stos6 Kowld basd bhavior 1  Ladi illsios 55 Ls 5 1 Liar acclratio 5 Lo trm mmory 9 Loss o cabi prssr 37 Low blood prssr  Ls 3 1 Macla 5 Malaria 81 Mmory 93 Middl ar 1 Mirai 8 11 Mid st 97 Mooclar visio 53 Motio sickss 8 Motivatio 1 3 Motor proramm 98 Motor rvs 9 Motor skill mmory 93 Myopia  5 Narcolpsy  85 Nasa 89 Nrvos isomia 85 Nrvos systm 1 Niht visio  53 Ocloravic illsio 6 Op loop systm  98 Optic rv 5 Ohodox slp  85 Ossicls  1 Otolith oras  5 Otr ar  1 Ozo  1  1 Paikillrs  89 Paradoxical slp  8 Paraasal siss 6 Parial prssr  33 Priphral rvos systm 1 Priphral visio  5 Prsoaliy  1 1 Prsoality charactristics 1 1 Pilots, drs ad slmdicatio 87 Plasma  1 Platlts  1 Plrisy 37 Prsbyopia5 Prssr 1  Prssr vio  9 Pls rat   Ppil  5 1 Radial kratotomy  5  Radiatio 1  Rd blood clls   1 Rlxs  9 REM slp 8 Rspiratio3  Rtia  5  Rods5 Rl basd bhavior 1  Saccl  5 Slctiv attio 95 Smatic mmory  9 Smi-circlar caals  Ssitivity 9 Ssory thrshold 93 Shorttrm mmory  93 Sitatioal awarss 1 5 Private Pilot Licece Revisio 12/2010

© AvexAir Traiig 10/2004

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Pa (iv Siainal insmnia . 8.5 Skil-basd bavi 1 3 Slp 8. Slp manamnt  8.6 Slp pans .  85 Slpin pbms  8.5 Sla Radiatin  1 . Smnambism.  86 Snd  .3 Spaia disinatn ..6 Spaia inain .   6 Spina cd  . 9 . Stas  slp  8 Stas  stss  8 Stanan ypxia  3.5 Ssss  81 Sk  .6 Sy  5 Sddn incapacitan  8.11 Sviva   8.1 Syslc pss  3 T  6 1 Th ans  .6 Tim  s cnscsnss  35 Tbacc  8 8 Txic matals   81  Taca  3.1 Typd . 81 tic  ..5 Vins   Vntiatin  3 1 Vti...............................................................................9 Vstibla appaas   .. Vsbla sysm .  Vsbl  .5 Visal acy  5 W Bd clls    . 1 Wkin mmy. 93 Yw v .  81 Zitbs  86

Private Pilot icece Revisio 2200

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GLOSSARY

Pae G1

GLOSSARY ALVEOLI

emna, mnute a sacs n the uns throuh whch oxyen passes nto the bood. ARTERY 

A tube of musce and connecte tssue fbes whch dstrbutes blood from the hea to the caplaes. ANTIHISTAMINES

A oup of drus used to teat allerc condtons, such as hayfeer, a sde efect of whch s dowsness. BAROTRAUMA

Damae/pan caused by the expanson or contacton of a as tapped wthn the body, own to pessue chanes CAPILLARY 

A mnute essel nework connectn an atey and a en CARDIOVASCULAR

oncernn the hea and bood esses. CELL

A mcroscopc mass of potoplasm (oranc compound ncudn a nucleus, of whch tssues are made COCHLEA

The spa cana of the nner ea (Hearn oran. CYANOSIS

A blush appearance of the skn and mucous membanes caused by defcent oxyenaton of the bood. EXPIRAON

Breathn out HAEMOGLOBIN

The cooun mater of the red bood copusces It conssts of proten and ron and has a stron anty fo oxyen HYPERTENSION

Rased blood pressure. HYPOTENSION

Low bood pessure. INSPIRAON

Beathn n. LEFT ATRIUM

The lef upper chambe of the hear

Private Piot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

O

Pae G LEFT VENTRICLE 

The lef lowe chambe of the heat. LUMEN

The space iside a tube o oa. MUCUS

A sticky secetio fom mucus membaes OSSICLE 

A small boe such as those i the middle ea kow as the malleus, icus ad stapes OTOLITH

A had stuctue at the base of the semicicula caals cotaii delicate sacs kow as the uticle ad the saccule PATHOLOY 

Disease, ad the chae i stuctue ad fuctio it causes PHYSIOLOY 

he fuctios of livi bodies o oas RESPIRATION

he aseous itechae betwee the blood ad the tissues ISSUE 

A mass of cells a coective tissue fomi oe of the oas of which the body is composed TRACHEA

The wid pipe; a tube exedi fom the layx (voice oa) ad sepaati ito two baches kow as bochi befoe etei the lus. VASCULAR

Relati to, o cosisti of vessels VEIN

A vessel cayi blood fom the capillaies back to the hea VENTILTION

The aseous itechae bewee the lus ad the atmosphee VERTIO

A feeli of otatio associated with the vestibula fuctio of the ea VESTIBULR

he fuctio of the semicicula caals coceed with balace ad equilibium

Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

THE AVIATION ENVIRONMENT 

HAPTER 1

Page 11

THE AVIATION ENVRONMENT  A. INTRODUTION Dig  e peiod of ma evolo, biologcal developme eabled e ma beig o adap o a variety of eviomeal varables sc as emperare midty ad lad based alde were e ar s relaively dese ad ere is sfcie oxyge o ssa lfe W e adve of avaio, ad  pa  icla g alide ad ig speed flg, e ma body ow as o adap faly qickly o a apidly cagig evirome ad oe were deceased ar desty meas less oxyge ad lower empera  es. I is  eec a ale evirome Fom e pilos po of view, e, i becomes mpoa o dersad e limaos of e ma body ad e meods ad pocedres sed o peve dam age o wa is a farly delicae macie

 THE ATMOSPH ERE Te amospee as a sbjec s coveed i geaer deail i Meeoology. oweve a bef smmary s pee ee as a pelde o is efect o e ma body. 1  STRUCTURE OF TE ATMOSPERE Te amospere comprises ree mai secos, i ascedig oder ese ae e Tropospere  e Sraospere ad e Ioospere. Of ese, e ropospee is e more impoa sce  s wi s area, wic exeds from sea level o appoxmaely 6  f a weaer occs ad mas lve ad ow fly.  COMPOSITION Te amospere is made p of may gases, e two mos predomia beg Oxyge approxmaely 1 % ad Noge appoximaely 7%. From e ma perspecive  is oxyge wic is e esseial eleme, sce i s lfe ssaiig Oxyge s absobed og e lgs ad disbed by e blood o e varos orgas of e body wee i is sed o br glcose ad elease eegy 3. TEMPERATURE Oe of e caacersics of e amospere s e decrease  emperare w alde, wc averages abo C per 1   Variaos  s lapse ae ae paly resposibe fo e ceao of weaer A very ig aldes e a is vey cold, arod 5°C Tis varaio i emperare, from warm o extemely cold s of sgficace o e pilo wo, beig ma, reqires a iteal  empeare of arod 36C o 9F o be able o opeae omally.  UMIDI Waer vapo is prese i varable amos rogo e amospee I s variable as a resl of emperare: wam ar ca old more wae vapor a cold ar. A ig alides e cold dy ar s compessed as a fcio of e je egie o provde ai for mas o breae Despie some wamg i e pocess, e ai emais faily dy As pat of e beaig process waer vapo is expelled fom e body, wic, i e dy ar of e acra may resl  a local dyig of mcos membaes ad pese sympoms of deydrao A ormally ydraed peso saig a flig wll oly eqie a slgly creased fld ae  sold be oed a alcoolc beverages ae o e deal flids sice alcool as a dieic efec, ie  ecorages e deys  o lose excessive waer 5 OONE Ozoe , a cemically alered form of oxyge ), is ceaed we oxyge is sbjeced o elecical dscarges sc as ligig I is vey poisoos ad eve if very low coceraios ae aled  ca damage e vey delcae lgs of e lgs ad ai passages Below   f ere s vey litle ozoe pese b i iceases sigificaly owards e lower sraospere Coceraios of ozoe also cease  e pola egos I is o cosidered a seios ea o cew or passeges i pressised aicaf. Greaes exposre wold occ i flgs over e poles, or i spersoic arcra wc operae ger a omal commecal je aica owever drig e compesso process for presssaio exeral ar is warmed wic beas dow e ozoe io oxyge Caalytc flers may also be isalled  aicaf wic coially operae i a ozoe evrome

Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

TH AVIATION NVIRONMNT 

Page 1 Te pesece of ozoe  e amospee seves as a barer preveig a lage propoo of e damagg la viole adaio of e s fom reacg e eas sace. 6 PRESSURE Air pessre is e foce exeed per  area by a colm of a as g as e amospere I ca be expessed i a mber of ways for example  pods pe sqare ic (lb/sq ic or  ces of mercy (g. Te meic sysem more ofe beg sed i avao expresses pesse  grams per cbc cemee, o moe commoly i ecopascals (Pa ea level pesse s expessed as 1 1 35 Pa, or 1 7 lb/sq c o r 99" g As alde is gaied e leg of e colm of ar redces ad, logically, so does e pressre i exers a a parcla alde. U der sadard codiios (ISA, a laye of a 1 a i dep eqals 79 fee a mea sea level. Tadiioally s is roded of o 3 fee. oweve, a   f 1 Pa eqals 7 fee a   fee  eqals 991 fee, wls a 6  fee i eqals 1 6 fee Ts redcio i pessre wi alide ca ave dire coseqeces for e ma body. Wo oxyge  e body cao svive pesse cases oxyge  e lgs o dse io e bloodseam A edco i presse meas a fewe oxyge molecles ae able o ee e bloodseam, a problem wic is compoded by e fac a a alde e ar is less dese. Wo pressrsao or spplemeary oxyge e body cao svive a alde. See l hpe 3, The ug  hpe , Peue.

7 RADIAION Radaio  e form of X ays, as log bee sed for e diagoss of boe ad oe jres as well as e eecive reame of some ypes of cace oweve e egave efecs of adiaio are possble damage o e geec maerial (e blepri of lvig cells wc may case replcaed cells o be abormal I oder o deermie e advisably of radaio eame ad e pobable eecs of radao damage as opposed o e beefis of e reame, cera sadards ave bee esablsed, kow as e rad ad e rem A rad s a mease of e acal amo of osg radiao absorbed by livg sses Expose  o  or moe ads is faal o mas. Expose o 5 ads cases e deas of rogly alf of  e people exposed A few people ae able o svive expose o  ads A doses of 5 rads or less ee are o mmedae owad sigs of lless b some pas of e body sc as germ cells, vial o sexal repodcio, ae geecally damaged. A rem s e amo of adiao ecessay o case e same biological eec  mas as oe rad of X rays Mos people are og o eceve abo 3 em of aral radaio eac year, wls e eaoal Commiee o Radiaio Poeco recommeds a maxmm of 5 rem pe year fo e geeal pblc well below e acceped maxmm of 5 rem per year fo adaio wokers. Cosmic radao comprses wo pas GALACTIC RADIATON Tis comprses so wave elecromageic waves origiag from osde e sola sysem Tese ig eergy paicles are defleced by e eas magec field povidg maxmm poeco i  e eqaoral egios ad mimm a e poles. Addiioal proecio s aceved og saospec absopo, so a o e grod e radaio is mc less a a alde Logically e e ige we fly e geae e expose o adiao. I e early days of e spersoic Cocode, wic operaes a aldes far  excess of sbsoic je arcra, cab crew wore dosmeer badges o measre e amo of radiao ad e aicra was also fed w adiaio alarm sigals. Wls e dosmeer badges ave bee doe away wi, e acra sll coa radiaio wag devces. Te So Afica Civl Avaio Reglaios (CAR eqie a ay arcra opeag i excess of 9  f be eqipped w a cosmc radiaio deecio device SOLAR RADATION/ULTRAVOLET (UV LIGT RAYS Ts loger waveleg radao ogiaes from e s ad s ecessary for e prodco of vami D esseial fo e maieace of boe developme  e ma body Exposre o UV adiaio prodces mela i ski cells ceaig a dakeg  sk color, or e sa. Ove exposre ca case a geec mao  ski cells ad sk cacer Naal proecio from UV ays s povded by e ozoe laye, wls people wo sped a gea deal of ime  dec slg ae ecoaged o se sa loios coaig g UV blockg ages

Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air raiig 0/2004

THE AVIATIO EVIROMET   QUESTIOS

Page 1 -Q1

QUESTIONS ANSWERS ON PAGE 1-1)  .  % of the vole of the atosphee s ade p of: a) b) c) d)

oxyge, toge, cabo dioxide, ozoe

 7% of the voe of the atosphere is ade p of: a) cabo doxde b) oxyge, c) water vapo, d) itroge. 3 he pecetage coposito of the gases whch ae p the atosphere s costat a) oly at sea eve, b) oy whe ISA stadads prevail, c) thoghot the atosphere irrespectve of attde, d) oly at sea level aog the eqato. . With regad to the stctre of the atosphee: a) the statosphee exteds fo sea evel to appoxatey 6   b) the toposphere exeds fo sea evel to appoxatey 6   c) the ascedig ode is stratosphere toposphee ad ioosphere d) the ascedig order s toposphee, ioosphee ad stratosphere 5 he sybol for oxyge s:

Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air raiig 0/2004

THE HUMN MCHINE

HAPTER 2

Page -1

THE HUMAN MACHINE  A INTODUTON Te uman body lie a compex macine as a numbe o componens wic combine o mae i wo Fo e macine o uncion a is bes al componens mus be in good condion Te same ap plies  o e uman body Te pupose o is cape is o give e suden an ovevew o e pats o  e body wic elae o e woing o ose sysems wic ae peaps moe peinen o e pio and wic ae coveed moe ully in e vaious capes o is boo

 THE NEVOUS SYSTEM Te neous sysem is e eeconics o e macine and e bain is e compe sending mes sages o and eceiving em om e vaious componens Te uman nevous sysem consiss o wo disinc pats

  Te Cenal Nevous Sysem compising e bain and e spina cod  Te Peipea Nevous Sysem wic connecs e cenal nevous sysem o e body ogan sys  ems. No a o e bodys componens need o be consciousy od wa o do Te neous sysem allows o volntary acion ie e bain eing muscles and imbs o move, and involntary acion ie e ea ae bining o e eyes sweaing and woing o e gasoinesina ac ae accompised auomaicaly oug e auonomic nevous sysem

 THE ARDIOVASULAR SYSTEM 1  BLOOD In ode o e body o wo i equies bo nuiens and oxygen Tese ae anspoed aound  e body by e blood wic aso emoves ceain wase maeia eg. cabon dioxide Blood compises wo pats pasma and bood cels Te aveage maue adul wi ave beween 35  5 ies o bood PASMA Tis is e medium oug wic e ces ae anspoed aound e body I is a yeowis cooued uid compising appoximaey 9% wae I aso conains ousands o dieen subsances including poeins viamins gucose sas omones anibodies and wases BLOOD CELLS a) RED BLOOD CELLS Tese conain e ionic poein haemoglobin wic is a complex and vey eicien sysem used o anspo oxygen aound e body I is capable o absobing age quaniies o oxygen olding e moecues uni i eaces an aea o low oxygen levels wee e oxygen is en eeased ino e issues Cabon dioxide is also ataced by e ed blood cels o  anspotaion o e ungs and emova om e body ee e 3 e ug Red blood cels ae omed in e ed maow o a bones suc as e ibs veebae and su as well as  e ends o ong bones ound o example in e egs Te nomal coun in an adul is 5,, ed bood cels pe cubic milimee (c.mm) o woe blood (b) WITE BLOOD CELLS Tese ae e pa o e bodys deence sysem wic poduce bood poei anibodies wic in un ae anspoed aound e body o ig inection and disease Tee ae vaious ypes o wie cels, some o wic ae omed in e bone maow, oes by e spleen and lymp gands Te noma coun pe adu is beween 5 and  pe cmm o wole bood (c) PTELETS Tese ae e ey ingedien in e omaion o bood clos Wee a bood vessel as been cu o damaged paees sic o e edges o e wound oming a co o plug wic wil peven ue bood loss Tese ae also omed in e bone maow Te nomal coun pe adu is , pe cmm o woe blood Private Pilot Licence Revision 2/200

© Avex Air raining 0/2004

THE HUMAN MACHINE

Page  BLOOD SUGAR Bood Glcose The bk of he eegy eqied by he body fo eveyday acives is obaied fm cabohydaes  he soce of whch icldes bead ceeals ce, poaoes pasa ad sga These cabohydaes ae digesed ad coveed o glcose by he dgesve ezymes  he gaso-esia ac The amo of glcose pese i he blood is ciica sce he ba s paticay sesive o icoec amos Gcose s soed i he body - i he live ad msces  as a sbsace called Glycoge whch s easly ecoveed o glcose as ad whe eqed by he body Becase des vay ad ca iclde faly age amos of sga i s ecessa fo he body o be able o cool he evels of blood glcose This s acheved hogh wo homoes called Isli ad Glcago. Is which is seceed by he paceas, is he moe impoa of he  wo sice is fco is o chemcaly ae glcose io he fom  whch  s soed i he ive As blood glcose levels fall gcago s eleased whch aows he soed gcose o be eeased back o he boodseam Thee ae wo codos whch ae of impoace o s a GLYCAEMIA EXCESS BLOOD GLUCOSE A deficiecy of si eads o a disease caled diabetes, a saio whee excess gcose is o soed b bds p  he blood il a ceai level is eached a which po he kdeys wil sat o ve he excess gcose io he ie This fco voves he elmiao of moe wae fom he body ha is omal, ad excessve his is aso a idicaio of diabees The pesece of gcose i he e, beg as i s a clea idcao of dabees ad, heefoe coec blood gcose leves expas he impoace of he ie es i avao medical examaios Ijecios of sl ae abe o maia he blood glcose a he coec eve Cossey high bood gcose evels may imaey efec body isses b he moe mmediae efec o he ba s of sigifca impoace gh bood glcose levels ca ead o behavoal chages whch ca be misake fo ace alcohoism b GLYCAEMIA LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE This s a empoay codo whch ca be fod  diabeics ad odiabeics I he case of dabeics  cod be as a esl of a ovedose of s de o a edecy o ovedo ahe  ha eglec he medcao The sympoms of low blood glcose icde dzzess, headache somach pas ad shakg Ths sao ca be easly esoved by esog he bood glcose level by akg gcose o sga hogh he moh I he eve ha he peso has aleady eeed a coma, glcago ca be ijeced decy o he bloodseam o egise he glcose eseves fom he ve By ot eatig well or reglarly, odiabecs may expose hemselves  o he same sympoms Recovey s easily achieved simpy by eag somehig  Ths emphasses he impotace of ot fyg o a empy somach  TE EART The cicaio of he bood hogho he body va a sysem of bood vesses compisg aeies veis ad caplaes, is acheved by a fssized holow, mscla pmp kow as he heart The hea compses fo chambes two sco chambes o atrim ad wo dischage chambes kow as vetricles Oxyge ich bood s daw fom he lgs hogh he plmoa ves by  he sckg aco of he e atrim fom he lef aim  passes hogh a oeway vave, called  he bicspid o mitral vave, o he e vetricle Fom hee  is pmped hog aohe oe-way vave - he aotic valve - o he mai aey o aorta which caies he blood o he ppe ad lowe body Alog he way, oxyge s dischaged ad epaced by carbo dioxde The blood s  he oed via ppe body ves speo vea cava ad lowe body veis ifeo vea cava o  he right atrim of he hea whee  passes hogh a oeway valve caled he ricspid valve, o  he right vetricle which pmps  hogh aohe oeway vave - he plmoary valve - back o  he lgs via he plmoa artery

Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

THE HUMA MACHIE

Page 2-3 Aota Supeio Vena ava

Pulmona Vein

Aotic Valve

Rigt Atium

Valve

Vena

ef Venticle Ticupi Valve

- Deoygenate bloo Rigt Venticle

- Ogenate bloo

Figre 2 The Heart

Wt regad to nomal ear operaton, tee items may e consdeed a BLOOD PRESSURE Ts force, exeed y te lood against te walls of te man areies, s wat keeps te lood cclatng aond te ody Blood pressre as a ig and a low pont As te lef and rigt ventcle contact, te pressre wll e at it's highest and ts is efered to as te systoic pessre As te cames elax and efll wt lood te pesse s at t's lowest and tis s known as te diastolic pessre Tese pessres vay fom ndvidal to ndvdal, t a typical fgre fo a easonaly ealty yong adlt wold e  20 mm g millmetes of Mercry  systolic, and 70 mm g  dastolic In medcal tems ts s wten as 120/70 Blood pressre can e sed as a mease of a pesons ealt and as most plots already kow, foms a vey imporant par of te aviaton medcal examnaton Danges ae nerent n ot g and low lood pessre Nomal lood pesse s dependant on seveal tems sc as te strengt of te ear elastcty of te arery walls volme and consstency of te lood and te efcency of te eart valves no leaks G BLOOD PRESSURE YTENSION ig lood presse yperenson may e nflenced y te following factors i ii ii iv v v v

ovewegt  a large mass reqres a geater circlaton placng a geate rden on te ea to deliver lood togot te ody smokng  eavy smokng cases te lood vessels to ecome consticted forcing te eat to pmp ade to get te lood trog See a/o Hypoxia (apte 4) ; eing nft emotional state of mnd kidney or ear dsease genetc det  paclaly wit regard to an excessive ntake of salt, wc s tlsed y te ody to reglate wate etenton n te tsses Too lile salt wll not allow te ody to retain water and it will e exceted Excessve salt ntake wll reslt in too mc wate eing etaned in ot te tsses and te lood, n te case of te latte te ea will ave to wok arde to move te greate volme Contned longtem g lood presse may ceate a sitation were a weak point n an aery alloons ot Tis s known as an aesm, a potentally lifeteatening condition sold te artery wall reak, eleasng large amonts of lood into te sonding tsse and casing sc a sstantal drop in lood presse, tat deat eslts Oter eactons

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Page 24 o ssaed g blood pressre iclde ea aacks, srokes ad damaged blood vessels i e eyes ad kdeys LOW BLOOD PRESSURE (YENSON Ulike g blood presse, low blood pressre (ypoeso s exremely rae ad is seldom a seos o life reaeg cocer I may lead o dizzess or eve faig. (b PULSE RAE Blood pressre sold o be cofsed w plse rate e plse ae s e ae a wc e ea beas - a fco of pysical codio. e sysemac coacio ad elaxaio of e ea mscle creaes a presse plse wc may be expereced a vaos places o e body ad s commoly sed by medical pesoel o assess e well-beig of a paie I is mos oceable i e ws ad e side of e eck. A omal plse rae for a perso a res wold be bewee 6 ad  beas pe me Rig, bisk walkg or fo a mater ay form of exercse ca empoarly icease e plse rae wc will rer o omal fe a res perod. A vey fi perso may ave a vey low plse ae becase regla exercise as made e ea moe eficie omoes, fever ad emooal disrbaces may also icrease e plse ae. Some medcaos may crease or decrease e plse rae, wc  r ca advesely afec pilo pefomace (c RYM e regla bea of e ea o e rhythm is acieved by small elecrical mplses wic case e mscle fbes of e ppe ea cambes (lef ad ig am o coac s acio foces blood o e lowe cambers (lef ad rig vericles were e same elecical implse, ow slgly delayed, cases ese cambers o coac, sqeezig e blood ad ceasg is pessre fo discarge o e aeral sysem For e rym o emai cosa e elecrcal mplses ms ema cosise I sold be emembered a e brai moitors ese elecrical mplses rog e aoomic evos sysem b  does o geerate em e ear coas a specal area of isse  e pper camber wc acs as a aal pacemaker Falre of is aal pacemake ca be coolled by varios dgs o a arfcal pacemaker, ee sered by a srgeo, or wor exeally. e vey fac a elecrcal mplses cool e ym of e ea makes i very easy for mode scece o moio is corec fcog. A elecrocardiograp deecs ese mplses ad prodces a racig kow as a electrocardiogram or EG.

3 CIRCUION BLOOD VESSELS e vasclar sysem is e erm give o e ework of aeries, veis ad capillaes wc aspos blood ogo e body ARERIES Areres ae fairly ck walled, elasc vessels wc aspor blood der pessre away fom e ea e mai aey s kow as e aorta ad leads drecly away fom e lef vericle fomg pa of e systemic circlatio  e delivey of oxygelade blood o e isses O s rer io e ig vercle, e blood is pmped back o e lgs via e plmoary arte pa of a secod sysem  the plmoa system  wic delivers e blood io capillaries i e lgs. I is ee a e excage of carbo dioxide (exaled ad oxyge (ialed akes place ee e  VEINS e veis ave e, less flexble walls a ose of e areries de o e fac a e blood pesse i em is less ey also coa a sysem of oe way valves o peve a reverse flow of blood ey ae esposble fo raspoig e blood back o e ea CAPILARES ese are e smalles of e blood vessels ad ae prese  e isses e vey fie composio s sc a oxyge is able o pass rog e membrae io e sse ad wase mae  e opposie drecio o be raspoed away fo emoval from e body eier rog e bladde as e, o rog e lgs as carbo dioxide

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Page 2- TE KDNEYS Te kneys are a pair f beansape rgans lcae a e rear f e abina caviy a ff an essenia re in e circay syse Tey are b excreto an eglato rgans in a ey fier e bl revng fr  any wase aerial a e sae e regaing e bys fli balance B eners e kineys rg e real arte wic vies n saer brances ening in a icrscpc srcre cale a ephro a par f wic cnans a fier Tere are apprxaey ne illn f e in eac kiney Win e neprn arf r wase sbsances are separae an re va e reter   e blaer fr reval fr  e by Usefl an nw balance sbsances are reabsrbe in e capillares an veins an rerne  e by via e rena vein Te al vle f e bys bl is ceane n  is way evey 0 ines wic eans a between 1 0 an 1 80 lres f b pass rg  e kneys evey ay

Rel Vei

Rel e

Uee

Figre 22 he Kidey

D DISORDERS, DISEASE AND ILLNESS   CORONARY ARTERY DSEASE ear sease is crrenly e s kely case f ea r isably in e re insrialse cnres, w crnay arey isease beng e s cn ne Te crnay aeries are w aeries a branc f fr e aa  prve e ea scle wi xygenae b S ne f ese aeres bece blcke pat f e eat wll be eprive f b an e resing n a ear atack, r ycaral nfarcn Crnay aey sease s s fen case by atheroscerosis, a cnn in wc faty epsis cale plaqe, bece atace  e inner ning f e aey casng i  bece narrwer an less flexble an  was As s ass grws i ay bece ar an caky, narrwng e aery an resricng e ve f bl i can cary Tese cgge areas bece ea sies fr e frain f sanary bl cs, wc ay aey s f e fw f bl cpeely a cnin cale a coroa thrombosis A cnin in wic e bckage is case by a bl cl wc ves rg e atey an beces ge in an area areay narrwe is cae a coroa emboism See igue 23

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hrosclrosis Figre 2 Coroary Arte Disease

Syptos of a coronay trooss are sudden and sevee cest pans followed y collapse and possle eat arest (deat. Cosdeed te cuse of civlised society coronay aey disease ca also e eedta is ifluenced y age diet ad aits Conic g lood pessue oesity lac of exercise stess ad daetes will cotute as will foods ig in aal fats ad soing

2 EART FAILURE Peraps te ost ipotat eat cae is te left veticle It as cosideale uscle ass as it as to pup ewly oxygenated lood to te rest of te ody If te lef vetcle s daaged it wll e unale to eet tese deands ad will egin to fal. No loge ale to coe wit te lood eng puped to it fo te lungs va te lef atiu pessure egns to uld up ac troug te pulonary ve nto te lungs were it causes congestion Tis ca esult in eatlessness ad cougng te sputu ejected in te pocess ay e pin fo lood staiig.

3 ANGNA As a uscle te ea ust ave its ow supply of lood n oder to fuction eficietly. As te cooay ateries gadually ecoe loced te ea ay well cope i oal circustaces ut if peaps troug exeton oe is efot is deaded fro te ea te lood supply ay e sufcient esulting in oxyge stavato ad a esultat pain i te cest called agia (uscle cap}. Unlie te coonay tooss te aey is ot copletely loced it is just suficetly esticted to pevet a full flow of lood. Also unlie te coonay toosis te pai coes on slowly ad not suddely ad wilst orally felt in te cest it ca occur aywere fro te lowe jaw to te ris spreadig to te ars or te ac ad is ofen accopaied y dizziness eatlessess ad a pale coplexio. Regular sufeers use glyceryl tiitate talets to relieve te pole.

4 STROKE A stroe is te te used to descre te efects of a sudden inteupto i te supply of lood to te ai as a esult of a uptued lood vessel or a loced arery. Bran cells wic ae tus depived of oxygen eter stop fuctoning o if depved for a polonged perod actually die resultg in te failure of tose pas of te ody controlled y te afected ain cells. Te seveity of stoes vay depedig o te legt of lood deprivation A sor peiod of educed low flow ay result i slured speec weaness of a ad o foot ad lured or doule ision all of wic disappea witn a few ous. Longer iteruptions of lood flow poduce a sudden eadace followed y laout ad so pat ut ild dysfutio. A svee stoe esults i loss of eoy deteoratio of alace paralyss o oe o even ot sides of te ody ad canges i eotonal eaviou. Te causes of a stroe iclude ig lood pessue oesty diaetes eavy song ad stress.

 KIDNEY STONES Kidney stones wic ae cystals usually derived fro calciu i te uine can vary in size fo inute eoug to pass toug te uiay syste to as lage as 2  in daete. Gout sufeers ay also for stoes ade of uric acd. Te causes vary fo ereditary to deydation ad lac of execse. Te predoiat sypto is pai in te afected idney wic y ecoe patcularly sevee. Te cue ay vay dependig o te type of stoe Tose ade fo uic acd ca e dssolved wit a soluto of sodiu icaoate a etod wic does ot wo wt stones ade fo calciu. Tese can e oen dow nto saller paticles usig ulta-sonic waves ad easily Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

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Page 27 passed n he rne n exeme cases rgen sgey wl be necessary o remove he sone before  can damage he kidney. Prevenon is mos simply acheved by scen nae of fids 6 ANAEMA hs is no scly a dsease, b aher a condon I descrbes a defcency n he nmber of red blood cels o he amon of haemogobn ha hey conan and as sch s consdered a sympom of one of several pobems, some of which may be common and heefoe easly eaed whs ohes may be ae and even faa. he end es is ha he body does no oban sficien oxygen fom he blood whch redces s eficiency and may esl in a feeing of weakess o redness, beahless and even faning folowing exercise. he mos common form s ron defcency anaema a condon n whch he body is nabe o podce sfcen haemogobn Remeber ha  is hs ronch poein ha s responsible for absorbing oxygen fom he lngs and anspoing  aond  he body. hs condion is easly eaed wh ion sppemens.  lso ptr 3 nmic

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Page 1

QUESTIONS ANSWERS ON PAGE 1 1   1  aemogobn a proein molece ond in he ed bood cels: (a s a anspo molece or oxygen rom he lngs o he isse cels, (b acs as a beahing dive or he bran (c acs as a moece spe, by beakng down carbon doxide n he bood o cabon and oxygen, (d pays a key ole in he ormaion o bood clos  Anaemia is a condon in whch: (a  here is a decrease n he amon o haemoglobin in he ed bood cels, (b  he hea is nabe o pmp sicien bood o he ngs o colec oxygen, (c here is a rescon n he orm o a bood clo n a coonay aey (d hee is a decease n he amon o haemogobn n he whe bood cels

3 he pa o he body's deence sysem which podces bood proein anbodes which ae  anspoed arond he body o gh necon and dsease are caed (a (b (c (d

plaeles, whe blood ces, ed blood ces, haemogobin

4 he  erm sysoc s sed o indicae ha: (a (b (c (d

bood pressre is a s lowes level, blood pressre is a s highes level bood pressre s nomal, he pse rae is very ow

 Long erm high bood pesse may lead o: (a (b (c (d

a decrease n he plse rae an nceased plse rae an incease in he hear rhyhm an anerysm

6 Sdden and severe ches pans olowing whch he vicim collapses are sympoms o: (a (b (c (d

angina, coronay hombosis an aneysm, anaema

7 Low blood pressre o hypoension, may lead o: (a a ha aack, (b an aneysm, (c dizzness o aning (d an ncease n he hea rhyhm

8 Bood pesse is: (a he oce exeed by he bood agains he wals o he main aeries, (b  he ae a whch he hea beas, (c esponsibe or he regla beaing o he hea, (d meased by he nmbe o beas pe mine

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Page  9 Plateets are the bood cels which: (a) (b) (c) (d)

ght inecton and disease, pay a key role in the ormation o blood clots, mae up the buk o blood pasma, cay oxygen around the body.

 0 Glucose is stored (a) in the lver as insulin, (b) in the lve as glucagon, (c) in the ive as glycogen, (d) in the pancreas as nsuln.

   Non-diabetcs can also sue om low blood gucose. The symptoms, which nclude dzzness and shaing, can be corected (a) (b) (c) (d)

by not eating beore ying, by eating eguay, ony by having an insuln njection, by dining more water.

. Fainting s a conditon whch causes a loss o consciousness due to: (a) a eduction in the suppy o bood to the bain, (b) high blood sugar, (c) high blood pessure, (d) a high pulse ate.

 3 Aer donating bood a plot may not ly o a period o (a) (b) (c) (d)

8 hous, 36 hous,  hous, 7 hous

4 The term diastolc s used to ndcate that (a) (b) (c) (d)

bood pessue is at its owest evel, blood pessure s at its highest level, bood pessue is normal, the puse ate is vey hgh

1  Oxygen ch bood s drawn rom the lungs through the pulmonary veins by a chmbe in the hear caled the (a) (b) (c) (d)

le ventrcle, right ventrce, right atium, e atrium

 6 The le ventcle o the hea s responsible o (a) (b) (c) (d)

pumpng deoxygenated blood bac to the lungs, drawng oxygenated blood om the ungs to the heart, pumpng oxygenated blood around the body, drawng deoxygenated blood bac to the hear,

Private Piot Licece Revisio 1/010

© Avex Air Traiig 10/004

THE UNGS

HAPTER 3

Page 3-

THE LUNGS A. INTRODUTION I oder to uderstad the efects of flyg o ou peformace, t s fst ecessary to evew vaous aspects of the opeato mtato ad requemets of the huma ody Not the least of whch s ts requemet for oxyge

 OGEN AND ITS UTILIZATION Fom the study of Meteorology, we are awae of the stucture ad composto of the atmosphee  respect of the varous gases preset Of prme mporace to the huma eg s te volume of oxy ge, approxmatey 21% wthout whch we caot lve Of sgfcace to the piot s the chagg pressre wth atitde ad ts efect o our alty to reathe ad thus exract the requred amout of oxyge I ths egad, the gas aws whch are petet to the plot are oye's aw whch states that for a fxed mass of gas at costat temperature, the pressue s vesely popooa to the volume, ad Dato's Law of Paia Pressre whch states that  a mxture of gases, the pessue exered y oe of the gases s the same as t would exer f t aloe occuped the same volume From ths state met t s possle to deteme the para pessue of oxyge at ay alttude smpy ecause the pres sure at a pacua attude ca e measured ad the propoo of oxyge  the atmosphere s co stat he sgfcace of ths aw wl ecome apparet later he chemca reacto ewee the food we eat, ad the oxyge we eathe ceates the eegy we re qure to lve The ypoduct of ths pocess s carbo dioxide ad whlst the huma ody s ale to reta age amouts of t t s capale of storg arge quattes of oxyge Thus, thee s ot oly a costat demad for suppes of oxyge ut also a eed to remove the caro doxde Ths gaseous exchage s acheved y vetiatio o reathg The traspoato of these gases s acheved va the lood ad the exchage s caed out  the lugs (respiratio)

 THE LUNGS he fucto of the lugs s to allow oxyge to ete, ad caro doxde to ext, the ood stream A comato of the otward movemet of the chest wal ad the dowward movemet of the dia phragm creates a decease  pessure sde the chest, wth the result that ar s the sucked to the lugs By reaxg the chest wall ad daphagm, ar s expeled fom the lugs

ub e un

ibs phrm igre 3-: he Lgs

he haed ar fows though the trachea to the brochia tree whch cossts of ever dvdg raches smla  fact to a tee At the ed of these passageways are mute sace stuctures caled aveoi It s here that lood s rought to cose cotact wth the oxyge molecules ad ude the fuece of pressure the oxyge dfuses, or passes through, the caplary memrae ad to the ood Here t ataches tsef to a pote moecule, wth the ed ood cels caled haemogobi for ts traspoato aoud the ody he oxyge wl rema atached to the haemoglo utl t eters a aea whee the oxyge cotet s low whereupo the haemogo eeases the oxyge aowg t to dffuse to the tssues Cao doxde s dssoved  the ood whch caes t to the lugs wth ay used oxyge fo exprato  iu .

Private Piot Licece Revisio 2/200

© AvexAir Traiig 0/2004

THE LUGS

Pae 32





ch

t!

onchus

lvoi covd wih inu bood-id cplis

uns

onchol Figre _2 Lg Brochial Tree ad Alveoli

Breati is a atmatic prcess irecte y te rai As te ee t icrease xye itake, r car ixie elimiati fctates, s te rai ctrls te rate a ept f reati. Oxye ric l takes  a rit re cr wist xye eficiet l as a is clr.

D THE EFFETS OF REDUED PRESSURE As metie earlier, te xyeati f l i te s is epeet  presse T e precise, a pressre gradiet ie reater pressre  te tsie frces xye it a area f wer parial pressre i te  It ecmes vis w wy te erstai f tis prcess is imprat t pilts As we ai atite we kw tat pressre decreases terefre te rivi pressre fr xye asrpti wil as ecrease reslti i a redced fw f xye it te l Tere is sme cmpesati as a reslt f te str atracti etwee aemli a xye, t tis reaces a critica pit ave  0 000  I mre scietific terms, t empasise tis fact at sea level te partial pressre f xye i te aveli is  03 mm Mercry H), t at 1 0 000  it is  mm H! Te recti i te amt f xye ca a es ea t a ecrease i ma perrmace

Private Pilot Licece Revisio 2/200

© Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

THE UNGS

Pge 33 PARAL PRESSURE OF AIR - OF OGEN - OF OGEN IN ALVEOLI ALTUDE

 cc

ATMOSPHERES

5