Journal of Balkan Prehistory. Four papers by C. Beldiman, D-M. Sztancs, V.D. Stanko, D. Kiosak, F. Bernardini et al., R....
Atti Soc. Preist. Protost. Friuli-V.G., Friuli-V.G., Trieste, XVI, 2006-2007 (2008): 7-27
CORNELIU BELDIMAN et DIANA-MARIA SZTANCS ∗
∗∗
PIERRES ET MAMMOUTHS. LES IVOIRES OUVRÉS AU PALÉOLITHIQUE SUPÉRIEUR EN ROUMANIE: DONNÉES RÉCENTES In memoriam doctissimae Alexandra Bolomey
SUMMARY – Stones and mammoths. The Upper Palaeolithic ivory tools of Romania: recent data. Recent ap proaches to ancient artefacts collections enable a detailed discussion on the rare evidence of use of ivory in the Romanian Upper Palaeolithic. The four objects presented in this paper come from Moldavia (RO). The first is a fragment of a mammoth tusk discovered in the open-air Gravettian site of Lespezi (layer IV), in the Bistrita Valley (Bacau county), in 1963, radiocarbon-dated to 18.110±300 uncal BP (Bln-806). The main characteristic of the tool is the presence of debitage traces along its proximal edge. They demonstrate the utilisation of notching and grooving techniques and probably transverse sawing by fiber. This is supposed to represent the oldest indicator of such a technique, which is common to the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic periods in this part of Europe. The second tool is a fragmented polisher (?) recovered from layer V of the open-air Gravettian site of Cotu Miculinti, in the Prut Valley (Botosani county), in 1981, radiocarbon-dated to 19.460±220 uncal BP (GrN-12662). M. Brudiu published it as obtained from a roe-deer antler. Following my analysis, it was clear that it was made from ivory. Three other tools, only two of which so far published, are the first ivory spear points ever known from Romania. They were recovered very recetly from the Epigravettia layer II of the site of Piatra-neamţ - Poiaa Ciresului (neamţ couty), radio carbon-dated between 19 and 16 ka BP. Given the extreme rarity of ivory tools from the Upper Palaeolithic sites of Romania it is probable that these specimens come from neighbouring territories of Central and Eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Ukraine, Moldavia or Russia), where the manufacture and use of such tools was common during this period. RIASSUNTO – Pietre e mammuth. mammuth. Nuovi dati sugli strumenti in avorio del Paleolitico Superiore della Romania . L’analisi recente di alcune vecchie collezioni di reperti, ha favorito una discussione particolareggiata dell’impiego assai raro dell’avorio durante il Paleolitico Superiore in Romania. I quattro oggetti presentati in questo lavoro provengono dalla Moldavia (RO). Il primo è un frammento di zanna zan na di mammuth rinvenuto, nel 1963, 19 63, nello strato IV del sito Epigravettiano all’aperto di Lespezi, nella Valle del Bistrita (dipartimento di Bacau), datato radiomentricamente a 18110±300 uncal BP (Bln-806). Le caratteristiche più importanti riguardano le tracce di lavorazione per percussione diretta presenti all’estremità prossimale, mentre le usure presenti presso il peduncolo p eduncolo potrebbero derivare dallo scorrimento di fibre vegetali. Il secondo strumento è probabilmente un lisciatoio raccolto, nel 1981, nello strato V del sito Gravettiano Gravettian o all’aperto di Cotu Miculinti, nela Valle Valle del Prut (distretto di Botosani), radiodatato ____________________ __________________
** Université Chrétienne «Dimitrie Cantemir», Faculté Faculté d’Histoire, Bucarest, RO ** Université «Lucian Blaga», Faculté d’Histoire et pour l’Étude du Patrimoine, Sibiu, Sibiu, RO
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a 19460±220 uncal BP (GrN-12662). M. Brudiu ha pubblicato quest’oggetto come confezionato in palco di capriolo; un’analisi dettagliata ha dimostrato la sua manifattura in avorio. Altri tre strumenti, due soli dei quali sono stati sinora pubblicati, costituiscono i primi esemplari di punte di zagaglia in avorio rinvenuti in Romania. Questi sono stati raccolti molto recetemete ello strato II, Epigravettiao, della stazioe di Piatra-neamţ, Poiaa Ciresului, el distretto di neamţ, datato radiometricamete ra diometricamete ad u periodo compreso fra 19000 e 16000 ucal BP. BP. Data la otevole rarità di reperti in avorio nei siti del Paleolitico Superiore della Romania, è probabile che essi proveng ano da territori vicini (Repubblica Ceca, Ucraina, Moldavia o Russia), dove la confezione e l’impiego di strumenti di questo tipo è comune durante il periodo in esame. Gravettian/Epigravettian, bone and antler industry, ivory, technology. Keywords: Romania, Eastern Gravettian/Epigravettian, bone
INTRODUCTION Les plus anciens témoignages de l’utilisation de l’ivoire de mammouth datent du Paléolithique moyen. Ces éléments squelettiques à destination de matériaux de construction étaient insérés dans des structures d’habitat ou destinés isolément à la confection des outils et d’armes. Au Paléolithique supérieur, les défenses de mammouth ont constitué une des matières premières d’origine animale de prédilection dans les cultures répandues entre la façade atlantique et l’Oural. De ce point de vue, son rôle important dans l’industrie complexe des matières dures animales pour la fabrication des outils, armes, objets d’art et de parure est déjà très bien connue (MACGREGOR , 1985; CLOTTES, 1990; CHIRICA et B ORZIAC, 1995; BELDIMAN, 1996; CHRISTENSEN, 1999).
LES ANTECEDENTS En ce qui concerne les territoires actuels de la Roumanie, les plus anciens indices signalés dans la littérature de l’utilisation de l’ivoire de mammouth datent du Paléolithique Moyen. À l’occasion des fouilles menées dans les années ‘60-‘80 par le regretté Dr. AlexanAlexandru Păuescu das le site de terrasse de Ripicei - lieu-dit ‘Izvor’, dép. de Botosai, placé sur la rive droite de la rivière Prut, on a mis au jour dans les niveaux Moustériens I, IV et V plusieurs structures d’habitat de type paravents, aménagés à l’aide de pierres calcaires, de bois et de défenses défenses de mammouth entières ou de tronçons prélevés par percussion/entaillage percussion/entaillage (Păunescu, 1989; 1993: 31-35, 71-75, 85-91, 194; 1999: 168-299). 168-299 ). Une autre découverte, cette fois fortuite, datant de Paléolithique moyen aussi, a été faite dans le site de Holboca, dép. de Iaşi, d’ou proviet des restes squelettiques postcraies, deux défeses etières et quelques outils en silex (Z AHARIA et al .,., 1970: 198d; CHIRICA et TANASACHI , 1984-1985, vol. I: 171; vol. II: 488; BELDIMAN, 1996: 326; Păunescu, 1999: 307-309).
LES ARTEFACTS DU PALEOLITHIQUE SUPERIEUR En dépit des recherches archéologiques qui se sont déroulées systématiquement depuis un demi-siècle dans plusieurs grands sites de plein air du Paléolithique Supérieur en Roumanie, surtout dans sa partie orientale (Ripiceni - ‘Izvor’, Mitoc - ‘Malul Galben’ et ‘Valea
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Izvorului’, Crasnaleuca - ‘Staniste’, Cotu Miculinti - ‘Garla Mare’ etc.), etc.), les découvertes qui attestent l’utilisation des artefacts en ivoire de mammouth dans cette partie de l’Europe se sont avérées très rares. Il faut d’abord préciser que dans deux sites gravettiens de plein air de Moldavie roumaine ont été récupérés des objets de ce genre (tronçons de défense et une défense entière de mammouth) mais sans aucune trace décelable d’intervention technique. Dans le niveau Gravettien I b du site de Ripiceni - ‘Izvor’, dép. de Botosani, est signalé un tronçon de défese de mammouth e état avacé de fossilisatio; d’après Alexadru Păuescu, il s’agit probablement d’une pièce retrouvée par les préhistoriques préhistoriques dans une couche moustérienne ou un gisement fossilifère (P ( Păunescu, 1993: 158-159, 185; BeldiMan, 1996: 326). 326). Dans le niveau Gravettien III - l’unité d’habitation 51 du site de Mitoc - ‘Malul Galben’, dép. de Botosani, Vasile Chirica mentionne la découverte d’une défense de mammouth entière, probablement retrouvée aussi par les préhistoriques dans une couche Moustérienne ou un gisement fossilifère (c ( chirica, 1989: 51; chirica et BorZiac, 1995; Păunescu, 1999: 1999: 149, 155). Actuellement on connaît seulement cinq objets Paléolithiques en ivoire, datés de Gravettie orietal et de l’Epigravettie (fig. 1). Appart les pièces de Piatra neamţ-Poiaa Ciresului, qui ont été découvert il y a deux-trois années, ils sont jusqu’à récemment restés presque inaperçus à la recherche préhistorique de Roumanie; par exemple, ils n’ont été discutés ni dans l’essai de synthèse rédigé par Vasile Chirica et Ilie A. Borziac et présenté au colloque de Ravello de 1992 (C HIRICA et BORZIAC, 1995), ni dans la synthèse récente des mêmes auteurs (BORZIAC et al . , 2006), Codrin-Valentin C HIRICA (1996a; 1996b; , 2006), ni dans les ouvrages de Codrin-Valentin 2004). Dans ce contexte, l’ouvrage propose une analyse actualisée des données disponibles sur ces encore rarissimes artefacts Paléolithiques en ivoire de mammouth. Pour autres approches du sujet voir: B ELDIMAN (1996; 1999a; 1999b; 2000; 2003; 2004a; 2004b; 2005a; 2005b; 2006; 2007).
Le fragment de défense de Lespezi Le premier objet en ivoire connu est un fragment de défense découvert à l’occasion des fouilles effectuées en 1963 par le Dr. Maria Bitiri-Ciortescu (Institut d’Archéologie de Bucarest) et le Dr. Viorel Viorel Capitanu (Musée Départemental de Bacau) dans le site Gravettien de Lespezi - ‘Lutarie’, comm. de Garleni, dép. de Bacau, en Moldavie Roumaine (fig. 1, la carte et n° 1). Les résultats de ces fouilles ont été publiés en 1972 et 1991 (B ITIRI et caPitanu, 1972; Bitiri-ciortescu et al .,., 1991; Păunescu, 1998: 299-315). Il s’agit d’un campement saisonnier de chasseurs d’herbivores (bovidés, renne, cheval) situé sur la vallée de la rivière Bistrita. L’objet L’objet est conservé actuellement dans les collections du Musée National d’Histoire de la Roumanie, Bucarest, n° inv. 156475. L’artefact est issu du niveau IV. IV. Il a été signalé par la regrettée paléontologue Alexandra Alexandra BOLOMEY (1991). Il a ensuite été l’objet de plusieurs articles publiés dans des revues roumaines, étant présenté et discuté d’une manière exhaustive (B ELDIMAN, 1996; 1999a; 1999b; 2000; 2003; 2005; 2007). Dans le même site, Alexandra Alexandra Bolomey avait signalé aussi quelques éléments isolés du squelette postcranien de mammouth ( Elephas ( Elephas primigenius ): quatre quatr e de niveaux V-IV V-IV et une de primigenius):
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Fig. 1 - Objets Paléolithiques en ivoire de Roumanie: répartition des découvertes. 1: fragment de défense de mammouth de Lespezi (d’après B ELDIMAN , 1996: 327, 327, fig. 1); 2: lissoir de Cotu Miculinti; 3: pointes de sagaies de Piatra neamţ - Poiaa Ciresului (d’après (d’après C ARCIUMARU et et al., 2006c: 35, fig. 11/a ).
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niveau VI (BOLOMEY, 1991: 273, 282). En effet, ces indices sont insuffisants pour envisager la procuration de l’ivoire par la chasse locale. Le niveau IV ne dispose pas de datations absolues; étant donné que le niveau sous-jacent (V) a livré la date 14C de 18.110±300 uncal BP (Bln-806) et celui superposé (III) une date 14C de 18.020±350 uncal BP (Bln-808), on peut supposer que la datation du niveau de provenance du fragment de défense se place place autour de 18.000 uncal BP ( Bitiri-ciortescu et al .,., 1991: 282-295; BELDIMAN, 1996: 328; Păunescu, 1998: 310-313). Le niveau IV est attribué à la deuxième phase du Gravettien de la vallée de Bistrita (P ( Păunescu, 1998: 313). Les dimensions de l’objet sont les suivantes: longueur: 16,5 cm; largeur/épaisseur maximum: 6,3/4,5 cm. Le fragment a la forme générale d’un parallélépipède irrégulier et il a subi l’action de délitage/délamination et de corrosion partielle des surfaces. On ne garde plus aucune portion des surfaces anatomiques. À son extrémité proximale sont conservés et clairement décelables les stigmates de débitage par percussion directe (entaillage) (fig. 2). En même temps, autour du pédicule, on peut observer, mais de manière discontinue à cause de l’altération des surfaces par corrosion, la présence de portions de rainures courbes, larges de 2-3 mm, peu profondes et faiblement marquées, décelables à l’œil nu et à la loupe binoculaire (fig. 3). Nous avons interprété hypothétiquement ces stigmates comme les témoins susceptibles de mettre en lumière un débitage par usure qui succède à un débitage par entaillage. Selon les opinions bien connues de François Poplin et d’autres spécialistes français, il s’agit de sciage transversal à la ficelle ou abrasion linéaire (P OPLIN, 1974; BILLAMBOZ, 1977: 101-102) (fig. 9, n° 4). La partie distale semble amincie aussi par entaillage. L’objet n’a pas subi des autres actions de façonnage. En ce qui concerne la fonctionnalité de l’artefact, on a peut-être affaire à un fragment de matière première d’origine animale en cours de transformation, en vue d’obtenir un artefact semblable à la partie active des haches. À cet égard, il faut f aut rappeler les multiples analogies retrouvées dans les sites de chasseurs gravettiens de grands herbivores du centre-est et de l’Est de l’Europe: République Tchèque (Predmost: Feustel, 1973: 166-167, pl. LVIII, n° 1-2; pl. LXIX, n° 3; pl. LXXI; luMley, 1984: 118); Ukraine (Kostienki I, Poljakov et Eliseevich; S EMENOV, 1985: 148-150, fig. 73, n° 1-2 et fig. 74, n° s 1-6; BOSINSKI, 1990: 118); Russie (Borshevo, oZłowski, 1992: 78, 178, fig. 87 c-d et fig. 127 f-g); République de Moldavie Timonovka: k oZłowski (Costesti: BORZIAC, 1994: 28, 35 et fig. 5, n° 10) (fig. 8-9). Une autre analogie, plus importante, provient provient d’Autriche; d’Autriche; le site Epigravettie Epigravettienn de Grubgraben Grubgraben,, localisé localisé dans le bassin bassin moyen du Danube et daté après 20.000 BP, a livré trois fragments d’ivoire de mammouth, dont un est en cours de transformation (débité et façonné sommairement par entaillage) et morphologiquement très proche de celui de Lespezi L espezi (L OGAN, 1990: 72-73, 84 et fig. 6, n° 1) (fig. 8, n° 5). Il est important de signaler, outre la présence rare d’un objet travaillé en ivoire au Paléolithique supérieur de Roumanie, l’attestation précoce probable d’un procédé de débitage so phistiqué, le sciage transversal complet à la ficelle ou l’abrasion linéaire. Ce procédé a été largement appliqué au travail des matières osseuses dès le Mésolithique et le Néolithique ancien, ainsi que l’attestent aussi les matériaux connus en Roumanie (B ELDIMAN, 1996: 332; 1999b; 2007). Cet aspect peut conférer à la découverte de Lespezi une importance particulière dans la perspective de l’évolution paléotechnologique dans le domaine de l’industrie des matières dures animales.
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Fig. 2 - Fragment de défense de mammouth de Lespezi. 1-3: vues générales; 4-5: vues du bord portant des traces d’entaillage.
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Fig. 3 - Fragment de défense de mammouth de Lespezi. 1-5: vuès de la partie et de l’extrémité proximale portant des traces d’entaillage et de sciage par abrasion linéaire.
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Étant donné l’absence dans le site de provenance d’autres témoignages concernant le travail de l’ivoire, ainsi que la rareté des restes squelettiques de mammouth, on peut envisager une provenance extérieure, allogène, de l’objet de Lespezi, emporté probablement par les communautés de chasseurs de rennes de l’aire orientale ou centrale de l’Europe.
Le lissoir de Cotu Miculinti Le deuxième artefact Paléolithique en ivoire de Roumanie est un fragment mésio-distal de lissoir (ou poignard ?). L’objet a été récupéré pendant les fouilles de 1981 conduites par le Dr Mihail Brudiu (Musée Départemental de Galati) dans niveau V de l’important site gravettien de chasseurs de rennes de Cotu Miculinti - ‘Garla Mare’, comm. Cotusca, dép. de Botosani, Moldavie roumaine, placé sur la rive droite de la rivière Prut (fig. 1, la carte et n° 2). Du même site provienent les plus nombreux et importants matériaux paléolithiques de Roumanie concernant le travail de l’os et du bois de renne ( Brudiu, 1979; 1980a; 1980b; 1983; 1987; 1994; 2006). Dans plusieurs publications, l’auteur des recherches a précisé le fait que l’objet qui retient ici notre attention, toujours seulement inséré dans l’illustration mais jamais étudie en détail, est une ‘pointe de lance’ fabriquée en bois de renne (B ( Brudiu, 1986; 1987; 1994) (fig. 4, n° 1). En mai 2001, l’auteur principal a eu l’occasion d’examiner une partie de la collection publiée d’artefacts en matières osseuses de Cotu Miculinti, conservée au Musée Départemental de Botosani. Ainsi on a puisse faire des observations qui enrichissent sensiblement les données concernant la typologie et la technologie des matières dures animales (os et spécialement bois de renne) au Paléolithique supérieur de Moldavie. À cette occasion, on a procédé aussi à l’examen de l’artefact découvert pendant les fouilles de 1981 et catalogué couramment comme ‘pointe de lance’ fabriquée en bois de renne. Par conséquent, on a puisse constater qu’il s’agissait, en fait, d’un objet en ivoire de mammouth. À cet égard, notre ouvrage présente toutes les données issues de l’examen direct. Le niveau V du site, exploré en 1981 dans la Surface B, révèle une occupation relativement faible (B (Brudiu, 1986: 7). L’objet a été récupéré dans le carré 5/3, à une profondeur de 2,60 m et publié comme pointe de sagaie en bois de renne ( Brudiu, 1987: 75, 84 et fig. 12, n° 2). Dans le répertoire des artefacts en matières dures animales de Roumanie récemment élabore, il a l’indicatif CTM 9 (B ELDIMAN, 1999b, vol. II: 39). L’objet est conservé en état fragmentaire; il s’agit d’un fragment mésio-distal, avec une fracture ancienne au niveau de la partie mésiale et récente de la partie distale. Les surfaces sont corrodées et présentent des dépôts discontinus d’oxyde de manganèse (fig. 4, n° s 2-3 et fig. 5). L’artefact a une silhouette étroite et allongée, de section biconvexe asymétrique au niveau de sa partie active (distale) et circulaire du reste. Il a été entièrement façonné par raclage axial. La face supérieure conserve une courbure proche de la courbure anatomique de la défense; cette observation permet l’appréciation de son diamètre initial autour de 5 cm. La fracturation accidentelle récente de la partie distale a mis clairement en évidence la texture spécifique stratifiée de l’ivoire - dentine (fig. 5, n° s 1-2 et 4). Les surfaces corrodées ont effacé les éventuelles traces d’utilisation (fig. 5, n° 3).
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Les dimensions de l’objet sont les suivantes: longueur préservée: 8,9 cm; longueur initiale présumée: 20 cm; longueur de la partie active initiale: 9 cm; diamètre maximum de la partie active: 1,4/1,3 cm; diamètre de la partie partie mésiale: 1,9 cm). Les analogies de l’artefact en discussion avec d’autres objets fréquents dans le site de Cotu Miculinti ou dans d’autres sites gravettiens de Moldavie et/ou d’autres régions plus ou moins proches permettent de l’attribuer typologiquement et d’un point de vue fonctionnel dans la catégorie des lissoirs. Deux objets presque identiques, travaillés en os (fig. 6, n° s 1-2) et en bois de renne (fig. 6, n° s 3-4) ont été signalés dans le même site. Parmi les analogies avec des lissoirs en ivoire, on peut mentionner l’objet de Kostienki I Eliseevich ( Feustel, 1973: pl. LVIII, n° 2) (fig. 8, n° 3). Considérés généralement comme des outils réservés au prélèvement et pour la préparation des peaux, les lissoirs de ce genre sont aptes aussi pour l’utilisation comme armes (poignards). La section circulaire de la partie proximale rend difficile leur fixation sur une hampe et, par conséquent, l’usage comme armature de sagaie. Le niveau IV qui se superpose au niveau de provenance de l’objet est daté sur des bases radiométriques de 19.460±220 uncal BP (GrN-12662), ce qui permet d’estimer l’age du niveau V autour de 19.000 uncal BP (C HIRICA, 2001: 106). L’importance des observations récentes sur le lissoir (re)découvert de Cotu Miculinti consiste avant tout dans l’identification définitive et indubitable du type et de la matière première, ce qui permet de parler du premier objet fini en ivoire connu jusqu’alors dans les cultures du Paléolithique supérieur en Roumanie. L’existence dans le même site d’un important lot d’artefacts en matières dures animales (os, bois de renne), finis, en cours de fabrication et déchets, atteste d’une manière indubitable la fabrication sur place de ces artefacts, présents ici dans des proportions inconnues dans le reste du territoire à l’ouèst de la rivière Prut. En contraste avec cette situation, l’absence d’autres artefacts en ivoire sur place favorise l’hypothèse selon laquelle le lissoir semble être emporté des régions avoisinantes. Les pointes de sagaies de Piatra Neamţ - Poiana Ciresului
Trois autres artefacts en ivoire proviennent des fouilles menées en 2004 et 2005 dans le site placé sur la rive droite de la rivière Bistrita, dép. de neamţ (fig. 1, la carte et o. 3), étant poursuivies par un staff international international dirigé par le Prof. Univ. Dr. Marin Carciumaru (Université «Valahia», Faculté de Sciences Humaines, Targoviste). A l’occasion du déca page du niveau Epigravettien II, daté grosso daté grosso modo sur modo sur les bases radiométriques aux environ 16.000-19.000 uncal BP ont été récupérés trois armatures en ivoires i voires (pointes de sagaies) fragmentaires et en état de conservation plus ou moins précaire. Heureusement les publications très récentes nous ont mis à la disposition des données relativement détaillées utilisables pour l’augmentation du répertoire des objets en ivoire du Paléolithique Supérieur de Roumanie. Jusqu’à maintenant il n’a été possible pour nous d’examiner directement les objets, ni d’obtenir des images photo générales et de détail. Les descriptions qui suivent sont faites sur la base des données retrouvées dans les publications disponibles aussi bien que sur l’examen des dessins qui illustrent les mêmes sources (c ( carciuMaru et al .,., 2003; 2004a; 2004b; 2005; 2006a; 2006b; 2006c; 2007a; 2007b). Le premier objet (fig. 7, n° 1), représente une pointe de sagaie du type à base sim ple (HAHN, 1988). Il se trouve en état fragmentaire; les extrémités proximale et distale ont été cassées probablement pendant l’usage. Les conditions de conservation sont relativement
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Fig. 4 - Lissoir de Cotu Miculinti. 1-3: vues générales et proposition de reconstitution de l’aspect initial ( 1 d’après B RUDIU , 1987: 75, 84 et fig. 12, n° 2).
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Fig. 5 - Lissoir de Cotu Miculinti. 1-2, 4: détails de la partie distale; 3: détail de la partie mésiale/face supérieure.
bonnes: on observe des portions exfoliées et partialement affectées par délitage et délamination, des fractures et fissures transversales. L’extrémité proximale a le contour concave asymétrique suite à la fracturation. La section de l’extrémité proximale est ovalaire. Les bordes sont rectilignes parallèles et légèrement convexes. Les parties mésiale et distale ont aussi des sections ovalaires. La fabrication a suivi plusieurs étapes d’une chaine opératoire relativement complexe. Les traces du débitage ont été effacées par les opérations ultérieures;
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Fig. 6 - Lissoirs de Cotu Miculinti: 1-2 lissoir en os (2 d’après B RUDIU , 1987: 1987: 76, 84 et fig. 3, n° 3); 3-4 lissoir en bois de renne (3 d’après B RUDIU , 1987: 76, 84 et fig. 12, n° 1).
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et al., Fig. 7 - Poites de sagaies de Piatra-neamţ - Poiaa Ciresului: 1-2: vues géérales ( d’après C ARCIUMARU et 2006c: 35, fig. 11/a).
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Fig. 8 - Artefacts en ivoire du Gravettien de la partie Centrale et Orientale de l’Europe. 1: Predmost ( d’après F EUS ); 2: Kostienki I Eliseevich (d’après F EUSTEL , 1973: pl. LVIII, n° 1); 3: Kostienki I Eliseevich 1973: pl. LXXI ); (d’après F EUSTEL , 1973: 1973: pl. pl. LVIII, LVIII, n° n° 2); 4: Predmost (d’après F EUSTEL , 1973: 1973: pl. LXIX, n° 3); 5: Grubgraben (d’après LOGAN , 1990: 73 et fig. VI-1). TEL ,
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Fig. 9 - Artefacts en ivoire du Gravettien central et est Europeén: 1 A-E: Kostienki I Eliseevich; 1 F-G: proposition de reconstitution du débitage de l’ivoire par percussion/entaillage (d’après S EMENOV , 1985: 150 et fig. 74, n° s 1-7 ); ); 2: Costesti (d’après BORZIAC , 1994: 35 et fig. 5, n° 10); 3: Timonovka (d’après K ozłowsKi ); , 1992: 78 et fig. 87, c-d c-d ); ozłowsKi 4: identification spécifique et squelettique de la matière première et reconstitution du débitage par abrasion linéaire (d’après B ELDIMAN , 2000: 25 et et fig. 5, n° 3).
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on peut supposer le recours au double rainurage ou à l’entaillage en vue d’obtention d’une baguette rectangulaire ayant des des sections sections carrées. Le façonnage façonnage a été appliqué très soigneusement par raclage axial intense sur toute la longueur de la pointe, en but de régulariser sa surface et d’aménager la partie active pointue (distale). Les dimensions de l’armature sont les suivantes: longueur préservée: 21 cm; diamètre de l’extrémité proximale: 2,3/0,65 cm; diamètre de la partie proximale: 2,4/1 cm; diamètre de la partie mésiale: 2,4/1,1 cm; diamètre de la partie distale: 2/1 cm; diamètre de l’extrémité distale: 1/0,5 cm. La fracturation des extrémités a été produite probablement par impact durant l’usage (extrémité distale) et par la fixation dans la hampe (extrémité proximale) (carciuMaru et al .,., 2006b: 20, 35, fig. 11/a; 2007b: 15-16, 31, fig. 11/a). Le deuxième artefact en ivoire de Poiana Ciresului (fig. 7, n° 2) est une pointe de sagaie appartenant probablement au type à base raccourci (M ONS, 1988). Il se présente en état fragmentaire; la partie distale a été cassée probablement pendant l’usage. Les conditions de conservation sont relativement précaires: on observe des larges portions exfoliées; la face inférieure est affectée longitudinalement sur sa longueur entière par délitage et délamination; on observe aussi des fractures et fissures transversales. L’extrémité proximale semble entière et a le contour convexe asymétrique (de façonnage) suite à l’aménagement par entaillage; cette opération a produit sur la face supérieure des petites surfaces concaves irréguliers super posées. La section section de l’extrémité proximale est ovalaire. ovalaire. Les bordes bordes sont sont légèrement légèrement courbes, le bord gauche convexe et celui droit concave sinueux. Les sections du fût sont probablement rectangulaires avec les marges arrondies ou ovalaires. Comme dans le cas avant, la fabrication a suivi plusieurs étapes d’une chaine opératoire relativement complexe. Les traces du débitage ont été effacées par les opérations ultérieurs; on peut supposer le recours au double rainurage ou à l’entaillage en vue de l’obtention d’une baguette rectangulaire ayant des sections carrées. Le façonnage a été appliqué très soigneusement par raclage axial intense sur toute la longueur de l’artefact, en but de régulariser sa surface et d’aménager la partie active pointue (distale). En plus on a l’entaillage de l’extrémité proximale en vue d’amincir cette partie de l’objet. Les dimensions de l’armature sont les suivantes: longueur préservée: 23 cm; diamètre de l’extrémité proximale: 2/1 cm; diamètre de la partie proximale: 2,3/1,3 cm; diamètre de la partie proximale et mésiale: 2,3/1,3 cm; diamètre de la partie distale: 2/1 cm. La fracturation de la partie distale a été produite probablement par impact durant l’usage (carciuMaru et al .,., 2006b: 20, 35, fig. 11/a; 2007b: 15-16, 31, fig. 11/a). Les auteurs des recherches mentionnent aussi une troisième pointe en état très précaire dont on ne dispose pas de description ou illustration (c ( carciuMaru et al .,., 2006b: 20; 2007b: 15-16). Par l’amabilité du Prof. Univ. Dr. Marin Carciumaru, en août 2007, à l’occasion d’une visite sur le site de Poiana Ciresului on a puisse examiner une quatrième pièce, très proba blement en ivoire aussi (encore inédite); il s’agit d’une baguette quasi-rectangulaire mince (longueur approx. 20 cm; largeur maximum approx. 2 cm; épaisseur approx. 0,3-0,5 cm) en état de conservation précaire. Les armatures e ivoire de Piatra neamţ - Poiaa Ciresului sot les premiéres artefacts de cette sorte connues jusqu’à maintenant sur le territoire de la Roumanie; elles contribuent d’une manière significative à l’augmentation du répertoire typologique des pointes de sagaie du Paléolithique supérieur dans les régions situées à l’est des Carpates (B ELDIMAN, 2004b; 2005b).
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Parmi les analogies de ces objets on peut mentionner les découvertes de Cosauti et Molodova V (CHIRICA et BORZIAC 1995; BORZIAC et al .,., 2006).
CONCLUSION Les reconsidérations récentes des quelques découvertes anciennes ont mis en lumière l’existence exceptionnelle de cinq artefacts en ivoire au Paléolithique Supérieur de Roumanie, attribués au Gravettien oriental/Epigravettien: un fragment de défense de mammouth débité par entaillage et probable par sciage transversal, découvert à Lespezi et daté autour de 18.000 uncal BP; un lissoir (ou poignard ?) découvert à Cotu Miculinti et daté autour de 19.000 ucal BP; trois poites de sagaies découvertes das le site de Piatra-neamţ - Poiaa Ciresului et daté entre 16.000 et 19.000 uncal BP. Sur le plan paléotechnologique, le fragment de défense de Lespezi attire l’attention par l’attestation précoce probable du procédé de débitage par sciage transversal à la ficelle. Étant donné l’absence dans les deux sites mentionnés ci-dessus d’autres témoignages signalés concernant le travail de l’ivoire, ainsi que la rareté des restes squelettiques de mammouth et la rareté générale des ivoires ouvrés au Paléolithique supérieur en Roumanie, on peut envisager une provenance extérieure, allogène, de cette catégorie d’artefacts, emportés par emportés par les communautés de chasseurs de rennes et grands herbivores de l’aire centrale ou orientale de l’Europe (les territoires actuels de la République Tchèque, d’Ukraine, de Russie et de la République de Moldavie). La rareté générale des objets en ivoire dans les régions actuelles du pays génère un contraste évident en rapport avec la situation connue à l’est du Prut (k ( k oZłowski oZłowski, 1992; CHIRICA et BORZIAC, 1995; CHIRICA, 1996a). Une situation analogue est liée à des manifestations diverses de l’art mobilier (BORZIAC et C HIRICA, 1996); par exemple, jusqu’alors, après un demi-siècle de recherches systématiques, dans les sites paléolithiques roumains, aucune représentation animale ou humaine en ronde bosse n’a été encore retrouvé (O TTE et al .,., 1995; OTTE et BELDIMAN, 1995; BELDIMAN, 2004a; 2005a; B ELDIMAN et SZTANCS, 2006). Cette situation attend encore une explication plausible; elle n’est pas forcément attribuable au stade des recherches et reflète, probablement, des particularités culturelles de ces régions au Paléolithique Supérieur 1.
___________________ ___________________ 1
Les photos et les dessins sans spécifications en légende de la figure appartiennent à l’auteur principal (CB).
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HAHN, J. 1988 - Fiche Sagaie à base simple de tradition aurignacienne (1). In delPorte, h., hahn, j., Mons, l., Pinçon, g. et sonneVille-Bordes, d. de (éds.) Fiches typologiques typologiques de l’industrie osseuse préhistorique. Cahier I. Sagaies , U.I.S.P.P., Commission de nomenclature sur l’industrie de l’os préhistorique, responsable H. Camps-Fabrer. Publications de l’Université de Provence, Aix-en-Provence. oZłowski, J.K. 1992 - L’art de la Préhistoire k oZłowski Préhistoire en Europe Europe orientale. CNRS Éditions, Paris.
LOGAN, B. 1990 - The hunted of Grubgraben: an analysis of faunal remains. In Montet-white, A. (dir.) The Epi gravettian site of Grubgraben, Lower Austria: The The 1986 and 1987 excavations excavations . ERAUL, 40: 65-85. Liège. luMley, h. de (dir.) 1984 - Art et civilisation civilisation de chasseurs de la préhistoire préhistoire (34000 - 8000 ans ans av. av. J.Ch.). Catalogue d’exposition, Paris. Macgregor , a. 1985 - Bone, antler, antler, ivory and horn. The technology technology of skeletal materials since the Roman Roman period . Croom Helm, London and Totowa, N.J. MONS, L. 1988 - Fiche Sagaie à base raccourci (5). In delPorte, h., hahn, j., Mons, l., P inçon, g., sonneVilleBordes, d. de (éds.) ( éds.) Fiches typologiques de l’industrie osseuse préhistorique. Cahier I. Sagaies. U.I.S.P.P., Commission de nomenclature sur l’industrie de l’os préhistoriq ue, responsable H. Camps-Fabrer. Publications de l’Université de Provence, Aix-en-Provence. OTTE, M. et B ELDIMAN, C. 1995 - Sur les objets paléolithiques de parure et d’art en Roumanie: une pendeloque en os découverte à Mitoc, dép. de Botosani, Roumanie. Memoria Antiquitatis Antiquitatis,, 20: 35-70. Piatra neamţ. OTTE, M., CHIRICA, V. et B ELDIMAN, C. 1995 - Sur les objets paléolithiques de parure et d’art en Roumanie: une pendeloque en os découverte à Mitoc, dép. de Botosani, Roumanie. Préhistoire européenne européenne, 5: 119-152. Liège. Păunescu, al. 1989 - Structures d’habitat moustériennes mises au jour dans l’établissement de Ripiceni - Izvor (Roumanie) et quelques considérations concernant le type d’habitat au Paléolithique moyen à l’Est des Car L’Homme de Néanderthal. Actes du Colloque international de pates. In Patou, M. et FreeMan, l.g. l.g. (éds.) L’Homme Liège (4-7 décembre décembre 1986). Vol. VI: La VI: La subsistance. ERAUL, 33: 127-143. Liège. Păunescu, al. 1993 - Ripiceni - “Izvor”. Paleolitic şi mezolitic. Studiu monografic ( Ripiceni Ripiceni - “Izvor”. Paléolithique et Mésolithique. Monographie archéologique archéologique). ). Ed. Academiei, Bucureşti (e roumai). Păunescu, al. 1998 - Paleoliticul si epipaleoliticul epipaleoliticul de pe teritoriul Moldovei cuprins intre Carpati si s i Siret. Studiu monografic ( Le Paléolithique et l’Épipaléolithique de la Moldavie entre les Carpates et la rivière Siret. Siret. Monographie archéologique archéologique). ). Ed. Satya Sai, Bucureşti (e roumai). Păunescu, al. 1999 - Paleoliticul şi mezoliticul de pe teritoriul Moldovei cuprins intre Siret şi Prut. Studiu monografic ( Le Le Paléolithique Paléolithique et le Mésolithique de la Moldavie entre entre les rivières rivières Siret et Prut. Monographie Monographie archéologique). archéologique ). Ed. Satya Sai, Bucureşti (e roumai). POPLIN, F. 1974 - Deux cas particuliers de débitage par usure. In caMPs-FaBrer , H. (dir.) Premier Premier Colloque internainternational sur l’industrie de l’os dans la préhistoire, Abbaye de Sénanque, Sénanque, avril 1974 . Aix-en-Provence. SEMENOV, S.A. 1985 - Prehistoric Technology. echnology. An experimental experimental study study of the oldest tools and artefacts artefacts from traces of . Totowa-New Jersey. manufacture and use Zaharia, n., Petrescu-diMBoVita, M., Zaharia, e. 1970 e. 1970 - Asezari din Moldova. De la paleolitic pana in secolul al XVIII-lea (Sites archéologiques archéologiques de la Moldavie. De Paléolithique jusqu’au XVIII e siècle). Ed. Academiei, Bucureşti (e roumai). Addresses des auteurs: CORNELIU BELDIMAN, Université Chrétienne «Dimitrie Cantemir», Faculté d’Histoire, Splaiul Unirii Nr. 176, Sector 4 – RO - 040042 BUCAREST 53. e-mail:
[email protected] DIANA-MARIA SZTANCS, SZTANCS, Université «Lucian Blaga», Faculté d’Histoire et pour l’Étude du Patrimoine «Nicolae Lupu», Master ‘Protection et Étude du Patrimoine Historique’, Bd. Victoriei Nr. 5-7 – RO - 550024 SIBIU
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Atti Soc. Preist. Protost. Friuli-V.G., Friuli-V.G., Trieste, XVI, 2006-2007 (2008): (2 008): 29-51
VLADIMIR
N. STANKO and DMYTRO KIOSAK ∗
∗∗
THE MESOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF THE LOWER DANUBE-PRUT-DNIESTER-SOUTH BUH INTERFLUVIALS: THE EARLY MESOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES
SUMMARY – The Mesolithic settlement of the Lower Danube-Prut-Dniester-South Buh interfluvials: the Early the present-day knowledge of the Early Mesolithic pe Mesolithic assemblages. This paper is a critical review of the present-day riod of southwestern Ukraine. The sites of uncertain typological attribution were not taken into consideration. The general picture, which has been outlined on the basis of both settlement locations and structures and the chipped stone assemblages recovered from excavations and surveys, survey s, shows that the Early Mesolithic industries of this region undoubtedly differ from those already known from other territories of south and eastern Europe, mainly for the systematic occurrence of isosceles trapezes trapeze s with retouched short side. The only site of this period so far radiocarbondated is Bilolisja, which gave a result of 8900±190 uncal BP (Ki-10886). Mesol itico del bacino del basso Danubio-Prut-Dniester-Bug: Danubio-Prut-Dnies ter-Bug: le industrie indus trie del Mesolitico AnRIASSUNTO – Il – Il Mesolitico tico. Il presente lavoro consiste in una revisione critica delle attuali conoscenze sul Mesolitico antico dell’Ucraina sudoccidentale. I siti di incerta attribuzione non sono stati presi in considerazione. Il quadro generale che deriva dallo studio sia degli insediamenti e delle loro strutture, sia delle industrie litiche raccolte durante gli scavi e le ricognizioni di superficie, indica che i complessi del Mesolitico antico di questa regione, uno solo dei quali, Bilolisja, è stato datato radiometricamente a 8900±190 uncal BP (Ki-10886), sono indubbiamente diversi da quelli di altre regioni dell’Europa meridionale ed orientale, anche per la presenza di trapezi isosceli su lamella con il lato corto ritoccato. Keywords: Ukraine, Prychornomor’a, Mesolithic, Bilolisja complex, Tsarynka tradition.
1. INTRODUCTION The Mesolithic sites discussed in this paper were discovered in southwestern Ukraine since the late 1950s (fig. 1). Until these years, many researchers believed that the Mesolithic period, characterised by microlithic assemblages, was not attested in northwestern Prychornomor’a (BIBIKOV, 1953: 103-105) and, consequently, that the last Palaeolithic hunters had interacted with the first Neolithic farmers of the Trypillja Culture. In 1954, P.I. __________________ ____________________
* Department of History, Mykolajiv Humanitarian Huma nitarian State University P. Mohyla, UA ** Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Natural Sciences, Ferrara University, I
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Boriskovskij discovered the site of Grebenyky, where an assemblage with geometric miOROBKOVA , 1957: 59-62; croliths was found for the first time (B ORISKOVSKIJ , 1957: 5-7; K OROBKOVA GRIGOR ’EVA EVA, 1961). Extensive field surveys, undertaken between 1955 and 1960, led to the discovery of more than 10 sites with geometric tools: Zavallja in the southern Buh, Myhajlivka (Bilolisja), Vasylivka, Vasylivka, Dobrozhany, Dobrozhany, Baraboj I-IV and others. By 1975 more than 50 sites were known in northwestern Prychornomor’a, most of which characterised by geometrics and other microlithic tools (K RASKOVSKIJ RASKOVSKIJ , 1978: 40-61). In the th e 1970s V.N. V.N. D ANYLENKO (1969: 46-147) and V.I. MARKEVICH (1974: 127-144) suggested that the recently discovered Neolithic settlements of the Buh-Dniestern Culture originated from the local Mesolithic background with a geometric chipped stone industry. industry. During the 1960s and 1970s large-scale excavations were carried out at Ghyrzheve, Bilolisja (Mykhajlivka), Myrne and Frumushika (K RASKOVSKIJ RASKOVSKIJ and STANKO, 1966; STANKO, 1966; 1967; 1971; 1972; 1976; 1977; 1980; 1982; C HERNYSH, 1975), and a few other new RASKOVSKIJ , 1978). sites were investigated (C HETRARU, 1973; K RASKOVSKIJ The Mesolithic sites of the so-called Kukrek Culture (Synjukhin Brid, Abuzova Balka and others) were brought to light during surveys aimed at the discovery of sites with microliths. Their complexes are characterised by a high number of microlithic tools among which are very few types of geometrics (D ANILENKO , 1969: 57-61; STANKO et al .,., 1981: 5-12). The last quarter of the last century was marked by studies on the cultural history, palaeoeconomy and social development of the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in the northwestern Prychornomor’a (COVALENKO and CHETRARU 1997; COVALENKO and COJ, 1999; STANKO et al .,., 1999). The debates of the last decades resulted in a number of different approaches regarding the chronology, periodisation and origin of the Mesolithic in the Prut-Buh interfluvial. Nevertheless it is important to point out that that up-to-now there is still no general agreement agreement in the definition of the Early Mesolithic. V.N. Stanko attributes to this period the site he excavated at Bilolisja, and some other localities with characteristic surface material (Bilolisja IV, IV, Kantemir, Vasylivka, Tsarynka, Gavryliv Jar). Both this author and D.Ja. Telegin suggested that the Kukrek type industries formed during an early stage at the beginning of the Mesolithic, because they show many typological characteristics that relate them to the local Epigravettian tradition. A few other authors attribute all these sites to the end of the Palaeolithic (otherwise called Final Palaeolithic) (K OROBKOVA OROBKOVA , 1989; 1989a; J ANEVICH, 1990; G RIGOR ’EVA EVA, 1992; ZalіZnyak , 1995: 18). According these latter, around the beginning of the Holocene, the region was 1) uninhabited or 2) any trace of the Early Mesolithic settlement has not so far been discovered. At present there is still no uniform view of the origin and chronology of the Late Mesolithic assemblages with geometric (Grebenyky Culture) and non-geometric microliths (Kukrek Culture or cultural entity). For instance V.N. V.N. S TANKO (1986; 2006) believes that the Grebenyky Culture is rooted into the local tradition, L.L. ZalіZnyak (1998; (1998; 2005; 2005a; 2005a; 2006) hypothesizes that the Grebenyky industry results from a direct migration of peoples from the Balkans, while other specialists have proposed other approaches. Alongside with the above theoretical approaches and field investigations, radiocar bon datings, geological and palaeoclimatic studies were undertaken in the 1980s and 1990s (STANKO and SVEZHENCEV, 1988; ZAJTSEVA et al .,., 1997; telegіn, 2002).
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Fig. 1 - The research area with the location of the sites Bilolisja (1), Bilolisja IV (2), Kaghyl’nyk (3), Kantemir (4), Gavryliv Jar (5) and Tsarynka (6).
In this paper, the analysis of the archaeological assemblages follows the scheme pro posed by V.N. STANKO (1976), although the ideas of other authors are also reported from time to time, in order to provide the reader with an objective picture of the present state of the research and the interpretation of the many aspects of both each particular site and the entire Mesolithic period.
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2. THE EARLY MESOLITHIC SITES In the Buh-Prut region, the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene are marked by the development of three different types of chipped stone assemblages. The Bilolisja type industry is distributed in the Danube-Dniester interfluvial. It is characterised by lunates, end scrapers on irregular blades and wide flakes, and circular scrapers, sub-prismatic cores, while burins are almost absent. Flakes predominate over blades in the debitage and the bladelets are the least represented group. The Tsarynka type-sites were discovered in the north steppe zone of the Dniester-Buh interfluvial. Here a specific type of trapeze with retouched short side predominates, the lunates are absent, end scrapers and burins are obtained from thick blades and flakes. The bladelets are few. Both the Bilolisja and Tsarynka Tsarynka industries do not seem to derive from the local Epigravettian complex, whose most probable descendant is the Kukrek industry (S TANKO, 1982: 113-114; telegіn, 1982: 118-119). 118-119).
2.1. THE EARLY MESOLITHIC SITES DNIESTER INTERFLUVIAL
OF THE WESTERN PART OF THE REGION: THE
DANUBE-
Bilolisja is the most important Early Mesolithic site in the region. It was discovered by A.M. Kremer in 1957 and, after a further survey, it was published by V.I. K RASKOVSKIJ and A.M. K REMER (1959). In 1965-66 and 1977 V.N. S TANKO (1985) excavated most of the site. REMER (1959).
Bilolisja Bilolisja is situated on the lower loess terrace facing the Sarata old riverbed. Its geographical coordinates are 45°56’04”N-29°41’08”E (fig. 2). The present-day course of the river origi-
Fig. 2 - Bilolisja: the Mesolithic site is located where the two people stand ( photograph photograph by by P. P. Biagi).
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nated during the Riss-Würm interstadial, inside a more ancient valley covered by Late Pleistocen Pleistocenee loess sediments. sediments. Around the beginning of the Holocene, the height of the Bilolisja terrace was not lower than that of the first terrace of the Danube (PETROUGNE, 1971). The archaeological occupation was found in situ in situ in the lower part of layer Phi, at a depth of 70-80 cm, just above the lower-lying green pale-yellow loam horizon. Isolated finds were collected at the depth of 40-70 cm, although this layer did not yield any trace of an archaeological horizon in situ. situ. The flint assemblage from this layer is represented by trapezes with a retouched short side (fig. 6, n. 9), circular scrapers, two small double scrapers with retouched sides and a small number of flakes and blades. blades. The modern topsoil topsoil did not yield any flint artefact. The palynological analysis reFig. 3 - Bilolisja: stratigraphy of the site according to V. vealed four main zones (P ASHKEVICH, DUBNJAK (pers. comm. 1977). 1981). The pollen spectrum of the lowest zone corresponds to the tussock-cereal steppe vegetation cover. The pollens from the cultural layer Phi are typical for a motley grass-cereal steppe environment. The arboreal flora is represented by a small percentage of pine, birch and alder. The following upper zone (33-54 cm) is supposed to represent the Atlantic period (fig. 4).
Animal species
NISP
%
MNI
%
Equus caballus
65
79.3
7
53.8
Bos Primigenius
10
12.2
3
23.1
Saiga tatarica
6
7.3
2
15.4
Vulpes vulpes
1
1.2
1
7.7
Large ungulates
93
-
89
-
Unidentifiable
89
-
-
-
Total
264
100.0
13
100.0
% of unidentifiable
ca. 34.0
Table 1 - Bilolisja: faunal assemblage (after B IBIKOVA, 1978)
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The cultural layer yielded both animal bones (264 specimens, 89 of which unidentifiable) and land snails (B IBIKOVA , 1978; unpubl.). The faunal remains are characteristic of an open steppe landscape. The presence of Saiga tatarica bones tatarica bones would indicate a relatively arid environment (BIBIKOVA, 1978: 28). The visible part of the profile revealed the following sequence (fig. 3). Chernozem soil o the humus. Crumbly, Crumbly, loose sady loam, 40-50 cm thick (layer Н). Pale-yellow, browish, powder-sandy loam, 30-40 cm thick. V.A. V.A. D UBNJAK (pers. (pers. comm. 1977) subdivided it into two sub-horizos: dark-grey with pale-yellow iclusios (layer Нр: 45-65 cm) ad pale-yellow, low, brownish (layer Phi: 65-80 cm). The greenish, pale-yellow loam, 10-15 cm thick (layer Pk) is heavy, heavy, clayey, with siltstones, rich in consolidated calcareous sediments. The greenish, pale-yellow loam below is micaceous, microporous slowly turning into loam sand. Loam sand and sand (below 130 cm).
Fig. 4 - Bilolisja: pollen diagram by G.A. PASHKEVICH (1981).
The sediments containing the cultural layer formed during the Early Holocene (PETROUGNE, 1971: 115; BIBIKOVA, 1978: 57-61; PASHKEVICH, 1981: 83). This is confirmed also by a radiocarbon date obtained from a bone sample: 8900±190 uncal BP, BP, 8550-7550 cal BC at 2σ (Ki-10886). The cultural layer, 10 cm thick, is characterised by an increasing number of flint tools and animal bones. Its lowermost horizon showed the presence of two hearths, most probably excavated into the Mesolithic surface. Four main scatters of flints can be observed on the excavated surface, along the riverbank (fig. 5).
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Fig. 5 - Bilolisja: distribution map of the flint art e facts within a 1 sq m grid: unretouch ed pieces (a), cores and tools (b), trapeze (T), H cores (H) ad retouched pieces (▲).
The first scatter was foud i squares 2е-5гв. The preserved part of the spot has a di ameter of 4 m. The finds include flakes, blades, shatters, scrapers, lunates, burins, retouched blades, animal bones and small charcoal pieces. pieces. The secod, oval-shaped scatter was excavated 3 m west of the first, i squares 9-13еб. Its diameter is slightly wider than 4 m. A circular hearth, 1.2 m in diameter, was uncovered in the eastern part of the accumulation, deepening in the upper layer of the greenish loam. Its fill consisted of very fragmented burnt bones, small charcoal pieces and a few burnt flints. The flint assemblage is composed of scrapers, burins, lunates, blades with oblique truncation, perforators, retouched flakes and blades, shatters. Cores, tools and debitage wastes were found mainly west of the hearth. The third scatter was discovered 1.5 m west of the secod, i squares 15-18га. The inventory consisted of 1 core, a group of flakes and blades, two scrapers, lunates, retouched blades, shatters and and other fragments.
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Further to the west, a relatively thick concentration of finds can be observed over a wide area (sq. 20-31еа3). This part of the site might represet the remais of a few other scatters, disturbed in antiquity. In this area, the green, pale-yellow loam horizon, below the cultural layer, is heavily damaged. It was not found also along the western edge of the excavation trench. We can tentatively delineate only one scatter (5 m Ø) with a hearth in its centre and a few smaller scatters. The fourth scatter was excavated i squares 22-26в-а3 i the same aligmet of the al ready-described scatters along the riverbank. The hearth, which consisted of an oval-shaped thin layer of ash, 50-60 cm in diameter, is badly preserved. The flint assemblage is composed of cores, scrapers, burins, lunates, trapezes, backed bladelets, retouched blades and flakes. An alignment of micro-scatters is situated along the wall of the south trench. It is separated by an empty space some 3 m wide from the high-density areas near the western hearth. The best-preserved structure is a circular scatter ucovered i squares 28-31ев, which cotained a relatively high number of cores, rejuvenation flakes, microflakelets and shatters. The petrographic analysis of the chipped stone artefacts indicates that the inhabitants of the site exploited Dniester or Prut flint pebbles, which were the most important raw materials employed also for the manufacture of the Late Mesolithic industries of the region (PETROUGNE, 1971: 117). The cores include single and double platform, prismatic and sub-prismatic specimens (fig. 5: 18-20)
Category
Number
%
Flaked pebble
1
0.1
Cores
50
4.2
Core-like fragments, pieces of cores and rejuvenation flakes
50
4.2
Flakes
719
60.2
Blades
375
31.3
Total
1195
100.0
Tools
172
14.8
On flakes
69
6.0
On blades
106
8.8
Table 2 - Bilolisja: frequency and percentage of the main technological groups and debris types.
The flat forms represent more than 50% of the total assemblage. They often have additional use wears. All the cores are of a small dimension. Their length does not usually exceed 4 cm. The debitage consists mainly of flakes, microflakelets, shatters and splintered pieces. There are a few prismatic blades with parallel ridges and sides. Most blades are irregular and with a wavy profile.
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Fig. 6 - Bilolisja chipped stone assemblage: lunates (1-7, 10), trapezes (8, 9 and 13), curved backed points (11, 15), ‘quadrangle’ (12), point (14), truncations (16, 17, 19), burin (18), end scrapers (20-29) and cores (30-32).
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Tool types Scrapers end scrapers on blade end scrapers on shortened blade end scrapers on flake circular on flake on core-like fragment double parts of working edges of scrapers Burins on fracture on truncation dihedral multiple Geometric microliths segments trapezes triangles backed blade with with two opposed opposed truncations truncations
Points truncations borers (with alternate retouch) retouch) perforators curved backed point Composite tools backed blades and bladelets retouched blades and bladelets retouched flakes notched pieces Total Table 3 - Bilolisja: list of the tool types.
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Number 79 19 12 6 7 24 2 3 6 15 6 3 3 3 23 19 2 1 1 15 4 5 5 1 5 5 13 15 4 174
% 45.4
8.6
13.2
8.6
2.9 2.9 7.4 8.6 2.4 100.0
The scrapers were obtained from both flakes and blades. The scrapers on thick, irregular blades and blade-like flakes predominate over the end scrapers. There is a high percentage of short and shortened blanks (fig. 6, nn. 22 and 23). Fanshaped end scrapers with a thick working edge constitute a small, distinctive group (fig. 6, n. 24). There are a few end scrapers with a wedge-like working edge. The circular and semicircular end scrapers on a flake represent some 40% of the end scrapers (fig. 6, nn. 26-29). The burins are few and atypical, made on both flakes and blades (fig. 6, n. 18). The class of the geometric microliths is very significant, with various types of lunates. They are represented both by elongated specimens, obtained from rough, irregular blades and small, finely retouched types on thin blanks (fig. 6, nn. 1-7 and 10). The trapezes are of two different types: the first has a retouched short side (fig. 6, nn. 8 and 9), while the second is obtained from a wide blade with two opposite oblique, abrupt straight truncations one of which is direct, the other inverse (fig. 6, n. 13). One isosceles triangle and one ‘quadrangle’1 were also recovered (fig. 6, n. 12). Oblique truncations, perforators and borers are all from blade-like flakes, or irregular blades (fig. 6, nn. 15-17 and 19). An arched, backed point was made on a thick blade. It recalls the Azilian points or lancets (fig. 6, n. 11). To sum up, the assemblage from Bilolisja can be attributed, as well as other complexes, to the ‘Danubian Mesolithic’, defined by J.K. k oZłowski oZłowski (1973). OROBKOVA (1989) studied the functional analysis of the assemblage (table 4). G.F. K OROBKOVA
Tool types Projectile inserts Knives Scrapers Side-Scrapers Strickles Chisels Burins Piercers Borers Joiner blades Saws Multifunctional tools Total
Number 34 123 78 18 35 8 15 12 8 12 5 17 3 65
% 9.3 33.7 21.4 4.9 9.6 2.2 4.1 3.3 2.2 3.3 1.4 4.6 100.0
Table 4 - Bilolisja: list of the tools according to their function (after K OROBKOVA, 1989). __________________ ____________________ 1
Backed retouched bladelet with two two opposite, straight, horizontal horizontal truncations.
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Fig. 7 - Chipped stone industries from Bilolisja IV (1 and 2), Kaghyl’nyk (3-10) and Kantemir (11-21). Trapezes with retouched short side (1 and 3), end scrapers (2, 4, 6, 8-9, 14-16, 18 and 19), notched blade (5), burin (7), retouched blades (10-13) and cores (17, 20 and 21).
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Three more sites (Kaghyl’nyk, Kantemir and Bilolisja IV) are known only from surface collections. They were formerly attributed to the Early Mesolithic of the Danube-Dniester interfluvial.
Kaghyl’nyk Kaghyl’nyk is located on the low bank of the eponymous river, not far from the point where it flows into the Lyman Lyman Sasyk (Kunduk), at 45°51’16”N-29°39’32”E. S.A. dVorjaninoV (1976: ( 1976: 154-157), who discovered of the site, collected 74 flint artefacts from its surface. The cores (4 specimens) have a sub-prismatic shape, with one, two and three platforms. One specimen is flat. The number of blades is higher than that of the flakes. The blades are irregular and the bladelets are represented by only 4 pieces. The end scrapers on a shortened blade (fig. 7, nn. 4, 6 and 8) always predominate. The other implements include 1 atypical burin on a blade (fig. 7, n. 7), 1 trapeze with retouched shorter side (fig. 7, n. 3), 1 notched blade (fig. 7, n. 5) and 1 retouched blade (fig. 7, n. 10). Kantemir Kantemir (Zelene). The site of Kantemir is located on the right bank of the eponymous river at its confluence with the Sarata, 30-40 m above the course of the river itself (K REMER , 1960). The assemblage (105 specimens) consists of surface finds. It includes 2 flat cores (fig. 7, nn. 20 and 21), scrapers of circular and semi-circular shapes on blades and flakes (fig. 7, n. 14-16, 18 and 19) (nail-scrapers, scrapers with a wedge-like working edge), bladelet blad eletss with w ith a simple, simp le, marginal marg inal retouch ret ouch on the side (fig. (fi g. 7, nn. 11-13). 11-13) . The Th e blade b ladess are a re more numerous than the flakes. The attribution of this site to the Early Mesolithic is highly questionable. Bilolosja IV Bilolosja IV (Bilolisja-Slidy) is situated on the right, low bank of the Sarata River (DVORJANINOV , 1976: 155), 2 km downstream from Bilolisja. The surface collection is com posed of 8 artefacts: artefact s: 1 end scraper on a blade (fig. 7, n. 2), 1 semicircular semicirc ular scraper on a flake, 1 trapeze with retouched short side (fig. 7, n. 1), 1 core-like fragment, 1 blade and 3 flakes. 2.1.1. Discussion Only one informative site of this period (Bilolisja) has so far been investigated in the Danube-Dniester interfluvial. The materials from the other three sites are few and not very representative. Their attribution to the Early Mesolithic is still to be demonstrated. The detailed study of Bilolisja gives us an opportunity to put forward a few suggestions about the social and economic life of its inhabitants. The scatters of finds along the bank of the Sarata River might represent the remains of 4(-5?) domestic activity areas, which might indicate the presence of light, temporal dwellings. The structure of the tool assemblage is typical for a seasonal hunting camp settled during a warm period of the year. The composition of the faunal remains is also characteristic for the spring-summer period. Hunting horse
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was optimal during the spring on heat, or by the end of the summer/beginning of the autumn, the period of herds’ formation (GORELIK , 2001: 280). Saiga tatarica grazed tatarica grazed in the steppes of northern Prychornomor’a in the spring-summer period and moved to Crimea before the beginning of the cold season (BIBIKOVA and STARKIN, 1985). The limited inhabited surface, and number of domestic areas, would indicate that the total number of the Bilolisja inhabitants probably did not exceed 20 individuals. The simple pattern of the space organisation is not represented by any feature due to logistic activities. Most probably the inhabitants were foragers and not collectors, following the terminology proposed by L. BINFORD (1989). Bilolisja is the site from which the first appearance of aurochs in the steppes of the northern Prychornomor’a is represented. This unique hunting activity of the Bilolisja inhabitants might be explained as the infiltration infiltr ation of a small group of hunters from the Balkan-Danu bian region to the most western western part of steppes. steppes. The analysis analysis of the chipped chipped stone assemblage seems to support this hypothesis. The flaking technique and the composition of the retouched pieces do not find any parallel in the lithic industries of the preceding Late Palaeolithic sites of the northern Prychornomor’a. The closest analogies can be extended to the assemblages from the socalled Tardi/Epigravettian Tardi/Epigravettian of the Balkan-Danubian region, which are characterised by a high percentage of various types of abrupt retouched retouched microliths. If the similarities between the Bilolisja assemblage and those of the Balkan Tardi/Epigravettian are clear, the definition of their direct analogies is not simple. D.Ja. T ELEGIN (1982: 70) supposed that the complex of Bilolisja is related to the ‘Romanello-Azilian’ group of Romania. In effect, the geographic proximity and the tool inventory characteristics are common to Bilolisja, Cuina Turcului (P ( Păunescu, 1979) ( Păunescu, 2001: 1979) and Baile Herculane (P 135-148). The new publication of the assemblages from the two above-mentioned Romanian sites can provide further suggestions regarding the relationships between Bilolisja and the two Iron Gates sites. Both the Cuia Turcului layers are older tha Bilolisja (12,600±120 ucal ВР [Bl-803]: 13700-12200 cal BC at 2σ; 12,050±120 ucal BP [Bl-804]: 13400-11600 cal BC at 2σ; ad 10,125±200 ucal BP [Bl-802]: 10700-9200 cal BC at 2σ [Păunescu, 1979: 15; Borić, 2001: 103). They represent the last Epigravettian episodes in this territory. They yielded high number of Epigravettian tools sensu tools sensu stricto: stricto: bladelets with a straight backed side, points on bladelets with an obliquely truncated base, arched backed points and even small Gravettianlike points (P (Păunescu, 1970: 130-141; DINAN, 1996). These characteristics are badly represented in the Bilolisja collection. The occurrence of lunates, isolated trapezes with retouched short side, triangles, ‘quadrangles’ and the overall similarity of the other tool types link Bilolisja and both the Cuina Turcului levels. Thus the Bilolisja industry might represent a developed aspect of the Cuina Turcului complex. It is important to point out that none of the steppe Prichernomor’a Mesolithic investigators has ever noticed the presence of trapezes with retouched short side in the Danubian TarTardigravettian assemblages. This is the reason why the occurrence of these tools at Kaghyl’nyk and Bilolisja IV was explained as caused by the migration of the Tsarynka tradition bearers from the northeast. The systematic recurrence of this tool in the Danubian Tardigravettian inventory gives an opportunity to reject these hypotheses.
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2.2. THE EARLY MESOLITHIC SITES BUH-DNIESTER INTERFLUVIAL NIESTER INTERFLUVIAL
OF THE EASTERN PART OF THE REGION: THE SOUTHERN
Now we will turn our attention further to the east, to the steppe stripe of the southern Buh-Dniester interfluvial. No Early Mesolithic site has ever been excavated in this region. This period is represented only by surface collections, although the finds from Tsarynka Tsarynka and Gavryliv Jar can undoubtedly be assigned to this period. Furthermore there are a few more, highly questionable sites, which have been previously attributed to the Early Mesolithic.
Tsarynka Tsarynka is located on a high (100 m above the river level) isolated terrace of the right bank of the Ivashkova Balka, the right tributary of the Savranka River, River, which flows into the Southern Bug. The archaeological collection includes only surface flint finds. The test-trenches opened in 1975 failed to recover the cultural horizon of this site. The number of flint specimens consists of 3,854 pieces (table 5). Two rounded pebbles (4 and 6 cm Ø respectively) were employed as hammer-stones. They show characteristic star-shaped hit scars along their ridges. Flat cores with one or two platforms are well represented. They often have a signs of curation (fig. 8, nn. 31-33). The prismatic flat cores, with traces of cortex on their back surface, predominate. The sub-prismatic cores are few. The striking platforms are mainly oblique. Artefact types
Number
%
Chipped pebbles, core-like fragments and undetermined undetermined debris
161
4.2
Cores
73
1.9
Hammers
2
-
Flakes of rejuvenation
111
2.9
Flakes
1660
43.1
Blades
1269
32.9
Bladelets
173
4.5
Small chips and burin spalls
406
10.5
Total
3854
100.0
Table 5 - Tsarynka: technical parameters of primary flaking (after S.P. S MOL’ JANINOVA , 1990).
The flake scars are usually 3-6 cm long. The flakes are more numerous than the blades. The retouched tools are both obtained on flakes (5.0%) and blades (7.1%). The Tsarynka blades are often fragmented. The retouched implements constitute 9.3 % of the total assem blage.
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Fig. 8 - Tsarynka flint types. Trapezes with retouched short side (1-11), retouched blades (12, 15, 17), truncations (13, 14), notched blade (16), scrapers (18-26), burins (27, 29, 30), point (28) and cores (31-33).
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The scrapers represent the most numerous class. More than a quarter is on shortened blades. The scrapers on a flake are also well represented. The majority of the burins are made on the blade angle without the preparation of the burin blow platform. The burins with a retouched platform are few and atypical. There are numerous retouched blades. A small, distinctive group is represented by blades and flakes with trimming scars (adze-like tools). Tool types Scrapers End scrapers on blades End scrapers on shortened blades End scrapers on flakes circular On flakes Nosed-scrapers Nosed-scrapers On chips double Fragments of working edges Burins Angle On broken blade On truncation Dihedral On flakes Double Geometric microliths Trapezes Points Blades with oblique truncation Borers Perforators Combined tools Scrapers-burins Notched piece-point piece-point Scraper-point Notched piece-scraper piece-scraper Backed blades Blades with marginal retouch Truncated blades Notched blades blades Flakes with retouch and macrotraces of utilisation Notched flakes flakes Uncommon pieces Total
Number 152 21 36 3 3 68 2 3 8 8 39 11 10 10 5 2 1 18 18 18 12 3 3 5 2 1 1 1 11 39 7 36 73 13 9 420
% 36.2 9.2 4.3 4.3 1.2 2.6 9.2 1.7 8.6 8.6 17.4 3.1 3.1 2.2 100.0
Table 6 - Tsarynka: tool types with secondary treatment.
The main characteristic of Tsarynka is the presence of very typical trapezes with retouched short side. They are on thick, rough, irregular blades with an abrupt wide-
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facetted retouch at both edges and on the short side. The latter can be straight, although usually it is wavy or notched. The trapezes are elongated and sometimes asymmetrical (fig. 8, nn. 1-11). The trapezes are often broken or show impact traces (fig. 8, nn. 2, 4, 5, 10 and 11). The assemblage also includes oblique truncations (fig. 8, n. 13 and 14), perforators (fig. 8, nn. 17 and 28) and notched blades (fig. 8, n. 16). The general style of tool production is quite archaic; a few authors attributed the TsarynTsarynEVA, 1982: 47-48; K OROBKOVA OROBKOVA , 1989: 68). ka assemblage to the Late Palaeolithic (G RIGOR ’EVA
Gavryliv Jar The site of Gavryliv Jar can be most probably attributed to the Early Mesolithic (K REMER REMER , 1960; DVORJANINOV , 1976; STANKO, 1980: 103; S MOL’JANINOVA , 1990: 62). It was discovered on the high left bank of the Kodyma River, a right tributary of the southern Buh, 60 km southeast of Tsarynka. Tsarynka. 211 flint artefacts were collected from a surface of 30x50 m. The assemblage consists of 15 cores (fig. 9, nn. 14 and 15), 3 core-like fragments, 5 crested blades, 4 platform rejuvenation flakes, 45 flakes, 68 blades, 6 bladelets, 5 burin spalls and 36 chips and unidentifiable pieces. The tools are represented by 10 end scrapers (fig. 9, nn. 2-4 and 7-11), 2 burins, 8 retouched blades (fig. 9, nn. 5 and 6), 2 notched blades, 1 trapeze with retouched short side (fig. 9, nn. 1). 1). 2.2.1. Discussion The industries from Tsarynka and Gavryliv Jar have been interpreted in different ways in the literature. Some authors, on the basis of the flaking style attributed them to the Late Palaeolithic, although important features distinguish these sites from the latest Palaeolithic assemblages of the northwestern Pontic Area. First of all the appearance of scrapers, burins and perforators is different. More than 2/3 of the scrapers are on flakes, circular and semicircular forms included. The end scrapers are represented by short forms. The burins are not numerous and simple. The flat burin spalls are common. The microlithic tools, which are characteristic for the Epigravettian of the northern Prychornomor’a, are rare, and the micro-points absent. A particular type of microlith, the trapeze with retouched short side is typologically very distinctive and it represents the greater majority of the microliths. These trapezes are easy to distinguish from both the Late Paleolithic double truncations and the backed points. The development of the Tsarynka tradition probably took place after the end of the Epigravettian complex. The Tsarynka industry might be traced back to the period of the Borschevo II sites type industry (S TANKO, 1986: 22). This lithic industry is characterised by short scrapers on blades and flakes, oblique truncations, burins with flat burin spall facets and the absence of points on bladelets (B ORISKOVSKIJ , 1953; EFIMENKO and B ORISKOVSKIJ , 1953). The origin of the trapezes with short, retouched side might be rooted in the abrupt retouch, arched points, which are typical for the Borschevo II assemblage. The trapezes with short retouched side appeared simultaneously on vast areas of both Central and Eastern Europe, although their morphological traits are quite distinctive according to the different regions. The isosceles trapezes, which made their appearance at the end of the Late
46 -
Fig. 9 - Gavryliv Jar chipped stone industry: trapeze with a retouched short side (1), end scrapers (2-4, 7-11), side scrapers with marginal retouch (5, 6, 12 and 13) and cores (14 and 15).
Palaeolithic in Crimea and the Lower Dnieper region (Osokorivka), are different. They are obtained from wide, regular, thin blades, with or without retouched short side. They can be included i ncluded into one single typological typolog ical class together with the lunates. They are obtained with a more regular, abrupt retouch, which contrasts with that of the Tsarynka trapezes OLOSOV , 1964: 45). (K OLOSOV To sum up, the cultural processes in the northwestern Prychornomor’a around the beginnin begi nningg of o f the t he Holocene Holo cene are unique uniq ue although alth ough still stil l insuff i nsufficie iciently ntly studied. stud ied. Neverth Neve rtheles elesss their main cultural traits can be defined, and some hypotheses were proposed in order to define the directions of future investigations.
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GRIGOR ’EVA EVA, G.V. 1961 - novye daye o tardeuazskoj stojake Grebeiki v nizhem Podestrov’e [new data o the Tardeoisia site Grebeyky i the Lower Diester Regio]. Zapiski Odesskogo arheologicheskogo obschestva, 1: 226-230 (in Russian). GRIGOR ’EVA EVA, G.V. 1982 - Pozdnepaleoliticheskie pamjatniki s geometricheskimi mikrolitami na Juge Russkoj raviy [The Late Palaeolithic Palaeolithic sites with geometric microliths microliths i the south Russia Plai]. Tezisy 11 kon gressa INQUA, 3: 47-48 (in Russian). EVA, G.V. 1992 - Pozdnepaleoliticheskie pamjatniki s geometricheskimi mikrolitami v Severnom GRIGOR ’EVA Pricheromor’e [The Late Palaeolithic sites with geometric microliths i orther Prychoromor’a]. In Pіz n’o pal eol іty chn і pam ’ja tki Pіvnі Pі vnі chn ogo Prych Pr ych orn omor omo r ’a [ The Late Palaeolithic sites in northern Prychornomor’a]: Prychornomor’a ]: 11-20. Kherso (i Russia).
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MARKEVICH, V.I. 1974 - Bugo-dnestrovskaja Bugo-dnestrovskaja kul’tura kul’tura na territorii Moldavii [ Bug-Dniester Bug-Dniester Culture in the Moldova territory]. territory]. Stiita, Chisiau (i Russia). PASHKEVICH, G.A. 1981 - Dinamika rastitel’nogo pokrova Severo-Zapadnogo Prichernomor’ja v golocene, ego izmeeija pod vlijaiem cheloveka [The plat cover dyamics of orthwester Prychoromor’a i the Holocee ad its chages uder the athropogeic athropogeic ifluece]. In Antropogennye faktory faktor y v istorii razvitija sovremennyh jekosistem jekosist em [ Anthropogenic Anthropogenic factors factor s in the history hist ory of ecosystems development ]: development ]: 74-86. nauka, Moscow (in Russian).
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Păunescu, AL. 1970 - Evoluţia uneltelor uneltelor şi armelor armelor de piatră piatră cioplită descoperite pe teritoriul României . Biblioteca de Arheologie, XV. XV. Editura Academiei Republiciii Socialiste România, Bucharest Buch arest (in Romanian). Păunescu, al. 1979 - Cercetările de la Cuia Turcului-Dubova (Jud. Mehediţi). Tibiscus, Tibiscus, 5: 11-56. Timişoara Timişoara (i Romanian). Mezoliticul din Spaţiul Spaţiul Transilvan Transilvan. AGIR, Bucharest (in Romanian). Păunescu, al. 2001 - Paleoliticul şi Mezoliticul
PETROUGNE, V.F. 1971 - O geologicheskoj pozicii i obrabotaom kreme mezoliticheskoj stojaki Beloles’e [O the geological positio ad the chipped flit of the Mesolithic site Bilolisja]. Materialy po arheologii arheologii Severnogo Severnogo Prichernomorja, 7: 110-117 (in Russian). SMOL’JANINOVA S.P. 1990 - Paleolit i mezolit Stepnogo Pobuzh’ja. [The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of the steppe Pobuzh’a]. Naukova dumka, Kyiv (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1966 - Mezoliticheskaja stojaka Girzhevo v Odesskoj oblasti [The Mesolithic site Gyrzhyve i Odes sa regio]. Sovetskaja regio]. Sovetskaja arheologia , 2: 96-103 (In Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1967 - nekotorye voprosy pozdego mezolita Severogo Pricheromor’ja [Some issues of the Late Mesolithic of orther Prychoromor’a]. Zapiski Odesskogo arheologicheskogo arheologicheskogo obschestva , 2: 165-168 (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1971 - Mezolit Destro-Duajskogo mezhdurech’ja [The Mesolithic of Diester-Daube iterfluvial]. Materialy po arheologii arheologii Severnogo Severnogo Prichernomorja Prichernomorja, 3: 93-110 (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1972 - Tipy pamjatikov i lokal’ye kul’tury v mezolite Severogo Pricheromor’ja [The site types ad local cultures of the Mesolithic of orther Prychoromor’a]. Materialy i issledovnija po arheologii SSSR, 185: 252-261 (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1976 - Periodizatsija pamjatikov mezolita Severogo Pricheromor’ja [Periodisatio of the Meso lithic sites of orther Prychoromor’a]. Materialy po arheologii Severnogo Prichernomorja , 8: 15-21 (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1977 - Osnovnye osobennosti i hronologija pamjatnikov mezolita stepej Severnogo Prichernomor’ja [The mai peculiarities ad chroology or the Mesolithic sites i the steppes of orther Prychoromor’a]. Kratkie soobshenija soobshenija Instituta Arheologii Arheologii AN AN SSSR, 149: 46-53 (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1980 - Raij mezolit stepej Severogo Pricheromor’ja [The Early Mesolithic of the norther Prychoroomor’a]. I Pervobytnaja I Pervobytnaja arheologija – poiski i nahodki [The archaeology of prehistory – researches and finds]: finds]: 90-109. naukova dumka, Kyiv (i Russia). STANKO, V.N. 1982 - Mirnoe. Problema Problema mezolita stepej Severnogo Severnogo Prichernomor‘ja Prichernomor‘ja [ Myrne. Myrne. Problem Problem of the Mesolithic of northern Prychornomor’a steppes]. steppes ]. naukova dumka, Kyiv (i Russia). STANKO, V.N. V.N. 1985 19 85 - K probleme zapadnyh svjazej mezolita mezolita Severnogo Prichernomor’ja Prichernomor’ja (po materialam materialam poselenija Beloles’e) [O the problem of the wester coectios of the Mesolithic of the orther Prychoromor’a (accord ig to the Bilolisja site materials)]. I Novye Novye materia materialy ly po arheol arheologi ogiii Severo Severo-Za -Zapad padnog nogoo Prichern Prichernomo omor’ja r’ja [ New New 31-45. Naukova va dumka, dumka, Kyiv (in Russian). Russian). materials on the archaeology of northwestern Prychornomor’a]: Prychornomor’a ]: 31-45. Nauko STANKO, V.N. 1986 - K probleme slozheija grebeikovskoj kul’tury [O the problem of the Grebeyky culture ge esis]. I Issledovanija I Issledovanija po arheologii Severnogo Prichernomor’ja [The studies in northern Prychornomor’a archaeology]: archaeology ]: 13-26. naukova dumka, Kyiv (i Russia). STANKO, V.N. 1991 - Kul’turo-istoricheskij process v mezolite Severo-Zapadogo Pricheromor’ja [The cultural historical process i the Mesolithic of orthwester Prychoromor’a]. In Severo-Zapadnoe Severo-Zapadnoe Prichernomor’e – kontaktnaja zona drevnih drevnih kul’tur kul’tur [northwestern Prychornomor’a Prychornomor’a – contact zone of ancient cultures]: cultures]: 5-17. Naukova dumka, Kyiv (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. 1996 - Hozjajstvo aseleija stepej Severogo Pricheromor’ja v mezolite [The ecoomy of the popu fakul’tetu , 3: latio of the steppes of the orther Prychoromor’a i the Mesolithic]. Zapysky іstorychnogo fakul’tetu 3-14 (in Russian).
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STANKO, V.N. 2006 - The Dynamics of population forming processes in the North-Western Pontic area in the Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. In YANKO-HOMBACH, V. (ed.) Extended Abstracts of 2nd Plenary Meeting and Field Trip of Project Project IGCP-521 “Black Sea-Mediterranean Sea-Mediterranean corridor during the last 30 ky: sea level change and human adaptation (2005-2009) : 163-164. Astroprint, Odessa. STANKO, V.N., DOLUHANOV, P.M., S EFERIADES, M., S MYNTYNA, E.V., P ILIPENKO, G.P. and G OLOBORODOVA, E. 1999 Mezolit juzhoj Bessarabii [The Mesolithic of souther Bessarabia]. Zapysky іstorychnogo fakul’tetu fakul’tetu, 8: 8-67 (in Russian). STANKO, V.N., PETROUGNE, V.F. and MAKSIMJUK , T.I. 1981 - Pozdnemezoliticheskoe mestonahozhdenie kukrekskogo tipa a Juzhom Buge [The late Mesolithic site of Kukrek type of the souther Bug]. I Pamjatniki drevnih drevnih kul’tur Severo-Zapadnogo Prichernomor’ja [The ancient cultures’ sites of northwestern Prychornomor’a]: Prychornomor’a ]: 5-12. Naukova dumka, Kyiv (in Russian). STANKO, V.N. and SVEZHENCEV, JU.S. 1988 - Hronologija i periodizacija pozdnego paleolita i mezolita Severogo Pricheromor’ja [Chroology ad periodisatio of the Late Palaeolithic ad Mesolithic of orther Prycheromor’a]. Bulleten Prycheromor’a]. Bulleten Komissii Komissii po izucheniju chenvertichnogo chenvertichnogo perioda, 57: 116-120 (in Russian). telegіn, d.ja. 1982 - Mezolі tichnі pamjatki The Mesolithic ithic sites of Ukraine U kraine ]. naukova dumka, Kyiv pamjat ki Ukraini U kraini [The Mesol (in Ukrainian). telegіn, d.ja. 2002 - Іgrens’ke poselennja na Podnіprov’ji ta problema zhytlobuduvannja v mezolіtі Shіdnoji Evropy [The settlemet of Igre’ i the Dieper regio ad the issue of house buildig i the Mesolithic of Easter Europe]. Shljah, Lugas’k (i Ukraiia). ZAJTSEVA, G.I., TIMOFEEV, V.I., ZAGORSKAJA, I. and K OVALJUKH OVALJUKH, N.N. 1997 - Radiouglerodnye daty pamjatnikov mezolita Vostochoj Vostochoj Evropy [The radiocarbo dates of the Mesolithic sites i easter Europe]. Radiouglerod Radiouglerod i arheologija, 2: 117-127 (in Russian). ZalіZnyak , l.l. 1995 l.l. 1995 - Fіnal’nyj paleolіt Ukrajiny [The Final Palaeolithic of Ukraine]. Ukraine ]. Arheologіja, 1 (i Ukrai nian). Peredіstorіja Ukrajiny X-V tis. do n.e. [ Prehistory Prehistory of Ukraine X-V millennia millennia BC ]. ZalіZnyak , l.l. 1998 l.l. 1998 - Peredіstorіja ]. Bіblіoteka ukrajintsja, Kyiv (in Ukrainian).
ZalіZnyak , l.l. 2005 - Choromors’kyj potop ta jogo arheologіchі aslіdky [The Grebeyky culture as a possible cosequece of the Black Sea Flood]. Arheologіja, 3: 3-12 (in Ukrainian). ZalіZnyak , l.l. l.l. 2005a - Fіnal’nyj paleolіt і mezolіt kontynental’noji Ukrajiny. Kul’turnyj Kul’turnyj podіl ta perіodizatsіja [ Final Final Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of continental continental Ukraine. Cultural subdivisions and periodisation periodisation ]. Shljah, Kyiv (in Ukrainian). ZALIZNYAK , L L.. 2006 2006 - Grebeniky culture of Odessa region as a possible conseque nce of the Black Sea Flood. In Y ANKO-H OMBACH, V. (ed.) Extend Ext ended ed Abstr Abs tract actss of 2nd Plenar Ple naryy Meetin Mee tin g and Field Fi eld Trip of Projec Pro jectt IGCP IGC P-521 521 “Blac “B lackk Sea Sea-Me -Medit diterr err ane anean an corri cor ridor dor during dur ing the last las t 30 ky: sea level lev el cha change nge and hum human an adaptation (2005-2009) : 180-181. Astroprint, Odessa.
Authors’ addresses: VLADIMIR N. STANKO, Petro Mohyla State University for the Humanities in Mykolajiv 10, 68 Desantnykiv St. – UA - 54003 MYKOLAJIV e-mail:
[email protected] DMYTRO KIOSAK, Progetto Erasmus Mundus, Facoltà di Scienze Matematiche, Fisiche e Naturali, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Corso Porta di Mare 2 – I - 44100 FERRARA e-mail:
[email protected]
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Atti Soc. Preist. Protost. Friuli-V.G., Friuli-V.G., Trieste, XVI, 2006-2007 (2008): (2 008): 53-73
FEDERICO BERNARDINI , ANTONIO ALBERTI , GABRIELLA DEMARCHI , EMANUELA MONTAGNARI KOKELJ , FRANCESCO PRINCIVALLE and AnTOn VELUŠČEK ∗
∗∗
∗∗
∗
∗∗
∗∗∗
AN ARCHAEOMETRIC STUDY OF THE PREHISTORIC POLISHED STONE TOOLS FROM THE LJUBLJANICA RIVER (SLOVENIA)
SUMMARY – An archaeometric archaeometric study of the prehistoric prehistoric polished stone stone tools from the Ljubljanica Ljubljanica River (Slovenia) (Slovenia) . The archaeometric aalysis of 31 polished stoe tools from the Ljubljaica River ear the site of Hočevarica is presented in this article. Amongst 20 axe blades, massive sub-rectangular specimens obtained mainly from local pyroclastic rocks are the most abundant. One small triangular piece is made from jade from northwestern Italy. Italy. Four of 7 shaft-holed axes are obtained from serpentinite whose probable origin is to be sought in the Hohe Tauern area (central Austria). RIASSUNTO – Studio archeometrico degli strumenti in pietra levigata provenienti dal fiume Ljubljanica (Slovenia). Questo lavoro riguarda l’analisi archeometrica di 31 strumenti in pietra levigata provenienti dal fiume Ljubljaica presso il sito di Hočevarica. Tra le 20 lame d’ascia raccolte, gli esemplari massicci di forma subrettagolare, ottenuti da rocce locali piroclastiche, sono i più comuni. Un solo piccolo manufatto, di forma triangolare, è stato confezionato con giada proveniente dall’Italia nord occidentale. Quattro delle 7 asce forate sono di serpentinite, la cui origine è probabilmente da ricercare nell’area degli Alti Tauri in Austria centrale. Keywords: Slovenia, Ljubljanica River, Neolithic/Chalcolithic, polished stones, raw material.
INTRODUCTION A few studies have been so far conducted on the stone axes from Slovenia (B USER , 1980, 1987; LUBŠINA -TUŠEK , 1993; K AVUR AVUR , 2005), while archaeometrical analyses have been carried out only in a few cases (P ELOI, 1996-1997; D’AMICO et al .,., 2001). An international research project on the greenstone axes from Friuli-Venezia Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Slovenia and Croatia began in 2004 (M ONTAGNARI K OKELJ ., 2006), and a preliminary report has been OKELJ et al ., ___________________ ___________________
* Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, Università degli Studi di Trieste, I *** *** Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Trieste, I *** Inštitut za arheologijo, Znanstvenoraziskovalnega centra SAZU, Ljubljana, Ljubljana, SI ∗∗
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recently published (A LBERTI et al .,., 2007). The polished stone tools from the Ljubljanica River (Ljubljansko barje) have been briefly taken into consideration. The aim of this paper is to describe the typology of the tools, the results of the archaeometrical analyses, and to discuss their archaeological implications.
THE POLISHED STONES PRIVATE COLLECTION FROM THE LJUBLJANICA RIVER The assemblage is composed of 31 polished stone tools found underwater in the bed of Ljubljaica River, close to the site Hočevarica i Ljubljasko L jubljasko barje (Velušček , 2004a: 53-55) (fig. 1). They are 7 shaft-holed axes, 20 axe blades, 2 chisels, 1 whetstone and a triangular object whose function is still undefined.
TYPOLOGY Axe blades The collection comprises 13 complete tools, 5 proximal and 2 distal fragments. Most of them show common typological features: a considerable size, a squared heel, a sub-rectangular shape and an oval or, more often, rectangular transverse section (fig. 2, nn. 2-4 and 46; 3, nn. 51, 56, 57 and 59). The hammer n. 55 is probably obtained from a broken axe blade (fig. 3). The shape of the axes of this group does not find analogies with that of the polished stone tools from northern Italy. In this latter region rectangular axes make their appearance since the Chalcolithic, probably probably in connection connection with new handling systems (D E MARINIS, 1996: 176). They are always smaller than those from Ljubljanica, which, on the other hand, can be compared with some Slovenian finds (L UBŠINA -TUŠEK , 1993: 136: pl. 5, fig. 17; 158: pl. 27, fig. 4). Two small axes Two wo blades blades have peculiar shapes and very small dimensions, which contrast with the characteristics of other tools. One has a flat triangular body with a curved, asymmetrical cutting-edge, lateral distinct sides and a sub-rectangular transverse section (fig. 2, n. 7). The surfaces are finely polished except for the lateral sides, which are covered with dense hammering traces. The cutting-edge is sharp and does not show traces of use-wear; only a small fracture, 11 mm long, is visible. The other axe blade has a flat, trapezoidal body with a curved cutting-edge damaged by use fractures, distinct lateral sides, and a rectangular transverse section (fig. 3, unnumbered). The surfaces are well-polished. The first specimen finds parallels in the polished polished stone industries of northern Italy, Italy, which are often obtained from HP metaophiolites from the western Alps (D’A MICO et al .,., 2004; D’AMICO, 2005; D’AMICO and STARNINI, 2006; for Friuli-Venezia Giulia see D’A MICO et al .,., 1997; PESSINA and D’AMICO, 1999). The second shows an uncommon shape, which probably is due to the re-utilisation of a broken tool. Two more tools are difficult to define. Number 15 is a carbonatic rock flake with very weathered surfaces (fig. 2). For this reason it is impossible to recognise any technological
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Fig. 1 - Discovery location of the tools and archaeological sites mentioned in the text (drawing by M. Belak ). ).
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trace. It is supposed not to be a tool. Number 44 (fig. 2) has a flat sub-trapezoidal body with distinct edges; the cutting-edge is not sharp and its profile rounded.
Chisels Are represented by only 2 tools (fig. 2, n. 45; 3, n. 54). Number 45 has a sub-rectangular massive body with a tapering distal part, an oval transverse section and a squared heel. The cutting-edge is rectilinear and short, with use notches. The distal edge is well polished, while the other surfaces are covered with hammering traces, except for the heel, which shows a glossy surface perhaps due to its utilisation or handling. The chisel n. 54 (fig. 3) is characterised by a sub-trapezoidal massive body tapering from the heel to the cutting edge, 25 mm long and curved; the heel is sub-rectilinear and the transverse section flat-convex. The surfaces are well polished. Although the chisels morphology is different from that of the other tools, their dimension and raw material recall the main group of axe blades. Shaft-holed axes This group comprises 7 tools (fig. 4). Two show a narrow, biconvex shape in frontal view and a sub-rectangular shape in lateral one. The cutting-edge is curved, when preserved; the hole is located at the proximal edge of the axe. All the surfaces are very finely polished; polishing stripes in various directions directions are visible (fig. 4, nn. 9 and 12). The working process is very accurate. The fragmented axe n. 11 (fig. 4) might be a part of a similar tool, although it is somewhat larger than nn. 9 and 12. This morphology does not recall that of the shaft-holed axes from Friuli-Venezia Friuli-Venezia Giulia collections (P ( PELOI, 1996-1997: 124 and 125). A similar tool, probably made from serpentinite, was found near Töplitsch in Carinthia (P ICCOTTINI, 1977: 291; VAHLKAMPF , 1979: 7-8, fig. 1; VON USLAR , 1991: 251). The other shaft-holed axes show a considerable morphological variety. Number 1 is complete: in frontal view it shows a bi-convex shape, a flat tapering heel, a symmetric biconvex cutting edge and a medial perforation; in lateral view its shape is sub-rectangular with a curved cutting edge and a squared heel with blunt angles. Its transverse section is sub-rectangular (fig. 4). The surfaces are polished with hammering traces not completely erased by the polishing process. The tool n. 5 is a distal fragment (fig. 4) whose original shape cannot be identified. In frontal view it shows curved lateral surfaces and a symmetric biconvex cutting edge, curved in lateral view. The transverse section is sub-rectangular. All the surfaces are very finely polished, and polishing stripes are not visible at a macroscopic level. In frontal view the body of axe n. 8 (fig. 4) is sub-triangular with an irregular heel, curved lateral surfaces and a flat symmetric cutting edge; the transverse section was probably sub-rectangular. The shapes of these shaft-holed axes do not have precise parallels in the stone artefacts from other localities. The triangular body of axe n. 8 is very common both in Friuli-Venezia Friuli-Venezia Giulia (D’AMICO et al .,., 1996: figs. 153-155) and Slovenia (L UBŠINA -TUŠEK , 1993). The narrow biconvex body with a central hole of axe n. 1 is not frequent in the axes from north-eastern Italy (D’AMICO et al .,., 1996: figs. 153-155). Number 14 (fig. 4) might be an unfinished shaft-holed axe, but this interpretation is uncertain. It is a triangular implement with a small shaft hole near its narrow edge; the transverse section is sub-rectangular. All the surfaces are covered with fine and dense hammering traces and are unpolished. The largest (cutting) edge shows a rounded profile.
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3 cm
Fig. 2 - Axe blades and chisels from the Ljubljanica River (drawings by T. Korošec).
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3 cm
Fig. 3 - Axe blades and chisels from the Ljubljanica River ( drawings by T. Korošec ).
Other tools The collection comprises a pierced whetstone with a small bi-pyramidal hole (fig. 5, n. 13). Another specimen has a triangular shape, with small notches in the central part of the edges (fig. 5, n. 60). It might be a weight.
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3 cm
Fig. 4 - Shaft-holed axes from the Ljubljanica River (drawings by T. Korošec).
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Fig. 5 - Triangular object and whetstone from the Ljubljanica River (drawings by T. Korošec).
R AW MATERIALS AND POSSIBLE PROVENANCES Analytical methods All the 31 tools have been studied by non-destructive stereo-microscopic method. Furthermore, a test with 10% solution of hydrochloric acid has been performed on 3 tools. 21 specimens have been analysed also through optical polarized-light microscopy (OM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) to define their mineralogical and petrographic features. The surface of axes number 7 and 9 has been studied by XRD without taking any powder: this method is adequate if the rocks are homogeneous and fine-grained. The identification of the tools analysed only at the stereomicroscope has been possible by comparison with the analysed tools. Results The lithological composition of the Ljubljanica collection and the analytical methods are summarised in table 1 below. below. The small axe blade n. 7 is from jade, a raw material available in northwestern Italy, Italy, as several studies have demonstrated (D’A MICO et al .,., 2004; D’AMICO, 2005; D’AMICO and STARNINI, 2006; PÉTREQUIN et al .,., 2005; 2007). Most of the polished stone tools (19 out of 31) were obtained from tuffitic and pyroclastic rocks. The petrographic features (see table 2) show some relationships. Close similarities have been observed between axes 48 and 49, 52 and 60, 54 and 55. This lithology sensu lithology sensu latu, latu, which is present in some 2% of the Slovenian territory, outcrops in the northern part of the country between Kranj and Celje (K OMAC OMAC , 2005: fig. 2). The pyroclastic rocks occur in the middle Triassic formations. According to some authors they are associated with spilite and keratophire lithologies (M (Mioč and Ž nidarčič, 1983; PREMRU, 1983; DOZET, 2003: 675-677), or in Tertiary deposits known as Smerkovac Tertiary (H ANFLAND et al .,., 2004). Axe n. 57 is obtained from a spilite with a hyaloophitic texture. Sericitized 1 to 2 mm-sized plagioclase laths are set in an altered groundmass of palagonite full of small opaque specks, with a few highly oxidized mafic minerals (probably pyroxenes). Axe n. 59 is from an altered, pervasively oxidized keratophyre with a porphyritic texture (porphyricity index around 10) with 1 to 2 mmsized feldspar phenocrysts masked by sericite aggregates, set in a fine-grained heterogeneous,
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Sample
Typology
Rock name
Provenance
Analytical methods
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 59 60 (unnum bered)
shaft hole axe axe blade axe blade axe blade shaft hole axe axe blade axe blade shaft hole axe shaft hole axe shaft hole axe shaft hole axe whetstone shaft hole axe ? axe blade ? axe blade ? chisel axe axe blade axe blade axe blade axe blade axe blade axe blade axe blade axe blade chisel axe hammer axe blade axe blade axe blade weight ?
carbonatic rock pyroclastic rock fine tuff pyroclastic rock fine tuff ash tuff jade serpentinite serpentinite serpentinite serpentinite tuffaceous mudstone carbonatic rock carbonatic rock ash tuff pyroclastic rock pyroclastic rock serpentinite tuffaceous sandstone coarse crystal–lithic tuff tuffaceous sandstone pyroclastic rock coarse crystal tuff tuffaceous mudstone coarse tuff coarse tuff tuffaceous sandstone altered spilite keratophyre tuffaceous sandstone
neighbouring areas neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) north-western Italy Hohe Tauern (Austria)? Hohe Tauern (Austria)? Hohe Tauern (Austria)? Hohe Tauern (Austria)? neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas neighbouring areas neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) Hohe Tauern (Austria)? neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia) neighbouring areas (northern Slovenia)
stereomicroscopy; acid test stereomicroscopy OM; XRD stereomicroscopy OM; XRD OM; XRD XRD on surface OM; XRD XRD on surface OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD stereomicroscopy; acid test stereomicroscopy; acid test OM; XRD stereomicroscopy stereomicroscopy OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD stereomicroscopy OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD OM; XRD
axe blade
serpentinite
Hohe Tauern (Austria)?
OM; XRD
Table 1 - Lithological composition and possible sources of the Ljubljanica River tools.
devitrified and altered, blotched groundmass full of Fe-hydroxides in irregular streaks and spots, with few opaque specks arranged along a barely distinguishable flowage banding . It is noteworthy that all these rocks are also found in the alluvial deposits of the Sava River close to Ljubljansko barje. Some 20 pebbles were collected from the Sava River near Ljubljana and analysed through optical microscopy, showing similarities with the pyroclastic rocks used for the axes. Therefore, also the Sava alluvial deposits might represent raw material sources for the Ljubljanica axes made from pyroclastic rocks, spilites, and keratophyres. Regarding the serpentinites, a comparative procedure has been adopted to identify their provenance area, following the approach used by other scholars (M AJEROWICZ et al .,., 2000; SKOCZYLAS et al .,., 2000). First, the petrographic features of the Ljubljanica serpentinite tools have been compared with the serpentinite implements from the archaeological sites in northeastern Italy (D’A MICO et al .,., 1997: 419; 2001) and Istria (Croatia). They all are composed of fine to medium-grained antigorite, antigorite, various amounts of magnetite in irregular aggregates or local nets, and frequent clinopyroxenes relics variably replaced by tremolite and antigorite. Second the serpentinite geological samples collected from the outcrops in northeastern Slovenia (Pohorje area; VRABEC et al .,., 2007), Burgenland (eastern Austria, close to the border
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OLLER , 1985), Styria and the Hohe Tauern (central Austria; with Hungary; ERVEN, 1972; K OLLER MELCHER et al .,., 2002; MELCHER and and MEISEL, 2004) have been considered. Both the mineralogical and petrographic features of the Ljubljanica serpentinite axes are markedly different from those sampled from the outcrops of the Slovenska Bistrica Ultramafic Complex (SBUC), in the southeastern region of the Pohorje Mountains. The Metaultrabasites of this district constitute a small body some 5x1 km in size composed of serpentinized harzburgites, with local lenses or pods of garnet lherzolites (JANAK et al .,., 2004: 2; 2006: 20-21; S ASSI et al .,., 2004: 237; VRABEC et al .,., 2007). 2007). Thus we can exclude the Pohorje rocks as a source area. The preliminary study of the serpentinites collected from other localities in the Eastern Alps, and the bibliographic data, show that the Ljubljanica tools are similar to the rocks that outcrop in the Hohe Tauern, Tauern, in particular to some serpentinites from the Blauspitze Mountains near Kals in the Matrei Zone (eastern Tyrol), and from the upper Möll Valley, south of Heiligenblut (Carinthia). The metaultrabasites from the Matrei Zone are transformed into antigorite ser pentinites characterised by interpenetrating and mesh textures. The primary cpx is replaced by aggregates of tremolite, chlorite and carbonate; metamorphic diopside has also been observed (MELCHER et al .,., 2002: 98). Therefore the latter localities can be considered possible candidates as source areas for the Ljubljanica artefacts.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The polished stone implements from the Ljubljanica River cannot be undoubtedly referred to one archaeological context. However, the morphological and lithological homogeneity of some shaft-holed axes, and of the main group of sub-rectangular axe blades suggests that the tools have not been transported by water from a distant place. It seems likely to relate some of the specimes to Hočevarica pile dwellig, located very close to their fidig place. In spite of the contextual problems, the collection indicates a wide exploitation of local raw materials and only a sporadic presence of long-distance, imported tools. Only one jade axe of Italian provenance is present, while the most common sub-rectangular axe blades are mainly made from pyroclastic rocks from central-northern Slovenia. Table 3 below summarizes all the discoveries of HP metaophiolite tools - mainly axe blades - from Friuli-Venezia Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Slovenia and Croatia. The HP metaophiolite axe distribution is incomplete; nevertheless it allows some preliminary considerations. In the Neolithic sites of northern Italy, the HP metaophiolite tools represent some 90% of the total assemblages, while in the Alpine valleys and the northeastern regions their percentage decreases to some 60-70% (D’A MICO et al .,., 2004; D’AMICO, 2005: 236; D’AMICO and STARNINI, 2006: 264). A first analysis of the blades from the Trieste Karst shows the presence of HP metaophiolites axes, although the utilization of other raw materials and the presence of other tool types, as for instance chisel axes, are also documented. These are only general and preliminary indications, which will be tested in future studies. The present-day literature lists some 20 axes mainly from caves or rock-shelters (M ONTAGNARI K OKELJ OKELJ, 2001). The data collected from the northeastern Adriatic coastal regions show a widespread, although not quantitatively significant presence of HP metaophiolite tools. They seem to con-
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N. of tools
Site name
Site type
Valer (PN, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
open-air settlement
1
Cormons (GO, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
surface find
1
Marano (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
surface find
1
Muzzana del Turgnano (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
surface find
22
Pavia di Udine (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
open-air settlement
1
Piancada di Palazzolo dello Stella (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
surface find
5
Precenicco (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
surface find
5
Sammardenchia (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
open-air settlement
Grotta Aurisina (TS, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
cave site
1
Grotta delle Gallerie (TS, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
cave site
1
Grotta delle Porte di Ferro (TS, Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
cave site
1
surface find find
2
Losnati (island of Cres, Croatia)
surface find
2
Velj Losjnj (island of Losjnj, Croatia)
surface find
1
Vrbnik (island of Krk, Croatia)
surface find
2
Island of Krk (Croatia)
surface find ?
5
Ražanac (Zadar, Croatia)
open-air settlement
2
Split (Croatia)
surface find ?
1
Markova cave (island of Hvar, Croatia)
cave site
1
Nakovana (Croatia)
surface find find ?
1
Island of Korčula (Croatia) Staro Čiče (Croatia)
surface find ?
3
open-air settlement
1
Ljublianica River (Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia)
surface find
1
Stare gmajne ( Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia)
pile dwelling settlement
1
Deschmann pi pile-dwellings (L (Ljubljansko ba barje, Sl Slovenia)
pile dw dwelling se settlement
2
Novigrad (Istrian peninsula, peninsula, Croatia) Croatia)
177
Table 3 - Polished stone tools made from HP metaophiolites from Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Slovenia and Croatia (only scientific identifications are listed except for the data from Petrić, 1995 and PESSINA et al .,., 2006, based on macroscopic observation). Data sources: Valer (D’AMICO and STARNINI, 2006); Cormons (PESSINA et al .,., 2006; PÉTREQUIN, pers. comm.); Marano, Muzzana del Turgnano, Pavia di Udine, Piancada di Palazzolo dello Stella, Precenicco (PESSINA et al .,., 2006); Sammardenchia (D’AMICO et al .,., 1997; PESSINA and D’AMICO, 1999); Grotta Aurisina, Grotta delle Gallerie, Grotta delle Porte di Ferro (unpublished); Novigrad, Loznati, Veli Lošinj, Vrbnik (A LBERTI et al .,., 2007); Islad of Krk, Ražaac, Split, Markova spilja, nakovaa, Islad of Korčula ( Petrić, 1995); Staro Čiče (Burić, 2000); Ljubljanica River (ALBERTI et al .,., 2007); Stare gmajne (unpublished); Deschmann pile-dwellings (PELOI, 1996-1997; D’AMICO, 2005).
firm the existence of relationships between northern Italy and the eastern Adriatic Adriatic coast during the Neolithic. The archaeological data so far available suggest that the HP metaophiolite ground tools reached the northeastern Adriatic coast for the first time during the development of the Danilo/Vlaška Culture. It is probable that polished tools of Italian origin reached the Croatian coastline in the following period, as suggested by a small jade chisel from Loznati (Cres Island), which is a typical Square Mouthed Pottery Culture implement (A LBERTI et al .,., 2007). The relationships between northern Italy and central Slovenia, only 100 km from the Friuli plain, look quite different. At present, only 4 small axe blades made from HP metaophi-
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olites are known in Slovenia, 2 of which from the Deschmann pile-dwellings (K OROŠEC and OROŠEC, 1969: pl. 76, figs. 11, 15; P ELOI, 1996-1997: 304; D’A MICO, 2005: 247), 1 from K OROŠEC Stare gmajne (V (Velušček , 2004b: 77) and 1 from the Ljubljanica River (fig. 1, n. 7). The number of HP metaophiolite axe blades in Slovenia might increase if the polished stone tools from Čatež-Sredo polje will be aalysed; amog the stoe axes there are a few small blades made from imported raw material (K AVUR AVUR , 2005: 131-144). The axe from Stare gmajne, dated th to the second half of the 4 millennium cal BC (Vera-2561: 4530±35 uncal BP, 3360-3090 cal BC at 2σ: see also Velušček , 2004b: 77), provides us with the only reliable chronological information. Regarding the shaft-holed axes, those in the Ljubljanica collection are mostly made from serpentinites. serpentinites. From a lithological point of view these specimens show some affinities with the shaft-holed axes from Friuli-Venezia Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Istria. Istria. Shaft-holed axes made from serpentinite and metaultramafite are very numerous in Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Ljubljansko barje (fig. 6), while meta-amphibolic gabbro is the commonest lithology in the Istrian Peninsula (D’AMICO et al .,., 2001; ALBERTI et al .,., 2007). The archaeometric data currently available show that the serpentinite axes in northern and eastern Croatia are not as frequent as the tools obtained from other metamorphic or magmatic rocks (B ALEN et al .,., 2002; ŠIMEK et al .,., 2002). Serpentinite shaft-holed axes come from sites attributed to a long period spanning from the Neolithic (for instance, the shaft-holed axe SAM306 from layer 4, structure 153 at Sammardenchia: PESSINA and D’AMICO, 1999: 56, fig. 29) to late prehistory (for instance, some shaft-holed axes from the Deschmann pile-dwellings: K OROŠEC OROŠEC and K OROŠEC OROŠEC, 1969; PELOI, 1996-1997). The preliminary petrographic studies of the serpentinite outcrops in the Eastern Alps carcarried out by the present authors suggest that the most probable source areas of the Ljubljanica serpentinite artefacts lie in the Hohe Tauern zone of central Austria and their related secondary deposits. Besides the petrographic evidence, this hypothesis is also supported by the following archaeological data: a) the distribution of the shaft-holed axes in the Caput the Caput Adriae: Adriae: the percentage of serpentinite shaft-holed axes is very high (almost 60%) in Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Ljubljansko barje, while it decreases to some 20% towards the south in the Istria peninsula (D’A MICO et al .,., 2001; ALBERTI et al .,., 2007; fig. 6); b) 6); b) the relationships between Hočevarica ad souther Austria (Carithia ad souther Styria) are demostrated by the common presence of ceramics attributed to the HKBV horizon (V ( Velušček , 2004a: 258-259); c) 2 shaft hole axes and 18 cores resulting from piercing, come from Kanzianiberg, very close to the Hohe Tauern Tauern serpentinite primary occurrences; suggesting a production of axes for external exchanges (P EDROTTI 1990: 221); d) the axes n. 9 and n. 12 are very similar to a serpentinite specimen found near Töplitsch in Carinthia (P ICCOTTINI, 1977: 291; VAHLKAMPF , 1979: 7-8, fig. 1; VON USLAR , 1991: 251). To conclude: it can be stated that the lithological assemblage of the Ljubljanica collection is mainly from local or north Slovenian sources (pyroclastic and tuffitic rocks some 60%, carbonatic rocks around 10% and a small percentage of spilitic/keratophyric rocks), with a rather high percentage (some 20%) of serpentinite implements, whose source is probably to be sought in the Hohe Tauern area of central Austria. Austria. The collection includes only one jade axe. axe. Therefore this assemblage seems very different from the northern Italian polished
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Fig. 6 - Serpentinite shaft-holed axes in the Caput Adriae (only scientific identifications are considered). 1: S. Tomè (PN, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ9514; 2: Meduno, (PN, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ250607; 3: Gradisca di Provesano (PN, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ221855; 4: S. Eliseo di Caporiacco (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ223078; 5-22: Sammardenchia (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), nn. AQ225152, AQ223082; AQ225170, SAM6, SAM82/1, SAM90, SAM143, SAM148, SAM211-SAM213, SAM216, SAM301, SAM306, SAM315; Pozzuolo del Friuli (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia) nn. AQ220591, AQ116005, AQ223080; 23: Pavia di Udine (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ225151; 24: Castions di Strada (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. 232515; 25: S. Stefano Aquileiese (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ455715; 26: Novacco (UD, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. AQ331243; 2728: Mossa (GO, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. 1325, no number; 29: Nova Gorica (western Slovenia), no number; 30: Opicina (TS, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), no number; 31: Montedoro (TS, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. TS2280; 32: Grotta Sottomonte (TS, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), n. TS25785; 33: S. Ivan pod Sterne (Istria, Croatia), n. P-194; 34: Sandaya (Istrian peninsula, Croatia), P-15059; 35-36: Istria (Croatia), nn. P-12, P-14; 37-40: Ljubljanica (Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia), nn. 8-9, 11-12; 41-50: Deschmann pile-dwellings (Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia), nn. B45, B46, B48, B50, B52, B54, B56, B59, B60, B62. Data sources: Castions di Strada, Grotta Sottomonte, Meduno, Montedoro, Pavia di Udine, Pozzuolo del Friuli nn. AQ220591, AQ116005, Sammardenchia n. AQ225152, S. Eliseo di Caporiacco, S. Stefano Aquileiese, S. Tomè (D’AMICO et al .,., 1996); Sammardenchia all the SAM samples (D’AMICO et al., 1997; PESSINA and D’AMICO, 1999); Gradisca di Provesano, Novacco, Novacco , Mossa, Pozzuolo del Friuli n. AQ223080, Sammardenchia Sammard enchia nn. AQ223082; AQ225170 (D’AMICO unpublished data); Deschmann pile dwellings (PELOI, 1996-1997); Istrian Peninsula, Nova Gorica, Opicina, Sandaya, S. Ivan pod Sterne (ALBERTI et al .,., 2007).
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tool collections, which are largely dominated by HP metaophiolites of northwestern Italian sources (D’AMICO et al .,., 2004). CATALOGUE n. 1: shaft-holed axe (fig. 4, n. 1). In frontal view it shows a bi-convex shape, a flat tapering heel, a symmetric biconvex cutting edge and a medial perforation; in lateral view its shape is sub-rectangular with a curved cutting edge and a squared heel with blunt angles. Its transverse section is sub-rectangular. The surfaces are polished with hammering traces not completely eliminated by the polishing process. Length: 98 mm; width: 41 mm; thickness: 32 mm. n. 2: axe blade (fig. 2, n. 2). It has a sub-rectangular massive body with a narrowing squared heel; an inclined cutting edge with small use (?) fractures and a sub-rectangular transverse section. All the surfaces are well polished. Length: Length: 131 131 mm; width: 58 mm; thickness: thickness: 31 mm. n. 3: axe blade (fig. 2, n. 3). It has a sub-trapezoidal body with a rectilinear heel, scarcely distinct sides, an inclined, curved cutting edge and a sub-rectangular transverse section. The surfaces are polished but in same areas there are small concave roughnesses, not eliminated by polishing. Length: 134 mm; width: 49 mm; thickness: 25 mm. n. 4: axe blade (fig. 2, n. 4). It has a massive sub-rectangular body with a rounded heel, convex sides, and a curved cutting edge with small use (?) fractures. Only the cutting edge is well polished, while the other surfaces are covered with hammering traces. Length: 134 mm; width: 57 mm; thickness: 30 mm. n. 5: shaft-holed axe, distal fragment (fig. 4, n. 5). Its original shape is impossible to reconstruct. In frontal view it shows curved lateral surfaces and a symmetric biconvex cutting edge, curved in the lateral view. The transverse section is subrectangular. All the surfaces are very finely polished and there are no polishing stripes visible at macroscopic level. Length: (78) mm; width: 39 mm; thickness: 38 mm. n. 6: axe blade, proximal fragment (fig. 2, n. 6). The body shape was probably sub-rectangular. The sides are convex, the heel is a bit rounded, and the transverse section is oval. The surfaces are polished, with hammering traces still visible on the sides. Length: (60) mm; width: 50 mm; thickness: 28 mm. n. 7: axe blade (fig. 2, n. 7). It has a flat, triangular body with a curved asymmetrical cutting edge, distinct sides and a subrectangular transverse section. The surfaces are finely polished except for the lateral sides covered with dense hammering traces. The cutting edge is sharp and does not show wear traces; only a small fracture, 11 mm long, is visible. Length: 81 mm; width: 41 mm; thickness: 17 mm. n. 8: shaft-holed axe, fragment (fig. 4, n. 8). In frontal view the body is sub-triangular with an irregular heel, curved lateral surfaces and a flat symmetric cutting edge; the transverse section was probably sub-rectangular. The preserved surfaces show a medium-fine polishing with macroscopic multidirectional smoothing stripes except near the cutting edge, where they are transversal; hammering traces are absent. It is not possible
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to recognise technological traces on the heel because of thick use traces. Length: 72 mm; width: 44 mm; thickness: (24) mm.
n. 9: shaft-holed axe (fig. 4, n. 9). It has a narrow biconvex shape in frontal view and a sub-rectangular sub-rectangula r shape in the lateral one. The cutting edge is curved; the hole is located in the proximal part of the axe. All the surfaces are very finely polished and polishing stripes in various directions are visible. Length: 125 mm; width: 22 mm; thickness: 56 mm. n. 11: proximal fragment of a serpentinite shaft-holed axe (fig. 4, n. 11). It is too small to reconstruct its original shape. It was probably similar to that of axes 9 and 12. The preserved surfaces are well polished. Length: (60) mm; width: 34 mm; thickness: (27) mm. n. 12: shaft-holed axe, distal fragment (fig. 4, n. 12). It has a narrow biconvex shape in frontal view, and a sub-rectangular shape in the lateral one. The cutting edge was probably curved; the hole is located in the proximal part of the axe. All the surfaces are very finely polished and polishing stripes in various directions are visible. Length: (78) mm; width: 27 mm; thickness: 55 mm. n. 13: whetstone (?), fragment (fig. 5, n. 13). It has a bi-pyramidal hole and its body has a rectangular transverse section and distinct sides. Its frontal surfaces are very polished while the sides are quite rough. Length: (60) mm; width: 37 mm; thickness: 21 mm. n. 14: unfinished shaft-holed axe (?) made from carbonatic rock (fig. 4, n. 14). It is of triangular shape with a small shaft-holed located near its narrow extremity; the transverse section is sub-rectangular. All the surfaces are covered with fine and dense hammering traces and are not polished. The largest extremity (in the position of the cutting edge) shows a rounded profile. Length: Length: 141 mm; width: 35 mm; mm; thickness: thickness: 69 mm. n. 15: axe blade (?) (fig. 2, n. 15). It shows an irregular shape with a rectilinear heel and an inclined, curved cutting edge. The surfaces might have been weathered by dissolution processes. Length: 73 mm; width: 42 mm; thickness: 22 mm. n. 44: unfinished axe blade (?) (fig. 2, n. 44). It has a flattened sub-trapezoidal body with distinct sides, an inclined curved cutting edge and a curved hell. Length: 103 mm; width: 40 mm; thickness: 12 mm. n. 45: chisel axe (fig. 2, n. 45). It has a massive sub-rectangular sub-rectangular body with a squared heel, a narrowing distal part with a short and rectilinear cutting edge with use fractures and an oval transverse section. The cutting edge is well polished while the axe body is covered with an accurate hammering. Also the heel is polished, polished, perhaps for reasons connected to the handling or to the use of the tool. Length: 139 mm; width: 58 mm; thickness: 35 mm. n. 46: axe blade (fig. 2, n. 46). It has a massive rectangular body with a squared heel, sub-rectangular transverse section and an inclined curved cutting edge with use fractures. The sides are distinct and all the surfaces are polished, particularly particularly the area near the cutting edge. Length: 112 112 mm; width: 50 mm; thickness: 28 mm.
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n. 47: axe blade, distal fragment (fig. 2, n. 47). The original shape was probably sub-rectangular; sub-rectangul ar; the cutting edge is curved and the transverse section is planar-convex. The surfaces are well polished in the distal parte near the cutting edge, while in the middle part of the body hammering traces are visible. Length: (56) mm; width: 55 mm; thickness: 22 mm. n. 48: axe blade, proximal fragment (fig. 2, n. 48). It shows a massive body, which probably was sub-rectangular; the transverse section is oval and the heel is squared with blunt angles. The surfaces are polished with hammering traces. Length: (100) mm; width: 59 mm; thickness: 37 mm. n. 49: axe blade, proximal fragment (fig. 2: n. 49). The body is massive with distinct sides and a sub-rectangular transverse section; the shape probably was sub-rectangular. The surfaces are weathered and it is difficult to identify technological traces. However it seems that it was well polished, as indicated by some small preserved areas. Length: (85) mm; width: 62 mm; thickness: 31 mm. n. 50: axe blade, proximal fragment (fig. 2, n. 50). The body is massive with distinct sides, a rectilinear heel and a sub-rectangular transverse section. The shape was probably sub-rectangular or sub-trapezoidal. The surfaces are very weathered. Length: (74) mm; width: 61 mm; thickness: 25 mm. n. 51: axe blade (fig. 3, n. 51). It shows a massive rectangular body with a rectilinear heel with blunt angles, convex edges, a bit curved cutting edge and an oval transverse section. The surfaces are well polished. Length: 101 mm; width: 44 mm; thickness; 29 mm. n. 52: axe blade, proximal fragment (fig. 3, n. 52). Its body was probably sub-rectangular. It has an oval transverse section, distinct edges and a slightly curved heel. The width of the body rises from the heel to the distal part. The surfaces are well polished, in particular the heel. Length: (71) mm; width: 42 mm; thickness: 22 mm. n. 53: axe blade, distal fragment (fig. 3, n. 53). The body was probably sub-rectangular. It shows distinct sides, an inclined curved cutting edge with use fractures, and an oval transverse section. The surfaces are finely polished although some hammering traces are visible, mainly in the central and in the proximal parts. Length: (65) mm; width: 58 mm; thickness: 26 mm. n. 54: chisel axe (fig. 3, n. 54). It has a massive sub-trapezoidal body whose width decreases from the heel to the cutting edge. The cutting edge is 25 cm long and slightly curved; the heel is sub-rectilinear, the transverse section is planar-convex. The surfaces are well polished except in one area of the flat, frontal surface. Length: 128 mm; width: 52 mm; thickness: 29 mm. n. 55: coarse tuff hammer (?) made from a recycled axe blade (fig. 3, n. 55). It shows a rectangular body with a slightly curved heel, a sub-rectilinear distal edge, distinct sides and a sub-rectangular transverse section. Polishing is visible mainly on the heel; hammering traces are present in the medial and distal parts. The surfaces are heavily weathered so that it is not possible to describe technological traces in detail. Length: 99 mm; width: 53 mm; thickness: 29 mm. n. 56: axe blade (fig. 3, n. 56). It has a sub-rectangular massive body with a squared heel, a sub-rectilinear cutting edge with
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use fractures, slightly rounded sides and a sub-rectangular transverse section. The surfaces are polished although although they still present present some roughness. roughness. Length: 130 mm; width: width: 59 mm; thickness: 30 mm.
n. 57: axe blade (fig. 3, n. 57). It has a massive sub-trapezoidal body with a rounded heel, a semicircular cutting edge with use fractures, distinct sides and a sub-trapezoidal transverse section. The axe width rises from the heel to the cutting edge. All the surfaces are well polished. Length: 112 mm; width: 53 mm; thickness: 26 mm. n. 59: axe blade (fig. 3, n. 59). It shows a sub-rectangular body with a rectilinear heel, a semicircular cutting edge, convex lateral edges and a flat oval transverse section. The surfaces are not polished but covered with a uniform hammering. Length: 111 mm; width: 47 mm; thickness: 26 mm. n. 60: weight (?) (fig. 5, n. 60). It has a triangular shape with slightly concave sides. In the central part of the sides there are, at least in one case, 10 mm wide notches. The surfaces are covered with hammering traces. Length: 67 mm; thickness: 21 mm. unnumbered: axe blade (fig. 3, unnumbered). It has a small and flat trapezoidal body with a curved cutting edge with use fractures, distinct sides and a rectangular transverse section. The surfaces are well polished; polishing stripes in various directions are visible. Length: 51 mm; width: 44 mm; thickness: 13 mm. Acknowledgements The authors are very grateful to Professors P. Biagi and C. D’Amico for the critical review of the manuscript. Thanks are also due to L. Furlan, technician of the Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Trieste University, for the preparation of the samples.
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JANAK , M., F ROITZHEIM, N., VRABEC, M., K ROGH ROGH R AVNA AVNA, E.J. and D E H OOG, J.C.M. 2006 - Ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism and exhumation of garnet peridotite in Pohorje, Eastern Alps. Journal of Metamorphic Geology , 24: 19-31. Oxford. K AVUR poljedelci. Savska Savska skupiAVUR , B. 2005 - Kamita orodja a ajdišču Čatež-Sredo Polje. I GUŠTIN, M. (ed.) Prvi poljedelci. na lengyelske kulture . Annales Mediterranea: 131-144. Koper. K OLLER Geologischen OLLER , F. 1985 - Petrologie und Geochemie des Penninikums am Alpenostrand. Jahrbuch der Geologischen Bundesanstalt , 128: 83-150. Wien. K OMAC OMAC, M. 2005 - Statistics of the Geological Map of Slovenia at Scale 1 : 250.000. Geologija, 48 (1): 117-126. Ljubljana. K OROŠEC OROŠEC, P. and K OROŠEC OROŠEC, J. 1969 - Najdbe s koliščarskih koliščarskih naselbin pri Igu Igu na Ljubljanskem Ljubljanskem barju. Arheološki katalogi Slovenije, 3. Ljubljana. LUBŠINA-TUŠEK , M. 1993 - Kamnito orodje v severovzhodni Sloveniji. Ptujski Arheološki Zbornik (ob (ob 100-letnici Muzeja in Muzejskega Društva): 31-158. Ptuj. MAJEROWICZ, A., WOJCIK , A., GUNIA, P. and CHOLEWA, P. 2000 - Comparative study of serpentinite textures and rock materials of Neolithic artefacts from Lower Silesia (SW Poland). Kristalinikum, 26: 111-117. Brno. MELCHER , F. and MEISEL, T. T. 2004 - A Metamorphosed Metamorphosed Early Cambrian Crust-Mantle Transition in the Eastern Alps, Austria. Journal of Petrology Petrology, 45 (8): 1689-1723. Oxford. MELCHER , F., MEISEL, T., PUHL, J. and K OLLER OLLER , F. 2002 - Petrogenesis and geotectonic setting of ultramafic rocks in the Eastern Alps: constraints from geochemistry. Lithos, 65: 69-112. Amsterdam. Mioč, P. P. and Ž nidarčič, M. 1983 M. 1983 - Osnovna geološka karta SFRJ, Ravne na Koroškem L 33-54, 1:100000 . Zvezni geološki zavod, Beograd. MONTAGNARI K OKELJ p ost-Neolitico, Carso e Friuli (Italia nord-orientale): lo stato OKELJ, E. 2001 - Pietra verde, Neolitico e post-Neolitico, della questione. Atti e Memorie della Commissione Commissione Grotte Grotte ‘E. Boegan’ , 38: 71-86. Trieste. Montagnari k okelj okelj, e., d’ aMico, c., alBerti, a., Bernardini, F., B urić, M., k oMšo oMšo, d., PrinciValle, F., t eŽak GREGL, T. and V and Velušček , a. 2006 a. 2006 - “Greenstone” shaft-hole axes of North-Eastern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia: a new research project. Atti della XXXIX Riunione Scientifica dell’Istituto dell’Istituto Italiano di Preistoria Preistoria e Protostoria: 713-725. Firenze. PEDROTTI, A.L. 1990 - L’insediamento di Kanzianiberg: rapporti fra Carinzia ed Italia settentrionale durante il Neolitico. In BIAGI, P. P. (ed.) (ed. ) The neolithisation of the Alpine Region, Monografie di Natura Bresciana , 13: 213-226. Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali, Brescia. PELOI, D. 1996-1997 - Le asce-martello in pietra levigata: proposta di lettura analitica ed esempi applicativi a contesti del Friuli Venezia Giulia e della Slovenia . Thesis submitted for Dott. Degree, Università degli Studi di Trieste (unpublished). PESSINA, A., BASTIANI, G., DELLA BIANCA, B. and TONDELLA, L. 2006 - Nuove segnalazioni di industrie in pietra levigata dal Friuli. In P ESSINA, A. and VISENTINI, P. (eds.) Preistoria dell’Italia settentrionale settentrionale. Studi in ricordo di Bagolini. Museo Friulano di Storia Naturale, Udine: 429-436. Bernardino Bernardino PESSINA, A. and D’AMICO, C. 1999 - L’industria in pietra levigata del sito neolitico di Sammardenchia (Pozzuolo del Friuli, Udine). Aspetti archeologici e petroarcheometrici. In FERRARI, A. and PESSINA, A. (eds.) Sammardenchia - Cueis. Contributi per la conoscenza di una comunità del primo Neolitico . Edizioni del Museo Friulano di Storia Naturale, 41: 23-92. Udine. PÉTREQUIN, P., PÉTREQUIN, A.M., E RRERA, M., C ASSEN, S., CROUTSCH, C., K LASSEN LASSEN, L., R OSSY OSSY, M., GARIBALDI, P., I SETTI, E., R OSSI Valais. All’origine delle grandi asce levigate di origio rigiOSSI, G. and DELCARO, D. 2005 - Beigua, Monviso e Valais. ne alpina in Europa occidentale durante il V millennio. Rivista di Scienze Scienze Preistoriche Preistoriche, LV: 265-322.
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PÉTREQUIN, P., ERRERA, M., PÉTREQUIN, A. M. and A LLARD, P P.. 2007 - The Neolithic quarries of Mont Viso, Piedmont, Italy: initial radiocarbon dates. European European Journal of Archaeology Archaeology, 9 (1): 7-30. Petrić, n. 1995 - Sjekire od žadeita i efrita u pretpovijesti Hrvatske. Histria Archaeologic Archaeologicaa, 26: 5-27. Pula. PICCOTTINI, G. 1977 - Töplitsch. Fundberichte aus Österreich Österreich, 16: 291. Wien. PREMRU, U. 1983 - Osnovna geološka geološka karta SFRJ, Ljubljana L 33-66, 33-66, 1:100000 . Zvezni geološki zavod, Beograd. SASSI, R., MAZZOLI, C., MILLER , C. and K ONZETT ONZETT, J. 2004 - Geochemistry and metamorphic evolution of the Pohorje Mountain eclogites from easternmost Austroalpine basement of the Eastern Alps (Northern Slovenia). Lithos, 78: 235-261. Amsterdam. ŠIMEK , M., K URTANJER M. 2002 - Eeolitičke glačae kamee alatke iz špilje Vidije (SZ Hrvat URTANJER , D. and PaunoVić, M. 2002 ska) - Aeneolithic polished stone tools from the cave Vindija (NW Croatia). Opuscula Archaeologica , 26: 39-55. Zagreb. SKOCZYLAS, J., JOCHEMCZYK , E. and F OLTYN, E. 2000 - Neolithic serpentinite tools of west-central Poland and upper Silesia. Kristalinikum, 26: 157-166. Brno. VAHLKAMPF, G. 1979 - Urgeschichtliche Funde aus Kärnten. Carinthia, 169: 7-1. Klagenfurt. Velušček , a. (ed.) a. (ed.) 2004a - Hočevarica, eneolitsko kolišče na Ljubljanskem barju . Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae, 8. Ljubljana. Velušček , a. 2004b a. 2004b - Past and present lake-dwelling studies in Slovenia: Ljubljansko barje (The Ljubljana Marsh). In MENOTTI, F. (ed.) Living on the lake in prehistoric prehistoric Europe: Europe: 150 years of lake-dwelling lake-dwelling research research . Routledge, London - New Ne w York: York: 69-82. VON USLAR , R. 1991 - Vorgeschichtliche Fundkarten der Alpen . Römisch-Germanische Forschungen, 48. Mainz. VRABEC, M., D E HOOG, J.C.M. and JANAK , M. 2007 - Origin of UHP garnet lherzolite and serpentinised harzburgites from Pohorje, Eastern Alps, Slovenia. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 71 (15S): a1075. San Diego.
Authors’ Addresses: FEDERICO BERNARDINI and EMANUELA MONTAGNARI MONTAGNARI KOKELJ, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Via Lazzaretto 6 – I - 34123 TRIESTE e-mails:
[email protected];
[email protected] ANTONIO ALBERTI, GABRIELLA DEMARCHI and FRANCESCO PRINCIVALLE, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Via Weiss Weiss 8 – I - 34127 TRIESTE e-mails:
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected] [email protected]
AnTOn VELUŠČEK, Inštitut za arheologijo, Znanstvenoraziskovalnega centra SAZU, Novi trg 2 – SI - 1000 LJUBLJANA e-mail:
[email protected]
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Atti Soc. Preist. Protost. Friuli-V.G., Friuli-V.G., Trieste, XVI, 2006-2007 (2008): (2 008): 75-131
RENATO RENATO NISBET NIS BET
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WOOD USE AND AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE AT AT VILLANDRO/VILLANDERS VILLANDRO /VILLANDERS (BOLZANO/BOZEN, ALTO ADIGE/SOUTH TYROL): THE CHARRED REMAINS FROM MESOLITHIC TO MIDDLE AGES
SUMMARY – Wood use and agriculture at Villandro/Villanders (Bolzano/Bozen, Alto Adige/South Tyrol): the charred remains from Mesolithic to Middle Ages. A long-term research at Villandro/Villanders, on the slope of the middle Isarco/Eisack Valley, Valley, has brought to light a stratigraphy with nine cultural phases, spanning from Mesolithic to Early Middle Ages. The study of the wood used on the site shows the continuity of two main environments, the mixed oak woodland on the lower valley and the conifer forest in the upper part of the slope. The oak association provided most of o f the wood burnt burn t on the site until un til the 1st millennium BC but, since the Early Roman period, almost the totality of wood used as firewood or timber came from the spruce and pine forest. This implies a deep change in the local environment during the late 1st millennium BC, for climatic or human pressure, or both. Early Neolithic farming is documented by the presence of Emmer, naked Wheat and, mostly, Barley. During the Roman period, agriculture was largely practised, as shown by the occurrence of the previous mentioned species and, in addition, of Spelt, Rye, Horsebean, Lentil and a wide variety of fruits.
RIASSUNTO – Uso delle foreste e agricoltura a Villandro/Villanders (Bolzano/Bozen, Alto Adige/Südtirol): i resti carbonizzati dal Mesolitico al Medioevo . Una serie di campagne di scavo tra la fine degli anni Ottanta e Novanta a Villandro/Villanders, sul versante della media Val d’Isarco/Eisack, ha messo in luce una complessa stratigrafia con nove fasi culturali che vanno dal Mesolitico all’Alto Medioevo. I carboni di legna studiati nell’articolo dimostrano che la composizione forestale fu sempre dominata da due ecosistemi principali, il querceto termofilo della bassa valle e la foresta fredda a conifere dell’alto versante. Per tutto il periodo preistorico, la maggior parte del legno fu ottenuta dal querceto, entro en tro cui probabilmente si trovava trov ava l’insediamento. Tuttavia, a partire dai primi secoli AD la quasi totalità del legno proviene dalla foresta di conifere (soprattutto abete rosso e, in subordine, pini), ciò che suggerisce una importante trasformazione dell’ambiente forestale a partire almeno dagli ultimi secoli BC. I resti agricoli hanno messo in luce la presenza di una cerealicoltura sviluppata già a partire dal Neolitico Antico, con Dicocco, Frumento nudo e, soprattutto, Orzo. In età Romana i resti agricoli si arricchiscono di altre specie, come Spelta, Segale, Favino, Lenticchia e ampia varietà di frutti. Keywords: South Tyrol, open-air site, archaeological sequence, archaeobotany, charred remains.
__________________ ____________________ ∗∗
Torre Pellice, Torino, I
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1. INTRODUCTION The open-air site Villandro/Villanders (Bolzano/Bozen) in Alto Adige/South Tyrol (northern Italy), was discovered in 1979 on a terrace delimited by two deep stream courses, along the western side of the Isarco Valley Valley,, in the locality called Plunacker (Plum da Planum) at ca. 700 m (fig. 1), during the excavation of a drainage, some 200 m long and 4 m deep
Fig. 1 - Villandro/VillandersVillandro/VillandersPlunacker: the archaeological site is located on the meadow in the foreground (photograph by courtesy of L. Dal Rì).
(DAL R Ì, 1978). In the course of long-term researches started in 1987, a stratigraphy spanning over seven millennia on three excavation areas, i.e. Trench A, B and C, was found. Most of the sediment was processed by flotation and by handpicking larger fragments visible to the naked eye, allowing the collection of the charred material the present paper deals with. These samples cover a time-span from Late Mesolithic (Castelnovian) to Early and Middle Neolithic, Copper Age, Late Iron Age, 2 nd-3rd centuries AD, a later Roman period (end of 4th - beginning of 5th century AD) and two Early Medieval settlements. All these different phases bear evidence of dwelling-places, prehistoric huts and both Roman and Medieval stone houses. This persistence testifies to strategic interest of the site during the centuries. Such a favourable situation furnishes invaluable data concerning the agricultural history and the exploitation of the forest in this part of the Alps, given the particular geographical position of the site, connecting the two sides of the Alps through a network of passes of more or less easy accessibility. Most of the researches on charred prehistoric and historical remains of vegetal origin (wood, seeds and fruits) in the Adige-Isarco Valleys Valleys was published from the 1970’s 1970’s onwards. It covers all the main cultural phases, although with varying frequency. frequency. We must point out, however, the heterogeneity of the collected data, which arises from different sampling methods and frequently concerns only small sub-samples. In some cases the results suffer from the differences in recovery techniques, a large variety of taphonomic conditions (caves and rock-shelters, alluvial fans, peats, colluvial soils etc.), the absence of reference either to the volumes of the original sediment or to the drawn samples, or both.
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In spite of these limits, the Adige Valley Valley with its nearby surroundings is one of the best studied territories of the whole of Northern Italy with regard to wood [w], charred wood [c] seed (including cereal grains) [s] and fruits [f] studies (fig. 2). Pre-Neolithic sites (mostly Epigravettian and Mesolithic) are Bondone [c] (Trento) (K OFLER OFLER , 1992), Colbricon [c] (Trento) (BAGOLINI et al .,., 1975), Grotta d’Ernesto [c] (N ISBET, 1991a), Lago delle Stellune [c] (CASTELLETTI, 1984; CASTELLETTI and MASPERO , 1992), Plan de Frea [c] (Bolzano/Bozen) (A N., 1995; 2002), Riparo Dalmeri [c] (Trento) (C ASTELLETTI and MASPERO, 1992), GELUCCI et al ., Riparo Villabruna [c] (Belluno) (C ASTELLETTI and MASPERO, 1992; AIMAR et al .,., 1992), Terlago [c, f] (Trento) (NISBET, 1983), and Val Lastari [c] (Vicenza) (C ASTELLETTI and MASPERO, 1992; BROGLIO et al .,., 1992).
Fig. 2 - Location of some of the sites mentioned in the text with reference to archaeobotanical studies in TrentinoAlto Adige/South Tyrol. 1: Villandro/Villanders; Villandro/Villanders; 2: Velturno-Tanzgasse; Velturno-Tanzgasse; 3: Barbiano; 4: Aica di Fiè/Völseraicha; 5: Bressaoe/Brixe (a: Milla; b: Villa Dirce; c: Trattegasse); 6: Stufles; 7: Sotćiastel; 8: Pla de Frea; 9: Siebeeich; 10: Seeberg; 11. Similaun; 12: Ganglegg; 13: St. Walburg; Walburg; 14: Sanzeno; 15: Colbricon; 16: Mezzocorona; Mez zocorona; 17: Riparo Gaban; 18: Terlago; 19: Vela di Trento; 20: Santuario di Lasino; 21: Bondone; 22: Lago delle Stellune; 23: Riparo Dalmeri; 24: Grotta d’Ernesto; 25: Riparo Villabruna.
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Data from Neolithic sites come from Aica di Fiè/Völseraicha (Bolzano/Bozen) [c, s] (BAGOLINI et al .,., 1982), La Vela di Trento (Trento) [c, s, f] (C ASTELLETTI, 1977; DEGASPERI et al .,., 2006; MOTTES and R OTTOLI OTTOLI, 2006) and further south from Fimòn-Molino Casarotto (Vicenza) (Vicenza) [w], in the Berici Hills (C ORONA et al .,., 1974). Copper Age sites are those of Bressanone-Millan [c, s, f] (Bolzano/Bozen) (C ASTIGLIONI and COTTINI, 2005), Tolerait (Bolzano/Bozen) [s] (B IAGI and NISBET, 1987), and VelturnoTanzgasse [c, s] (Bolzano/Bozen) (C ASTIGLIONI and TECCHIATI, 2005). More consistent data are from the Bronze Age, as Barbiano [s, f] (Bolzano/Bozen) (analyses E. CASTIGLIONI, in MARZATICO and TECCHIATI, 2002), Fiavé [s, f, w] (Trento) (Bronze Age) (JARMAN and GAMBLE, 1975; JONES and R OWLEY OWLEY-CONWY, 1984), Ganglegg [s, f] (Bolzano/ Bozen) (SCHMIDL and OEGGL, 2007), Monte Croce [c] (Trento) (N ISBET, 1999a), Riparo Gaban [c, s] (Trento) (NISBET, 1984), Santuario di Lasino rock-shelter [s, f] (Trento) (Early Bronze Age) (COSTANTINI et al .,., 2001), Seeberg (Bolzano/Bozen) [s] (O EGGL, 1992), ad Sotćiastel [s, f] (Bolzano/Bozen) (SWIDRAK and and OEGGL, 1998). OTTOLI , 1999), Seven sites belong to the Iron Age: Sanzeno [c] (Trento) (MADELLA and R OTTOLI Stufles [c] (Bolzano/Bozen) (CASTELLETTI, 1987), St. Walburg [s] (Bolzano/Bozen) (R ÖSCH ÖSCH, 2002), Siebeneich [c] (Bolzano/Bozen), Ganglegg [c] (Bolzano/Bozen), Brixen-Trattengasse [s] and Brixen-Villa Dirce [s] (Bolzano/Bozen) (the last four sites are mentioned in S CHMIDL et al .,., 2007). Three more sites on Lessini Hills, not far from Verona (Veneto), yielded evidence of Iron Age farming, i.e. San Giorgio di Valpolicella [c, s] (N ISBET, 1992), Monte Loffa [c, s] (NISBET, 1989-1990) and Castelrotto [c, s] (N ISBET, 1987a). Sites of Roman Age with charred remains are Maso Campaccio-Kompatscherhof (Bolzano/ Bozen) [c] (NISBET, 1985) and Mezzocorona [c, s, f] (Trento) (CASTIGLIONI and R OTTOLI OTTOLI, 1994). Previous unpublished work on carbonised materials (mostly seeds and fruits) of different ages has been carried out in recent years at Villandro, by other researchers. Mention of some of the results is given in a recent paper (O EGGL, 1999). Pollen analyses were extensively carried out in Alto Adige/South Tyrol Tyrol mountains (see, OMPATSCHER and for instance, WAHLMÜLLER , 1990; STUMBÖCK , 1999; K OMPATSCHER and OEGGL, 2000). Some peat bogs located at different altitudes, between 870 and 2000 m in the mountains north of Bressanone/Brixen, not far from Villandro (S EIWALD, 1980) were also investigated. All provide a basic reference to the history of vegetation in the middle Isarco/Eisack Valley Valley..
2. MATERIALS, CHRONOLOGY AND METHODS The present study has been carried out on 55 samples from nine different archaeological period periods, s, liste listedd in table table 1. 1. Most Most of the sample sampless were were extrac extracted ted by by flotati flotation, on, but but unfor unfortun tunate ately ly dedetails on the original soil volume are not available. The carbonised samples show very different volumes, with regard to the period, the context, the extension and the thickness of the layers. Also the charred wood fragments are very different in size and shape. Most of them are less than one cm large, with the exception of some Roman houses (namely US 189, US 190), where the com bustio bustionn of boa boards rds and ridgep ridgepole oless produc produced ed the formati formation on of charco charcoal al fragmen fragmentt frequen frequently tly as large large as 10 cms. The analysis was made on sub-samples, apart from very small samples, which were studied in their totality. This regarded especially most of the prehistoric samples.
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Archaeobotanical phases
Archaeological periods
US n.
Samples n.
Sample volume (mL)
1
Recent Early Medieval
7
14
1695
2
Intermediate Early Medieval
6
12
2660
3
Roman, late 4th-5th ce century AD
7
13
3725
4
Early Middle Empire
4
7
1800
5
Roman, 1st-2nd centuries AD
1
2
1185
6
Late Iron Age
1
2
840
7
Copper Age
1
1
350
8
Neolithic
3
12
680
9
Late Mesolithic
1
3
180
Total
31
55
13,115
Table 1 - Villandro/Villanders-Plunacker. Villandro/Villanders-Plunacker. Chronology, quantity and volumes volu mes of the samples.
Charred wood was contained in all samples. They are most frequent, in number and size, in the historical layers, particularly in the US of rooms of Roman and Medieval houses. Some of these houses were used as stores and granaries, some showing evidence of ovens. Seeds and fruits are present in almost all layers, but with strong differences in density. Apart from the Neolithic seeds, which represent up to now the earliest evidence of agriculture in this part of the Alps, a mass of cereal remains was contained inside some Early Middle Roman Empire buildings (US 190 and US 216). Besides cereal caryopses, crop weeds were recovered in many samples and, since the Roman Age, several edible fruits from domesticated trees are also present. According to the available literature, personal information, radiocarbon dating and other unpublished data, the site has shown the existence of 9 cultural/archaeobotanical phases. The historical layers are dated on the basis of archaeological materials and structures, allowing the identification of five main periods (D AL R Ì and R IZZI IZZI, 1987-1988; 1989-1990). The subdivision in nine phases is given here in order to arrange the archaeobotanical assemblages in a coherent frame, according to the published archaeological documentation. It must be considered, however, however, that the samples come from different areas and trenches. Phase 1 is the Carolingian-Ottonian period, attributed to 9 th-10th centuries AD. It is represented by some badly preserved huts, some hearths and floors. The samples are labelled as Altomedioevo recente recente..
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Phase 2 is attributed to the 6 th century AD and consists of some buildings, repeatedly destroyed by fire. The samples from this unit have the indication Altomedioevo indication Altomedioevo intermedio. intermedio. th th Phase 3 is Late Roman (4 -5 centuries AD), with houses and a possible granary. The samples are labelled as Tardo-romano, fine IV-V secolo. secolo. Phase 4 is attributed to the 3 rd century. The samples are indicated as Romano, primo Romano, primo Medio Impero Impero. Phase 5, the earliest of the historical sequence, was dated by some coins to the early 2 nd secolo. century AD. The samples were indicated as Romano, metà I-metà II secolo. Phase 6 represents a Late Iron Age hut, with post-holes and hearths. Phase 7 belongs to the Copper Age, here represented by hut and fireplaces. fir eplaces. Phase 8 is Neolithic and has some problematic aspects. Radiocarbon dates as well as lithic and ceramic finds clearly show two different periods of occupation. The earliest period is present in the US 30 tg 9 and US 30 tg 8, and belongs to Early Neolithic Gaban Group. US 30 tg 1 to 5 have been dated to a middle phase of the Middle Neolithic Square-Mouthed Pottery Culture. The problematic US 30 tg 7 has a radiocarbon date of Castelnovian Age (Late Mesolithic) (ETH-30057: 6920±60 ucal BP; 5970-5680 cal BC at 2σ), but cotais cereal grais evidently belonging to some upper more recent layers, of Middle Neolithic, but of uncertain provenance. The distribution of pottery and lithic finds of the Trench C Neolithic sequence shows that also the stratigraphic position of the charred remains must be considered with caution. On the basis of the present information, it appears that some mixture of Early and Middle Neolithic occurred possibly in the past, and and this could explain the discrepancies of the radiocarbon dates. However, we can confidently ascribe the materials from US 80 and US 30 tg 9, carrying no evidence of later, Middle Neolithic artefacts, to the Early Neolithic, Gaban Group. In the upper layers, Early Neolithic chipped stone artefacts and pottery gradually reduces, and we would consider seeds and grains of these layers (tg 8 to 1) as belonging mostly to a middle phase of Middle Neolithic (Square-Mouthed Pottery Pottery Culture). Phase 9 corresponds to the earliest occupation of the site by a group of Castelnovian Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Seed and fruit analyses were carried out by means of standard equipment that is 10x and 40x binocular microscope, reference collections and current available iconography. Charcoal fragments were examined on three planes of fracture with a darkfield equipment under reflected light. SEM was employed to confirm some doubtful determination for critical taxa.
3. WOOD CHARCOAL The distribution of taxa through the whole stratigraphy is presented in the following tables, both as absolute values (table 2) and percent (table 3), arranged according to archaeological periods. As for the Neolithic, in which two cultural phases were detected, the data are summed up in one figure.
80 -
Phases 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Σ
Pc 9 3
P 20 25 9
5 9
48 42
PL 11559 72 453 45 17 1 20 1 20
26
2 1 46
91 8
Pi 75 68 2 16 92 22
B 3 8 13 5 1 2 1
27 5 31
A 2 12 4 2
F
Co 90 6 15
4
Q 41 83 7 5 35 45 3 237 23 10 46 6
1 2
3
73 16 49
C/O
95
5
26
26
26
1 40
Ac
U 3 2
Fr 1 1 3 1
2
1
2
1
4
5
8
11
2 1
M 4 15 1
Pr 7 11 11
1 11 3
2
35
Pa
Po
SP 1
Cr 1
J 53 10 6 3
1
72
Σ 46 7 32 4 72 8 27 9 13 5 119 8 42 4 28 2 51 2
2 2
2
4
22
2
4
3
Table 2 - Distribution and numbers of carbonised tree taxa. Phase 1: Carolingian/Ottonian period, 9th-10th centuries; Phase 2: Early Medieval, 6th century AD; Phase 3: Late Roman, end 4 th-5th century AD; Phase 4: Early Middle Roman Empire; Phase 5: Roman, Middle 1 st-middle 2nd century AD; Phase 6: Late Iron Age; Phase 7: Copper Age; Phase 8: Neolithic; Phase 9: Late Mesolithic.Taxa: Pc: Pinus cf. cembra ; P: Pinus sylvestris/mugo sylvestris/mugo; PL: Picea/Larix; Pi: Picea abies; B: Betula sp.; A: Alnus sp.; F: Fagus sylvatica; C/O: Carpinus betulus/Ostrya carpinifolia; Co: Corylus avellana; Q: Quercus sp. (cad .); .); Ac: Acer sp.; sp.; U: Ulmus sp.; Fr: Fraxinus excelsior/ornus; M: Maloideae; Pr: Prunus sp; Pa: Prunus cf. avium; Po: Populus sp; SP: Salix/Populus; Cr: Cornus mas; J: Juglans regia regia.
Phases 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 1
Pc 1.9 0.9
P 4.3 7.7 1.2
3.7 7.6
35.6 35.3
PL 34.0 22.2 62.2 61.3 14.8 12.5 4.7
7.1
Pi 16.1 21.0 29.7 33.0 16.3
B 0.6 2.5 1.8 1.8 0.7 1.7 12.5
6.37
A 0.4 3.7 0.5 0 .7 0.
F
C/O
1.2
Co 19.3 1.9 2.1
0.7 1.7 17.2
57.1
Table 3 - Percentages of carbonised tree taxa. Legend, see table 2.
2.5 6.1
6.1
Q 8.8 25.6 1 .0 25.9 37.8 37.5 55.9 35.7
Ac 0.6 0.1 1.8
0.5
U 0.6 0.6
Fr 0.2 0 .3 0.4
1.7
0 .8
0.2
0.9
M 0.9 4.6 0.4 0.7 9.2 3 7 .5
Pr 1.5 3.4
Pa
Po
SP
Cr
0.3
0.3
1.5 1.7 0.5
0.5
0.9
J 11.3 3.1 0.8 1.1
As shown by the absolute values, the quantity of charcoal fragments exhibits strong differences through the sequence. The phases 1 to 3 (upper part of the historical sequence) are very well represented, as well as the Neolithic (phase 8), due to extensive sampling and flotation. On the contrary, the data referring to the Mesolithic and Copper Age are quite limited and should be used cautiously in the reconstruction of the ancient environment. All the analytical data, with reference to the stratigraphy, stratigraphy, are given in Appendix 1. Altogether, of 2512 fragments, 20 taxa were recognised, 7 of which on a number of very limited fragments (100/mm 2) and for this reason they are ascribed to the section Robur tion Robur . The abundance of thin-walled tyloses in the vessels of earlywood, the elliptical form of the pores ad mostly their small diameter (rage betwee 140-205 μm) poit to the
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Fig. 4 - Pinus sylvestris/mugo, radial plane, from US 257.
Fig. 5 - Pinus sylvestris/mugo, cross plane, with resin canals, from US 82.
84 -
petraea Liebl. (Durmast oak) according to the Italian literature (C AMBINI , species Quercus petraea Liebl. 1967). However, only a part of the oak charcoal fits this identification, a larger number of fragments should be differentiated only as Quercus sp. The taxon Fraxin taxon Fraxinus sp. numbers in Italy the species Fraxinus us sp. Fraxinus excelsior excelsior,, F. F. ornus and ornus and F F.. angustifolia. angustifolia. On ecological ground, we exclude the last species, which grows in the riparian Mediterranean forests. Fraxi forests. Fraxinus charcoal is found in small percent (0.4% of the t he total) in almost nus charcoal all layers. Its high fragmentation made it impossible to distinguish between the two species. The taxon Carpinus/Ostrya is Carpinus/Ostrya is present only in the Neolithic layers, with less than 30 fragments. The distinction between the two species is based mostly on the presence ( Carpi(Ostrya)) of aggregate rays. Unfortunately this feature was not visible on any of nus)/absence nus)/absence (Ostrya the too small fragments belonging to this group. As known, the presence of Ostrya carpini‘Ötzi’s’ transverse transverse colon has suggested his last journey was from the southern folia pollen folia pollen in ‘Ötzi’s’ side of the alpine range (O EGGL, 1999; OEGGL et al .,., 2007). Salix/Populus could not be differentiated, due to reduced dimensions of the The taxon Salix/Populus could fragments and to the impossibility of identifying the type of the rays (homogenous/heterogeneous) which would allow the distinction between the two species. No particular difficulties were found in the identification to a species level of Fagus sylvatica, Corylus avellana, Cornus Cornus mas and mas and Juglans Juglans regia regia.. The Maloideae sub-family includes common Rosaceae trees, some of which cultivated, as Hawthorn (Crataegus (Crataegus sp.), sp.), Apple tree ( Malus ( Malus sp.), sp.), Pear tree ( Pyrus ( Pyrus sp.), sp.), Service tree and White Beam tree (Sorbus ( Sorbus sp.). sp.). The criteria for differentiating these genuses are not yet firmly established. Several more taxa are present in the charcoal assemblages, such as Acer as Acer sp., Betula sp., Betula sp. sp. Ulmus sp. (fig. 11). Also all these (fig. 6 and fig. 7), Prunus 7), Prunus sp. (fig. 8), Alnus 8), Alnus sp. sp. (fig. 10) and Ulmus sp. woods cannot be differentiated to species level on the ground of their anatomic structure (SCHWEINGRUBER , 1990).
4. SOME CONTEXTS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST In some cases large fragments of charcoal show a strong reduction of the latewood rings. For instance (US 151, sector A6-B6, Trench C, Neolithic) in about half of oak fragments the summer rings are almost absent, and in a fragment of 7.11 mm 22 rings are present. Such a strong reduction might be due to several factors, affecting the ring growth separately or synergically, synergically, but all with an inhibitory action on the cambial layer. The loss of a more or less large part of the foliage and the consequent interruption of the photosynthetic activity might be due to protracted unfavourable climatic conditions, or parasitic attacks, or pastoral pastoral activity. ity. At Villandro Villandro it was impossible to answer this question. In US 190, sector QRS/0-1-2-3, Room N of building A (Phase 4) numerous large coniferous charcoals ( Picea/Larix ( Picea/Larix)) are present. Their shape and size point to a probable use as boards or beams. Similarly, in the US 189, sector P-O/0-1, belonging to the same House A, Loom L, but to a later period (Late Roman, Phase 3) large Picea/Larix fragments Picea/Larix fragments flat and wide were found, showing evidence of pre-combustion erosion and decay, imputable to a long-term use of wood exposed to trampling or weathering (fig. 14).
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Fig. 6 - Betula sp., radial plane and scalariform perforation plate with over 10 bars. US 325.
Fig. 7 - Betula sp., cross plane with diffuse pore arrangement. US 325.
86 -
Fig. 8 - Prunus sp., cross plane. Diffuse to semi-ring porous, multiseriate rays. US 214.
Fig. 9 - Quercus sp., cross plane. Ring porous, tyloses frequent. US 325.
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Fig. 10 - Alnus sp., radial plane, scalariform plate with 15 bars. US 212/2.
Fig. 11 - Ulmus sp., cross plane. Pores in tangential bands in the latewood. US 257.
88 -
The sample US 206, sector O-P/2, House A Room L (built probably in the Late Roman period, end 4th century AD) was part of a plastered hurdle belonging to a chimney-cowl, possibly collapsed during the first half of the 5 th century. The burnt material adhering to the plaster is composed of an agglomerate of charcoal particles of vitreous aspect, without any tissue structure. Only few very small fragments of Betula, of Betula, Pinus and were identified. The Pinus and Picea/Larix Picea/Larix were process of vitrification is due to a long anaerobic heating of the wood/charcoal. wood/charcoal. Most of this porous material is filled with bubbles and inside the mass leaves and culms fragments of grass are barely recognisable. One can imagine vegetal detritus dragged by the smoke above the fire and laid on the surface during many years (fig. 12). A similar material, but of Phase 2 (Early Medieval), is present in US 125. Sample US 59 comes also from a Phase 2 House A, Room N. It contains parts of a clay floor some of which clearly show the occurrence of small woody fragments (possibly bark) and coniferous leaves. This might have been done with the intention of obtaining a more resistant cob, in order to prevent fissures in the floor (fig. 13). Only one sample (US 115, Phase 2), contains evidence of pruning on a branch of Elm (fig. 15). Whether this might be related to fodder procurement for cattle, or to obtain branches for other purposes, is impossible to demonstrate.
Fig. 12 - Soot particles encrusting a chimney-cowl of Late Roman period, 206 House A, Room L.
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Fig. 13 - Clay floor fragments from US 59, Early Medieval house, filled with bark and conifer needles.
Fig. 14 - Fragments of spruce wood boards with pre-combustion decay, from US 189, House A.
5. FOREST HISTORY The analysis of the charred wood from the local stratigraphy allows the reconstruction of the use of the forest by the settlers over a time span of more than six millennia. The identified taxa show the presence and use of few main woodland associations.
90 -
1.
The coniferous coniferous forest, as shown shown by Pines and and Spruce/Larch, Spruce/Larch, which which was present since the Mesolithic occupation when, certainly due to the small size of the sam ple, only onl y Pine Pi ne wood w ood seems seem s to have been used. used . Howeve Ho wever, r, its it s existe ex istence nce is cont c ontinuo inuous us through the millennia up to the Middle Ages (and to the present time), and seems to be the t he most m ost importan impo rtantt enviro en vironmen nmentt where wh ere both firewood fir ewood and timber tim ber wood was collected. Spruce is probably the most common conifer in the charcoal samples, with a lesser occurrence of larch. The phyto-climatic association with Scots pine, Spruce, Larch, Arolla pine, Mountain pine with underwood with rhododendron and dwarf juniper juni per is characte char acteris ristic tic of the Vaccinion-Piceenion, Vaccinion-Piceenion , today well documented in the Alto Adige/South Adige/South Tyrol Tyrol mountains, and therefore on the slopes of the middle Isarco es alba a lba)) in the charcoal Valley (GAFTA and PEDROTTI, 1998). The absence of Fir ( Abi ( Abies samples is noteworthy. 2. The oak-wood oak-wood is the other main forest, forest, largely used all over the archaeological periods. According to the charcoal spectrum this was formed, apart from a deciduous oak species, by broad-leaved species common at lower altitude, such as Carpinus/Ostrya (only Carpinus/Ostrya (only in Neolithic layers), a species of Ulmus (only Ulmus (only in Neolithic and Iron Age layers) and, with a greater continuity, continuity, Fraxinus and and Acer Acer . This association could be part of the phyto-climatic unit Fraxino unit Fraxino orni-Ostryon carpinifoliae, carpinifoliae , in which can usually be found various oak species and, occasionally, Scots pine. 3. During several several periods, periods, at at the edges of the oak wood, wood, large large clearances clearances allowed the ex pansion of Hazel Hazel thickets. At higher higher altitude, altitude, in the transitional belt between between the Oak and coniferous wood, a heliophilous forest environment with Betula with Betula could could develop. 4. At the upper limit of the oak wood the presence of Fagus of Fagus is is attested only sporadically during the historical periods. On the ground of charcoal analysis, we can observe a dramatic change in the forest environment used for wood supply. Only two main ecosystems were systematically used, the meso-thermophilous broad-leaved forest, dominated by Oak, along the valley floor and the lower slopes, and the coniferous forest, covering the upper slopes. In the anthracology of the site, it appears that the relationship between these two main environments has deeply modified over the centuries, the main change occurring at the beginning of the historical period, when the coniferous forest becomes more and more important in the wood supply. The data from the Mesolithic, though scarce, clearly show however that these two associations were already settled on the slope, and both were close to the site. During the Neolithic, probably due to an increased spread uphill of the Oak wood, almost 90% of the wood used on the site comes from this association and from its openings (fig. 16). Four or five millennia later, the situation has completely changed (fig. 17) and the thermophilous forest is present in the sample composition with less than 5%. A more detailed study of the nine Neolithic layers (US 30) does not show important changes in the forest composition, where the wood of Oak and Alder, Alder, which are present in all samples, has constantly been collected. Conifer wood is present in six layer of nine, perhaps suggesting a lesser availability of that environment as, for instance, because of increased distance from the site. On the basis of frequency analysis for layer, it appears that only in the layer 6 and 7 wood collection interested a larger number of plants (fig. 18).
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Fig. 15 - Elm branch with evidence of pruning at an edge.
Subsequently the number of species decreases, with a minimum (two taxa only) in the layer 4. Whether this might be due to human choice, or to a casual selection of sample, or to a short period of settling, or to other reasons, is an open question.
Prunus cf avium Prunus
Picea/Larix
Fraxinus Ulmus
Populus Picea excelsa
Acer Alnus sp
Quercus
Carpinus/Ostrya Corylus
Neolithic n = 424 Fig. 16 - Charcoal spectrum from the Neolithic layers, Trench C.
92 -
Fraxinus Quercus
Acer Juglans
Corylus
Pinus sylvestris/mugo
Alnus Betula Picea excelsa
Picea/Larix
Late Roman n = 728
Fig. 17 - Charcoal spectrum from the Late Roman layers (4th-5th centuries AD).
7
6
5
. 4 n a x a t
3
2
1
0
tg 1
tg 2
tg 3
tg 4
tg 5
tg 6
tg 7
tg 8
tg 9
Fig. 18 - Tree taxa frequency variation in the Neolithic layers.
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6. AGRICULTURE AND GATHERING Favourable preservation conditions and some aspects of harvesting and gathering, subsequent treatment and storage of seeds and fruits, allowed the recovery of a considerable quantity of data concerning the agriculture of Early Neolithic to Early Middle Ages. Tables 5 and 6 show the data referring to the cultivated plant (cereals, legumes, fruit trees) and to wild plant and weeds. The analytical data are reported in Appendix 2. Apart from the data here mentioned, we should add those from the Neolithic layers (without distinction between Early and Middle Neolithic) listed in a previous paper (O EGGL, 1999). Here Triticum cf. Triticum cf. dicoccum, Triticum aestivo-compactum, aestivo-compactum , Hordeum Hordeum vulgare are vulgare are re ported and, amongst the wild fruits, Rubus fruticosus. fruticosus . The same cereals are also present in our samples. Moreover, in comparison with our materials, the interesting presence of Lens culinaris, culinaris, lentil, is mentioned, which in our record is absent in the Neolithic layers, and occurs only in Early Medieval layers. Moreover, Evans (in DAL R Ì and R IZZI IZZI, 1989) found Barley and possibly Wheat, together with Horsebean (absent in our samples), Wild Grape and Red-berried elder in Neolithic layers (Trench C). The same author mentioned the presence of Barley, Barley, Wheat, Oat, Millet, Lentils, Grape, Pears/Apples, Cherries and Nuts in the Early Medieval House B.
6.1. CEREALS Cereal grains are documented in all layers, with the exception of the Iron Age ones. The greater quantity is present in Roman and, to a lesser extent, in Neolithic layers. A description of these findings is given here, with some comments on their presence in northern Italy. Dimensions are in mm. Hordeum Hordeum vulgare L., vulgare L., Barley (fig. 19). Altogether 6820 grains of barley (almost 70% of the cereal assemblage, with the excluCerealia) have been determined. This crop is present in all layers, apart sion of unidentified Cerealia)
Fig. 19 - Barley ( Hordeum Hordeum vulgare vulgare), US 216, oven M1, Early Roman Empire.
94 -
from the Iron Age period, which has no evidence of agriculture. Barley is therefore the outstanding crop at Villandro in all periods. Some caryopses are already present in Early Neolithic layers. The lowest of these, US 30 tg 9, was dated as ETH-30059: 6105±60 ucal BP (5260-4840 cal BC at 2σ). Both excavated sectors (sector 44 and F/5) have barley caryopses, for a total of 61 as fragmented and entire grains. Their diameters are: L: 6.65; B: 2.83; T: 2.16. Mean indexes: L/B: 1.68; L/T: 2.23.
1
Cereals Triticum dicoccum, c. Triticum dicoccum, one-grain spikelets Triticum dicoccum, gl. Triticum dicoccum , b. sp. Triticum cf. dicoccum, c. Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum , c. Triticum dicoccum/spelta , c. Triticum durum, spikelets Triticum spelta, gl. sp. b. Triticum spelta, sp Triticum sp. Hordeum Hordeum vulgare vulgare (hulled) Hordeum Hordeum vulgare vulgare (h Hordeum Hordeum vulgare vulgare, sprouts Hordeum Cf. Hordeum Secale cereale Triticum/Secale Panicum miliaceum miliaceum Cerealia identified Cerealia undeterminated Σ
6
3 1
3
6
2 4 4
2 9
4
5
1132 2 44 5 54 1
46
10
8
1 11
39 9 26 4 6 25 44 9 6 52 6 22 73
6
2 3 53 3
7
1 1
8
42 2 25 21 21
1 2
1 13
Pods Vicia faba Vicia sativa Pisum sativum Lens esculenta
2 1 2 21
1 1
Σ Trees Vitis vinifera Vitis sp. Juglans regia regia Pyrus malus Prunus cf. avium Prunus spinosa
2
2
1
20 21 1 10 22
1 04 6 10 7 3 8
2 2 117
4
2 95 6 05
3
1
Σ 1188 2 44 5 54 1 1 43 0 26 4 8 28 54 8 6 77 1 49 73 1 26 22 3 10,166 1 3 54 11,520
13 0
13 0
2
2 2 13 4
1 13 3 10
2
5nc 2
29 1 1
Σ
9
41
2
1 1
2
15 2 29 1 1 1 49
Table 5 - Cultivated plants. Legend: see table 2. c: caryopses; gl.: glumes; sp. b.: forks.
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US 30 tg 8 sector 42, with date ETH-30058: 6050±60 uncal BP (5080-4780 cal BC at 2σ), cotaied 21 hulled Barley grais, almost all fragmeted. Oly oe grai could be measured: L: 3.8; B: 2.5; T: 2.0. In tg 7, which has an unacceptable, Mesolithic radiocarbon date, 87 grains were found, almost all fragmented or very distorted by combustion. Three grains were measured: L: 4.23; B: 2.8; T: 2.13. Indexes: L/B: 1.51; L/T: 1.99. Tg 6, sector 13, contained 8 caryopses, but only one could be measured. L: 4.7; B: 3.0; T: 1.8. In the upper two layers (tg 5 and tg 4) no cereal grains were recovered. Only one distorted grai comes from tg 3, ETH-30053: 5425±60 ucal BP (4250-3950 cal BC at 2σ). The last appearance of Barley in Neolithic layers comes from tg 1 sect. D/2, ETH30051: 5225±60 ucal BP (4230-3940 cal BC at 2σ) with 8 grais. Mea diameters: L: 5.03; B: 2.63; T: 1.91. Indexes: L/B: 1.71; L/T: 2.29. Avena Avena sp. Bromus secalinus/hordaceus secalinus/hordaceus Carex sp. Cerastium arvense Cerastium/Stellaria Chenopodium album Chenopodium hybridum Chenopodium polyspermum Echinochloa crusgalli Euphorbia helioscopia helioscopia Fragaria vesca Galeopsis tetrahit Galium sp. Undeterminated Lolium temulentum temulentum Medicago lupulina lupulina Melilotus cf. dentata Papaver sp. Pisum sp. Polygonum convolvulus Polygonum dumetorum Polygonum lapatifolium Polygonum persicaria Quercus sp., acorn Ranunculus sp. Rubus idaeus Rubus sp. Rumex crispus crispus Rumex sp. Sambucus ebulus/racemosa ebulus/racemosa Sambucus nigra Setaria viridis/verticillata/italica viridis/verticillata/italica Stachys annua/arvensis Veronica hederaefolia Vicia cracca Vicia sativa Vicia sp. Vicia tetrasperma Vicia/Lathyrus Viola arvensis/tricolor Σ Table 6 - Weeds and spontaneous spon taneous vegetation.
96 -
1 1
2
3
1
4 9 4 10
5 1
6
7
3 3
1 1
2
6
18
1 3
1
1 9 1 3
8
1 2 2 1 6 3 12 5
1 2 2
1
3 3
1 2 5
1
2 2 16
1 1
2
63 38 37 3
1
3
5
1 11
8
18 4 11 2 2 29
113 1
2 18 1 4
1 12
1 2
2 21
9
Σ 11 8 10 3 1 18 1 1 5 2 2 2 31 4 15 5 1 2 2 1 3 4 2 5 1 2 2 16 1 113 63 43 1 55 3 1 23 6 12 2 4 83
Apart from the US 30 series, two more Neolithic samples carry Barley grains. Us 80 tg 1 sector 42, the lowest layer of the whole Neolithic sequence, therefore belonging to the Early Neolithic, has 56 grains. L: 4.80; B: 2.76; T: 1.98; indexes L/B: 1.98; L/T: 2.44. The Neolithic (uncertain cultural attribution and date) US 151 has 4 caryopses: L: 4.55; B: 2.90; 2.90; T: 2.25. Indexes: L/B: 1.57; L/T: 2.04. In some cases it has been possible to observe a typical asymmetry, with longitudinal distortion, which characterises the many-rowed Barley; the L/B index, normally 1.9. Upper disarticulation scar width: 0.89 mm. Glume base width: 0.88 mm (0.77-1.10). In US 190 belonging to the same archaeological period, dominated by Barley grains, 114 grains of Triticum dicoccum and dicoccum and 31 glumes were also found. Their mean width is 0.77 mm (0.55-0.93). The determination as Triticum dicoccum of dicoccum of the main part of the wheats found at this site, is consistent with glume size and shape, as well as their morphology showing a robust main keel, lateral nerve hardly visible, and sometimes intermediate nerves standing out clearly. After the 5th century AD, Emmer seems to disappear in the samples, giving place to other cereals. Table 9 summarises the metrical data for Emmer. Phases 4 5 8
L 6.50 5.63 4.85
l 3.32 3.05 2.50
s 2.91 2.60 2.20
L/l 2.02 1.83 1.95
L /s 2.34 2.17 2.20
Table 9 - Triticum dicoccum Schreib: measures and indexes of the caryopses.
Emmer, with some other wheat species and barley, is one of the commonest crops in the Italian prehistory, prehistory, even in alpine areas. It is documented in the Adige Valley Valley in Early and Middle Neolithic at La Vela (Trento) (C ASTELLETTI, 1977; MOTTES and R OTTOLI OTTOLI , 2006; DEGASPERI et al .,., 2006) and is grown during the Copper Age at Tolerait (B IAGI and NISBET, 1987), at Brixen-Millan (C ASTIGLIONI and COTTINI, 2005) and at Velturno-Tanzgasse (CASTIGLIONI and TECCHIATI, 2005). It is found at Riparo Gaban during the Early Bronze Age, at Age, at Fiavé ad at Sotćiastel ( OEGGL, 1998) during the Middle and Late Bronze Age, Molina di Ledro (DALLA FIOR , 1940) during the Bronze Age (unspecified). At Villandro, the earliest phases are dominated by Barley, Barley, while Emmer is rarely documented. The latter species becomes very important during the Roman colonisation in particular during 4 th-5th centuries AD. Triticum spelta L., spelta L., Spelt. A small quantity of spikelet forks, with a very short fragment of the upper internode, belong to a hulled hexhaploid Wheat, Spelt. Spikelet forks more than 2.7 mm large, with a maximum of 3.31 mm, are considered pertaining to this species (fig. 22). They represent no more than 5% of the total spikelets in US 216. In the same sample (Early Middle Roman Empire) there are also 26 grains of Spelt/Emmer. Spelt/Emmer.
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The following mean diameters were obtained from 12 grains: L: 7.3 (5.8-7.5); B: 3.1 (2.6-3.7); T: T: 2.6 (2.3-2.9). Indexes: L/B: 2.7, which is inside the range of the typical Spelt. Spelt is present in South Tyrol, always in small quantities and in few sites, during the late prehistory. At the Iron Age site of St. Walburg (R ÖSCH ÖSCH, 2002) Spelt is associated with other cereals, apparently in a votive offering. In the Adige area the earliest Spelt presence is a doubtful determination of Copper Age at Brixen-Millan (C ASTIGLIONI and COTTINI, 2005), another one of Early Bronze Age, comes from Riparo del Santuario at Lasino (C OSTANTINI et al .,., 2001). To an earlier period (Middle and Late Bronze Age) belong the findings at Fiavé (JONES and R OWLEY OWLEY-CONWY, 1984) ad Sotćiastel ( OEGGL, 1988). Tetra/hexaploid naked wheat (fig. 20). To this taxon belong several different tetraploid species (Triticum ( Triticum durum Desf, durum Desf, T . turgi L.) and hexaploid (T ( T . aestivum L., dum L.) dum aestivum L., T . compactum Host), compactum Host), as they cannot be separated on the base of the morphology of the grains. In the Neolithic US 30 tg 6, 10 grains of Triticum cf. aestivum and aestivum and 1 in US 30 tg 2 were found.
Fig. 21 - Triticum dicoccum glumes. US 216. Scale = 5 mm.
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1
Fig. 22 - Forks of Triticum dicoccum and (asterisk) Triticum spelta. US 216.
This taxon appears again in Roman times (US 214, 1 st-2nd century AD), with 8 grains, increasing its occurrence during the Early Middle Empire, with 399 grains (US 82, US190, US 216). In US 216 three groups could be identified, following morphological criteria. Oval grains, with regularly curved lateral sides, with maximum breadth near the distal end, apex usually truncated and germ area deep were determined as Triticum Triticum aestivum/durum. In addition to this prevalent taxon, a shorter and rounded form was observed, possibly belonging to T . compactum or compactum or T . turgidum; turgidum; a third group, very short and thick, is also present. Dimensions of the three groups: ‘Normal’: L: 5.08; B: 3.34; T: 2.81. Indexes: L/B 1.53 (1.22-1.86); L/T: 1.82 (1.30-2.32). ‘Short’: L: 4.09; B: 2.96; T: 2.49. Indexes: L/B: 1.40 (1.14-1.53); L/T: L/T: 1.70 (1.24-2.20). ‘Thick’: L: 4.87; B: 3.55; T: 3.49. Indexes: L/B: 1.38 (1.11-1.67); L/T: 1.39 (1.27-1.53). How much these differences are due to the deformation during carbonisation or to the presence presence of differe different nt wheat wheat species, species, is hard hard to assess. assess. However However,, it should should be taken into account account that from the Roman times onwards a large diversity of forms, arising by the previous millennia of cultivation, occurs and makes often difficult their determination (R ÖSCH ., 1992). ÖSCH et al .,
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Fig. 23 - Oat, Secale cereale . US 216.
Few naked wheat grains were found also in intermediate (6) and recent (6) Medieval layers In the Middle Neolithic of Adige Valley naked wheat has been determined at La Vela di Trento as T . aestivum (C aestivum (C ASTELLETTI, 1977) and Triticum Triticum aestivum/durum (M aestivum/durum (MOTTES e R OT OTTOLI, 2006). In later periods it is present at Riparo Gaban (Early Bronze Age) as T . aestivocompactum (NISBET, 1984), as Triticum cf. compactum at compactum at Santuario di Lasino rock-shelter (COSTANTINI et al .,., 2001) and as cf. T . aestivo-compactum at Sotćiastel (OEGGL, 1988). Secale cereale L., cereale L., Rye (fig. 23). The occurrence of Rye is limited to the historical layer, from the 1 st century AD onwards. On a total of 27 grains, 20 belong to the early Middle Roman Empire layers, mostly coming from a granary (House A, Room N). Several grains (22) resembling naked wheat caryopses are determined as Triticum/Secale. Triticum/Secale. Dimensions of 10 grains from a Middle Roman Empire layer: L: L : 6.37; B: 2.57: T: 2.51. Indici: L/B: 2.48; L/T: 2.56; B/T: B/T: 1.03. It seems that this cereal was of reduced importance, but its presence is not surprising in a farming system dominated by Barley, as normally happens in the Italian agrarian record of these centuries, particularly in the mountains. Rye is a winter-sown crop, well adapting to alpine climatic conditions and ideal to complement spring sowing crops. Medieval hilly sites with contemporaneous presence of Rye and Barley (and other cereals) are known at Monte Barro in Lombardy (CASTELLETTI and CASTIGLIONI, 1991) and Trino Vercellese in Piedmont (NISBET, 1999b). Earlier occurrence of both crops is attested in Roman times in the plain at Brescia (CASTIGLIONI et al .,., 1999) and Lomello (C ASTELLETTI, 1975; NISBET, 1987b); in Piedmont at Montaldo di Mondovì, Iron Age (NISBET, 1991b), and at Alba-Borgo Moretta, Bronze Age (MOTELLA DE CARLO, 1995).
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Avena Avena sp., sp., Oat. Only 11 grains of Oat have been recognised, ranging from 1 st-2nd century AD to Early Middle Ages. Ages. It is impossible to establish the presence of the cultivated or spontaneous spena fatua, fatua, A. sterilis) sterilis) are commonly found as weeds in cereal crops. Mean cies. The latter ( Ave ( Avena dimensions: L: 5.61; B: 1.95; T: 1.77. Panicum miliaceum L., miliaceum L., Setaria sp. Setaria sp. pl. (Millets). Only 3 grains of Panicum of Panicum miliaceum (Broomcorn miliaceum (Broomcorn millet) were found, two of them in US 180 (Copper Age). The cultivation of Millet has been known in Italy, admittedly discontinuously, since the Late Neolithic (C ASTELLETTI et al .,., 2001). In the eastern Alps Millet is documented at Velturno-Tanzgasse (C ASTIGLIONI and TECCHIATI, 2005) and, doubtfully, at Barbiano (NISBET, 1985) during the Copper Age, perhaps as weed in the main crops, and later at Ganglegg and several other Iron Age sites (quoted in S CHMIDL et al .,., 2007). Setaria sp. pl.) was found in the crop at VilA larger quantity of Italian millet grains (Setaria sp. Villandro, particularly in phase 4, probably as a weed. Grain dimensions are the following: L: 1.37-2.00; B: 1.25-1.71; T: 1.27-1.35. The hilum on the ventral side is elliptical with its long axis about double that of the short one.
6.2. A CASE OF BARLEY FERMENTATION? With regard to the tens of Barley sprouts found in House A, room N (early Middle Roman Empire), we have taken into account the possibility of a local production of beer. It is well known that, in order to allow the hydrolysis of starch into fermentable mono- and disaccharides, wheat and barley grains must absorb a quantity of water, sufficient sufficient for germination, for a span of time of three or four days. Subsequently, Subsequently, grains must be dried in a suitable space, spreading them on a sieve or perforated vessels, so as to block the germination. At this phase the sprouts reach the length of the grain, which is exactly what we find in the case of the car bonized samples from House A. Only now the grains are roasted, roasted, at a temperature of 80-100 °C. During this last process a casual contact with the flame can determine the combustion and the formation of the archaeological sample. There are some examples of this process both in prehistoric and historical archaeology.. Recently, ogy Recently, evidence of beer production has been described in Bell Beakers Culture from Spain, together with the support of a wide experimental documentation (R OJO ., OJO-GUERRA et al ., 2006a; 2006b). In this case, the evidence was provided not by sprouts, but wheat phytoliths and chemical analysis of organic residues encrusting the pottery. In Italy beer production seems documented by the pollen contained in organic crusts on pottery pottery from from an Iron Age cemete cemetery ry at Pombia, Pombia, northeas northeastt Piedmont Piedmont (CASTELLETTI et al .,., 2001) 6.3. PULSE CROPS Apart from cereal fields, at Villandro horticulture was also practised, as shown by some legumes in the historical layers. As usual, the presence of legumes is much less important in comparison with cereals, due to the different kind of crop processing, the different harvesting time and, probably, the different storage places.
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Vicia faba L., faba L., Horsebean (fig. 24). Only in US 190 (Early Middle Roman Empire) 130 seeds and several fragments of Horsebean were found. The mean dimensions are L: 8.26; B: 6.01 mm. Pisum sativum L., sativum L., Pea. Only two seeds of Pea are present in US 190 (Early Middle Roman Empire). Dimensions taken on the best-preserved one are L: 7.4; B: 7.0 mm. Lens esculenta Moench, esculenta Moench, Lentil. Two seeds of Lentil are contained in a sample from US 208 (Late (L ate Roman) and in US 221 (intermediate Early Middle Ages). Dimensions of the two seeds: L: 3.3; B: 3.0; T: 1.7 and L: 3.5; B: 3.1; T: 2.6 mm.
6.4. WEEDS AND WILD HERBS Wild taxa are common in the samples since the Neolithic layers. Many of these, as anthropochores, are sown by chance with cereals. Others are present in the local environment and grow easily on tilled soils, as apophytes. Bromus secalinus/hordaceus secalinus/hordaceus,, Brome. Caryopses of Brome were found in the Neolithic, Roman and Early Medieval layers. The dorsal side is convex, the ventral one concave in cross section. Dimensions: L: 3.7-6.3; B: 1.4-2.6; T: 1.1-1.6. This weed is common in the winter crop. Cerastium arvense arvense L., Field Mouse-ear. Small seeds (L: 1.13; B: 0.87 mm) of this weed were found in two Neolithic layers. Cerastium arvense is arvense is common on dry pastures, at paths and fields margins, mostly on light, calcareous soils. It is less frequent on arable lands. It flowers in the late spring.
Fig. 24 - Horsebean, Vicia faba. US 190. Scale = 10 mm.
Cerastium/Stellaria. Cerastium/Stellaria. Only one unidentified seed (L: 1.03; B: 0.88; T: 0.48)
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Cerastium/Stellaria group is of this taxon is present in an early Middle Roman Empire layer. Cerastium/Stellaria group formed by herbs common in gardens, along paths and at field margins. Chenopodium album L., album L., Fat Hen. This species numbers amongst the more important weeds, living in the gardens and fields growing on all varieties of soil. According to some authors, its high nutrient content was well known to ancient peoples, who used Fat Hen as food. Its high seed production, its frequent presence in the prehistoric agriculture and recent experimental work (S TOKES and OWLEY-CONWY, 2002) point to a real possibility of the consumption of Fat Hen at least in R OWLEY periods of shortage. In Italy this species is known from the Neolithic (C OSTANTINI and STAN TANCANELLI, 1994). It flowers in summer and autumn. Only 18 seeds of it were found in few Neolithic layers at Villandro. Chenopodium hybridum L., Maple-leaved Goosefoot. In the Late Roman layers one seed (L: 1.60 mm) of this nitrophilous herb was found. Flowering in the summer, it is frequent in gardens and in crops. Chenopodium polyspermum L., Many-seeded Goosefoot. Only one seed of this weed was found inside an oven (US 216), of Middle Roman Em pire Age, together with a large quantity of other seeds and cereal grains. This Goosefoot is very common on arable land, on light soils. It flowers in summer and early autumn, and is frequently found in winter crops. Dimensions of the seed: L: L : 1.1; B: 1.0; T: 0.5). Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv., Cockspur grass. This grass is commonly found in vineyards, on dump soils and cultivated lands. It flowf lowers in summer. 4 seeds are present in Neolithic and Early Roman layers. Mean dimensions: L: 1.20; B: 1.12; T: 0.77. Euphorbia helioscopia L., helioscopia L., Sun Spurge. In a Neolithic layer two seeds of this herb were found, common in the gardens, on arable soil and on path margins. It flowers from spring to autumn. Dimensions: L: 2.53; B: 2.02; T: 1.80 mm). Fallopia convoluvulus Löve, Black Bindweed. One fruit of this species was found in an Early Middle Age layer. It is a typical weed, common in the cereal fields, in vineyards and along paths and in courtyards, as it does not require nutrient-rich soils. It flowers in the late summer and is therefore commonly found in the winter cereals. Dimensions: L: 2.05; B: 1.83. Fallopia dumetorum L., Copse-bindweed. This grass is commonly found in meadows and under hedges or bushes. In Middle Roman Empire layers 3 fruits of this species have been found. L., Common Hemp-nettle. Galeopsis tetrahit L., This grass is commonly found in spring crops and grows mostly on lightly damp soils.
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Only 2 seeds are present, one in a Neolithic, and another in an Early Middle Empire layer. It is a ubiquitous species, growing in several different communities.
Fig. 25 - Galium cf. aparine, cleavers. US 216. Scale = 1 mm.
Galium cf. aparine, aparine, cf. Cleavers (figs. 25 and 26). This is an annual frequently found in the charred samples. Its seeds are small, rounded, bearing in the middle of the ventral side a deep hole. This is usually circular, only in one case is somewhat squared. The elongated shape of the cells on the surface, barely visible, seems to characterise Galium aparine, aparine, a grass growing commonly in the crop as weed. It flowers from spring to autumn. Of this species 31 seeds were found mostly in historical layers. The seed with a square hole (L: 2.33; B: 2.00; hole diameter 0.85) could be referred to Galium spurium, spurium, which has a similar ecology.
Lolium temulentum L., temulentum L., Darnel. This weed is found in the Neolithic and Middle Roman Empire layers. It grows in the cereal fields and its grains, therefore, are common in the crop. Its poisonous properties were well known to the classical authors: infelix lolium was lolium was called by Virgil and Columella recommended the use of a particular sieve, cribrum loliarium, loliarium, to part the small caryopses of Darnel from the larger ones of cereals. Mean dimensions: L: 3.3; B: 1.4; T: 1.1. Medicago lupulina L., Black Medick. In a Neolithic layer 5 seeds of this grass were found. It grows at field margins or in uncultivated land and on moderately nitrogenous soils. It flowers from spring to autumn. Fig. 26 - Galium cf. aparine, details of the surface.
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Papaver somniferum L., Opium Poppy. In the Middle Roman Empire layers (US 216) 2 Opium Poppy seeds were found. Their dimensions are respectively: L: 1.05; B: 0.80; T: 0.68. hilum 0.37 and L: 1.00; B: 0.75; T: 0.70; hilum: 0.32. Polygonum lapathifolium L., Pale Persicaria. This is one of the commonest weeds of any crop, growing mostly on rich and partially damp soils. It is frequently found in winter cereals, because it flowers in late summer. Only 1 fruit was found in Neolithic layers, and 3 in Early Middle Ages. Ages. Ranunculus sp., Ranunculus sp., Buttercup. In an Early Medieval layer 2 flat, pear-shaped achenes, with a slightly papillous surface could belong to R to R.. acer , which is common on meadows and pastures. Dimensions: L: 2.25; B: 1.77; T: 0.93 and L: 2.25; B: 1.83; T: 0.87. and Rumex sp., Curled Dock. Rumex crispus L. and Rumex In a Neolithic layer 16 trigonous seeds, somewhat pointed, small (1.97 mm) are referred to the Curled Dock. This is a weed typical of the riparian communities. Similar seeds but more larger (2,95 mm) belong to the same genus but to an unidentified species found in a Late Roman layer. Stachys annua/arvensis, annua/arvensis, Annual/Field Woundwort. In a Roman layer of the 1 st-2nd century AD, one oval-shaped seed, with a keel on its ventral side, was found, belonging to this group. This grass is common on cultivated land, vineyards, and gardens. Stachys annua tends annua tends to wind round the stalk of cereals. Dimensions: L: 1.97; B: 1.37. Veronica hederaefolia L., hederaefolia L., Ivy-leaved Speedwell. The seeds of this weed are oval-shaped, with a dorsal side strongly convex and characteristic transverse ribs, converging towards the deep elliptical hollow, in the ventral side. In the Neolithic layers 19 seeds were found (some not charred), in US 190 (early Middle Roman Empire) 37. Mean dimensions: L: 2.85; B: 2.38; T: 1.33. Mean aperture diameter: 0.99 mm. The grass grows typically on light soils, and is frequent in the Agrostidio the Agrostidionn spicae-venti comspicae-venti community. munity. It grows commonly in winter cereals. Vicia cracca/villosa, cracca/villosa, Tufted/Fodder Vetch. The seeds are globular or sub-globular and are found in the Early Middle Ages layers. L: 1.75-2.35; B: 1.68-1.88; hilum mean wide 0.33 mm, mean length 1.90. Some unidentified but similar seeds are also present in the Neolithic layers. Vicia sp., Vetch. Four sub-globular seeds of Vetch have the following mean dimensions: L: 2.7; B: 2.6. Hilum width: 0.4.
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Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Schreber, Smooth Tare. This grass has sub-globular seeds with narrow hilum. It grows on cultivated fields and on wasteland. It flowers mostly in spring, sometimes even in autumn. It has been found (6 seeds) only in Roman and Early Medieval layers. Mean dimensions: L: 2.05; B: 2.03; hilum width: 0.37 and hilum length: 1.27. Vicia/Lathyrus, Vicia/Lathyrus , Vetch/Vetchling. Eleven sub-globular seeds, with a mean diameter of 1-2 mm, were found in an early Middle Roman Empire layer. This legume is frequent in the crops as weed. Viola arvensis/tricolour , Field/Wild Pansy. These two species grow on arable fields and particularly V . arvensis is arvensis is mostly found in the cereal crops. Both species are frequent in fallow land and in autumn/winter cereals. Two Two seeds are present in US 216 (Early Middle Roman Empire). Dimensions: L: 1.5; B: 1.0 and L: 1.8; B: 1.05.
6.5. ECOLOGY Amongst the numerous grasses found at Villandro, several belong to the Centauretalia Amongst these, are cyani phytosociological cyani phytosociological association, which is characteristic of cereal fields. Amongst found Bromus Bromus secalinus/ secalinus/hor hordaceu daceuss, Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine, Lolium temulentum, Papaver somniferum, niferum, Veronica hederaefolia, Vicia tetrasperma, tetrasperma, Vicia villosa, Viola arvensis e V . tricolor . Elements of this association can be found in the Neolithic, Roman and Middle Age layers. 8
7
6
5 ° n s e i 4 c e p s
3
2
1
0
gardens
field margins
cereal fields
wasteland
grassland
paths
Fig. 27 - Main environmental sources as shown by weeds from the Neolithic layers.
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albi association, Another typical weed community of Villandro is the Chenopodietalia albi association, with some different varieties. It is formed by weeds frequent on uncultivated soils, or on tilled sandy and nitrogenous soils. cyani association. It frequently replaces in late summer the weeds of Centauretalia cyani Amongst the weeds belonging to this community Chenopodium album, album, Chenopodium hybridum, bridum, Polygonum lapathifolium and lapathifolium and other species of arable fields, vineyards and paths margins like Galeopsis tetrahit , Fallopia convolvulus, convolvulus, were found in both Neolithic and Roman layers. The species Echinochloa crus-galli belongs crus-galli belongs to Molinio-Arrhenatheretum Molinio-Arrhenatheretum,, frequent in damp meadows with Ranunculus with Ranunculus acer and and Carex sp., Carex sp., from the first centuries AD. Watersides and wet pastures not belonging to a crop field environment are represented by the Agropyr the Agropyron-Rumicion of Rumex crispus in the on-Rumicion crispi association, crispi association, with numerous seeds of Rumex Neolithic layers. Polygonum layers. Polygonum persicaria, the Polygono-Chenopodion polysperpersicaria, representing the Polygono-Chenopodion mi, mi, grows on rich-nutrients soils and often on pastured land. It is present only in an Early/ Middle Neolithic layer. layer. Weed associations belong mostly to cereal fields and gardens and were introduced in the final samples with the crops. As components of the local flora, they allow a reconstruction of the main grass environments throughout the ages (fig. 27).
6.6. FRUITS Fragaria vesca L., vesca L., Strawberry. From two different Neolithic layers we have 2 achenes of Strawberry. They could have been intentionally gathered in the surroundings, at the margins of wood. Dimensions: L: 1.12; B: 0.93; T: 0.7. Rubus idaeus L., idaeus L., Raspberry. In US 30 tg 7, with Mesolithic and Early Neolithic materials, 2 pips of this species were found. In the same sample an achene of Strawberry was collected. Dimensions: L: 1.9; B: 0.93; T: 1.23. Rubus sp. Two pips of Blackberry (probably R (probably R.. caesius L. or R or R.. fruticosus L. fruticosus L. s.l. s.l.)) come from one of the lower Neolithic layers (US 30 tg 8), with a doubtful attribution to Early Neolithic. Dimensions: L: 2.20; B: 1.33; T: 1.25. Pyrus malus L., malus L., Apple. An Apple seed is present in US 190 (early Middle Roman Empire). It is flattened obovate with pointed base. Dimensions: L: 8.2; B: 4.0; T: 2.9. Prunus avium L., Cherry. A partially fragmented Cherry stone was found in a Middle Roman Empire layer. The shape is broadly oval, the wall is 0.55 thick. The ventral side is crossed by a large suture, partially destroyed, 2.40 2.40 mm wide, with distinct distinct edges. Dimensions: Dimensions: L: 7.0; B: 5.1. 5.1.
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Prunus spinosa L., Sloe. A whole stone of Sloe is the only palaeoethnobotanical presence for the Iron Age. The stone is broadly oval, slightly pointed at the apex opposite to hilum. It is small and its surface is covered by a reticulum with distinct ribs. Dimensions: L: 6.5; B: 4.8; T: T: 4.2. Elder. Sambucus ebulus/racemosa, ebulus/racemosa , Dwarf/Red-berried Elder. The seeds are oval-shaped, with a flattened side, the opposite slightly obtuse-carenated. They are present in almost all Neolithic layers, and are numerous (113). The Dwarf Elder grows normally at path margins, in clearings or meadows, on nitrogenous-rich soils the Red berried Elder is a small mountainous tree, growing at the edges of beech or conifer forests. Dimensions of the seeds: L: 2.25-2.40; B: 1.60-2.00; T: 1.20-1.40. The abundance of Sambucus ebulus/racemosa ebulus/racemosa at the site is not easy to explain. The fruits of Dwarf Elder are poisonous and its medicinal properties were known in the past, for instance against snakes poison. The fruits have also been employed as dye (grey blue). blu e). The Red-berr Red- berried ied Elder Elde r has edible edib le berries, berr ies, from which whic h a ferment fer mented ed beverage beve rage can be prod p roduced uced.. Sambucus nigra L., nigra L., Elderberry. Elderberry is present only in US 190, Early Roman Empire. Its seeds are oval, slightly elongated and more flattened with respect to Sambucus ebulus. ebulus. Dimensions: L: 2.5-3.7; B: 1.1-1.4; T: 1.0-1.3. Quercus sp., Quercus sp., deciduous Oak. In US 30 tg 8 (Neolithic) 5 fragmented acorns have been found, whose surface is crossed by a few longitudinal, undulated furrows. Juglans regia regia L., L., Walnut (fig. 28). From US 190 (Middle Roman Empire) 29 fragments of Walnut shell were extracted. Evidence of the local cultivation of this tree is demonstrated by the contemporary presence of walnut-tree charcoal, though at a very low percent. Surely this plant was still grown in the following centuries, as its wood is documented in later charred samples. Vitis vinifera L., vinifera L., Grape Vine (fig. 29). Apart from a few uncharred pips from two Neolithic and one Early Middle Ages layers, which should be considered as intrusive, Vine cultivation is documented by a small number of seeds (2) of Roman age (1 st-2nd century AD), from a more consistent quantity (10) in Middle Roman Empire layers and one seed in an Early Medieval layer. Their dimensions are: Early Middle Ages: L: 5.7; B: 3.5; Middle Roman Empire: L: 4.3-6.2; B: 2.5-3.3; T: 2.0-2.9 ; Roman Age, 1st-2nd centuries: L: 5.7; B: 2.7 and L: 5.6; B: 2.0.
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Fig. 28 - Walnut, Juglans regia regia. US 190. Scale = 2 cm
Fig. 29 - Pips of cultivated Grape, Vitis vinifera. US 190.
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7. CONSIDERATIONS According to charcoal and seed assemblage, the Mesolithic camp was placed where the morphology of the slope and the vegetal environment were most suitable for hunting. The site lay between the lower limit of the coniferous forest (mainly Scots pine and Dwarf mountain-pine.) and the upper margin of the broad-leaved forest (mainly deciduous oak), probably with clearings favourable to heliophilous trees, like Betula like Betula (birch). (birch). Later on, the first Neolithic settlers used the site for a longer period of time, as shown by the presence of small huts during Early Neolithic, with well-structured functional areas, both IZZI and LARCHER R IZZI, 2002). Agriculture was certainly practised on indoor and outdoor (R IZZI R IZZI site, as already demonstrated by the presence of flint sickles with their characteristic polish. Crops were possibly cultivated in pre-existent clearings, or by the swidden cultivation (slash and burn) technique. This latter seems to be a real possibility, as indicated by the presence of weed seeds, not specific of cereal crop. Us 30 tg 9, with the oldest date of the Neolithic stratigraphy, demonstrates that the first settlers here grew Barley and naked Wheat, maybe using the surrounding environment for the collection of wild fruits like Strawberry and Elderberries. During the following occupation in the Middle Neolithic (Square-Mouthed Pottery Culture) the cereal assemblage does not change, but in US 30 tg tg 6 Emmer makes makes its first first appearan appearance. ce. Meanwhi Meanwhile, le, many many more wild wild fruits were were gathered in the woodland, like Blackberries, Raspberries, Acorns and Wild Wild Cherries. The large amount of charred Corylus wood Corylus wood suggests that also hazelnuts were commonly eaten in this period, period, but no no shells shells were were found in these these layers. layers. Meanwh Meanwhile, ile, the the assembla assemblage ge of apophyt apophytes es and and anthropochores becomes richer and shows the existence of several different environments, as a consequence of an increased human pressure and a prolonged period of permanence. The slope settled by the Neolithic groups apparently remained unchanged during a long span of time but, probably as a consequence of an intensive exploitation of the nearby soils, new micro-environments are perceptible. The site, lying in the ecotone between the broadleaved woodland with thermophilous species such as Quercus, Ulmus, Acer and Fraxinus and Fraxinus on the lower slope and the coniferous forest on the upper slope, provided access to a broad spectrum of vegetal and animal resources. However, the presence of poplar and alder charcoals point also to the presence of damp areas or running waters. The large quantity of Oak charcoal with regard to all other taxa, could suggest that the main woody structures of the huts were made of Oak, collected in the near oak woodland. Nevert Neverthel heless ess,, compar comparing ing Earl Earlyy Neolith Neolithic ic with with Middl Middlee Neolit Neolithic hic samp samples les,, it seem seemss that that the NeoNeolithic impact on the local environment was of very limited entity for more than ten centuries. About 1500 years later the same area was settled, for a short time, by a small Copper Age group. A new hut was built and the radiocarbon age is R-601: 4660±70 uncal BP (36503300 cal BC at 2σ) ( ZANDÒ, 2002). Unfortunately, charcoal samples are too small and it is impossible to draw a detailed picture of the forest evolution at this time, though it seems that no particular changes occurred. The few carbonised wood fragments show the persistence of previous main associations, associations, oak woodland and conifer forest. Farming Farming is hardly represented, represented, but the presence of Millet should be noted, noted, besides that of Barley. Barley. A new settlement rose in the late Iron Age, foreshadowing those, much more consistent, of historical age. The wood used in the fireplaces found inside a hut still show the use of coni-
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fers and oaks, but provide no evidence of agriculture. The only gathering activity consists of a stone of Prunus of Prunus spinosa, spinosa , Sloe, probably collected for its edible properties which were known since earlier times, as well demonstrated by its presence on the mummified body of ‘Ötzi’. The relative abundance (>9%) of charcoals of Maloideae in this period may point to a regular consumption of their fruits, apart from the Prunoideae ones. Around the first half of the 1 st century AD new buildings were erected, and there is also evidence of some alimentary plants. Rye was grown for the first time on the site, together with emmer, naked wheat and barley. The vine was certainly of the cultivated variety ( Vitis stratigraphy, vinifera). vinifera). The charcoals found in these layers document, for the first time in the stratigraphy, an overwhelming presence (>70% of the total) of conifers. This might be due to the spread of agriculture or pastoral activities, or to a progressive erosion of the mixed oak forest, partially used for providing timber. From this point onwards, however, however, the main wood source was to be the upper part of the slope with its pine pine and spruce forests, forests, for the following millennium. millennium. The following archaeological layer, early Middle Roman Empire, has by far the richest documentation of the whole sequence. The setting becomes permanent, with larger houses or farmhouses with ovens and storehouses. In a stone house (‘House A’), the ‘Room N’ was used, at least in part, as a crop store, for Barley, spikes of various Wheats ( Triticum dicoccum, T . aestivum), aestivum), and rye together with crop weeds such as Galeopsis tetrahit , Vicia sp., sp., Bromus sp., Ave sp., Avena sp. etc. Polygonum dumetorum, dumetorum, Setaria sp., Bromus na sp. Moreover, in this room pulses such as horse beans and peas, and fruits, namely walnuts and bunches of grapes were stored. We have previously discussed the possibility that a part of this room was dedicated to the germination of barley grains, as part of the beer making process. Almost all wood used in the houses (94.3%) comes from the conifer forest. It is therefore possible that, around the 2nd century AD, the lower margin of the pine and spruce woodland was close to the site. After the burning of these buildings new houses were built at the end of 4th century AD (Late Roman period). The agricultural data become less abundant in respect to the previous occupation, but it is still considerable. A very pronounced use of conifer wood (>93% of the total) is even now evident, together with walnut trees (walnuts had been eaten since the preceding period), which provides an excellent wood for carpentry. Barley is still widely grown and lentils make their first appearance. IZZI, 1989-1990) relate that, following the collapse However, dig reports (D AL R Ì and R IZZI of a room caused by fire, several kinds of charred fruits were preserved: bunches of grapes, apples, pears, plums and chestnuts. In another room a bowl filled with almonds and chestnuts was found (interestingly, (interestingly, the wood of this latter species was not found in any of the archaeological layers). These materials were not included in the present report. The Early Middle Age layers provided very few palaeoethnobotanical remains. Besides Barley, oat and naked Wheat were found. Some Vine pips still testify the presence of cultivated grapes.
8. CONCLUSIONS Multi-disciplinary researches on the prehistoric ecology in the eastern Alps Alps had a strong increase following the recovery of the frozen Copper Age mummy (B ORTENSCHLAGER and OEGGL, 2000; DICKSON et al .,., 2000; OEGGL et al .,., 2007). However, a comprehensive picture of
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farming techniques and forest evolution had already been reached by means of earlier studies of alpine sites, some of which in the inner alpine chain, thanks to a renewed interest in manmountain relationships. The Alps are no longer considered marginal areas, but as a primary nuclei of radiation towards new environments and as rich stores of animal, floral and mineral resources, some of which indispensable to the development of new technologies. However, it must be recognised that most of the palaeoagricultural records from northern Italy come almost exclusively from the lowlands or hilly regions, as shown in recent reviews (R OTTOLI and CASTIGLIONI, 2008). For this reason, the research carried out at Villandro/VillandersPlunacker can contribute to a better understanding of some aspects of the penetration and the strengthening of farming over a time span of about seven millennia. First of all, the primary importance of Barley since the Early Neolithic, as an economic and alimentary resource, is confirmed. Secondly, Secondly, and differently to what was found in the lowlands, at Villandro the presence of Emmer and naked wheat is quite limited. In the Adige Valley, at La Vela (Trento), Barley OTTOLI, 1998-1999) and, furis associated with wheat in Early Neolithic (C ASTELLETTI, and R OTTOLI ther south, a single Barley grain was extracted in a pollen core from a peat-bog at Isera, and radiocarbon dated to the second half of the 6 th millennium BC (CALDERONI et al .,., 1996, from PEDROTTI, 2002). Thirdly, Thirdly, the radiocarbon dates show that since the end of the 6 th millennium BC groups of farmers spread deep into the alpine chain, where they could adapt to mountain environment and resources. These small communities fit chronologically in the Gaban Group, with radiocarbon dates (BAGOLINI and BIAGI, 1990) well matching those from the deepest layers of Trench C at Villandro. With regard to the recent debate rising from the occurrence of single pollen grains of Cerealia-type of Early Holocene date, from South Tyrol, Tyrol and Swiss Alps, which are considered by several authors as an indication of Late Mesolithic proto-agriculture, we refer to the recent criticism from B EHRE (2007). At the moment, the earliest consistent evidence of cereal spread near or close to the southern side of Alps, based on macro-remains, are to be found at Villandro in South Tyrol, at Sammardenchia in Frioul (R OTTOLI OTTOLI , 2000) and possibly at Isolino di Varese in Lombardy (C ASTELLETTI, 1990), all sites belonging to the Early Neolithic age. More consistent evidence comes from the plain or the Apennines, as listed in R OTTOLI OTTOLI and CASTIGLIONI (2008). Acknowledgements I owe my thanks to Drs. L. Dal Rì and U. Tecchiati (Ufficio Beni Archeologici, Soprintendenza Provinciale ai Beni Culturali di Bolzano-Alto Adige) who charged me in 2005 for the study of the charred materials from Villandro/Villanders. They, and Dr. G. Ricci (Società Ricerche Archeologiche, Bressanone/Brixen), have also provided the indispensable documentation on stratigraphy, radiocarbon dating and references. Prof. P. Biagi and Dr. F. Fuolega (Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità e del Vicino Oriente. Sezione Archeologia) gave valuable advice on the chronology of the Trench C (Early and Middle Neolithic). Thanks are due to Prof. U. Casellato and Dr. F. Fenzi (CNR-ICIS, Padova), and Prof. D. Mazza (Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Politecnico di Torino) for the use of SEM, and Prof. K. Oeggl, who provided some important references on the archaeobotany carried out at the Institut für Botanik, Universität Innsbruck. I am particularly indebted with J. Robinson for the revision of the original English text.
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R OJO OJO-GUERRA, M.A., G ARRIDO-PENA, R. and GARCÍA-MARTÍNEZ-DE-LAGRÁN, Í. 2006a - Un Brindis con el pasado: La Cerveza hace 4500 años en la Península Ibérica . Universidad de Valladolid, serie Arte y Arqueología, 22. Valladolid. R OJO OJO-GUERRA, M.A., G ARRIDO-PENA, R., GARCÍA-MARTÍNEZ-DE-LAGRÁN, Í., JUAN-TRESSERAS, J. and MATAMALA, J.C. 2006b - Beer and Bell Beakers: Drinking Rituals in Copper Age Inner Iberia. Proceedings Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 71: 243-265. ÖSCH, M. 2002 - Botanische Untersuchung einer Bodenprobe des eisenzeitlichen Brandopferplatzes von R ÖSCH St. Walburg im Ultental, Südtirol. In S ÖLDER , W. (ed.) Kult Kul t der Vorzeit orz eit in den Alpen Alp en . Athesia, Bozen: 957-959.
R ÖSCH ÖSCH, M., J ACOMET, S. and K ARG ARG, S. 1992 - The history of cereals in the region of the former Duchy of Swa bia (Herzogtum Schwaben) from the Roman to the Post-medieval Post-mediev al period; results of archaeological research. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany , 1 (4): 193-231. OTTOLI, M. 2000 - Nascita R OTTOLI Nascita e svilu sviluppo ppo dell’ag dell’agrico ricoltur lturaa in Italia Italia sette settentri ntriona onale. le. I nuovi nuovi dati dati arche archeobo obotan tanici ici. In PESSINA, A. neoliti litizzaz zzazion ionee tra tra orien oriente te e occi occiden dente te. Museo Friulano di Storia Naturale, Udine: 91-98. and MUSCIO, G. (eds.) La neo OTTOLI, M. and CASTIGLIONI, E. 2008 - Prehistory of plant growing and collecting in northern Italy, based on seed R OTTOLI remains from the early Neolithic to the Chalcolithic (c. 5600-2100 cal B.C.). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, in press (electronic version).
SCHMIDL, A., JACOMET, S. and OEGGL, K. 2007 - Distribution patterns of cultivated plants in the Eastern Alps (Central Europe) during the Iron Age. Journal of Archaeological Archaeological Science Science , 34: 243-254. SCHMIDL, A. and OEGGL, K. 2007 - Ernährung und Wirtschaftweise der Siedler am Ganglegg während der Bronzeund Eisenzeit. Paläoethnobotanische Untersuchungen. In STEINER , H. (ed.) Die Befestigte Siedlung am Ganglegg im Vinschgau - Südtirol . Forschungen zur Denkmalpflege Denkmalpflege in Südtirol Südtirol , 3: 511-589. Bozen. SCHWEINGRUBER , F.H. 1990 - Anatomie europäisch europäischer er Hölzer . Haupt, Stuttgart. SEIWALD, A. 1980 - Beiträge zur Vegetationsgeschichte Tirols IV: Natzer Plateau - Villanderer Alm. Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischen Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischen Vereines in in Innsbruck , 67: 31-72. OWLEY-CONWY, P. STOKES, P. P. and R OWLEY P. 2002 - Iron Age Cultigen? Cultigen ? Experimental Return Rates for Fat Hen (Chenopodium album L.). Environmental Environmental Archaeology Archaeology, 7: 95-99.
STUMBÖCK , M. 1999 - Die spät und postglaziale Vegetationsgeschichte egetationsgeschichte des nordwestlichen nordwestlichen Südtirols, Südtirols, mit einem Beitrag zur Verküpfung Verküpfung natürlicher natürlicher Archive mit historischen Quellen Quellen . Dissertationes Botanicae, 299. BerlinStuttgart.
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Author’s Address: RENATO RENATO NISBET, Viale Viale Rimembranza 7 – I - 10066 10 066 TORRE PELLICE (TO) e-mail:
[email protected]
120 -
Appendix 1. Charcoal analysis US 22, sq. D-Q/8-9, wall collapse
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies
20 5
US 22, House A, outside room H
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies
34 11
US 59, sq. QRS/0-1, House A, room N, floor room N
Recent Early Medieval
Pinus cembra Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Picea abies Alnus sp. Corylus avellana Juglans regia
6 20 9 8 2 9 1
US 78, sq. S-T/6-7-8, outside SW House A, room A
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies Quercus cad. Juglans regia
21 17 26 5
US 115, lower cut, House A, room F
Recent Early Medieval
Pinus cembra Picea/Larix Betula sp. Quercus (sect. Robur) Ulmus sp. Prunus sp.
US 115, I-H/0-3 House A, room F, stone foundation
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Quercus cad. Juglans regia
8 2 43
US 121, House A, room D, floor
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Ulmus sp. Maloideae Prunus sp. Juglans regia
12 4 10 1 2 3 4
US 182, sq. M-L/19-20, House B
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Ulmus sp. Fraxinus sp. Maloideae
44 28 26 1 1 1 2
US 204, sq. L-M/17-18, House B, hut B3, floor base, large pit with pallet
Recent Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies Betula sp. Corylus avellana Quercus cad.
9 6 1 51 1
subtotal
3 2 2 1 1 4
467
- 121
US 125, sq. L-M/0, House A, room L (hearth US 194)
Intermediate Early Medieval
Pinus sylvestris/mugo
4
US 186, sq. R/0-1, House A, room N, hearth B
Intermediate Early Medieval
Pinus cembra Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Picea abies Betula sp. Alnus sp. Fagus sylvatica Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Fraxinus sp. Maloideae
1 6 11 22 5 6 1 1 6 1 6
US 194, sq. M/1, House A, room L, hearth
Intermediate Early Medieval
Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Betula sp. Alnus sp. Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Juglans regia
2 2 1 6 3 65 6
US 220, sq. V-Z/6-8, V-Z/6-8, House D, floor
Intermediate Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies Betula sp. Fagus sylvatica Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Salix/Populus Ulmus Maloideae Prunus sp. Juglans regia
32 28 1 1 2 4 1 2 4 9 4
US 221, lower cut, sq. AE-AD-AC/7, room Q
Intermediate Early Medieval
Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Picea abies Quercus cad. Cornus mas
1 11 7 1 1
US 221, sq. AA-AE, 16/18 House D under the Trench, floor phase B, room Q
Intermediate Early Medieval
Picea/Larix Picea abies Betula sp. Fagus Quercus cad. Maloideae Prunus sp.
US 231, sq. z/6, House D, room Y, hearth near the wall
Intermediate Early Medieval
Pinus cembra Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Picea abies
122 -
6 3 1 1 3 5 2 2 12 10 8
Fagus sylvatica Quercus cad. Acer sp.
1 4 2
subtotal
324
276
US 26, House A, floor room A
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Picea/Larix
US 52, sq. P-Q/19-20, Trench A
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Picea excelsa
85
US 53, sq. Q-R/20, House B
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Picea/Larix Betula sp. Alnus sp. Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Juglans regia
27 6 1 14 1 6
US 189, sq. P-O 0/1, House A, room L (under floor phase C)
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Picea/Larix
137
US 189, sq. 0/1, West House A, room L, earthen floor
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Picea excelsa Alnus sp.
110 3
US 206, sq. O-P/2, House A, room L
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/larix Betula
2 1 3
US 208, sq. N/2-3, House A, room L
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Betula Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Acer sp. Acer sp. Fraxinus sp. Maloideae
7 9 21 4 1 2 1 3 1
US 210, sq.ore Z/1, zone M
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Picea/Larix Quercus cad. subtotal
3 4 728
- 123
US 82, U-T/9, zone R, pit bottom between House D and House A
Roman-Early Roman-E arly Middle Empire
Picea/Larix Betula
40 5
US 82, sq. U-T/9, zone R, between House D and House A
Roman-Early Middle Empire
Picea/Larix
14
US 190, sq. QRS/0-1-2-3, House A, room N
Roman-Early Middle Empire
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa
92 92
US 21 2/2, sq. O/1-2, House A, room L, hearth surface
Roman-Early Middle Empire
Picea/Larix Quercus cad. Fraxinus sp.
15 5 1
US 212/2, sq. O/1-2, House A, room L
Roman-Early Middle Empire
Picea/Larix Alnus sp. Juglans regia
4 2 3
US 216, sq. AB/1, zone M1
Roman-Early Middle Empire
Picea/Larix
6
subtotal
US 214, cut I, sq. T-AE/2-3, zone M, House F
Roman middle 1st-middle 2nd century Pinus cembra Pinus sylvestris/mugo Picea/Larix Picea abies Betula sp. Fagus sylvatica Quercus cad. Prunus sp. Maloideae subtotal
US 257, Iron age hut
Late Iron Age, 1st century BC
Pinus cembra Pinus sylvestris/mugo Betula sp. Alnus sp. Corylus avellana Quercus cad. Ulmus sp. Fraxinus sp. Maloideae Salix/Populus subtotal
124 -
279
5 48 20 22 1 1 35 2 1 135
9 42 2 2 3 45 2 1 11 2 119 119
US 180, P-Q/13-14, Trench A, hut floor
Copper Age
Picea/Larix Betula sp. Quercus cad. Maloideae
1 1 3 3
subtotal
8
US 30, cut 1, sq. D/2, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Quercus cad.
1 1 10
US 30, cut 2, sq. E/4, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea excelsa Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad.
3 3 5
US 30, cut 3, sq. 39, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad. Prunus sp.
1 3 7 1 34 2
US 30, cut 4, sq. 40, Trench C
Neolithic
Alnus sp. Quercus cad. Populus sp.
4 29 4
US 30, cut 5, sq. 41, Trench C
Neolithic
Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad. Acer sp.
3 1 9 2
US 30, cut 6, sq. 13, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad. Fraxinus sp.
2 2 2 10 8 1
US 30, cut 7, sq. 40, Trench C
Neolithic
Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad. Fraxinus sp. Prunus cf. avium cf. avium
15 6 18 3 2
- 125
US 30 cut 8, sq. 42, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Corylus avellana Quercus cad.
6 7 9 2 40
US 30, cut 9, sq. F/5, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Quercus cad. Corylus avellana Carpinus/Ostrya
1 2 2 4 2 1
US 30, cut 9, sq. 44, Trench C
Neolithic
Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Corylus avellana Quercus cad.
8 1 22 12
US 80, cut 1, sq. 42, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad. Ulmus sp.
5 6 13 1 15 1
US 80, sq. 15-17, Trench C
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Carpinus/Ostrya Quercus cad.
4 2 7 2 10
US 151, sq. A6-B6, Trench C, hearth
Neolithic
Picea/Larix Picea excelsa Alnus sp. Quercus cad.
1 1 2 43
subtotal
424
US 325, sq. AB/B4, plinth 7
Mesolithic
Pinus sylvestris/mugo Betula Quercus cad.
1 4 6
US 325, zona M, plinth 7
Mesolithic
Pinus sylvestris/mugo Betula sp. Quercus cad.
1 12 4
subtotal
28
126 -
Appendix 2. Seeds and fruits US 59
Recent Early Medieval
Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Avena sp.
2 1 1
US 115
Recent Early Medieval
Hordeum vulgare vulgare (hulled) Vitis vinifera Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine
1 2 2
US 121
Recent Early Medieval
Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Secale cereale
2 2 2
US 182
Intermediate Early Medieval
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Secale cereale Setaria viridis/vert/italica Vicia sp. Vitis vinifera
2 1 1 1 1
US 204
Intermediate Early Medieval
Secale cereale
1
US 186
Intermediate Early Medieval
Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare (hulled) Secale cereale Triticum/Secale Bromus secalinus/hordaceus secalinus/hordaceus Fallopia convolvulus Ranunculus sp.
4 3 1 1 1 1 2
US 125
Intermediate Early Medieval
Hordeum vulgare vulgare (hulled)
1
US 221
Intermediate Early Medieval
Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare hexastichum Lens esculenta Indeterminated
2 2 1 2
US 52, sq. P-Q/19-20, Trench A
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia
2 3
US 53, sq. Q-R/20, House B
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Hordeum vulgare vulgare hexastichum cf. Hordeum vulgare cf. Hordeum vulgare Cerealia Setaria viridis/verticillata/italica Chenopodium hybridum Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine Rumex sp.
1 1 7 2 1 5 1
- 127
US 208, sq. N/2-3, House A, room L
Late Roman, end 4th-5th centuries
Triticum sp. Hordeum vulgare vulgare hexastichum Lens esculenta Galium sp. Vicia tetrasperma
US 82, u-T/9, zone R, pit bottom
Early Middle Roman Empire
Triticum Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Secale cereale
US 190, sq. QRS/0-1-2-3, House A, room N
Early Middle Roman Empire
Triticum Triticum dicoccum, grain Triticum Triticum dicoccum, glumes Triticum Triticum aestivum s.l. Triticum sp. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Secale cereale Avena sp. Vicia faba Pisum sp. Vitis vinifera Juglans regia Prunus cf. Prunus cf. avium Pyrus communis Bromus secalinus/hordaceus secalinus/hordaceus Carex sp. Echinochloa crus-galli Galeopsis tetrahit Lolium temulentum Melilotus cf. Melilotus cf. dentata Polygonum dumetorum Polygonum lapathifolium Sambucus nigra Setaria viridis/verticillata/italica Veronica hederaefolia Vicia sp. Vicia tetrasperma Vicia/Lathyrus
US 21, 2/2 sq. O/1-2, House A, room L
Early Middle Roman Empire
Hordeum vulgare vulgare
US 216, sq. AB/1, Oven M1
Early Middle Roman Empire
Triticum dicoccum (one grain spikelet) Triticum dicoccum dicoccum Triticum dicoccum, glumes Triticum dicoccum, forks Triticum aestivum s.l./durum/turgidum s.l./durum/turgidum Triticum spelta, grain Triticum spelta, forks Triticum spelta, glume Triticum sp. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Hordeum vulgare vulgare (hulled) Secale cereale
128 -
2 6 1 1 1 45 4 2 114 31 90 24 6504 8 5 130 3 10 29 1 1 1 10 1 1 3 1 3 3 63 32 37 18 4 11 1 2 1018 460 510 264 26 25 5 424 22 22 10
Secale/Triticum Panicum miliaceum Avena sp. Cerealia Picea excelsa (needles) Bromus secalinus/hordaceus secalinus/hordaceus Cerastium/Stellaria Chenopodium polyspermum Composite, achenes Echinochloa crus-galli Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine aparine Papaver sp. Papaver sp. Setaria viridis/verticillata/italica Vicia cracca/villosa Viola arvensis/tricolor
21 1 4 1046 3 3 1 1 1 2 9 2 6 3 2
US 214
middle 1st-middle 2nd centuries AD Triticum dicoccum Triticum aestivum s.l. Triticum spelta, glumes Triticum spelta, glume-base Triticum sp. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Secale cereale Avena sp. Vitis vinifera Echinochloa crusgalli Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine Stachys annua/arvensis Vicia tetrasperma
US 257
Late Iron Age, 1st century BC
Prunus spinosa
1
US 180
Copper Age
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Panicum miliaceum Setaria viridis/verticillata/italica
2 2 2
US 30, cut 1, sq. D/2, Trench C
Neolithic
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Chenopodium album Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine
8 7 1
US 30, cut 2, sq. E/4, Trench C
Neolithic
Triticum aestivum s.l. Chenopodium album Veronica hederaefolia
1 6 1
US 30, cut 3, sq. 39, Trench C
Neolithic
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Chenopodium album Sambucus ebulus Veronica hederaefolia
1 1 1 3 1
US 30, cut 4, sq. 40, Trench C
Neolithic
Cerealia Cerastium arvense
1 1
46 8 3 2 53 3 2 1 2 1 8 1 1
- 129
Sambucus ebulus Indeterminated
1 2
US 30, cut 5, sq. 41, Trench C
Neolithic
Cerealia Cerastium arvense Sambucus ebulus Veronica hederaefolia
2 2 3 1
US 30, cut 6, sq. 13, Trench C
Neolithic
Triticum Triticum dicoccum Triticum Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Lolium temulentum Polygonum persicaria Rumex crispus Sambucus ebulus Veronica hederaefolia Vicia sativa Vicia/Lathyrus Indeterminated
1 7 8 49 3 2 16 13 2 1 1 3
US 30, cut 7, sq. 40, Trench C
Neolithic
Triticum Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Fragaria vesca Rubus idaeus Sambucus ebulus Veronica hederaefolia
2 87 1 2 28 2
US 30, cut 8, sq. 42, Trench C
Neolithic
Triticum Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Chenopodium album Echinocloa crusgalli Euphorbia helioscopia Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine aparine Lolium temulentum Medicago lupulina Quercus sp. (acorn) Rubus sp. Sambucus ebulus Veronica hederaefolia Vicia sp.
2 21 65 4 1 2 4 4 5 5 2 42 8 3
US 30, cut 9, sq. F/5
Neolithic
Triticum aestivum s.l. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Bromus secalinus v.v. hordaceus Sambucus ebulus Veronica hederaefolia
1 52 82 3 3 2
US 30, cut 9, sq. 44, Trench C
Neolithic
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Sambucus ebulus
9 14
130 -
US 80, cut 1, sq. 42, Trench C
Neolithic
Fragaria vesca
1
Vitis vinifera Veronica hederaefolia
3 1
Triticum dicoccum Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Galeopsis tetrahit Galium cf. Galium cf. aparine aparine Lolium temulentum Polygonum lapathifolium Sambucus ebulus Vicia sp.
1 53 75 1 1 5 1 9 1
US 80, sq. 15-17, Trench C, witness
Neolithic
Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Veronica hederaefolia
3 15 1
US 151, sq. A6-B6, Trench C, hearth 151
Neolithic
Triticum dicoccum Triticum sp. Hordeum vulgare vulgare Cerealia Vitis vinifera
8 42 4 5 2
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Atti Soc. Preist. Protost. Friuli-V.G., Friuli-V.G., Trieste, XVI, 2006-2007 (2008): (200 8): 133-146
ALBERTO GIROD* e GIULIA RICCARDINO**
VALUTAZIONE DEL CONTRIBUTO DI Cerastoderma glaucum (POIRET, 1789) ALLA DIETA DIETA DELLE POPOLAZIONI POP OLAZIONI PREISTORICHE DEL SITO DI MONTE D’ACCODDI (PORTO TORRES, SARDEGNA) La mesure précise d’un fait imprécis imprécis ne se traduit jamais jamais par un gain en précision, mais en imprécision imprécision CHENORKIAN, 1992
SUMMARY – SUMMARY – Evaluation Evaluation of the t he contribution contr ibution of Cerastoderma glaucum (POIRET, 1789) to the diet of the prehistoric populations of Monte d’Accoddi (Porto Torres, Sardinia). The excavations carried out between 1979 and 2000 in the area that surrounds the prehistoric shrine at Monte d’Accoddi have always b rought to light large quantities of marine shells. The dominant species is Cerastoderma glaucum . On the basis of the relationships between betwee n dimensions dimensio ns and fresh weight wei ght of the individuals indivi duals of this species spe cies living in five fiv e Italian lagoons, lagoo ns, the weight of the flesh contained in the valves of the archaeological site was estimated. This method, which is rapid, although not necessarily precise, and useful only for d efining general trends, has in any case favoured an average possible evaluation of the availability of protein and energy that C. glaucum C. glaucum offered to the prehistoric populations around the shrine. A modest nutritional content has emerged. This indicates that both C. glaucum, and the other sea molluscs, represented only an integrative part of the diet. Valutazione del contributo contributo di Cerastoderma glaucum (POIRET, 1789) alla dieta delle popolazioni RIASSUNTO – RIASSUNTO – Valutazione preistoriche preistoriche del sito di Monte d’Accoddi d’Accoddi (Porto Torres, Torres, Sardegna). Sardegna). Gli scavi eseguiti fra il 1979 e il 2000 nell’area che circonda il santuario preistorico di Monte d’Accoddi, hanno messo in luce delle grandi quantità di conchiglie marine. La specie dominante è Cerastoderma glaucum. In base alla relazione che intercorre tra le dimensioni e il peso a fresco degli individui della stessa specie viventi viven ti in cinque lagune lagun e italiane, è stato stimato il peso della carne contenuta nelle valve del sito archeologico. Questo metodo, rapido ma non necessariamente preciso, utile a definire delle tendenze generali, ha comunque consentito una valutazione di massima della disponibilità proteica ed energetica che C. glaucum poteva offrire ai frequentatori preistorici del santuario. Sono risultati degli apporti nutrizionali molto modesti, che fanno supporre che C. glaucum, e gli altri molluschi marini, costituissero solo un elemento integrativo della dieta alimentare degli abitanti. Keywords: Sardinia, Monte d’Accoddi, marine molluscs, prehistoric diet, nutritional content.
__________________ ____________________
** Laboratorio di Malacologia Applicata, Milano, I ** Monza, Milano, I
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IL SITO Il santuario di Monte d’Accoddi si trova nella pianura Turritana, circa 11 km a NW di Sassari, su di un altipiano, a circa 70 m di altezza, poco a valle della cima del Monte La Corra (75 m), nei pressi del Riu d’Ottava (fig. 1). Le campagne di scavo che si sono susseguite dal 1952 al 2000 hanno esposto, in tutta l’area d’interesse archeologico, estesi accumuli conchigliari risalenti al periodo di frequentazione del sito, nei periodi culturali sotto indicati, che rap presentano resti di pasto. Tra questi, la specie predominante, è Cerastoderma glaucum Fig. 1 - Ubicazione di Monte d’Accoddi nella regione nord occidentale (POIRET, 1789), un mollusco della Sardegna. bivalve lagunare raccolto, molto probabilmente, nella vicina laguna di Platamona che si trova ad est del sito (G IROD e N OVATI, 2004).
LA RICERCA Dei quesiti sorti nel corso degli ultimi scavi, restava irrisolto quello sul valore alimentare e sulla disponibilità di carne che questi molluschi potevano fornire ai frequentatori del sito. Per tentare una risposta ci si è innanzi tutto avvalsi delle centinaia di biometrie effettuate sulle valve di C. glaucum raccolte glaucum raccolte nelle campagne di scavo del 1995 e 2000 (B ALZARINI, 2001-2002; GIROD e NOVATI, 2004). In seguito si sono misurate l’altezza, un parametro indicativo della crescita dei bivalvi (C HENORKIAN, 1992, 1996; MORETEAU, 1995) già usato in precedenti lavori su detta specie di Monte d’Accoddi, il peso fresco e il peso secco di individui glaucum provenienti da cinque diverse lagune: Palude Maggiore (Venezia), Orbetello di C. glaucum provenienti (Grosseto), Sacca di Goro (Chioggia), Santa Gilla (Cagliari) e Calich (Sassari) (fig. 2). Con un’analisi di regressione lineare 1 si è stabilita l’esistenza di una relazione in grado di legare tra loro i parametri rilevati. Nel caso di C. glaucum, glaucum, tale relazione è del tipo: peso fresco / secco secco = intercetta + (P1*altezza) (P1*altezza) + [P2*(altezza)2] _____________________ _________________ 1
Il programma statistico utilizzato per l’analisi di regressione lineare è S-Plus 2000, Copyright Math Soft.
134 -
Fig. 2 - A) regressione lineare tra altezza e peso fresco degli individui di C. glaucum raccolti nelle cinque lagune; B) regressione lineare tra altezza e peso secco degli individui di C. glaucum raccolti nelle cinque lagune.
- 135
(in cui intercetta, P1 e P2 sono i coefficienti derivati dall’analisi di regressione lineare, come da tab. 1); relazioni di questo tipo non sempre si riscontrano in altre specie marine, quali ad esempio, Rangia esempio, Rangia cuneata (C cuneata (CLAASSEN, 1998). Peso fresco Coefficienti P1
P2
Intercetta
-0,063
0,004
0,368
P - value
R - quadrato
0
0,844
P - value
R - quadrato
0
0,424
Peso secco Coefficienti P1
P2
Intercetta
-0,020
0,001
0,187
Tab. 1 - Quadro riassuntivo della regressione lineare tra altezza e peso fresco e secco. P – value 0: presenza di correlazione tra due variabili: R quadrato 1: errore commesso piccolo. Il programma statistico indica 0 quando ci sono più di quattro zeri dopo la virgola.
AREE DI SCAVO DA CUI PROVENGONO I REPERTI MALACOLOGICI Durante la campagna del 1995 è stato esteso lo scavo aperto nel 1989 a SW del santuario, corrispondente alla zona dell’abitato (TINÉ e TRAVERSO, 1992; TRAVERSO, 1996-1997; GIROD e BALZARINI, 2004-2005), dove sono stati individuati i quattro orizzonti corrispondenti ai quattro principali principali periodi periodi di frequentazio frequentazione: ne: 1: storico, storico, Bronzo, Bronzo, Rame; 2: Cultura Cultura di Filigosa; Filigosa; 3: Cultura Cultura di Ozieri; 4: Neolitico recente; al di sotto del quale è stato rinvenuto il substrato roccioso. Nel 2000 lo scavo SW è stato ulteriormente ampliato portandolo, dai 36m 2 originari, a 45m2; è stata poi aperta una nuova trincea di 8,5m 2 nella zona a NE del santuario. La stratigrafia in questo punto risulta parzialmente danneggiata a causa della presenza di buche, talvolta estese e profonde, di origine antropica, aperte probabilmente dai frequentatori del sito allo scopo di gettarvi resti di pasto (fig. 3).
Stima dei pesi dei molluschi contenuti nelle valve di epoca preistorica Conoscendo la relazione che intercorre, negli individui raccolti vivi, tra l’altezza e il peso fresco e l’altezza delle conchiglie raccolte durante durante le campagne di scavi del 1995 e del 2000, è stato possibile stimare il peso della carne contenuta all’interno delle valve recuperate nel sito preistorico. Questa stima tiene conto anche della percentuale di valve che non è stata possibile analizzare, perché danneggiate, e che rappresentano il 25% dei campioni raccolti nel 1995, e il 10% di quelli raccolti nel 2000. Il calcolo effettuato riguarda gli strati dello scavo SW e i tagli e le buche considerate nel loro contenuto totale dello scavo NE; si riferisce pertanto a periodi d’accumulo molto lunghi, probabilmente di due millenni circa, a partire da 4970±100 uncal BP (Utc-1467) (TINÉ e T RAVERSO, 1992; TRAVERSO , 1996-1997). Come si può notare dalla tab. 2, l’insieme di valve di C. glaucum finora glaucum finora recuperate a Monte d’Accoddi, su di una superficie comples-
136 -
Fig. 3 - Perimetro del santuario di Monte d’Accoddi, posizione degli scavi SW e NE con le coordinate dei quadrati di scavo, e la sequenza delle fasi di frequentazione.
siva di 53,5m2, esprime una modestissima quantità di carne e quindi di valore nutrizionale, nonostante sia il risultato di attività alimentari protrattesi per lungo tempo, durante i quattro periodi di frequentazione sopra sopra elencati.
Stima della disponibilità proteica ed energetica che C. glaucum poteva offrire ai frequentatori del sito Sulla base di quanto si conosce dei valori nutrizionali di alcuni molluschi bivalvi marini (GEIGY, 1983; SECCHI, 1990; HOLLAND et al., al., 1993; CLASSEN , 1998; SOUCI et al., al., 2000) (tab. 3), è stato possibile calcolare una stima della disponibilità proteica ed energetica che i molluschi contenuti nelle valve rinvenute a Monte d’Accoddi potevano offrire ad un individuo (maschio o femmina) (tab. 4). I molluschi, rispetto alle altre specie animali, sono un alimento povero di grassi (circa 2%), vitamine e oligoelementi; tuttavia sono ricchi di acqua (circa 80%), proteine (circa 5-15%), minerali (soprattutto Ca, P P,, Fe, Na, K) e idrati di carbonio (assenti in altri cibi animali) (tab. 3). In mancanza di dati sul C. glaucum, glaucum, i calcoli sono stati eseguiti prendendo come riferimento i valori nutrizionali di una specie molto affine, Cerastoderma edule (LINNÉ, edule (LINNÉ, 1758). Sapendo che la quantità di proteine e di energia contenute in 100 gr di parte edule di C. edule è rispettivamente di 11,0-13,2 gr e 48,0 kcal (C LAASSEN, 1998) si sono fatte le stime utilizzando le seguenti proporzioni: 11,0 - 13,2 gr di proteine : 100 gr di parte edule = X gr di proteine : X gr di parte edule (X gr di parte edule = gr di C. glaucum stimati glaucum stimati in ogni singolo taglio e livello); 48,0 kcal : 100 gr di parte edule = X kcal : X gr di parte edule. (X gr di parte edule = g di C. glaucum stimati in ogni singolo taglio e livello).
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Numero di valve (100%)
Individui / m 2
Stima dei pesi totali (100%)
2
2712
80
3156,5 g
3
2596
45
2440,3 g
4
2697
71
2018, g
I
173
44
113,3 g
Buca I
221
111
170,9 g
II
494
62
298,0 g
Buca 1230
238
30
180,2 g
Buca 1241
220
110
151,9 g
Buca 1245
248
62
162,2 g
Buca 1246
218
109
149,9 g
IV
204
102
205,1 g
VI
123
62
113,0 g
Buca VI
160
80
129,2 g
VII
126
63
104,4 g
Buca VII
86
43
60,1 g
VIII
213
107
153,3 g
4
793
66
1024,6 g
5
934
78
949,5 g
6
91
23
47,4 g
Biometrie 1995 Livelli (SW)
Biometrie 2000
Tagli (NE)
Livelli (SW)
Tabella 2 - Stima dei pesi totali al 100% dei C. glaucum in ogni livello del settore SW e taglio del settore NE. La media di individui al m2 è calcolata sui quadrati di 1 m2 da cui realmente provengono le valve, poiché non no n tutti hanno fornito materiale.
L’apporto proteico ed energetico risulta piuttosto esiguo; questo dato riflette il modestissimo valore nutrizionale della carne contenuta in C. glaucum. glaucum.
Stima della durata della disponibilità proteica ed energetica che C. glaucum offriva ai frequentatori del sito In base alle richieste energetiche e proteiche giornaliere degli individui riportate nella tabella 5, mediante il seguente calcolo: r.e.g. : 24 ore = d.e.o. : X ore (r.e.g. (r.e.g. = richiesta energetica giornaliera) Cerastoderma in ogni taglio e livello) (d.e.o. = disponibilità energetica offerta da Cerastoderma in si è valutata la durata della disponibilità proteica ed energetica messa a disposizione dei frequentatori del sito (tab. 6). Dai calcoli è emerso che l’apporto energetico, da parte di
138 -
Autori
Acqua (g)
Proteine (g)
Grassi (g)
Carboidrati (g)
Energia (kcal)
Cardidi
HOLLAND et al., 1993
83
12
0,6
Tracce
53
Cerastoderma edule
CLAASSEN, 1998
11,0 – 13,2
0,3
3,4
48
M it i li
HOLLAND et al., 1993
80,9
12,1
1,8
2,5
74
Mya arenaria a renaria
SOUCI et al., 2 al., 20000
83,1
10,5
1,3
Mytilus edulis
CLAASSEN, 1998
8, 9 – 1 2 , 2
1 , 7 – 2, 0
2,9
87
Mytilus edulis
GEIGY, 1983
82,5
12
1,7
2,2
76
Mytilus edulis
SOUCI et al., 2000
83,2
10,2
1,96
2,37
68
83
10
1,4
Specie
Mytilus galloprovinSECCHI, 1990 cialis
54
53
Mytilus sp.
CLAASSEN, 1998
14,4
2,2
3,3
95
Ostrea edulis
CLAASSEN, 1998
8, 6 – 1 3 , 1
0 , 9 – 1, 9
5,9
59
Ostea edulis
SOUCI et al., 2000
83
9
1,2
4,8
66
Ostrea sp.
HOLLAND et al., 1993
85,7
10,8
1,3
2,7
65
Ostrea sp.
GEIGY, 1983
83
9
1,2
4,8
68
Ostrea sp.
SECCHI, 1990
83
9
1,2
5
67
Pecten jacobaeus jacobae us
SECCHI, 1990
80
15
0,1
60
Pecten maximus maxim us
CLAASSEN, 1998
17,5
0,1
10 5
Pecten s Pecten spp.
GEIGY, 1983
79,8
15,3
0,2
Pecten s Pecten spp.
SOUCI et al., 2000 al., 2000
80
15,6
0,1
Vongole
SECCHI, 1990
84
1 0 , 17
2,53
3,3
79 63
2,24
68,4
Tabella 3 - Valori nutrizionali di molluschi bivalvi marini per 100 g di parte edule.
C. glaucum, glaucum, poteva consentire ad una donna di svolgere un’attività fisica moderata per un massimo di 23 ore, mentre l’apporto energetico per un’attività intensa è di minore durata, 19 ore al massimo. Per un uomo, invece, la durata della disponibilità energetica tende ad esaurirsi più in fretta: sedici ore per un’attività moderata e 14 ore per un’attività intensa. Prendendo invece come raffronto degli agricoltori bulgari del 5000 BC (C HENORKIAN, 1989), l’apporto energetico sarebbe stato tale da soddisfarne i bisogni energetici giornalieri per poco più di mezza giornata (tab. 7). È ragionevole pensare che, nell’area del santuario, si radunassero più persone dello stesso gruppo familiare. Pertanto si sono considerati gruppi ipotetici costituiti da 3 e da 10 individui (tab. 8 e 9). I due gruppi sono così costituiti: il primo da 1 maschio, 1 femmina e 1 bambino di 7-8 anni; il secondo da 4 maschi, 4 femmine e 2 bambini di 7-8 anni.
- 139
Stima dei pesi totali (100%) (g)
Biometrie 1995
Livelli (SW)
Biometrie 2000
Disponibilità proteica (g)
Disponibilità energetica (kcal)
Maschio-Femmina
Maschio-Femmina
2
3156,5
347,2 – 416,6
1515,1
3
2440,3
268,4 – 322,1
1171,3
4
2018
222 – 266,4
968,9
I
113,3
12,4 – 14,9
54,4
I Buca
170,9
18,8 – 22,5
82
II
29 8
32,7 – 39,3
143
Buca 1230
180,2
19,8 – 23,7
86,5
Buca 1241
151,9
16,7 – 20
72,9
Buca 1245
162,2
17,8 – 21,4
77,8
Buca 1246
149,9
16,5 – 19,8
71,9
IV
205,1
22,5 – 27
98,4
VI
113
12,4 – 14,9
54,2
VI Buca
129,2
14,2 – 17
62
VII
104,4
11,4 – 13,7
50,1
VII Buca
60,1
6,2 – 7,9
28,8
VIII
153,3
16,8 – 20,2
7 3 ,6
4
1024,6
112,7 – 135,2
491,8
5
949,5
104,4 – 125,3
455,8
6
47,4
5,2 – 6,26
2 2 ,7
Tagli (NE)
Livelli (SW)
Tabella 4 - Stima rapportata a C. edule della disponibilità proteica ed energetica per un maschio e una femmina.
La durata della disponibilità proteica varia da un minimo di un’ora ad un massimo di 2-3 giorni per un gruppo costituito da 3 individui; mentre è più breve per un gruppo formato da 10 individui: da un minimo di 13-16 minuti ad un massimo di 15-18 ore. La durata della disponibilità energetica è più breve per entrambe i gruppi: da 5 minuti a 5 ore per un gruppo di 3 individui e da 1 minuto a 2 ore per un gruppo di 10 individui (tab. 8). Le durate delle disponibilità proteiche ed energetiche sono tali da non riuscire a soddisfare i fabbisogni proteici ed energetici di entrambe i gruppi in caso di attività moderata o intensa (tab. 9).
140 -
Proteine (g) Grassi (g) Energia (kcal) Moderata * Intensa * Agricoltori bulgari 5000 BP **
Bisogni nutrizionali umani Bambini Maschi 40 56 25 2200 2700 Attività (kcal / giorno) * 2300 * 2700 * 2500 **
Femmine 44 25 2000 1600 * 1880 * 2500 **
Vitamine solubili (mg) Tiamina Riboflavina Niacina Acido ascorbico
1,4 1,6 18 60
1 1,2 13 60
800 800 10 10,3
800 800 18 10
Minerali (mg) Ca P Fe Na
Tab. 5 - Necessità caloriche umane (di individui attuali) (da C HENORKIAN , 1989, con modificazioni).
CONCLUSIONI La metodologia adottata è stata rapida, e non necessariamente precisa, ma ha consentito una valutazione di massima del fenomeno, studiato fornendo informazioni sulle tendenze generali. Si può affermare che, nel caso di Monte d’Accoddi e in considerazione dei modesti apporti proteici nonché calorici, C. glaucum glaucum veniva utilizzato come elemento integrativo della dieta alimentare. Sembra inoltre che il consumo non avvenisse in modo regolare e continuativo, bensì solo in determinati periodi, come risulta dallo studio di G IROD e BALZARINI (2005). Occorre anche ricordare che, nel caso di Monte d’Accoddi, pur trattandosi di residui di pasto, la quantità di conchiglie accumulate è certamente esigua se rapportata ai tempi di deposizione molto lunghi (due millenni circa). In questo caso è corretto parlare di semplici accumuli conchigliari, residui di pasto.
- 141
Biometrie 1995
Durata disponibilità disponibilità proteica Maschio Livelli (SW)
Biometrie 2000
Femmina
Durata disponibilità energetica Maschio
giorni
Femmina
ore . minuti
2
6–7
8–9
13:47
18:18
3
5–6
6–7
10:41
14:06
4
4–5
5–6
9:01
12:03
Tagli (NE)
ore . minuti
I
5.34 – 6.41
7.20 – 8.6
0:29
0:39
I Buca
8.06 – 10.07
10.26 – 12.31
0:44
0:59
II
14.05 – 17.26
18.29 – 21.46
1:27
2:11
Buca 1230
8.50 – 10.20
11.22 – 13.38
0:46
1:04
Buca 1241
7.16 – 8.59
9.11 – 11.34
0:39
0:52
Buca 1245
8.50 – 9.18
10.14 – 12.08
0:41
0:56
Buca 1246
7.07 – 8.49
9.00 – 11.20
0:38
0:52
IV
10.07 – 12.01
12.31 – 15.17
0:53
1:18
VI
5.33 – 6.39
7.18 – 8.14
0:29
0:39
VI Buca
6.09 – 7.31
8.16 – 9.31
0:33
0:44
VII
5.32 – 6.31
6.27 – 7.52
0:27
0:36
VII Buca
3.24 – 3.41
4.01 – 4.32
0:16
0:21
VIII
7.23 – 9.07
9.20 – 11.04
0:39
0:53
Livelli (SW)
giorni
ore . minuti
4
2
3
4:37
6:30
5
2
2–3
4:05
5:47
0:12
0:16
ore . minuti 6
2.24 – 3.10
3.25 – 3.41
Tab. 6 - Stima rapportata a C. edule della durata (in ore . minuti oppure giorni) della disponibilità proteica ed energetica in ogni livello del settore SW e taglio del settore NE.
Ringraziamenti Siamo grati ai Prof. A. Cau e Sig. M. Angius, dell’Università di Cagliari; al Sig. F. Cavolo, collaboratore presso l’Università di Venezia; al Dr. M. Lenzi, direttore delle Peschiere di Orbetello; al Prof. Serra dell’Università di Sassari e al Dr. E. Turolla, ricercatore presso l’istituto CRIM di ricerca sui molluschi di Chioggia, senza la cui collaborazione non sarebbe stato possibile ottenere esemplari di C. glaucum freschi. glaucum freschi. Un prezioso aiuto per l’analisi statistica ci è stato fornito dal Prof. G. Guerra, dell’Università degli Studi di Milano Bicocca. Si ringraziano inoltre il Dr. M. Mariani, Direttore della Stazione di Idrobiologia, Civico Acquario di Milano, per aver messo a nostra disposizione una parte delle attrezzature del laboratorio, e l’Istituto Italiano di Archeologia Sperimentale (IIAS) di Genova, per le informazioni informazioni riguardanti riguardanti il sito sito e lo scavo del 2000. 2000.
142 -
Biometrie 1995
Durata della dispo- Durata della disponibilità energetica nibilità energetica Agricolin attività moderata in attività intensa tori bulgari FemFemMaschio Maschio mina mina Livelli (SW) ore . minuti 2 16:21 23:13 13:47 19:34 14:55 3 12:22 17:57 10:41 15:35 11:24 4 10:11 14:53 9:01 12:37 9:30 Biometrie 2000 Tagli (NE) ore . minuti I 0:32 0:49 0:29 0:41 0:31 I Buca 0:52 1:23 0:44 1:05 0:47 II 1:49 2:15 1:27 2:23 1:37 Buca 1230 0:54 1:30 0:46 1:10 0:50 Buca 1241 0:45 1:09 0:39 0:56 0:42 Buca 1245 0:49 1:17 0:41 1:05 0:45 Buca 1246 0:45 1:08 0:38 0:55 0:41 IV 1:03 1:48 0:53 1:26 0:57 VI 0:34 0:49 0:29 0:41 0:31 VI Buca 0:39 0:56 0:33 0:47 0:36 VII 0:31 0:45 0:27 0:38 0:29 VII Buca 0:18 0:26 0:16 0:22 0:17 VIII 0:46 1:10 0:39 0:56 0:43 Livelli (SW) ore . minuti 4 5:13 7:38 4:37 6:28 5:12 5 5:16 7:24 4:05 6:21 4:38 6 0:14 0:20 0:12 0:17 0:13 Tab. 7 - Stima rapportata a C. edule della durata (in ore . minuti oppure giorni) della disponibilità proteica ed energetica per un maschio e una femmina di età compresa tra i 23 e 50 anni, di peso medio e che svolgano un’attività moderata o intensa, o che siano agricoltori.
- 143
Biometrie 1995
Durata della disponibilità proteica Tre individui
Biometrie 2000
Dieci individui
Durata della disponibilità energetica Tre individui
Dieci individui
Livelli (SW)
giorni
2
2–3
15.28 – 18.26
5:27
1:57
3
2
11.0 – 14.21
4:07
1:21
4
2
9.52 – 11.42
3:37
1:00
Tagli (NE)
ore . minuti
ore . minuti
I
2.13 – 2.56
0.32 – 0.38
0:11
0:03
I Buca
3.22 – 4.26
0.48 – 0.58
0:17
0:05
II
6.02 – 7.14
1.40 – 2.09
0:30
0:09
Buca 1230
3.40 – 4.08
1.00 – 1.02
0:18
0:05
Buca 1241
3.26 – 3.44
0.43 – 0.51
0:15
0:04
Buca 1245
3.06 – 4.17
0.46 – 0.55
0:16
0:05
Buca 1246
3.23 – 3.39
0.42 – 0.51
0:15
0:04
IV
4.27 – 5.04
0.58 – 1.00
0:21
0:06
VI
2.13 – 2.56
0.32 – 0.38
0:11
0:03
VI Buca
2.44 – 3.33
0.37 – 0.44
0:13
0:04
VII
2.37 – 2.36
0.30 – 0.35
0:10
0:03
VII Buca
1.13 – 1.36
0.17 – 0.20
0:06
0:02
VIII
3.29 – 3.47
0.43 – 0.52
0:15
0:04
Livelli (SW)
ore . minuti
4
19.32 – 23.19
5.23 – 6.20
2:11
0:31
5
18.31 – 21.49
4.48 – 5.37
2:00
0:28
6
0.54 –1.00
0.13 – 0.16
0:05
0:01
Tab. 8 - Stima rapportata a C. edule della durata (in ore . minuti, oppure giorni) della disponibilità proteica ed energetica per due gruppi familiari di tre e dieci individui.
144 -
Biometrie 1995
Livelli (SW) 2 3 4 Biometrie Tagli (NE) 2000 I I Buca II Buca 1230 Buca 1241 Buca 1245 Buca 1246 IV VI VI Buca VII VII Buca VIII Livelli (SW) 4 5 6
Durata della disponibilità Durata della disponibilità proteica in attività energetica in attività moderata intensa Tre Dieci Tre Dieci individui individui individui individui ore . minuti 6:36 2:21 5:36 2:00 5:00 1:41 4:15 1:24 4:21 1:16 3:43 1:02 ore . minuti 0:13 0:04 0:12 0:03 0:19 0:06 0:17 0:05 0:34 0:10 0:30 0:09 0:20 0:06 0:18 0:05 0:17 0:05 0:15 0:05 0:18 0:06 0:16 0:05 0:17 0:05 0:15 0:04 0:23 0:07 0:21 0:06 0:13 0:04 0:11 0:03 0:15 0:04 0:13 0:04 0:12 0:04 0:11 0:05 0:07 0:02 0:06 0:02 0:17 0:05 0:16 0:05 ore . minuti 2:34 0:35 2:14 0:31 2:20 0:32 2:02 0:29 0:05 0:02 0:05 0:01
Tab. 9 - Stima rapportata a C. edule della durata (in ore . minuti) della disponibilità proteica ed energetica per due gruppi familiari di tre e dieci individui che svolgano un’attività moderata o intensa.
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Indirizzo degli Autori: ALBERTO ALBERTO GIROD, Laboratorio di Malacologia Applicata, Via Via Savona 94/A – I - 20144 MILANO e-mail: fraberto.girod@fastwebnet
[email protected] .it GIULIA RICCARDINO, Via Ambrosini 3 – I I - 20052 MONZA (MI) e-mail: july.r@libero
[email protected] .it
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