Ats2946 Sample Exam s2 2017

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 This exam consists of EIGHT (8) questions. Some questions have more than one part. Some questions carry more marks than others, ot hers, as indicated.

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 You must answer all eight questions

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 You have TWO (2) hours to complete the exam.

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 Write your answers in the booklet provided. You can answer the questions in any order, but make sure you clearly indicate which question you are answering.

(1)

Put the argument from the following passage into standard form and construct an argument map diagram. There is no need to include unstated premises (assumptions) in

your answer. (20 marks) Utilitarianism is a more demanding ethical code than any other. For it says that we should always act to bring about the best consequences. So utilitarianism demands that we sacrifice our own interests whenever a greater good can be achieved by doing so, and that is almost always the case. (2)

For each of the following short arguments; (a) say whether the argument is deductively   the argument is  valid or invalid. Then (b) if you think the argument is invalid, explain why  the invalid – that is, explain how it is possible for the premises to all be true and the conclusion false. If you think the argument is  valid, then represent the logical form of the argument, making sure you indicate what your schematic letters stand for. (6 marks each, for each a total of 24 marks) (i) Students will only succeed in their studies if they do sufficient work outside of class. But if students do sufficient work outside class, they will not have time for a part time job.  Therefore, no student with a part time job will succeed in their studies.

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(ii) Babies cry when they are hungry and when they are in pain. My baby is crying, so he must be hungry or in pain. (iii) The death penalty is immoral. The death penalty results in some innocent people being wrongly executed. Anything that results in some innocent people being executed is morally wrong. (iv) If what was shown on television did not affect people’s behaviour, then television advertising would never influence viewers to buy a product. But we know that it does. So it cannot be true that television does not affect behaviour. (3)

Read the information from the two sources below, which concern a dispute concerning the safety of the chemical triclosan. Write a short evaluation of the credibility of each source  with regard to this issue. For each source, you should answer the following questions: (1) What main claim or claims does the source make? (2) Regarding the claim(s) in (1), is the source in a  position to know ? (3) Are there any reasons to suspect the reliability of the source? (4) Is there independent corroboration of the source’s claims? (5) Overall, how credible is the source? 2 marks for each of the above five questions, for each source. 20 marks in total; 100-200  words for each source.

Source #1: The Campaign for Safe Cosmetics, safecosmetics.org

 Triclosan is a commonly used antimicrobial agent that accumulates in our bodies and has been linked to hormone disruption and the emergence of bacteria resistant to antibodies and antibacterial products. Triclosan is an antimicrobial agent found in a wide variety of antibacterial soaps and detergents, as well as in many deodorants, toothpastes, cosmetics, fabrics and plastics.  There is evidence that triclosan is an endocrine disruptor and impacts thyroid function and thyroid homeostasis. A 2009 study found that triclosan decreased thyroid hormone

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concentrations [1]. Since 2000, a number of studies have found microorganisms that are resistant to triclosan, and there is mounting evidence linking the use of triclosan with the promotion of bacteria that are resistant to both antibiotic medications and antibacterial products [2,3]. Because triclosan’s mode of action and target site in bacteria are similar to those of antibiotics, there are concerns that bacteria that become resistant to triclosan will also become resistant to antibiotics. A 2010 report by the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety determined that even low concentrations of triclosan can trigger antibiotic resistance in bacteria [4].

References [1] Zorrilla, L., et al (2009). The effects of Triclosan on Puberty and Thyroid Hormones in Male Wistar Rats. Toxicological Sciences . 107(1) 56-64.

[2] Heath, R., et al (2000). Inhibition of the Staphylococcus aureus NADPH-dependent enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase by triclosan and hexchlorophene. Journal of Biological Chemistry . 275: 654-59. [3] Aiello, A.E., et al (2005). Antibacterial Cleaning Products and Drug Resistance.  Emerging Infectious Diseases . 11(10) [4] SCCS (Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety), Preliminary opinion on triclosan antimicrobial resistance), 23 March, 2010. European Commission, Brussels.

Background information on Source #1

 The Campaign for Safe Cosmetics describe themselves as “a broad-based coalition, housed at the Breast Cancer Fund, working to clean up the beauty aisle through public advocacy and market campaigns designed to eliminate dangerous chemicals linked to cancer, reproductive harm and other adverse health impacts from cosmetics and personal care products. The Campaign’s steering committee is made up of the Breast Cancer Fund, the Alliance for a Healthy Tomorrow (represented by Clean Water Action), Friends of the Earth, and Women’s  Voices for the Earth.”

Source #2: Angela Logomasini, The Green Campaign Against Triclosan is Dangerous and Regressive: Efforts to Ban Widely Used Antibiotic Tackles Phantom Risks

Environmental activists have sounded the alarm suggesting that consumers face serious health risks from the antibacterial chemical triclosan, which manufacturers have safely used in soap and other personal care products for decades. Unfortunately, green hype has led federal regulators to force companies to try to do the impossible—prove that their products

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pose no risk or remove them from the market. But nothing in life is risk free. Rather, the question is whether products provide more benefits than risks, which is clearly the case with the chemical triclosan. Triclosan has been used widely for more than 40 years, and there is no hard evidence of triclosan-caused cancers, health problems, or creation of triclosanresistant bacteria affecting human health. For example, the claim that triclosan disrupts human thyroid functioning is based on a study  where researchers dosed rats with high amounts of the chemical, which has little relevance to humans exposed to trace amounts in the environment. [1] Similar rodent studies also find that many naturally occurring chemicals found in food cause health problems when given to rats and mice in high doses, including such foods as broccoli, coffee, pickles, and more. [2]  We do not need an FDA review of these foods to know they are safe to eat and that these rodent studies are not particularly relevant to human health risks from trace chemicals. Claims suggesting that triclosan significantly contributes to antibiotic resistance among medicines are also unfounded. It is not clear how much effect triclosan has on resistance of any kind. Privately conducted research has already provided significant assurance that triclosan is unlikely to pose significant health risks. [3] Greens might suggest that industry research is tainted because it is motivated by profit, but those incentives actually improve the quality of private research. Private firms risk their very survival if their products do harm—   which gives them far stronger incentives than that of unaccountable bureaucrats and government-funded researchers who never experience direct consequences for their decisions or research findings.

References [1] Crofton, KM; Paul, KB; DeVito, MJ; Hedge, JM, “Short-term in Vivo Exposure to the Water Contaminant  Triclosan: Evidence for disruption of thyroxine?”  Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology , Vol. 24 (2007.): pp. 194–197. [2] For example, see National Research Council, Committee on Comparative Toxicology of Naturally Occurring Carcinogens, Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet: A Comparison of Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances (Washington DC: National Academies Press, 1996), http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309053919. [3] See the numerous studies posted on this industry website: http://www.fightgermsnow.com/science-antibacterial-hand-soaps-antimicrobial-triclocarban-antibiotic-

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resistance-hygience-hands-sanitizer.

Background information on Source #2.

 Angela Logomasini is employed by the

Competitive Enterprise Institute (CEI). The CEI describes itself as follows: “The Competitive Enterprise Institute is a non-profit public policy organization dedicated to advancing the principles of limited government, free enterprise, and individual liberty. Our mission is to promote both freedom and fairness by making good policy good politics. We make the uncompromising case for economic freedom because we believe it is essential for entrepreneurship, innovation, and prosperity to flourish.”

(4)

Put the following argument into standard form and identify at least one unstated premise ( assumption ) that is required by the argument. (4 marks) No computer will ever be able to do everything that some human minds can do, for there are some problems that cannot be solved by following any set of mechanically applicable rules. Yet computers can only solve problems by following some set of mechanically applicable rules.

(5)

Read the following report which describes the results of a survey about the study habits of Monash university students. Identify the sample,  population  and target property  and comment on whether the survey supports the conclusion drawn in the report. (12 marks; 100-200 words).  A questionnaire about study habits was given to a random sample of students taking a large introductory philosophy unit at Monash University. The sample of 50 students reported that they spent on average 90 minutes per week studying for the unit outside class. It was calculated that the margin of error due to sampling variation for this estimate was plus or minus 6 minutes. Therefore, we can be reasonably confident that the true average amount of time students spent studying for this unit outside class is between 84 and 96 minutes per week.

(6)

Assuming the premises in the following argument are true, do they support the conclusion that there is a causal link  between the art therapy program and the reduction in behavioural

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problems? Explain your answer. (10 marks)  A study looked at group of 250 children aged 8-11 years old who had been diagnosed with extreme behavioural problems such as violent tantrums. The children were given art therapy over a period of six weeks. At the end of the six week period, independent observers assessed the children and only 50 of them (20%) showed behavioural problems.  The researchers concluded that art therapy can play a significant role in reducing behavioural problems in children. (7)

The reasoning in each of the following arguments is flawed in some way. For each argument, briefly explain where the argument goes wrong. (4 marks each for a total of 12 marks) (i) Some historians claim that the people who built a ring of stones thousands of years ago in Britain were knowledgeable about astronomy. The evidence for this claim is that two of the stones determine a line pointing directly to the position of the sun at sunrise at the spring equinox. But there are many stones in the ring, so the chance that one pair will point in an astronomically significant direction is large. The historians claim is therefore false. (ii) Regular exercise such as swimming makes you fitter. Andrew swims regularly but, Darren does not. So Andrew is probably fitter than Darren. (iii) Mary: Did you know that no two snowflakes are alike?  Jane: I don’t think that’s true. Look at this book – it has a photo of tw o identical snowflakes. Mary: The photo is obviously a fake.  Jane: How can you tell? Mary: It must be. All snowflakes are different, so this photo must consist of two duplicated images of the same snowflake.

(8)

Read the following opinion piece from a newspaper; state the  main conclusion  and then  write a short evaluation  of the argument. Your evaluation should consider the following questions: 1. Support: If  the premises were true, would they provide a sufficient reason to accept the

conclusion? 2. Truth: Are the premises true?

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Explain your answers. If you do not know whether a premise is true, you should explain what kind of evidence would be relevant. How could you find out whether the premise was true or not? What kind of source could you use to check? (10 marks, about 250 words)  Are Julian Assange and WikiLeaks really doing anything that unusual? After all, leaks are a legitimate part of contemporary journalism; nobody objects when cabinet discussions are leaked during a general election for example. The diplomatic cables published by  WikiLeaks were first given to the mainstream press, who vetted the documents for sensitive or risky information. WikiLeaks only published the edited cables. WikiLeaks even asked the US State Department for help editing risky documents, a practice common when the press deals with classified material. WikiLeaks is therefore legitimate journalism, which makes recent actions by the U.S. government particularly disturbing.  The U.S government has clearly been trying to remove corporate support for WikiLeaks.  Amazon.com, which was hosting WikiLeaks for a short time, dropped its account when the company received calls from staff of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security: asking “Are there plans to take the site down?” Another company, Tableau, which was providing software for WikiLeaks to visualise the data, was also contacted by congressional staff. They severed their relationship with the site too. Visa, Mastercard and Paypal have all followed suit, banning donations to WikiLeaks.  These political attempts to choke WikiLeaks’ funding and foundations are a clear breach of freedom of the press. No matter how new the medium, it is an absolute and fundamental infringement of free speech when a government tries to gag a media outlet it doesn’t like.  Adapted from ‘The Weight of the Word’, by Chris Berg, published in The Age  newspaper, December 2010. Chris Berg is a research fellow with the Institute of Public Affairs.

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