Astrology [DHI Pingree]

ASTROLOGY the stud study y of the the impa impact ct of the the cele celest stia iall bodi bodies es — Moon, Mercury, Venus, Astrology is the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the fixed stars, and sometimes the lunar nodes —  upon the sublunar world. world. It presupposes a geocentric and finite universe. e influence of the celestial bodies is variously considered • to be  absolutely determinative  of  of all motions of the four sublunar elements (Aristotelian physics is accepted as the basis for describing this influence, in a form somewhat modified by Neo-Platonic concepts); • to be directional  (that  (that is, to indicate trends which may be changed by future astral influences or by the intervention of a supernatural being, usually on the pleading or at the behest of an astrologer or of a priest); or • to be  merely indicative  of   of the divine will. Astrology so defined could not have existed before the Hellenistic period, and is certainly not  of   of Babylonian, Egyptian, or Indian origin. 1 practice . 2 ere are four are  four broad categories of astrological practice. •   Genethlialogy rela relate tess the the situ situat atio ion n of the the heav heaven enss at the the mome moment nt of an indi indivi vidu dual al’s ’s nativity to all aspects of his life. e original purpose of astrology was to inform the individual of the course of his life on the basis of the positions positions of the planets and of the zodiacal signs (the 12 astrologic astrological al constellations constellations)) at the moment moment of his birth birth or concept conception ion.. From From this this scienc science, e, called called genethlialogy (casting (casting nativitie nativities), s), were 3 developed the fundamental techniques of astrology.

•   General astrology relates astrology  relates the situation of the heavens at particularly significant moments moments — e. g., at the vernal equinox, equinox, at an eclipse, eclipse, or at a conjunctio conjunction n of the planets — to events affecting broad classes of people, nations, or the entire world. 1

2 3

Cf. D. Pingree, Māshāʾallah: Some Sassanian and Syriac Sources, in: George Fadlo Hourani (Ed.), Essays on Islamic Islamic philosophy and science, pp. 5 – 14: Astrology, created “in Ptolemaic Egypt” (p. 9), is the “union of Hellenistic mathematical astronomy and physics with the Pythagorean doctrine of  opposites and Mesopotamian astral omina” (p. 8). Cf. D. Pingree’s review of Tamsyn S. Barton, Power and Knowledge: Astrology, Astrology, Physiognomics, and Medicine under the Roman Empire [e Body in eory: Histories of Cultural Materialism], Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994, in: Bulletin of the History of Medicine 71, 1997, p. 331: «e chapter on astrology is wrien without any hint of an awareness of the philosophical (and “scientific”) distinctions that need to be made between •  astral divination  – in which the gods proclaim their intentions through omens, in part at least in the hope that humans will propitiate them with sacrifice, ritual, and prayer so that they will be pleased to alter those intentions – and •  astrology as the Greeks  who invented it in about 100 B.C.  conceived of it : a purely mechanical working out of the complicated machinery of celestial motions and their natural influences on the sublunar world, a process with which humans are powerless to interfere.» Cf. id., EB 2, 151977, p. 219: «Astrology is a method of predicting mundane events based upon the assumption that the celestial bodies — particularly the planets and the stars considered in their arbitrary combinations or configurations (called constellations) — in some way either determine or indicate changes in the sublunar world. e theoretical basis for this assumption lies historically in Hellenistic philosophy and radically distinguishes astrology from the celestial omina (“omens”) that were first categorized and cataloged in ancient Mesopotamia.» Cf. W. Gundel Gundel und H. G. Gundel, Astrologume Astrologumena, na, 1966, S. 1: « Die ausgebildet ausgebildetee Astrologie, Astrologie, die vor allem gekennzeichnet ist durch eine Planeten und Tierkreis berücksichtigende Horoskopierkunst, ist ein Kind des Hellenismus.» Cf.   en.wikipedia  s. v. Horoscopic astrology: astrology: « ere are four main branches branches of horoscopic horoscopic astrology: natal astrology, mundane astrology, electional astrology, horary astrology.» D. Pingree, EB 2,  15 1977, p. 220.

2

Astrology General astrology studies the relationship of the significant celestial moments (e. g., the times of  vernal equinoxes, eclipses, or planetary conjunctions) to social groups, nations, or all of humanity. It answers, by astrological means, questions formerly posed in Mesopotamia to the  bāru . 4

•  Cataric astrology is the determination, from an examination of the situation of  the heavens, of whether or not a particular moment is suitable for the commencement of a particular act. Cataric (pertaining to beginnings or sources)  astrology determines whether or not a chosen moment is astrologically conducive to the success of a course of action begun in it. Basically in conflict with a rigorous interpretation of genethlialogy, it allows the individual (or corporate body) to act at astrologically favourable times and, thereby, to escape any failures predictable from his (or its) nativity. 5

•   Interrogatory astrology is the answering of specific questions on the basis of the situation of the heavens at the time of the query. Interrogatory astrology provides answers to a client’s queries based on the situation of the heavens at the moment of his posing the questions. is astrological consulting service is even more remote from determinism than is catarchic astrology; it is thereby closer to divination by omens and insists upon the ritual purification and preparation of the astrologer. 6 is branch of astrology was an Indian invention, drawing upon both  jātaka , for the subjects of  the query, and Greek catarchic astrology, for the answer; if not devised by Sphujidhvaja himself, he must have been able to derive it from some Indian astrologer writing in the century before he composed the Yavanajātaka   in 269/270. e difference between catarchic and interrogational astrology is that with the former the astrologer determines a propitious time for his client to begin doing something, while with the laer he answers a specific question from the horoscope of the moment at which the question was asked. Interrogations were an important contribution by Indians to later astrologies; so also was military astrology, which is based on a combination of omens with catarchic astrology. 7 ere is no evidence that interrogational astrology was known in classical times; it seems to have been an Indian invention that achieved great popularity amongst Islamic astrologers. 8

Other types of astrology — e. g., medical astrology or military astrology — are merely adaptations of methods used in the four basic types enumerated above. David Pingree in: Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 1, 1973, pp. 118 – 125.

e science of astrology was developed in, most probably, the late 2nd or early 1st century B. C. as a mean to predict, from horoscopic themata draw up for the moment of an individual’s birth (or conception), the fate of that native. is form of astrology, called genethlialogy, is rooted in Aristotelian physics and Hellenistic astronomy, but also borrowed much from Mesopotamia and some elements from Egypt as well as developing many theories of its own. e adaptation of this form of astrology to determine the best time for initiating actions is termed cataric astrology. ese are the two main forms of astrology known in the West;  interrogational astrology was developed in India in the 2nd and 3rd centuries A. D. on the basis of  Greek catarchic astrology, and  historical astrology in Sasanian Iran in perhaps the 5th or 6th century A. D. on the basis of continuous forms of Greek genethlialogy. 4 5 6 7 8

D. Pingree, EB 2,  15 1977, p. 220. D. Pingree, EB 2,  15 1977, p. 220. D. Pingree, EB 2,  15 1977, p. 220. D. Pingree, From Astral Omens to Astrology. From Babylon to Bīkāner, Rome 1997, p. 36. Cf. Charles Burne, Astrology, in: Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, ed. by Frank Anthony Carl Mantello and A. G. Rigg, Washington 1996, pp. 369 – 382, here p. 375.

 Astrology A massive program of translation into Pahlavī of b ooks gathered from India and the Roman Empire was initiated by the first two Sasanian kings, Ardashīr I and Shāpūr I; these translations were revised under Anūshirwān. Sasanian astrologers were famous as practitioners of the art of using the celestial science to reconstruct the political and religious history of the world through the theory of conjunctions, and to make general annual predictions on the basis of the horoscopes of the revolutions of the years and the prorogations of the  fardārs ,  intihāʾs , and  qismas . 9

All of these types of astrology depend on the notion that the planets, in their eternal rotations about the earth, transmit motion (change) to the four elements and to the assemblages of elements, animate and inanimate, in the sublunar world. is theory is completely different from that of celestial omens, in which the gods, whose physical manifestations are the constellations and planets, send messages concerning their intentions regarding kings and countries by means of celestial phenomena. at these divine intentions can be altered by the use of propitiatory rituals (namburbis  in Mesopotamia,  śāntis  in India) emphasizes the fundamental conceptual difference between omens and astrology. 10 Sometime in the late 2nd or early 1st century B. C. someone, perhaps in Egypt, invented genethlialogical astrology, which assumes an Aristotelian universe in which the earth at the center, consisting of the four sublunar elements, is surrounded by the eternally circling spheres of the seven planets in the so-called Hellenistic order (Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn). is author also assumed the ability to compute the longitudes of the planets and the rising-point of the ecliptic for any given time, and to divide the ecliptic into the twelve astrological places. To each of  these twelve places he assigned an aspect of the native’s life (life, wealth, siblings, parents, children, sickness, marriage, death, travels, occupation, gain, and loss; the first eight are sometimes treated as a set). Furthermore, each of the planets and each of the zodiacal signs was endowed with certain characteristics and influences over particular components of man and of the sublunar world in general; and the planets were endowed with rulership over the zodiacal signs and their parts (the decans or thirds, the  dodecatemoria   or twelhs, and the terms), and they influenced each other and the astrological places by means of either conjunction with them or aspect (sextile to 60°, quartile to 90°, trine to 120°, and opposition to 180°). While many further particulars were added to this collection of indicators, and some modifications were made, this is the basic set of assumptions that astrologers rely upon. Some elements in addition to the central idea of predicting the life of a native from celestial phenomena came to the Greeks from Mesopotamia. 11

9 10 11

D. Pingree, From Astral Omens to Astrology. From Babylon to Bīkāner, Rome 1997, p. 50 and p. 44. D. Pingree, From Astral Omens to Astrology. From Babylon to Bīkāner, Rome 1997, p. 21f. D. Pingree, From Astral Omens to Astrology. From Babylon to Bīkāner, Rome 1997, p. 26f.

3

4

Astrology

Arabic astrological science came to include these five  principal divisions. 1. A theoretical or introductory part (mudkhal   [sic!]) exploring its foundations in physical science and metaphysics. Here Abū Maʿshar’s  Kitāb al-mudkhal al-kabīr  shared ultimate authority together with Ptolemy’s  Tetrabiblos . 2. A section dealing with Nativities (milād , mawālīd ) which consisted of drawing up diagrams (horoscopes) of the state of the sky at the time of any beginning. Its most natural occasion was at the time of birth (hence ‘nativities’), or even of conception when possible, and it would be held as an indication of the probable unfolding of  the various life circumstances of the individual person or object for whom it was drawn up. 3.   Interrogations ( masāʾil ) which dealt mostly with enquiries about objects hidden or lost, innermost thoughts or intentions, purposes, etc. A kind of oracle, it aimed to assist individuals in their important decision making or help recover missing objects. 4.   Elections   or Choices ( ikhtiyārāt ), which were concerned with determining the most favourable moment for starting on important undertakings, such as the construction of cities, opening of hostilities in wartime, investiture or inauguration, or starting on a journey. 5.   Weather predictions or meteorology, which were almanacs which astrologers operating for courts, cities, or institutions like universities would issue at the beginning of each new year, as part of their official duties. Weather predictions were of  course a prime concern in any predominantly agrarian society. 12

12

R. Maya, Astrology, in: N. K. Singh, M. Zaki Kirmani (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists, 2005, s. v. Astrology, p. 68f.

 Astrology

e different branes of astrology 13 e first of these, according to Albertus Magnus, is  general astrology (de revolutioni-  bus ), which pertains to whole nations and regions. Next comes genethlialogy or nativities (nativitates : genezia ) , by which birth charts are drawn up and the course of life of the newborn child – or native ( natus ) – is predicted. It was a common practice to cast a horoscope when the sun returned to the same degree of the zodiac where it was at the time of birth, and to compare it to the astrological chart of the birth ( radix ). is subbranch of genethlialogy is called solar returns or anniversary horoscopes ( revolutiones nativitatum). Albertus next deals with interrogations (interrogationes ), in which the astrological chart of the moment when the question is posed determines the outcome of what is asked. In this case the state of mind of the inquirer – the radical intent ( intentio mdi-  calis ) – is important. ere is no evidence that interrogational astrology was known in classical times; it seems to have been an Indian invention that achieved great popularity amongst Islamic astrologers. is branch of astrology is oen confined (in medieval and modern sources) with “cataric” astrology, Albertus’s next division, in which the best time for beginning an activity is determined. e Medieval Latin term for catarchic astrology is  electiones  or electiones homrum laudabilium. Interrogational and electional chapters oen occur together in works loosely entitled  iudicia . e Four Parts of Astrology 14 Medieval Arabic and Arabo-Latin astrology is commonly divided into four main branches: nativities, revolutions, elections, and interrogations. e study of   nativities (genethlialogy) is founded on the horoscope of birth of  an individual and of the new or full moon preceding the birth. e astrologer calculates the position of the planets, the ascendant, the astrological houses, and the  partes  (lots) on the zodiacal circle. en he selects the most significant parameters in the horoscope, notably the planet  hyleg  or  significator vite  and he is supposed to be able to predict the main steps of the subject’s life. But this implies that he knows the precise place, date, and hour of the birth, which was very rare outside the courtly milieu before the end of the Middle Ages. He is thus frequently obliged to verify the time of  birth by a method called  annimodar . Revolutions are related to the return of the Sun to the precise zodiacal point occupied at an initial moment. e study of revolutions of nativities is based on the examination of the sky at the time of the subject’s birthday, while that of the revolutions of years rested on the horoscope of the vernal equinox of a particular year, and of the new or full moon preceding it. Examining these horoscopes, the astrologer is supposed to predict the weather of the next year, natural catastrophes, epidemics, the immediate future of peoples, and other political events. He is helped in this by a system of relations between zodiacal signs, planets, countries, and social categories. 13

14

Charles Burne, Astrology, in: Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, ed. by Frank Anthony Carl Mantello and A. G. Rigg, Washington 1996, pp. 369 – 382, here p. 375f.  Jean-Patrice Boudet, Astrology, in: Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, ed. by omas F. Glick, Steven John Livesey, Faith Wallis, 2005, pp. 62f.

5

6

Astrology

ese annual predictions appeared to have been regularly preserved in Europe from the end of the fourteenth century. Connected to annual revolutions, analysis of the conjunctions of the three superior planets, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, as well as that of comets, belongs to  historical astrology. Conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter occur every twenty years, and con junctions of Saturn and Mars in Cancer, supposed to be malefic, occur every thirty years. According to the doctrine of great conjunctions standardized by Albumasar, they influence the major natural, political, and religious events: the birth of Muhammad and of Islam aer the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter of 571; the demise of  the Caliphate of Córdoba, related to the conjunction Saturn and Jupiter in 1007; the hypothetical tempests of 1186, linked to the presence of all the planers in the sign of  Libra; the Black Death of 1348 and the Great Schism of 1378, interpreted  post eventum as the consequences of the Saturn-Jupiter conjunctions of 1345 and 1365; the possible defeat of the king of France by the English aer the conjunction of Saturn and Mars in 1357; the appearance of a false prophet aer the conjunctions of 1484 and 1504; the false flood of 1524, and so on. As for comets, they were usually taken to foretell catastrophes, notably the imminent death of some king or prince, as in the case of  Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan, in 1402. Elections (or cataric astrology) deal with the forecasting of undertakings and the choice of proper times for initiate actions: the mythical or real foundation or refoundation of cities such as Constantinople, Gaza, Baghdad (founded by al-Mansur in 762), Cairo, Vioria (near Parma, founded by Frederick II in 1247), Florence, Venice, Bologna, and Milan; the foundation of a university such as that in Bratislava by Mahias Corvinus in 1467; declarations of war; consecrations of marriage; the begetting of a child; the beginning of a difficult medical operation, such as that performed on the cataract of the King John II of Aragon in 1468, etc. Elections may be established occasionally or by the use of an annual almanac, supposed to program all the owner’s activities or, more modestly, indicate the good days for bleeding and purgatives, which were among the basic practices of medieval medicine. Interrogations deal with responses to queries, which may be of special or general interest. Will my pregnant wife have a boy or a girl? Where is my stolen golden cup? Will a new pope be elected during the Council of Constance before Christmas? e astrologer draws up a horoscope of the precise moment of the question and tries to answer it.

 Astrology

Among the classic forms of astrological practice we find genethlialogy, catarchic astrology, and interrogatory astrology, all three interrelated. •   Genethlialogy asserts that the celestial omens at the moment of one’s birth affect the course of one’s life. To predict this course one needs to know the exact moment and place of birth. One must calculate where the planets were and calculate certain relations between them such as conjunctions and oppositions. •   Cataric astrology asserts that any act is influenced by the celestial omens at the moment of the inception of the act. erefore, from a knowledge of the future position of the planets, one can forecast auspicious dates for the occurrence of  important events. •   Interrogatory astrology invites questions of all sorts. Where did I lose my wallet? Should I marry such a one? It asserts that the moment of interrogation affects the correct answer. us does astrology give answers in a world full of bier problems, where advice is rare and of doubtful quality. 15 ere are several distinct branches of Astrology: •   Natal, or Genethliacal – having to do with the birth figure and the subsequent transits of the bodies and their Progressed, or average net progress. •   Horary: fundamentally a Figure cast for the birth-moment of an idea, a question, or an event. Practitioners of this branch of Astrology usually take the moment when the question is propounded. •   Electional: an application of Horary art whereby to choose the most propitious moment for initiating a new enterprise, or commencing a journey, etc. •   Mundane, also termed Judicial Astrology: a consideration of the current positions of the planets with respect to their influence upon entire populations, or portions thereof, by countries, cities or localities, at Ingresses, eclipses, ordinary Lunations and Full Moons, and major transits or conjunctions. •   Medical: the application of the science to questions of health, chiefly as a diagnostic aid when confronted with baffling symptoms of disease and obscure ailments. •   Meteorological, also known as Astro-Meteorology: the application of the science to the forecasting of weather conditions, earthquakes and severe storms. 16

15

16

Philip J. Davis, Reuben Hersh, Elena Marchisoo,  e mathematical experience , 1981 (2002, 2003), p. 114. Nicholas DeVore, Encyclopedia of Astrology, 2005 (1947), s. v. Astrology.

7