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PANORAMA OF WORLD ART

ART OF CRETE, MYCENAE, AND GREECE

ART OF CRETE,

MYCENAE

AND GREECE Text by

HARRY

N.

GERMAN HAFNER

ABRAMS, INC.

Publishers

NEW YORK

End Details from

Marble with

the

so-called

papers:

Alexander Sarcophagus; (front) Alexander

From

Sidon. Archaeological

Translated from the

Museum,

German by

Library of Congress Catalog Card

All

Battle, (back) Panther Hunt. sarcophagus lo'sVi"- c. 310 b.c.

In

rich painting, height of the frieze 27^8", over-all length of the

Istanbul

Erika Bizzarri

Number: 68-28392

Copyright 1968 in Germany by Holle Verlag GmbH, Baden-Baden rights reserved. No part of this book may

be reproduced without the written permission of the publishers Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York Printed in West Germanv. Bound in the Netherlands

Contents

Introduction

6

Early Period (Early Helladic, 2500-1900

b.c.

Middle Helladic, 1900- 1580

Cretan-Mycenaean Art (2800-1 100 Geometric Art (1100-700

The Seventh Century The Sixth Century The

b.c.)

13

b.c.)

17 61

B.c.)

b. c.

73

a. c.

95

Fifth Century b.c.

127

The Fourth Century (400-320 The Late Greek Art

b.c.)

of Alexander's

179

Empire (336-146

b.c.)

210

Chronological Tables

253

Maps

256

Bibliography

258

Index

261

Photo Credits

264

Introduction

An

awareness of

its

uniqueness

is

indispensable to a proper understanding of Greek art.

the art of Greece between the second millennium b.c.

Homeric heroes

— and the time of Alexander the Great and the

of the world or in any other age. This

One must put

aside the notion that

and old

While

age.

leading to the next, the

in

King Minos Diadochi has no counterpart

Greek

of

Greek

art

But as soon as the idea of the history of Greek

shed, then a historical examination of

Greek

artists

become

it

becomes

individually recognizable.

how

with others

in

;

man who

passes from childhood through youth

was

basically different.

was

to

Nor can one

become

otherwise be

all

find in the

the root of

all later

The

and

it,

"happy

European been

art as a predestined, inevitable course of events has

interesting

and

exciting,

historical eye

and the great achievements of the

can see

how

in the

end helped

it

these artists reacted to the

how

they

to re-emerge. Times of relative quiet

Greek

art,

spiritual events

predominated. Tn order to appreciate the decisive turning

the contemporary observer must attempt to transpose himself back to

those times and to judge the innovations in the light of their immediate context.

may

produced.

periods in which art was primarily concerned with problems of form alternated

which the depiction of

points in the history of

it

they rejected them, cautiously or enthusiastically accepted them, and

retained what was basically Greek, varied

alternated with times of crisis

and the

any other part

nature these sequences repeat themselves constantly, each stage inevitably

phenomenon

stimuli of foreign cultures,

in

place in

merely followed a natural "evolutionary development," as a

art

skies" of Greece the reason for the emergence there of the art that art.

of Crete

as true of the achievement itself as of the effects that

is

plant which grows, forms buds, blossoms, and wilts, or as a to maturity

What took

— the legendary age of

The most

significant element

too easily overlooked.

THE EARLY PERIOD AND CRETAN-MYCENAEAN CULTURE The beginnings conflict

of

Greek

art

may

be traced back to the

first

appearance of Greek

between Greek art and that of the East, which was to

about 2000

with them a geometric, nonrepresentational

wonder

that

designs,

when they

human

must have been aroused first

tribes in Hellas.

art,

great

tribes

in

brought

while in the art of the nearby island of Crete and in that of

beings were depicted.

in the

The

over a thousand years, began here

and Middle Helladic periods show that the Greek

B.c. Pottery finds of the Early

the Orient plants, animals, and

last for

Greeks,

It is

difficult

today to re-create the feeling of

who were accustomed

only to

monochrome

encountered the bright pictorial world which mirrored the colorful

life

abstract

of Crete. This

Cretan culture, of which only the legend of Minos, ruler of the seas, of the mysterious Labyrinth, and of the

Minotaur which inhabited

it

was

to survive into later ages,

of archaeological excavations, than its artistic

achievements, by

its

it

was

to the

splendor, by

its

Greeks of

is

far better

known

classical times. It

precise observation of nature,

to instill into even the humblest object a sense of artistry.

to us in our day, as a result

amazes us by the multiplicity of and by the

There are figures

in the

ability of the

round and

Cretans

reliefs, large

wall paintings and small pictures painted on vases and engraved in semiprecious stones, yet without any

fundamental distinction between the different forms of

and were

a free expression of the artists' joy in

life,

art.

The images could be

readily enlarged or reduced

which included the worship of the gods and care for the dead.

The Cretan

art of the first great palaces greatly fascinated the

Helladic to the Late Helladic-Mycenaean culture was sudden.

Tiryns

—

other Achaian heroes

immigrant Cretan

new

have been

later believed to

art of the

built

The

artists.

differ

native

in

which imported Cretan works intermingled with those of

Greek abstract

was almost forgotten. Only in subject matter did the of Crete, and hunting and battle scenes decorated With the Mycenaean conquest of Crete, Cretan art was destroyed art

and the mainspring of Mycenaean culture was severed.

enthusiasm for the living

Mycenae and

Agamemnon and

from the peaceful pictures

swords, daggers, and the walls of palaces. at its roots

citadels such as

by the Cyclops and to have been the palaces of

— were collection centers

Greeks

Greeks, and the transition from the Middle

The mainland

art of

Crete had already run

its

It is

first

rush of

set in

and the

also possible that the

course. In any event, a reaction

now

old geometric art replaced the art forms of the Cretan world, both in Greece and in Crete.

With

consistency the geometric principle took over and produced a sober and austere geometric art

much

Middle Helladic, with the addition of curvilinear ornamental motifs. The

many Cretan

Cycladic art and

cannot be

lasted

art

forms were also based on

have been started on the

like the

was especially popular in Whether all this would have

spiral

this lively motif.

Mycenaean culture came to a violent end. But road it would assume several centuries later.

said, for

startling

for

all

we know,

art

may

already

GEOMETRIC ART The immigration

of

new Greek

from the North,

tribes

the legendary "Return of the Heraklids,"

meant

also geometric. After the destruction of the palaces into a kind of peasant patriarchy.

of the past.

ment

The

it

and the dispersal of the Achaians,

With the exclusion of the

"Doric migrations" and

newcomers was changed became a thing

social conditions

island of Crete, the art of the East

revealed the Greek artistic drive.

first

encompassed

meander bands,

classically referred to as the

in the field of art, for the art of the

provincial crafts, which had survived unscathed, supplied the technical basis for the develop-

of an art which

on the rich pottery finds ever,

little

Our knowledge

of Geometric art depends largely

graves (mostly in the necropolis at the Dipylon gate in Athens). Actually, how-

forms of

all

circles,

in

art.

and hourglass

The geometric motifs figures

consisting of straight and zigzag lines, triangles,

may have had some unknown symbolic meaning

to the Greeks.

Their precision of execution, apparently rejecting everything that could not be drawn with ruler and compass,

reminds us that the Greeks

later laid the

foundations for the science of geometry. The regular rhythmic recur-

rence of the motif has often been compared to the hexameter, the poetical meter of the Homeric sagas in the

Geometric age. The attitude of the

clarity

which was to

find

Geometric period

and precision of ornamentation already seem to point toward that

its

which symbolized a severe eternal order,

sions.

was It is

at a time

in

opposition to the unpredictability of nature and the constantly its

very nature. Geometric art neither depicts nor narrates: story-

for the poets, later thought of as blind

and therefore uninfluenced by transitory events and impres-

curious that, despite the sharp delineation between the arts, Homeric epic poetry reached

when

the poets'

monopoly

of the narrative arts

art of the distant East reached Greece;

was already beginning

figures

were accepted only

formula had been found, narrative pictures and animal

friezes

after the

soon found

potter's stock of ornamental motifs. Battles, chariot rides, scenes of

common

its

climax

to falter. Tales of the pictorial

and even though, unlike Mycenaean times, these foreign stimuli were

met with great reserve and animal and human

dead are among the most

artists

formula-like but ever-varying triangle, zigzag, checker, and meander patterns,

changing ephemeral world around them. By telling

Greek philosophy. The

highest expression in the unimpeachable logic of

set the

intellectual

their

corresponding abstract

way

mourning and

into the

Geometric

of lying in state of the

themes. Whether these depict contemporary or heroic events

is

of

no

concern here, for they are mere concepts, indiscriminately.

The

superiority

felt

which Homer

in

like the very

words "battle" and "mourning," and so may be used

Even where heroes are shown, such "type pictures" by the poet when faced by these

first

still

require an identifying inscription.

shown by the manner was made by the god decoration,

attempts at pictorial narrative

describes the shield of Achilles which, with

its

rich figural

is

Hephaistos. The poet's advantage, in this respect, over the contemporary Geometric pictorial limitations of his craft,

is

evident to anyone

who can

of the broad landscapes and of the ceaselessly moving, dancing,

THE SEVENTH CENTURY As

B.C.

growing familiarity with Eastern works of

high degree of self-awareness that he had attained

in the

that

own

Greek

course. art

The

fantastic Oriental creatures

was absorbing outside

Geometric age

mental sculpture which appeared

from the figures

East.

The awesome

which could be held

Daidalos moved of their

in the

effect that in the

own

and

all

offset the

danger of a complete capit-

what he preferred most

in

Oriental art and so

which now frequently appeared on pottery were a sign

influences. Stylistically this

of direct imitation of an Eastern original,

Greek temple sanctuaries, the this limitation. However, the

in

awareness of

art increased his

ulation to foreign influences; he could therefore choose at will set his

with the

that inhabit them.

and merrily singing figures

colonies were founded and rulers from the East began to leave offerings

artist's

artist,

share the hero's thoughts as well as hear the description

is

not so evident, for there

innovations seemed

— and

in fact

were

is

no known case

— Greek. The monu-

seventh century would never have materialized without this stimulus

such sculpture had on a people accustomed only to small Geometric

hand could

well explain

how

legends arose telling of

how

the statues of

accord.

The classic Greek temple also came into being at this time, as well as the long series of animated scenes from Greek legend, which, however, were often provided with explanatory inscriptions, in spite of the much greater clarity of expression now available to the artist. Thus it was that this period was of great importance for the future development of Greek art, confirming as it did both the conscious independence of its aims and its ability to learn from foreign influences. Large-scale sculpture paved the way for the separation of art into categories, for large sculpture

THE SIXTH CENTURY

and small, as

well as painting, each

had

its

own

subject matter and purpose.

B.C.

Until the beginning of the Persian Wars, Archaic art unfolded rather leisurely, particularly in the cultural centers which sprang up around the splendid courts of the rulers, or tyrants.

and were limited

The

to given types.

profile presentation of the figure

painting and the artist turned his talents to a refinement of details.

The

The

arts stuck to familiar paths

was accepted

in relief as well as in

technical perfection of marble sculpture

enlivened by painting, the outlines of vase paintings scratched with a graver's needle, and the colorful working of these vases with red and white statues of confident youths in these

two types

body colors lend

a cheerful air to this apparently self-assured art.

and traditionally garbed maidens have the same

air.

Archaic

art

is

The marble embodied

best

of freestanding sculpture. Pictorial narrative took over in the field of vase painting,

turned vases into veritable picture books of Greek legend as well as providing themes for

reliefs

and

and

archi-

tectonic sculpture.

Both

politically

and

artistically

Greece was an aggregate of independent

units.

Local distinctions are easily

recognizable both in the technique and style of the vast quantities of painted ware that have survived;

less

so

in sculpture,

where the only guidance

and

the foreground,

it

known

Archaic Greek

art

now

numerous vase

themselves step more into

had

painters,

their

own

them

The names

in later literature,

individual style.

stood on an even footing with the archaic art of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Asia

Minor. Here, as there, the basic laws of

art

could be learned and applied. But only in Greece can a restrained

urge for expression be sensed, an indication that Greek art alone

were no longer

artists

to see in Daidalos their mythical ancestor.

to us through their signatures or through reference to

clear that they, as well as

is

them

this pride in their craft led

of individual sculptors are

and

Perhaps the rivalry between separate local groups led to the

is style.

and vase painters appeared now. The

fact that the first signatures of potters

satisfied with the "rules of life."

and the

had something to

still

artists, too, felt

The philosophers

offer.

the prescribed rules to be unbearable

shackles.

THE FIFTH CENTURY

B.C.

The downfall

and the Persian Wars are symbols and consequences of an

Greece, East.

The

of the tyrants

which the Archaic world was shattered and Greece was liberated from the

in

fifth

shackles and breathed

new

life

into

of large figures in every possible pose, in the

runner Ladas seemed really about to run

The invention

it.

same way

to this

their

soon rose

freed their art

Myron's statue of the

Heroic sculpture in the European sense was produced

off its base.

same period, but

this there

of hollow bronze casting permitted the creation

as small sculpture and painting.

and small-scale sculpture was judged by comparison with

and Polygnotos belong

Upon

The sculptors

the glorious structures of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion, and the Propylaia. its

in

and culture of the

century was the point of no return between the future and the past. With the destruction of the

Acropolis by the Persians, the Archaic figures of maidens were reduced to rubble.

from

change

intellectual art

The beginnings

it.

works are only known

of large-scale painting by to us

through

Kimon

later descriptions.

Not only did indications of landscape provide a broader setting, but foreshortened and overlapping moved freely within this landscape. Sporadic attempts made by vase painters to draw such figures in

figures

rear or

angled views suggest the tremendous effects produced by

this form of painting and reveal the unbridgeable gap between large-scale painting and vase painting. Later writers stressed the spiritual expression of the figures and the high "ethos" of the painting of Polygnotos, evidence of a fundamentally new trend in opposition to

Archaic

art. It is significant that

Greek

these innovations in

art

— both

in

form and content

— were the work

of that generation of artists that lived at the time of the Persian Wars.

The following

generation, grouped around Pheidias

the splendid structures on the Acropolis. later to

become known

The

as the "classic" age,

(who was

a friend of the statesman Perikles), created

picture thus presented

was

less

around the middle of the

complicated and calmer. Athens was

Parthenon, with Pheidias' gold and ivory cult statue of Athena, was

its

symbol. Here the

its

artists

fifth

century,

center and the

met

in friendly

competition and (as recounted of Pheidias, Polykleitos, Kresilas, and Phradmon) engaged in outright contests with each other and wrote theoretical treatises on their as Perikles,

as such.

Art

among whose

The death

now

differed

friends were

of Perikles

from

justification. Sokrates

numbered

and the decline

reality in that

it

of

art.

This blessed era of peace under such a statesman

the great intellects of the time,

was a world

and Euripides emphasized

of beauty in

reliefs,

War shattered this harmony.

which the individual as such was

self-responsibility

Paintings by Zeuxis and Parrhasios, and also funerary

and the psychological problems

were invitations

man, who was responsible for his own destiny. Onl> to express these problems; vase painting had now become a "miniature art.' ness and on the fate of

was unique and was recognized

Athens during the Peloponnesian

to reflect

his

of

own man.

on virtue and happi-

large-scale art

had the means

THE FOURTH CENTURY The period leading up philosophy of

still

B.C.

to the appearance of Alexander the Great

on that of Plato. The

flourished, based

man — recognized

as illusionary

— was

reproduced

was a time

of

Greek

civil strife.

marble and

in

this,

and the world

visual arts lost their precise contours,

in translucent

Despite

paint as the reflection of

an underlying perfect world of divine concepts. The state was considered a subject for philosophic Utopias, hardly, however, a matter of real interest otherwise; art therefore turned to the

woman

family, the private world of

and child. The true nature of

woman was

more

restricted sphere of the

discovered and sculptors

finally

and painters never tired of creating variations on the theme of Aphrodite. The childlike Aphrodite of Praxiteles was one of the most highly esteemed works of art and, for the first time, showed the goddess totally nude. Praxiteles preferred to work in marble, whose crystalline structure partly absorbed, partly reflected, the light. This created nuances of color and an indistinctness of form that endowed the object with a peculiar radiance.

The male

figure also

became more feminine and

and often seemed

lost in a

moody

dreaminess.

female fashion. Skopas made two statues of the —the per— and other figures by the same Parian master are endued with a similar feeling of pathos.

Eros and Pothos have their hair arranged sonification of desire

less athletic

it was painting that worked together with who

Clearly

latter

in

and painters such

best succeeded in expressing the ideals of the century, Praxiteles,

made

this the classic

as Nikias,

age of painting. Nikias transferred mythological

events into the realm of personal tragedy. Celebrated in his lifetime, he was honored later with a state funeral.

Sculptors and painters required a sympathetic public that would immerse

and surrender

itself in,

itself to,

their works.

THE TIME OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE DIADOCHI The

political

changes wrought by Alexander caused Greece to emerge as part of a world empire and put an

end to the romantic search for a higher and more beautiful pos claimed that the

visible reality of

His Apoxyomenos illustrates

this.

man

Raw

truth.

reality again

came

into

its

own. Lysip-

should be shown, and proudly rejected the traditions of the past.

The space enclosed and dominated by

seems to make clear that the restrictiveness of the old

spatial

the great

sweep of the

athlete's

body

relationships has finally been overcome.

Leochares, the great sculptor of gods, was also active at the Macedonian court of Alexander. His Apollo re-established the boundaries between the divine like

god of

artists,

Praxiteles.

Even

so, Apelles painted

and the human, which had almost disappeared Alexander with a thunderbolt

philosophers, poets, and the cultured public in general

ency that was both gratifying and dangerous. Such

men

—

felt

in his

art with their

by such works, the ordinary

man and

men

a greater kinship with the divine, a tend-

therefore looked

all

the

more

lovingly

lower orders of the world: peasants, shepherds, and innocent children. Only an educated

understand these works of

in the child-

hand. All great

man

upon the

could fully

hidden allusions, references, and allegorical content. Confronted

the barbarian were merely struck by the display of splendor which

The indebtedness of art to the achieveand paintings were collected in museums, and the works

glorified not only the princely courts but also the culture of Greece.

ments of the past was recognized: ancient sculptures of writers

and poets

in great libraries.

In Alexander's time,

Greek

art

was

far

removed from

its

sense (Athens being no longer the sole center, but only one

and Alexandria), but much more of this

10

new upper

class

had

its

in the fact that art

origins in

now

origins. This

among many

placed

itself in

was

true not only in a geographical

including Pella, Pergamon, Antioch,

the service of a ruling

elite.

The nucleus

Macedonia, which until then had only participated at the fringe of

Greek

culture.

The wonderful

altar of

Pergamon

illustrates the

degree to which the rulers identified themselves

Pergamon Anyone accepting Greek culture, regardless of his race, had the right to consider himself Greek. King Eumenes II, the builder of the altar, was a faithful ally of Rome and owed to her the extent of his kingdom. The Romans, who had been in contact with Greek culture via Etruria since ancient times, and later more directly through the Greek colonies in southern Italy, soon became the true rulers. As the resistance of the Greek princes to the successful warfare and clever diplomacy of the Romans collapsed, the center of artistic, as well as political, action moved to Rome. The enthusiasm with which the Romans accepted Greek culture may have facilitated once more the reorientation of Greek art. Within the framework of the Roman state and the fundamentally different Roman way of thinking, Greek art met fresh challenges with renewed strength. Greece and the Greek East had become peripheral areas as early as the second century b.c., and the art of these regions has a provincial character. This turn of affairs is revealed in the works of later Roman writers on art, who claimed that Greek art had come to an end with the generation of artists succeeding Lysippos and was not resurrected until the middle of the second century b.c. This new life flourished under the auspices of Rome. with ancient Greece.

of the battle between the gods

Its frieze

and the giants

reflected the victory of

over the Gauls and also glorified the victory of culture over nonculture.

THE TRANSMISSION OF GREEK ART Any attempt knowledge

Greek

at reconstructing the history of

in this field.

favorite material of the

art

must take into account the fragmentary

Every sizable object of gold or

Greek

has been destroyed, and works

silver

sculptor, were also liable to be melted

down because

in

state of

our

bronze, the

of the intrinsic value of

the metal. Even marble statues were often broken up and burned in the lime kilns. Large paintings have entirely disappeared

As

on account of the ephemeral nature of the walls and panels on which they were painted. whole classes of

religious ideas changed,

magnificent works of Greek

art,

cult

overpowering

images were destroyed. These included some of the most

in their size

and

in the effect

produced by the gold and ivory

which they were made. The forces of nature, temple-shattering earthquakes, the

of

effects of weathering,

which deformed the surfaces of bronze and marble sculpture, vandalism, and the ravages of war did the

rest.

Countless works of art went to the bottom of the seas when the ships which were to transport them from Greece to

Rome, or from Rome to Constantinople, sank. The break with tradition at the end of classical times and the

of interest in

pagan works of

Romans shown

art

throughout the centuries would have resulted

such a lively interest in Greek

art.

Accounts of Greek

works, anecdotes, epigrams, extracts of Greek art literature, and the

have survived through the ages. The Natural History of Pliny author was more interested selves.

in the

The Greek travelogues

the cultured of his time,

Roman

traveler.

marble and bronze and

artists, first

still

greater gaps,

had not the

data concerning their lives and

attempts at a Greek history of art

(a.D. 23-79)

in the

in

loss

is

our main source, although the

pigments used than

in the

works of

art

them-

of Pausanias (second century a.D.) supplement Pliny and address themselves to

They

give

some

idea of the plethora of

works of

art

still

extant in the Greece

and the detailed descriptions of some of the masterpieces of Polygnotos and other painters are of

inestimable value. Indeed, the

more or

less

accurate accounts of writers are our most important source of

knowledge of contemporary painting. Only the older vases can give us some notion of painting of the time, for the paths of this decorative art and of large-scale works on walls and panels diverged in the fifth century b.c. Later vase paintings are only distantly related to the realistic paintings of a Zeuxis or a Parrhasios. The interest

which the Romans showed

in the

pieces were reproduced in bronze

Greek

art of the past also led to the

and marble and such

making

of copies.

Greek masterand theaters

replicas stood in gardens, halls, libraries,

II

Roman

almost everywhere that was touched by

Although most of these copies have been destroyed,

culture.

some have survived and even though they are only copies, they provide us with the original Greek masterpieces. The wall paintings of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae, bronze,

especially those in

a good idea of

;

which were buried and preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius

whose themes coincide with

Pliny's lists of paintings

must be made for changes

ever, allowance

in a.D. 79, are

probably

in taste, deliberate "corrections,"

and concern

relationship, as well as for the artistic ability of the provincial painters. Copies of

more

reliable, for

any alteration

copies provide the best curately

made

medium

in the

composition would have resulted

of transmission, but the

to scale by mechanical means.

(in the case of

those

by Nikias) copies of famous "classic" Greek works. How-

When

in basic

Greek

for the decorative

statues appear to be

changes. Casts and bronze

numerous surviving marble copies were often acfrom that of the original was used,

a different material

disturbing features such as supports and struts were sometimes necessary. In special cases, the technical difficulties

were so great that reproduction

in

marble was quite out of the question. Such was the case with

Myron's famous statue of the runner Ladas; and consequently we have no way of forming a this

— and many other works — were

plete

is

these gaps

The art,

The more copies

of

our knowledge and the better informed can be our judgment. Every replica, however, even small

reproductions such as statuettes, fill

like.

what a masterpiece that are preserved, the more comreal idea of

in

love that the

even when

a result, our

reliefs,

or engravings on coins or gems,

is

a welcome aid in our attempt to

our knowledge.

this

Romans had

for

Greek

art thus led to

its

preservation and recognition. Archaic Greek

had not been long since buried, was ignored, since it did not appeal to Roman taste. As art depends entirely on what archaeological excavations have brought to

knowledge of Archaic

Greece from Turkish domination.

light since the freeing of

Many

originals also survived

when

original sites.

Examples include tomb

the sculptural decoration of temples

beneath their ruins. The

still

reliefs of the fifth

and

— carved pediments,

memory

friezes,

and metopes

of something mythical

art right in this earliest period, the

on

their

its

and

— preserved with the temples or unknown

to later

and unreal. Excavations have revealed a

world, in the exploration of which archaeology stands entirely on

by Greek

left

fourth centuries b.c., statuettes, terra cottas,

older geometric Greek art of the second millennium b.c. was

Antiquity, or was at best a mere

Romans

the

thought them too unimportant or when transportation appeared unprofitable and the objects were

own. By observing the

first

subsequent steps become more comprehensible and

lost

steps taken

its

historical

course can be seen as a constant struggle with problems arising partly from without and partly from within

must continually bear in mind the fragmentary preservation of Greek fame was once based has been irretrievably lost. Antiquity evidently considered much unworthy of comment. Nevertheless, what these works reveal about the Greek spirit

the nature of the Greeks. However, one art.

Much upon which

its

of what has survived as is still

12

enough

to

fill

us with

wonder and admiration.

EARLY PERIOD The

first

(Early Helladic, 2500-1900 B.c. Middle Helladic, 1900-1580 b.c.)

manifestations of Greek art were extremely modest, yet of an unmistakable and compelling nature:

Upon their arrival, the immigrating Greeks encountered the unornamented dominated the Greek mainland and the coast of Asia Minor. Alien to them, it could exert no stimulus. However, the Cycladic culture (see pages 15, 16) thriving on the islands seemed closer to geometric ornamental motifs. vessels of a culture that

that of the

Greeks on account of

art of Crete

its

rich ornamentation,

and many a stimulus originated

began then to exert an overwhelming and ever-increasing influence on the

"Sauceboat." Terra colla wilh glaze paint, length io7s"- Early Helladic, 2500-1900 Athens

Judging from

its

characteristics in

coming

in

shape, this vessel its

is

ornamentation

From Spedos

b.c.

both here and

in similar vases,

from the North can be recognized. The latticework

triangles,

the

first

The

art of the

fascinating

Greeks.

(Naxos). National

a typical product of an old pre-Greek culture, but that,

there.

it

displays such

later (see

Greek

appearance of the Greeks

which are also painted on the inner

rim of the vessel, belong to the stock of Greek geometric ornamental motifs which was to reach

development a thousand years

Museum,

pages 61-65). This triangle motif,

unknown

until

now

in

its fullest

the

Greek

world, was applied with glaze paint, which, increasingly refined, was to remain the characteristic of Greek vase painting. 13

Kantharos. Terra cotta, height

s'/»"-

Middle Helladic, 1900-1580

b.c.

From Lerna

(Argolis).

Museum, Argos

The kantharos, a drinking vessel with two high handles protruding above the rim, was passed from hand to hand at banquets. This form appeared here for the first time, and remained a favorite in later ages. The motifs applied with mat colors articulate the vessel according to its structural form. This reveals the characteristic Greek attitude to the relationship between vessel and ornamentation; both elements must have a vivid relationship to each other and form a unit. 14

Female culture,

Marble, height c. 4^/4". Early Cycladic 2300-2000 B.c. Württembergisches Lan-

Idol.

desmuseum,

Stuttgart

These

oldest marble sculptures of the Greek world, the "island idols," have a

doll-like character.

They

are not statuettes

because they cannot be stood upright, but

were

laid as

tomb

furnishings beside the

The and

the schematic representation of

details, the

nudity and the arms crossed in

dead. figure

flattened shape of the female

front of the

body characterize most

these figurines. Their real significance still

as

of is

not clear: they have been interpreted

nymphs, heroized dead, and goddesses.

Pan-shaped Athens

vessel (the short

handle

is

missing). Terra cotta, diameter SVs"- Cycladic,

In addition to the Cycladic idols (see page 15), the old cuhure on the rich

ornamentation,

A

which curved hnes, mainly

"sun" surrounded by a quadruple

which filled

in

is flat

and has

a

spiral

spirals,

c.

2000

b.c.

From Naxos.

National

Museum,

Greek Cyclades produced a pottery with

predominate.

motif and four fishes are incised on the underside of this vessel,

low steep rim. The use to which these pans were put

is

unknown; they may have been

with water and used as mirrors. The play of the curvilinear ornamental motifs, also used to symbolize

water, was originally foreign to the Greeks, but apparently the idea soon appealed to them. Ninnerous works of

Mycenaean

art (see pages 42,

46-48)

testify to the fertilization of

Greek

art

by the Cycladic culture.

CRETAN-MYCENAEAN ART Cretan-Mycenaean reached of

its

human

encompasses two basically

apogee

in a distinctive

in the first half of the

beings, animals, plants,

Mycenae

How

alien

art.

Minoan

the

culture of

Crete must have been to the Greeks

can be surmised from a comparison of the geometric motifs

pages

sels (see

13, 14)

on

their ves-

with the freely

moving human form on

this sherd.

The outline has been sketched with

mo-

great verve so as to capture the

mentary impression of the subject. dancers,

probably

originally

four, belong to the earliest depictions

of

human

beings

in

Minoan

painting.

They were arranged lengthwise the circular vessel.

to

fit

form of the foot of the

This,

tradicts

too,

Greek

completely con-

feeling.

Dancing Woman, painted in white on the fragmentary foot of a large fruit dish. Terra cotta, height of the figure 4".

noan

different

modes

art of Crete,

second millennium.

It

of artistic expression which, nonetheless,

which goes back to the third millennium

was characterized by

its

B.C.,

representational use

and architecture. By contrast, the Greeks who ruled on the mainland

gives this culture

nonrepresentational

The

way. The

(the

name) possessed a geometric decorative art. The encounter between two extremes, accompanied by the spread of Greek power even on Crete, led to the absolute victory of

citadel of

these

art

and overlap

interpenetrate

(2800-1 loo b.c.)

II,

1

850-1 700 B.c.

Archaeological

Middle Mi-

From

Phaistos.

Museum, Herakleion

its

Soldier

height

with

ö'/s"-

a

Dagger.

Terra-cotta

Middle Minoan, 2000-1850

the sanctuary of

Mount

statuette, b.c.

From

Petsofa (on the eastern

coast of Crete). Archaeological

Museum, Hera-

kleion

This eaily Minoan sculpture

is

modeled out of clay as an image of

life. It is

concerned only with grasping the

outer appearance and lacks that penetration into the inner framework, the structure of the

which

is

human

figure,

so essential to Greek feeling. Unlike the Cycladic idol (page 15), this figure stands unsupported on

The naked man, clad only in a narrow loincloth, holds his hands in front of his breast in the prescribed manner. He is armed only with a dagger and is probably a member of the palace guard. The warrior as subject matter is obviously alien to Minoan culture, which was of a peaceful nature and went a small pedestal.

without fear of the island being attacked. 18

Cup

Kamares

in the

style

with white and red color on a

brownish-black ground. Terra cotta, height 3". c. 1800 B.c. From Knossos. Archaeological Museum, Herakleion

Minoan Spiral,

ment

art displays its

tremendously imaginative creative power most visibly

round, or bubble-shaped motifs are painted on the ground

in the field of

ceramics

is

in the decoration of vessels.

in bright colors.

A particularly fine achieve-

the so-called eggshellware, which has extremely thin walls.

of this cup, a large ellipse pointed at both ends enclosing a rosette motif reserved in the

horizontally across the vessel, cision in the

making

it

form and decoration of the

appear

soft

and

alive.

To

The decoration

ground

the Greek eye, there

is

color, extends

a lack of

all

pre-

vessel, as well as in their structural relationship.

19

Like every Cretan palace, Phaistos at

first

sight presents a rather bewildering picture: a multiplicity of

of various sizes, apparently arranged in a "labyrinthine"

manner. The nucleus

are grouped the halls, rooms, and chambers. This centrifugal composition

is

is

a large court,

made

rooms

around which

possible by the fact that

no surrounding wall of any kind determines an exterior boundary. Such arrangements, with a

total

absence

when neither enemies within nor without need be considered. Cretan and Mycenaean worlds (see pages 37-39) is most evident. Domination

of defensive structures, are conceivable only

Here the difference between the

of the seas by Cretan ships apparently guaranteed peace.

Palace of Phaistos (southern Crete). View from the northwest onto the western court of the first palace (2000-1700 b.c.), right foreground; the west wing of the second palace 1700-1400 b.c.) behind. In the background, the plain of Mesara and the Kophinos (

Mountains

The Cretan indicated

relationship to the Orient

is

by the numerous works of

Egyptian faience

— brightly

painted

re-

Hefs with scenes of the animal world,

and colorful

statuettes.

The best-known

probably represents a priestess rather than a goddess. She holds snakes as

symbols of the goddess

in

and also wears the divine the lion on her head. the breasts

The blouse open

and the long flounced

correspond to the court nobility.

her hands, attribute of

attire

at

skirt

of the

So-called Snake Godiless. Brightly painted faience, height ii'Vs"- Middle Minoan, seventeenth century b.c. From the temple depository of Knossos.

Archaeological

Museum, Herakleion 21

Like the '"Snake Goddess" (see page 21), this prince also gives the Minoan world a strange, legendary appearance, combining extreme sophistication with a natural unconcern. The young man wears a distinctive crown consisting of a

headband decorated with

lily

blossoms and three long feathers emerging from a

only speculate as to the painting of the background. carefree nature of the

Minoan

The combination

of relief

lily.

We

can

and painting indicates the

artist.

Prince with the Feather Crown. Relief fresco (greatly restored), height

tury B.c.

From

87". Sixteenth cen-

c.

the large vestibule of the west

wing of the palace

of Knossos. Archaeological

Museum, Herakleion

The

goblet, opposite,

stone and relief

is

is

cut out of soft

ornamented with

whose posture

is

funnel form of the vessel. figures

of the

may be

figures in

adapted to the

The

interpreted as an

relief

officer

watch presenting three men (who

Goblet.

Steatite,

height

4'/g'.

From HaArchaeological Mu-

Sixteenth century B.c. gia Triada.

seum, Herakleion

f.SSJasuüw«-~-

carry large shields and

who may have come from

afar as

ambassadors to Crete) to the prince standing

of the palace door. But the scene has also been interpreted as a

game played by

in front

children, imitating events in

the lives of grown-ups.

The

pictorial art of Crete could accordingly represent

decoration for vessels. the environment

It

unique or typical events of

reflected these events, as in a mirror,

no

differently

life

from the other

and use these as visible objects of

and of nature. 23

white

Fresco,

Lilies.

and

green on a dark-red ground, height

From

c.

a

71".

villa at

c.

1600 b.c.

Amnisos (on

the coast near Knossos). Ar-

chaeological

Museum, Her-

akleion

The natural world

of

animals and plants, with its

pleasing but at times

bizarre

forms,

repeat-

edly served Cretan art as inspiration for

tiie

loveliest of pictures, revealing

the Greeks were hardly aware of.

out of a green cluster of leaves

On

fill

color being inlaid into the ground.

manner 24

of

life

an intimate relationship with the surrounding world such as

a wall of the villa at Amnisos, the

a dark-red, stepped depression in a

A

blooms

band of

certain regularity in the growth of the

of the inhabitants of the palaces

and noble

villas.

lily

of three white

lilies

growing

light-green stripes, the white

harmonizes with the courtly

Ornamental frieze of rosettes and columns. Fresco fragment, white, blue, black, red, brown, height -».-A-il

The attack

ii-ii,

:'m^^

i

of a lion

^

on a gazelle or stag seems to have dissolved into ornamental shapes and

palmette and flower motifs. The composition of the spiral designs on the other plaque

is

is

overgrown by

just as important as

the figural decoration (see the grave stele on page 42). Here, the conflict between Greek art and Cretan pictorial

forms has reached a

critical point, identifiable

art transformed these into wholly abstract

46

by

this dissolution of natural forms.

ornamentation (see pages

54, 56, 60).

Late Mycenaean

Disks with animal and spiral ornamentation, for fastening to clotliing. Gold shaft grave III of Grave Circle A, Mycenae. National Museum, Athens

The demands

of

symmetry have turned

of the Greek artist expresses

butterflies

itself in circle,

and octopuses

foil,

diameters

c.

2-2^8

into ornaments.

"•

The

Sixteenth century b.c.

From

great decorative genius

band, and spiral motifs. 47

/

Sixleenth century B.c.

From

shaft grave

V

Cup. Gold, hcighl

c.

Numerous cups

of precious metal have been found in the

5".

of

Grave Circle A, Mycenae. National Museum, Athens

Mycenaean

shaft graves.

use the smooth surface of the gold to obtain their effect, others are decorated in metals. This simple cylindrical cup spiral motifs beaten in relief

48

is

relief

Of various

shapes,

some

or with inlays of colored

decorated, above and below a thick dividing ring, with a double row of

from the reverse

side of the gold walls.

X

' V-SV^

Cup

with wishbone handle. Inside gold, outside silver, with bulls' heads inlaid in gold and niello, height 2V1 Early fifteenth century b.c. From a tholos tomb near Mideia (Argolis). National Museum, Athens

".

diameter

ö'/s"-

This cup comprised part of the funerary furnishings in the tomb of a princess, while the king was accompanied into his grave

by several cups

— among them one with

A very similar vessel came from

bulls not

unhke those from Vaphio

Enkomi on Cyprus. The form and arrangement

(see pages 32, 33).

of the bull's-head motifs here

suggest that they have lost any deeper significance and serve only as ornamentation.

49

•^

lO

Ground

plan of the so-called Treasury of Atreus. Early thirteenth century b.c. A: burial chamber; B: tholos; C: colossal stone lintel; D:

dronios

{

D

25

So-called Treasury of Atreus. Tholos

tomb southwest

50

75

of the citadel of

100

fl.

Mycenae. Early thirteenth century

b.c.

The dromos (long uncovered passageway) of the "Treasury of Atreus"

about twenty

is

wide and forty

feet

yards long. Constructed of erate ashlar blocks,

conglom-

leads to the

it

fagade of the tomb, which was once

decorated with columns and varicolored stone.

A

reliefs in

doorway, some

eighteen feet high, leads into a circular

room (diameter almost

forty-

eight feet) covered with a corbeled,

or

false,

dome

a

more than The grave itchamber carved

little

forty-three feet high. self

was located

in a

out of the rock and connected to the tholos by a smaller doorway.

This tholos tomb, as well as that in

Orchomenos (right), and the Lion Gate of Mycenae (see page 37) seem to be by the same architect. Prerequisite for such work was the perfection of technique such as

is

seen in

the stonework here, for only with large

and accurately cut stones could

such vast areas be roofed over with corbeled vaulting.

The horizontally

staggered stones are laid in bands,

each row projecting over the one be-

low so as to form a

dome

in the

shape of an old-fashioned beehive.

So-called Treasury of Minyas. Tholos

wide at the base; diameter of tholos

Pausanias (IX, 38,

2)

tomb

c. 46'.

at

Orchomenos. Width

praised the "Treasury of

with any other building in Greece or elsewhere. it

justifies the

of

dromos

c. 20';

entrance to tholos

Early thirteenth century b.c. View from the tholos toward the

Minyas" as a marvelous Its similarity

structure which

18'

c.

high and

c. 9'

dromos

compared favorably

to the "Treasury of Atreus"

is

so striking that

assuinption that they are by the same architect. 51

The almost life-sized head (facing page) is all that remains of Mycenaean large-scale sculpture in the round. Of undetermined significance, we can only say that the white skin, red hps, and the four red rosettes on forehead, chin, and cheeks seem to indicate that it is a woman. The hair lies close at the back of the head while on the forehead little curls dark blue, like the eyes emerge from under a broad fillet.

—

The form

—

of this jug with stirrup handles

disappeared with

octopus and

its

it.

Decorative

filler

and an

ofif -center

spout

is

typical of the Late

Mycenaean period and

motifs have been inserted between the body of the highly schematized

tentacles.

Stirrup jar. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height S^U". Late

Mycenaean, twelfth century B.c.

seum

The Metropolitan Muof Art, New York

Head of a Woman. Painted stucco,

height

öVs"-

Thir-

From Mycenae. National Museum, teenth

Athens

century

B.c.

,-;?..

9 '•^1

y

Pitcher. Terra cotta with glaze paint,

height i^U". Late

Mycenaean,

thir-

From lalysos Museum, London

teenth century b.c.

(Rhodes). British

This bulging pitcher the basis of

development 54

is

decorated with ten highly stylized purple-dye mollusks, recognizable as such only on

numerous intermediate is

steps between

also apparent in other motifs.

Minoan

representations and these.

A

corresponding

m

V

Grave

stele.

Stuccoed and painted sandstone, width of the Museum, Athens

frieze zfy'U'.

Thirteenth century b.c.

From

a necropolis outside

My-

cenae. National

An

incised pattern of circles lies hidden beneath the layer of stucco with

indicating that the stele

was used more than once. The

style of painting

its

has

friezes of warriors

much

in

common

and

stags,

with that of

contemporary vase paintings. 55

Cover

of an incense burner. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height 4'/i". Thirteenth century b.c.

Crete). Archaeological

Only the heads of the swimming ducks, whose bodies are

way is

true to

life;

and even they are transformed, by

Palaikastro (east coast of

entirely covered with ornamentation, are in

any

repetition, into a pattern. This piece of late Cretan pottery

an example of the trend toward pure ornament which occurred both here and on the Greek mainland, as

well as evidence of the

56

From

Museum, Herakleion

homogeneity of Late Mycenaean ceramic

art everywhere.

The

bull

on

this krater

on the Vaphio cups

(mixing bowl) has retained practically nothing of the magnificent

(see pages 32, 33): here

it

is

a

mere schematized reminder,

vitality of the bulls

totally lacking in flesh

and

The same figure is repeated on both sides of the vessel with only slight variations. The tendency toward an ornamental breakdown of the body is apparent in the treatment of the animal's skin. blood.

Krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height toVs"- Late Mycenaean, thirteenth century seum, London

b.c.

From Enkonii

(Cyprus). British

Mu-

57

The

lively, frolicking

dolphins of the seal

which seem to chase each other are surrounded by a play of light

become

a

stiff

and

the floor panel

Dolphins. Jasper lentoid seal, diameter c. 'U". Fifteenth century b.c. From the tholos

tomb

Vaphio, near National Museum,

of

Sparta.

Athens

Dolphins. Painted floor panel of lime stucco, height of panel

23^8".

tury

B.c.

Thirteenth

From

cen-

the citadel

of Tiryns (see page 39). Symmetrically arranged dolphins alternate

with

(similar to

page 47, top

58

that

octopuses

shown on

right)

lifeless

(left),

in a circle and and water, have

symmetrical pattern

from Tiryns (below).

in

Female

Idol.

tury B.c.

The

Terra cotta with glaze paint, height

limited interest

Representation

by

figural

A

is

Thirteenth cen-

shown by

the

symbols,

in

standing draped

child in her arms, or

Some

Mycenaean Greeks in the forms of nature is also evident in their sculpture. and the lifelike statuettes of Minoan art (see page 21) are replaced

limited to the essential,

some

respects reminiscent of the Cycladic idols (see page 15).

woman

with her hands placed in front of her body

possible way. Other idols of the

36).

4^/4".

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz

same type have

their

two women busy themselves with a

hands child

is

uplifted, or the (cf.

here depicted in the simplest

woman

the older ivory

of these votive offerings probably represent divinities, and

some

occasionally holds a

group from Mycenae, page

orants.

59

Krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height

Mycenaean, twelfth century chaeological

The handle zone

of this vessel

is

From

B.c.

c. y'/s".

Late

Iria (Argolis).

Ar-

Museum, Nauplia

articulated in the

manner

of metopes or panels. Small curved lines, a

longer recognizable vestige of representational decoration, have been added

This abstraction

is

characteristic of

numerous Late Mycenaean

Greek ornamentation over the old Minoan

pictorial art

— the

Early and Middle. Helladic with the succeeding Geometric

The

tense forms of Geometric pottery (see page 62),

its

vessels. It

result of

no

to the age-old geometric motifs.

documents the absolute victory a long struggle

— and

of

connects the

art.

clear articulation,

and the refined simplicity of the

painting testify to the delight of the potter in the technical inventions of the potter's wheel and glaze paint,

which had been

in

use from

Mycenaean

times.

The

close relationship between the

form of the

decoration, which was to remain characteristic throughout the Geometric period, reveals the of the

60

Greek

artist.

vessel

and

its

strict discipline

GEOMETRIC ART

(1100-700

b.c.)

The "Doric migrations" signified the end of the Mycenaean world. Palaces and citadels fell before the flood tide of the Greek tribes penetrating from the North. The second wave of Greek immigration brought with it a new social order which narrowed the gulf between the princes of the Mycenaean citadels and their peasant subjects. Patriarchal

customs based on peasant tradition now prevailed, leaving the nobility only a slight of the Mycenaean Achaians probably emigrated; in some regions of Greece they

Some

edge of superiority.

found ways of coexistence with

their

new

masters. Tradition recounts that Athens was spared from these

upheavals, and here Geometric art attained an early and individual flowering. art

was not brought

into

Greek

ment and mental

in

art as the

diffusion

art.

It is

by the immigrants as a finished product but that the new

Mycenaean culture came of Greek orna-

to

life

thus clear that Geometric infused by the

an end provided the necessary impetus for the

newcomers

full

develop-

Finds from the Dipylon

cemetery (whence the name "Dipylon vases") display the continuing traditions of the Athenian potters at

the time of the Doric migrations.

The to

from Late Mycenaean

transition

Geometric pottery took place

gradually,

without the intervening

crises that political revolution

must

inevitably bring.

Amphora. Terra height

15^/1".

tury B.c.

cotta with glaze paint,

Protogeometric, tenth cen-

From

the cemetery south of the

Eridanos, Athens.

Kerameikos Museum,

Athens 61

'.

!

j'ti^'-

\

':

^i\w

62

•4

Amphora. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height Athens. Kerameikos Museum, Athens

A

il'jt".

Protogeometric,

symmetry, enlivened by small variations, reigns

articulates the vessel into dark

light zones,

in

the

half of ninth century b.c.

"metope"

frieze of the

From

the Dipylon cemetery,

handle area. The decoration

which accentuate the egg shape of the body of the vase as

sweep of the high neck.

well as the

Amphora

and

first

(detail).

Terra cotta with glaze paint, height 6i". Geometric,

c.

770

b.c.

From

the Dipylon cemetery. National

Museum,

Athens

The left

detail

shows a mourning scene with the corpse on

men by

are identified as

figures

narrow This

is

their

weapons.

On

its

bier in the center; only the

reserved in the bands of geometric ornament which encircle the entire vessel.

friezes of deer first

among the bands of ornamental motifs. human and animal figures was preceded by

appearance of

(see pages 61, 62).

two

figures at the far

the reverse of the vessel another small panel with

Yet by their very shapes, even these

figural elements

On

more mourning two

the neck are

a long period of pure Geometric art

have become ornaments. 63

"^1

.lit

^^ca^

~:,i

Krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height

Geometric, mid-eighth century National Museum, Athens

48'/g".

The two wide

figural

friezes

b.c.

with

their representations of a magnificent

funeral cortege and of a long

warriors

in their

row

of

chariots have, to a

large extent, replaced the pure orna-

ment. The band of two-horse chariots

*i^64

seems to indicate races held

honor of the deceased.

in

Terra cotta with glaze paint, height of the frieze

Krater

(detail).

of Art,

New York

Geometric

pictorial art, as

figural representations

lions are seen

women

it

were

in

s'/g".

Geometric, eighth century

b.c.

The Metropolitan Museum

competition with the narrative epic poetry, developed in a wealth of

whose heroes have mostly remained nameless. Above

devouring a man; to the

left

of

them

is

is

a naval battle, while below two

a battle scene and, to the right, are a lyre player and

carrying jugs on their heads.

Kantharos

(detail).

Terracotta with glaze paint, height of the frieze iVs"- LateGeometric,

cemetery, Athens. National

late eighth

century b.c.

From

the Dipylon

Museum, Copenhagen

65

Fighting for a Tripod. Fragment of the foot of a tripod. Bronze, height i8V>", width Ti^U". Eighth century B.c. From Olympia. Archaeological Museum, Olympia

Two Warriors

Proof that Geometric art was not only a potter's art

is

provided by incised patterns on utensils of various kinds, engravings on the catchplates of fibulae (see page 72), and

embossed and

cast reliefs

on bronze implements. The

flat

supporting legs of tripods are usually decorated only with

ornamental motifs, and

on the

left

figural representations

such as that

are rare exceptions. Although both

men wear

helmets and are undifferentiated, the event shown

is

un-

doubtedly the struggle between Herakles and Apollo. In the lower panel two rampant lions face each other. The vertical ridges found on other tripod legs have here been modified on

account of the intervening 66

figural panels.

Nude Goddess. Ivory metric vessel found

750-725 B.C. From a GeoDipylon cemetery, which also contained four

statuette, height g'/s"-

in the

other ivory figurines of nude goddesses. National

Museum,

Atliens

Both the general sculptural form and the material of which it

is

made would

figurine

on the

indicate an

right.

construction of the

Eastern origin for the

However, the rationally understood

human

figure suffices to reveal the artist

as Greek; while additional proof

meander on the polos

little

is

provided by the Greek

(divine crown).

The

statuette

would

thus seem to be a precursor of the sculptural creations of the

Archaic period (see pages 77,

91).

Bird. Terra cotta with glaze paint, length 6V4". c. 750 b.c. From the cemetery south of the Eridanos, Athens. Kerameikos Museum, Athens

67

•^is^";

•il.^'.'7

Hero and Centaur. Bronze, height 4^8"- Eighth century

York

68

B.c.

Purportedly from Olympia. The Metropolitan

Museum

'•A3J^f'-::tl'l

of Art,

New

Hind and Fawn. Bronze, height i2'/s"-

seum

Eighth century B.c.

L. Pierce

Fund)

The mother suckling

rump

Mu-

of Fine Arts, Boston (H.

of the animal

taken from nature.

was meant

its

young

— which

A

relief

to be held in the

is

is

a favorite motif of Geometric small-scale sculpture.

female, despite the large antlers

—emphasizes the

meander on the underside of the base hand and looked

at

from every

The

bird sitting

on the

idyllic aspect of this

indicates that the object

was not

scene

fixed,

but

angle.

The hero, wearing a helmet like the centaur, stands on an extension of the openwork base of the latter. Their interlocked arms are probably intended to indicate fighting rather than friendly greeting. The battle with the centaur

— a hybrid creature of horse and

are reflected,

metopes

(see

is

a favorite

page

152),

theme

in

man

Greek

—

art

pediments (see page

in

which the extremes of beastly nature and human culture

and appears

134),

and

in

vase paintings (see pages 73, 93, 134), temple

in large-scale painting.

The centaur legend is connected The most famous

with Herakles (who killed Nessos) and Achilles (who was taught by the wise Chiron).

centauromachy resulted from the brutish behavior of the centaurs

at Peirithoos'

wedding

(see

page

134).

69

Horse. Bronze, height

century b.c. National

c.

4^4"- Eighth

Museum, Athens

Geometric animal figurines are preponderantly

in the

form of horses, although

Evidently they are votive offerings which were deposited in sanctuaries. that the undersides

bulls

Some were

and birds also

exist.

apparently suspended so

— frequently decorated — could be seen. There was a tendency toward an exaggeration of

the slenderness of the extremities

and trunk

in the

horse figurines: the powerful parts of the animal are de-

picted as massive shapes, while the thinness of the connecting parts

and

joints

is

stressed. Despite their ap-

parent lack of realism, these rather manneristic forms succeed in putting across a very vivid picture of the

nature of the horse.

70

fe^^^^^ Horse. Painted terra cotta, height 7V2". Late eighth century b.c. Antikensammlung,

Munich

Countless terra-cotta horses such as

this,

unpretentious in comparison with the bronze statuettes, were used

as votive offerings or as funeral gifts to be laid in the tomb. Their style, like the material,

are enriched with ornamental painting. Surprising here in this otherwise rather

stiff little

is

simple, but they

horse

is

the

momen-

tary turn of the head.

These Geometric animal figurines are the

many examples from

first in

a long series of

Greek representations

the Archaic age have survived (see pages 80, 81),

little is

known

of animals.

of the

While

famous animal

sculptures of the classical age.

71

Four

fibulae.

The two

Gold, heights 2^3" and

I'/s"- c.

larger pins have a swastika

700 b.c. British Museum, London

on one

side of the catchplate

are decorated with animal pictures and a ship. large.

72

The

More

and a deer on the other; the smaller ones

often the fibulae are of bronze

and are sometimes very

scenes engraved on the catchplates frequently represent mythological events.

THE SEVENTH CENTURY The horizon

B.C.

of the Greeks expanded as colonies were established

on almost

ranean during the second half of the eighth and the seventh centuries

and backward compared with the

art of the East,

and some aspects

b.c.

all

the coasts of the Mediter-

Greek Geometric

art

seemed

of the latter were accepted as

stiff

worthy of

The crisis which Greek art faced can be surmised from the great endeavors made in the new fields monumental sculpture and painting. The cornerstone for subsequent Greek art was laid in this time of

imitation. of

unrest.

In the principal scene

on

this

dismounts from a chariot is

amphora Hera-

preparing to punish the centaur Nessos,

kles,

seated.

On

in

which Deianeira

the neck of the jar a lion attacks

a deer, and in the shoulder zone

The

two grazing

figural decoration

is

confined to the front of the vase, which

is

horses are depicted.

clearly

differentiated

from the back. The

pliability of the figures

and the

flexibility of

the ornamentation contrast sharply with the rigid

Geometric

style. In this

same period pots

painted in the old tradition were

still

being

produced alongside those which had decisively

broken with Geometric traditions.

Amphora. Terra

cotta with glaze paint, height jöVs"-

Proto-Attic, early seventh century b.c. itan

Museum

of Art,

The Metropol-

New York 73

''/WA The Trojan Horse,

detail of

seventh century B.r.

a

relief

amphora. Terra

cotta, over-ail height 49 Vi", height of the scene

shown

c.

iz'/a"-

Cycladic,

From Mykonos. Museum, Mykonos

the neck of this amphora is the largest of a series of twenty pictures narrating the story of the The other scenes are arranged in three tiers on the body of the vessel (on the front side only). This detail shows the Greek heroes looking out of the hatches in the wooden horse and handing out weapons and armor to their comrades who have already dismounted. The jar belongs to a class of monumental relief amphorae which were produced only in the seventh century b.c. They show the trend toward large size prevalent even in the pottery of this period. The center of production was in the Cyclades.

The scene on fall

74

of Troy.

Krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint

660 Melos. National Museum, Athens

color, height 37^/8". Cycladic,

A

duel witnessed by

c.

women

on the front of the neck of

The

principal scene

four-horse

is

chariot;

is

From

painted

this krater.

of Apollo in his

standing

behind him are two

chariot

and red

b.c.

in

the

women

(Muses?); and Artemis comes to meet him.

Two

horses stand in the center of

the reverse side, while the remaining surface tifs.

is

The

covered with ornamental mo-

foot shows a

woman's head

in

each of the metope-like panels. Like the relief vessels (see

page

74), these painted

Cycladic vases are also characterized by

monumental tendency which clearly differentiates them from the preference a

for small scale evident in the Corinthian

paintings (see pages 83, 84).

75

Apollo with a Lyre, fragment of a pinax (votive plaque). Terra cotta with brown, dark-red, and white paint, height 874", width

y'/s"- Attic,

second half of seventh of the Acropolis in

From the north slope Athens. Agora Museum, Athens

century B.c.

This example of early Attic painting supplements the information supplied by painted vases (see page 93), In both cases a

largeness and simplicity of line quite equal to that of Cycladic

painting (see pages 74, 75) Attic picture

is

is

evident. In

its

broad handling the

evidence of the fact that painting has outgrown

the limits set by the ceramic technique, and that

painting

page

is

135),

on

its

way

to

becoming an independent

The bearded god on

the

the lyre held by a figure on the right.

missing

and

is

of

uncertain

left

The

monumental art

form

(see

appears to be receiving latter is

identification

—

almost entirely perhaps

Leto.

Originally the picture must have measured about twenty by

twenty-four inches and or a temple metope.

76

may have been an independent

painting

Goddesses (Leto and Artemis?). height i5'/i" B.c.

and

17^/4".

From Dreros

Hammered

bronze,

Cretan, mid-seventh century

(Crete). Archaeological

Museum,

Herakleion

•

These female

statuettes,

found with that of a god (3iV2"high)

#"'

in the

temple of Dreros, probably represent

sister.) The figures made by the sphyrelaton technique, that is, they are assembled of hammered sheets of bronze nailed over a wooden core. This method permitted the creation of bronze statues of considerable size at a time when hollow bronze casting was still unknown. The figures give the impression of having been carved out of tree trunks and clearly show their affinity to the wood sculpture that was so important in earlier times, although

Leto and Artemis. (Apollo was apparently worshiped here together with his mother and

are

they are also reminiscent of the Geometric ivory figure (see page 67).

77

Two

lions

lie

side

by side on a rectangular

slab, their

heads protruding over the corners. Between them stands

a goddess holding the ends of leashes which pass around the necks of the lions.

On

the hindquarters of each

somewhat smaller female figure holding the other end of the leash and the animal's tail. Similar supports made of the same Lakonian marble were found in Olympia, Rhodes, and Corinth. They may have lion stands a

Caldron stand. Blue-gray marble with red paint, height 20V2". First half of seventh

century State

78

b.c.

From

Museums,

the Heraion of Samos.

Berlin

come from

a Spartan workshop.

contained

form

relates

them

of

the

The

female

self-

figures

to the bronze goddesses of

Dreros (see page 77) and characterized "Daidalic" style, which was named

the

after the legendary sculptor Daidalos.

It

originated in the seventh century b.c. and

spread throughout Greece.

Head of a Goddess,

detail of the vertical handle of

a hydria. Bronze, lieight of handle

head

i'lg".

6"/,",

height of

Spartan, early sixth century B.c.

Livadia (Boeotia). Universität,

From

Archäologisches Institut der

Mainz

The inscription TELESSTAS scratched into the rim of the mouth of this hydria makes it appear likely that it was made by the Spartan sculptor whose statue of Zeus at Olympia is mentioned by Pausanias (V, 23, 7), The style of this little head also suggests Sparta, where contrary to popular belief numerous works of art were created. The practicing artists were, however, not members of that ruling warrior caste upon which our

—

—

notion of ancient Sparta

is

based. For a brief span of time the craftsmen

who

created the Spartan vases might

have been Mothakes (children of Spartan fathers and Helot mothers) or Helots (slaves of the that they even belonged to the Spartan Confederation as less privileged

takings foreign artists were called

state),

members. For larger

assuming

artistic

under-

in.

79

(

Lion.

Naxian marble, height

From

Late seventh century b.c. Delos, processional

jS'/j".

way

to the sacred lake

Late Geometric times on, the king of beasts was frequently represented as a terrifying, murderous

The

creature (see pages 65, 66).

lion

was not indigenous

to

Greece and was therefore treated

creatures such as the griffin and the sphinx, which appeared alongside other animals lion of

Corfu (facing page)

of a lion as a I

is

tomb guardian

have mounted

probably a funerary monument, since

is

widespread and

this stone burial place of the

In Delos, nine seated lions flank the

especially

from Egypt, while

monumentality with

its

is

it

was found

supported by an epigram "I :

dead, over

whom

I

am

shows the independence of the

the limits of the possible.

One such

vases.

The crouching The concept

necropolis.

the strongest of wild beasts.

may stem from artists

inherent danger of extravagance. Of the gigantic statues

marble of the Cycladic islands some remained unfinished

on

legendary

keep watch."

Sacred Way. The idea of such "avenues"

their construction

in a

like

in the quarries, their

and

the Orient,

their striving for

hewn out

of the

famous

dimensions having exceeded

colossus would have been thirty-six feet high.

Lion. Grayish-yellow limestone, over-all length of base 48". Late seventh century b.c.

From

Corfu, near the

tomb

of Menekrates.

Museum, Corfu 81

Drinking cup (skyphos). Terra cotta with glaze paint and white and red color, height From Kameiros (Rhodes). British Museum, London

I'^U

Proto-Corinthian, early seventh century

B.c.

The

figure of a

running dog decorates the front and reverse of

this

skyphos; under the handles are a goose

and a palmette bow. While Proto-Corinthian vase painting generally tended toward miniature work, here it shows a surprising largeness of form despite the small size of the vessel. The products of Corinthian potters were greatly in demand and were distributed by tradesmen to the far corners of the Greek world. 82

This

little

masterpiece of the early Corinthian potter's art shows, arranged

scene, a horse race,

and a hare hunt. The mouth of the

vessel

is

in the

in three tiers, a colorful battle

form of a

lion's head.

Except for

its

wider neck, the jar has the shape of an early type of lekythos and was used as a perfume container. Such recipients for aromatic oils are often entirely or partly in the shape of a

human

figure or

an animal

(see pages

100, 105).

Perfume flask (aryballos). Terra cotta with glaze paint and white and red color, height iVg". Proto-Corinthian, mid-seventh century b.c.

From

Thebes. British

Museum,

London 83

This jug

is

the most important extant example of early Corinthian painting.

approach of two armies preparing for

ment

of Paris;

and

in

the

bottom

of the glaze paint around the

the

battle; a procession of

frieze, a

mouth

hare hunt.

of the jug,

band of glaze paint beneath the first frieze. Only in the scene of the Judgment of

matter.

A lotus design

and a row

Shown

in three friezes are: the

horsemen, chariots, a lion hunt, and the Judghas been painted with opaque color on top

of running animals has been similarly painted

The pictures do not seem to be related to each other Paris have the

names

of the figures been inscribed.

exhibits his talent in the delicacy of his figures, in their colorful nature, in their lifelike portrayal,

on

in subject

The

and

artist

in their

grouping, while their true meaning seems to be of secondary importance.

Jug

(olpe), the so-called Chigi

ra cotta with

dark and

Vase. Ter-

light glaze paint

and

red and white color, height io'/4". Proto-

Corinthian,

c.

640

b.c.

From

Veii (Italy). Villa Giulia,

84

Formello, near

Rome

Kneeling Youth. Ivory with

From

amber inlay, height Museum, Samos

5^4"-

c.

630

b.c.

the Heraion of Samos.

Together with a companion piece, youth supported the arms of a the temple treasure of Hera.

nude kneehng

The

belonged to

figure

is

frontally

would primarily have been seen

oriented, although

it

from the

head has a

side; the

this

lyre that

slight twist to the left,

it was attached to the right side of The complete nudity of the figure and the broad, tightly drawn metal belt mark the work as Greek. The inlay technique suggests, however, that the Greek artist had learned ivory carving from an Eastern master. The eyes, eyebrows, and pubic hair were inlaid with

probably because

the lyre.

have been preserved

may have adapted style.

in the locks of hair

himself to the Greek

on the brow.

way

of

life

It

is

also possible that a

and have executed

Such adaptation must frequently have taken place as a

ivory carvers are figures also

known

and remains of amber Near Eastern ivory worker musical instrument in Greek

different colored material,

this costly

result of the

wandering mode of

life

which the

to have led. Furthermore, the idea of decorating a musical instrument with sculptural

seems to be of Oriental origin. 85

Duel over a Corpse. Terra-cotta plate with glaze paint and white and purple colors over a cream From Kameiros (Rhodes). British Museum, London

slip,

diameter

15".

Rhodian,

late

seventh century b.c.

Like Corinth, Meios (see page 75), and Athens, Rhodes also had

its

own

pottery workshops.

Its

highly

decorative products are usually ornamented with several rows of animals: mythological scenes are rarer. this plate, the inscriptions indicate that

Menelaos and Hektor are

ornamental motifs encroach upon the picture, which 86

fills

fighting over the corpse of

On

Euphorbos. Rich

the bowl of the plate but for a small lower segment.

The eyes painted on

either side of the

pendant volute pattern

(XWU) Homer

lend an air of fantasy to the scene. In the Iliad describes

how Menelaos

him of

armor and weapons. The shield of Euphorbos was Heraion of Argos as a sacrificial offering

his

defeated Euphorbos and robbed

later exhibited in the

of

Menelaos (Pausanias,

Hektor took part

no evidence

that

as his tithe to the far-striking

god

II, 17, 3).

There

is

in this battle.

"Mantiklos dedicated with the silver bow.

me

Do

thou,

O

Phoebus, grant him

reward." So reads the inscription on

sired

figure of Apollo.

Any

this little

bronze

attempt to identify this Mantiklos with

Mycenaean War

the hero of the second

is

Boeotian character of the inscription. Were of dating, an identification

thwarted by the it

would be quite

articulated structure this figure, belt,

his de-

nude but

only a matter

possible. In its

for a tight bronze

heralds the imminent approach of the kouros figure in

The frontally oriented, inflexible posmonumental statue, and this statuette may

large-scale sculpture.

ture

is

that of a

be a copy of a large cult image.

The nude male However,

dominates Archaic sculpture and,

figure

was

generally speaking, this

to

remain so

would be erroneous

it

nudity was of clothes

common

was taken

nasiums and in the

To

for granted.

in the great

Olympic

in daily life the

The

contests, athletes

shows that the beauty of the human

revealed to the Greeks in

human body

reveal

its

its

nudity.

gym-

competed

figure

was

Only undraped does the

logical structure

— the

functioning of

individual parts as well as the co-ordination of

ages.

wearing

fact that, in the

nude, as also the care applied to the development of

the body,

its

be sure, a freer attitude toward

Greece, but

in

art.

custom of the early Greeks

of these figures simply represents a carried over into art.

Greek

in later

conclude that the nudity

to

its

append-

These were the characteristics that mattered more to the

sculptor than mere outer appearance.

Apollo. Statuette dedicated to the god by Mantiklos. Bronze, height 8".

Boeotian, early seventh century b.c.

From

Thebes.

Museum of Fine Arts,

Boston

87

In

small-scale sculpture the

human

figure,

ever since the Geometric period, showed an

astonishing propensity for

movement

— albeit

of a puppetlike kind. Large-scale sculpture,

however, followed quite different paths (see pages 89 ff.).

Warrior. Bronze statuette, height

century b.c.

From

8".

Early seventh

the Acropolis, Athens. National

Museum, Athens

Warrior. Bronze statuette, height e'/s"- Late seventh

century B.c.

From Olympia. Museum, Olympia

This youth stands erect and in a frontal pose, his foot advanced and his

left

thighs.

fists

pressed to his

While the complete nudity of the statue

and the absence of any support

differentiate

it

from Egyptian antecedents, the basic idea of large-scale sculpture, as well as other elements,

are of Egyptian derivation. There was no direct

development from the older bronze statuettes (facing page) to the often over life-size kouroi.

The kouros

figure

was a

distinct basic type

which

prevailed until about 500 b.c. and which

was

constructed according to specific rules, which nonetheless permitted infinite variations according to period, location, there

and artist. Simultaneously

was a trend toward an ever

anatomic

details.

The kouros

better grasp of in

New

York,

which probably stood on the grave of a young Attic aristocrat, seems particularly slender

noble

in contrast

of Kleobis

and

with the contemporary statues

and Biton

(see

page

90). It

embodies

the current Athenian ideal of beauty.

Kouros. Marble, height

From York

Attica.

6' 4".

Late seventh century B.c.

The Metropolitan Museum

of Art,

New

4

Kleohis ami Bilon, by Polymedes of Argos. Marble, heighl 86" and 85". Late seventh century b.c. From Delphi. Mu-

seum, Delphi

The in

inscription

which the

that the

two

on the upper

side of the phnths,

artist also identifies himself, states

statues represent Kleobis

and Biton,

heroes whose feats are recounted by Herodotos (I,

31)

and others.

When

the oxen which were to

pull the chariot of their mother, the priestess

Kydippe, to the Heraion of Argos failed to rive,

her sons took the shafts themselves.

ar-

They

were rewarded by being granted a peaceful and

Herodotus also mentions

early death in sleep.

these statues, which he himself probably saw.

The concentrated vigor of the figures, so clearly dilTerent from the Attic elegance of the New York kouros

(see

page

89),

the Doric ideal, but

apparently corresponds to

is

also motivated here by the

young men's heroic deed.

The pomegranate which she holds in her right hand does not suffice to identify the ^'Stancl'mg Goddess of Berlin"

(right).

She could be Per-

sephone or Aphrodite. However, the polos on her head

(see

pages 67, 77) definitely shows her to be

a goddess. She seems the female counterpart of the

New York

kouros (see page 89); but while

the kouros type had already reached

its

definitive

form, the kore (maiden) statue so characteristic of Archaic times did not develop until later (see

pages 109,

ii4ff.). In earlier times,

ments formed a

single

body and

gar-

w

columnar or slab-shaped

unit (see pages 77, 78).

1

Goddess. Marble with bluish-gray veins, abundant traces of original painting, height 77". Attic, early sixth century B.c.

From Kcratea

(Attica). State

Museums,

Berlin

ÄiiV

i«l

Koiiros.

Marble, height

c.

lo'. c.

600

B.c.

From Sounion

(Attica).

National Museum, Athens

Because of its monumental size, this statue, which was found in the vicinity of the temple in the foothills of Sounion together with other fragments, seems more self-contained than the smaller, possibly contemporary, kouros of New York (see page 89). These colossi stood in an enclosure consecrated to Poseidon and were visible

92

from afar

to seafarers.

Here the god had only an

altar,

and

as yet

no temple.

Amphora showing Herakles and

Nessos. Terra

cotta with glaze paint and (originally) red

and

white color, height 48". Late seventh century b.c.

From the Dipylon Museum, Athens

cemetery, Athens.

National

This monumental amphora the inscription of the

is painted only on the front side. The battle with the centaur on the neck includes names "Herakles" and "Netos" (Nessos). On the body of the vessel the decapitated

Medusa is depicted with her sisters, who are pursuing Perseus, although the figure of the hero is not shown. The picture on the neck has the same largeness of drawing as the Attic panel painting (see page 76). The uncertainty, hesitancy, and experimentation of older Attic vase paintings (see page 73) have yielded to a confident self-awareness that enabled Attic pottery to overshadow the Corinthian. The latter now lost its market and rapidly declined. 93

Enthroned Goddesses. Terra cotta with cream-colored ground and ceramic colors, formerly c. 31 Metope from a temple in Thermen (Aetolia). National Museum, Athens

'/a

^ i^'W- Corinthian, late

seventh century B.c.

The painted metope above, framed on either side by a frieze of rosettes, shows three enthroned goddesses, perhaps the Charites (Graces). The rich ornamentation of the throne and robes indicates that the metope was restored at a later date (probably in the third century b.c.). Other surviving metopes of this temple depict

scenes of Greek legend. Since these "panel paintings" are our only evidence, apart from vase paintings, for the Corinthian art of this period, they are particularly significant. in

94

the history of

Greek painting

to Corinth.

Greek

tradition allots

an important place

THE SIXTH CENTURY In

its

encounter with that of the Orient, the

art of

Greece preserved

and Archaic istic

B.C.

art

its

now took on

form. Art quietly

set

independence its

character-

itself

specific

goals and strove for greater naturalism

increased

within

given

these

limits.

straightforwardness

The

rule of the tyrants

and

details relative

Archaic art was

of

contemporary

also reflected in

prevailing

individual

of

subtlety

life.

was established

The

as the

form of government and the

splendid court

life

maintained by the rulers

led to the formulation of universal

modes

of living. Philosophy sought out the laws of nature; morality rules of

life

was determined by the

of the sages.

Pitcher (oinochoe). Terra cotta with glaze paint

and white and red sixth

century

b.c.

color, height g'/s". Attic, early From the Athenian Agora.

Agora Museum, Athens

The

picture of a

swan beating

its

sweeps across the panel reserved light color of the clay this

pitcher.

In

on the

wings in

the

right side of

Attic vase painting, the

combination of Cycladic monumentality (see

page 75) with Corinthian delicacy (see

pages 83, 84) results

in

a restrained large-

ness which infuses a living tension into

every image.

95

Temple

of Apollo, Corinth. Limestone. Mid-sixth century b.c.

The seven

surviving columns of the northwest corner

This Doric temple was provided on the west and east with porches, had two cellae (indicating that tion to Apollo, a second divinity

wide

The

at the front

and

— Artemis? — was honored), and was surrounded by a colonnade

fifteen at the sides.

stylobate, the platform

The

shafts of the

on which the columns

columns (almost twenty

rest (70' 6"

x

176' 6"),

god rather than a gathering place for

Archaic period, maintaining

its

characteristics almost

the oldest, the Ionic (see pages 166, 170) soon followed,

The period

in

which a temple was

built

is

believers

in addi-

columns

feet high) are monolithic.

was given a convex curve three-

quarters of an inch high in the center in order to relieve the otherwise dead straight the house of the

six

— originated

line.

The Greek temple form in the early The Doric order is

in its classic

unchanged through the

and the Corinthian made

centuries. its

revealed primarily by the proportions of

appearance about 400 its

B.c.

columns (which become

increasingly slender, see pages 117, 120, 150, 156, 157), as well as in the individual details of the

ground plan

The Greek temple sets the place for the image of the god apart from the rest of the world, yet links it once more with the environment by its columns. The sanctuary may be said to stand within the sacred enclosure like a Greek statue. and by the

96

style of the sculptural decoration.

Kouros (so-called Apollo of Marble, height 5'.

Tenea).

mid-sixth

cen-

From Tenea,

near

Corinthian, tury B.c.

Corinth. Glyptothek,

Munich

This barely life-sized statue of a youth (see page 89) stood over a grave as a representation of a

man who

died

The elegance of the figure seems to agree with the fineness of form in Corinthian vase paintings. The statue reached Munich in 1853, and through it both Archaic art and the kouros type (then identified as "Apollo") came to be widely known. The "Archaic smile" was at the time taken as an indication of the lack in early age.

of skill of the ancient sculptor. However, the cheerful expression of the face, which all later

Archaic works,

an openness which

is

is

today interpreted as a sign of the

entirely

Greek and which

it

would be

intellect futile to

is

a characteristic of almost

which distinguished the

free

man, and

of

seek in Oriental works.

97

The Calf Bearer. Marble, limestone base, height 570 B.c. From the Acropolis, Athens. Acropolis Museum, Athens

65". Attic, c.

According

to

the dedicatory inscription,

the statue represents a certain

who, despite

his fine clothing,

kindly herdsman.

[?Rh]ombos is shown as a

He may have been a who rendered thanks

wealthy stockbreeder to the goddess bull calf

is

Athena with

astonishing for

pression, the statue as a

mony

man and

of

noted that

this older

(see pages 87

person he

is

IT.):

his statue.

is

ex-

whole for the har-

animal.

man

is

It

sihould be

shown clothed

as the likeness of a living

depicted in everyday dress.

This enthroned couple, behind

snake

The

its lifelike

coiled,

ized dead, at

whom

a

probably represents hero-

whose

feet small figures of

worshipers bear votive offerings. The originally decorated a grave.

relief

Both the

ir-

regular shape of the stele and the angularity

of the figures are surprising. These facts

may

be interpreted as a sign of provincial-

ism, for in the course of the sixth century B.c. the

once impressive

artistic

production

of Sparta (see page 79) declined rapidly.

Heroized Dead.

Relief

in

grayish-blue

marble,

height 34V4". Spartan, mid-sixth century B.c. From Chrysapha, near Sparta. State Museums, Berlin

98

...;J'5H^^:^?'«e5t^-....

form of the bust of a young womTerra cotta with glaze paint and white and red color, height 4'/,". Rhodian, mid-sixth century

Plastic vase in the

an.

From London

B.c.

Vulci

(Etruria).

British

Museum,

Krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint and white and red color, height 15" (with lid, i8Ve")- Chalkidian,

Mu-

540 B.c. From Vulci (Etruria). University seum, Würzburg

c.

This vessel, which once contained scented

The chiton has been hangs a pendant

and

in

the

in the

Greek

shape of a

the

form of

bull's head. Figural vessels

East, as well as in

imagination free reign. 100

oil, is in

a female bust of the kore type (see

reserved in the color of the clay ground; the slanting mantle

Athens

(see

page

is

were particularly popular

105). In

black. in

On

page

1

14).

the necklace

Corinth (see page 83)

them potters and sculptors could

give their

The scene on the groom Kebriones handles are

men

front of this krater is

running.

excellent technique,

shows Hektor and Paris taking leave of Andromache and Helen. The On the reverse are shown two horsemen, and under the

also identified by an inscription.

good

An

animal

frieze

spatial division,

which prospered for a short period

ornaments the

lid.

Chalkidian vases are distinguished by their

and balanced ornamental

after the

effect.

Pottery from Chalkis (Euboea),

middle of the sixth century, was particularly popular

along with Corinthian and Attic products. The form of the

in Etruria,

letters in the inscriptions identifies the

vase as

Chalkidian. 101

Amphora in Fikellura style. Terra cotta with glaze paint and From Kameiros (Rhodes). British Museum, London

On

the front, the large

hare.

The

empty space

is filled

white color, height is'/s

"•

by the figure of a running

Rhodian,

man

its

name from

the type site

on Rhodes,

540 b.c.

and, on the back, by a running

guilloche pattern around the front of the neck has a corresponding

This group of vases, which takes

c.

meander band on the reverse. from other Greek

differs technically

black-figure vases in that the internal details of the figures are not incised with a needle but have been re-

served in the ground.

102

Dionysos diameter

in

a Ship.

Cup

11^/4". Attic, c.

(kylix)

540

Dionysos' ship, decorated races full

sail

over a sea

by Exekias. Terra cotta with glaze paint on a coral-red glaze ground and white and purple color,

b.c.

From

at the

filled

Vulci (Etruria). Antikensammlung,

bow

with the head of a wild boar and with the head of a

with playing dolphins.

A

vine twines around the mast and

of the picture area with thick clusters of grapes. Dionysos

The signature potters

and

Munich

lies

painters,

was the

first

the stern,

the upper part

alone in his ship, holding a large drinking horn.

of Exekias runs along the rim of the foot. Exekias,

in this sense his

swanat

fills

to present rich figural scenes

who was one

from legend

of the outstanding Athenian

in a unified pictorial

form; and

"compositions" have rightly been considered the starting point of Western painting. 103

Nike. Marble, height 35'/b". Cycladic, c. 540 B.c. From Delos. National Mu-

seum, Athens

Curiously flattened, the goddess of victory turns her head toward the

observer as she floats past. (Only the

attachments

of

the

large

sickle-shaped wings remain.) sculptor

Archermos

said to have been the

The

of Chios first

is

to repre-

sent the victory goddess winged;

and since an inscription bearing this signature was found nearby, this running-flying

Nike may

be presumed to be the work of

Archermos, one of the outstand-

The fact work would

ing sculptors of his time. that he signed his

testify to his pride in

mil iiiiij—iriirtMnlilWBiMlii

Vütd

it.

Perfume flask in the form of a kneeling youth. Terra cotta with glaze paint and red color, height lo". Attic, c. 540 b.c. From the Athenian Agora. Agora Museum, Athens

--^.rX'

This kneeling boy, on whose head

is

the

mouth

of the flask,

in his

around

kind (see pages 83, 100), this vase

his wrist.

Of

its

therefore almost easier to evaluate

it

•^'

\^

II

jr.-,

--a

must have once held the ends of a ribbon threaded

through the small holes

hands

-

(as in the photograph), thus permitting the is

owner of the

jar to carry

of a particularly high sculptural quality.

as a piece of sculpture, since

we have

lost the naivete

It

it

is

necessary for an

appreciation of the object as a vessel. 105

Funeral

iMiiieiilalion.

Fragmenl of panels

lining a

lomb

Clay with glaze paint and red color, height [4". Attic, c. 530 B.c. From Spata (Attica). Vlastos Collection, Athens (

?).

The

style of these

them

"panel paintings" identifies

as the vvoik of the vase painter Lydos.

was a contemporary of Exekias

(see

He

page 103) and

probably came from Asia Minor. In the potters' quarter of Athens he was

and

it

was thus

known

as "the Lydian,"

that he signed his works, countless

examples of which have survived. The

activity of

foreign artists in Athens and their complete identification with the art of the city testify to the irresistible pull of this ctiltural center.

Mother and

Child.

Marble, height

Fragment of a grave relief (detail). From Anavyssos (Attica). National

I5';V'-

Museum, Athens

Only the

profile of the

image of a mother and later.

mother and her hand lovingly cradling the head of the child.

The theme makes

its first

child have

remained of

appearance here and was not to reappear

until

this

inuch

After the older form of a pillar topped by a sphinx had gone out of fashion, Attic grave steles generally

showed

the image of the deceased in profile, either painted or in

relief.

107

Kouros. Marble, height 82". Attic, Attica. Glyptothek,

With great

skill

c.

530

b.c.

From

Munich

the sculptor has succeeded in

so balancing the tremendous weight of the statue that the slender lower legs alone were

able to support the figure without any additional struts. This Attic kouros (see page 89)

embodies

a specific athletic ideal

and the way

the muscles are reproduced, the rounder inodeling in

comparison to older kouroi, and the

substitution of the long hair with a style better

adapted to sports relatively late

activities, identify

work.

it

as a

Köre. Marble with red, green, and

black painting, height 4672". Attic, c.

530 B.c. From the Athenian AcropAcropolis Museum, Athens

olis.

This statue of a

girl

dressed in

chiton and peplos comes from the "Persian 1

27,

1

pages

(see

fill"

28) of the Acropolis.

preservation of the paint result of its

tion

and

metal

is

a

premature destrucearly

burial.

decoration

the

series

The

(earrings,

wreath, fibula) has been

Within

The

of

lost.

korai

(maidens), this Peplos Kore

in

••

V

her inodesty seems a forerunner of the later peplos figures of the fifth century, yet the con-

tained columnar shape of the

lower part of her body lates her to the older

still

re-

female

statues (see pages 77, 78, 91).

Kroisos.

Marble with

From Anavyssos

An

traces of red paint, height j()'U". Attic,

(Attica). National

inscription

520

b.c.

on the three-stepped base addresses the be-

mourn by

holder: "Stand and

whom

c.

Museum, Athens

violent Ares snatched

the grave of dead Kroisos,

up from among the warriors

in

the front line."

The king

is

fact that

an Attic youth bears the name of the Lydian

an indication of the close

ties

which the

Peisistratid

tyranny maintained with the Oriental ruling houses.

The

inscription

statue stood in

is

also significant in that

on the grave of a young man

combat, an unusual

reveals that the

it

(see

page

image of eternal youth as compensation for a

The vase on Minotaur

whom

the facing page

On one

Taleides.

he

in the is

side

Death

life

cut short.

signed both front and back by

is

shows the

battle of

Theseus with the

presence of the Attic youths and maidens

rescuing from the Labyrinth; and

a scene in which three scales.

it

97).

reason for setting up an

fate, is the

men

on the

other,

are occupied with a large pair of

This has the character of an event from daily

Interest in such genre scenes

life.

was only beginning and the

painter predominantly turned to stories from Greek mythology.

Even the land and sea

battles depicted

on Geometric

pottery are probably stories of old (see page 65). Attic blackfigure vase painting

was primarily concerned with the legend-

ary deeds and heroes of which the poets sang, and these were set

down

with the utmost clarity which,

in

turn,

was ac-

centuated by the inclusion of inscriptions.

Amphora

signed by Taleides. Terra cotta with glaze paint and white and

red color, height 11V4". Attic, Metropolitan Museum of Art,

1

c.

530

b.c.

New York

From

Agrigento,

Sicily.

The

^

Ill

Phineiis Cup. Terra cotta with glaze paint

Chalkidian,

c.

520

b.c.

From

This cup, already repaired

in

is

Dionysos with

and his

color, height i6"

The

diameter

c.

15".

The

surface

is

partly corroded.

Museum, Würzburg

Antiquity, has a Silenus

eyes along with satyrs and maenads. of Boreas, Kalais

and white and red

Vulci (Etruria). University

mask

figural decoration

Zetes, drive out the Harpies

in the center

and, on the outside, two pairs of

on the inner rim

who robbed

blind

is

unusual.

King Phineus of

merry following. This bowl occupies a special place

in

On one

his

side the sons

food; on the other

Chalkidian vase painting (see

page loi) and seems to have been influenced by the rich mythological repertory of Attic products. Yet none of the other pottery

workshops could inatch what Athens produced

of pottery decoration have a future.

112

in this field,

and only there did

this class

Around 525 b.c., the inhabitants of the island of Siphnos erected a treasury in Delphi (for its use, see page 7"). The whole building was encircled by a relief frieze which represented the Battle before Troy, the Battle of the Gods and Giants, the Judgment of Paris, and the Rape of the Daughters of Leukippos. Two female figures 1

(caryatids) carried the entablature (see

page 66) could be seen

in the

on the entrance

side,

where Herakles and Apollo fighting for the tripod

pediment. This detail shows

five

gods and goddesses on the side of the Trojans

watching the battle Ares, Aphrodite, Artemis, Apollo, and Zeus (who :

rest of

which

is

supported by the figures of a satyr and a maenad).

the gods favorable to the Greeks.

ample of Ionic was also artists

art,

whose

On

is

seated on a splendid throne, the arm-

the right side of the east frieze appear

Treasury of the Siphnians are an outstanding ex-

serenity constituted an essential ingredient of Archaic art. Its influence

decisive, particularly in the elegance of the kore statues (see

they, like other artists,

page

was probably

just this

114).

The

on Attic

art

signatures of Ionian

were strongly attracted by the brilliance of

Peisistratid tyranny. Delight in exterior beauty, pleasing

as a tendency to affected gestures it

relief friezes of the

on surviving pedestals prove that

Athens under the Yet

The

1

form, and variety of color, as well

and seemingly studied bearing, assured Ionic

which aroused the opposition of those

art of great success in Athens.

Attic artists

who were

to bring about the

great break with Archaic art (see pages I26ff.).

Council of the Gods. Marble with traces of red paint on a blue background, height Museum, Delphi

24-Vi". Ionic, shortly

before 525 b.c.

From

the

east frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians in Delphi.

l"3

From

Köre. Painted marble, height yiVs " Attic, Athens. Acropolis Museum, Athens

c.

The

109), particularly of

520

b.c.

the

Acropo-

lis,

maidens

statues of

(see

page

Archaic times, which were found

in great

number

Late

principally

on the Athenian Acropolis, are known as votive offerings to

korai. They are Athena from the time of the tyrant Peisis-

tratos (560-527 B.c.) 89), the sists

kore

is

and

his sons. Like the

kouros

(see

page

a fixed standard type. Here, the clothing con-

and a short cloak, which falls diagonally in Her smiling expression (see page 97) adds to the

of a chiton

fine folds. effect

produced by the

aristocratic bearing of the figure.

The singular expression of the kore head on the facing page makes it one of the loveliest of its kind, although the holes to which the missing metal hairpiece was attached impair the effect to some extent. Head of a Kore. Marble with traces of red and black paint (metal ornaments were fastened in the drill holes), height 5V»". Attic, c. 510 b.c. From the Acropolis, Athens. Acropolis Museum, Athens

«

r

»i

"^ %

t

^

>i5

Köre.

Marble, height 56V4". Cycladic, c. From Delos. National Museum,

510 B.c. Athens

The drapery of the garment of this figure, whose bearing corresponds to the kore type,

ornate,

and

is

almost excessively

the artist

seems to have

lost himself in playful details.

A kore

found on the

of very similar style

Athenian Acropolis would seem to indicate that the artist

who made

this

Delian example was also active in

Athens 116

(see

page

114).

Treasury of the Athenians

in

Delphi. Marble, height 24' 11", length 31'

9"/,",

width 21'

S'/a". Atlic,

end of

sixth century B.c.

(rebuilt in 1906)

The Athenian Treasury has

the

form

of a temple with

two columns

Uke ends [antae] of the side wails to form a front colonnade). resenting the deeds of Herakles

and Theseus runs

right

A

in antis (that is, set

Doric

frieze

round the building.

between the

with thirty metope

Cities

votive offerings, and statues.

The Athenian Treasury

in

Delphi

is

its

cult

reliefs rep-

which had given especially

large quantities of costly votive offerings built treasuries in order to protect their donations.

temples provide the architectural accent within the walled sanctuary with

pilaster-

They and

the

monuments, freestanding

the only one to have been successfully

reconstructed, although plentiful remains of others have been found (see page 113).

i'7

A

horseman, next to

the

name

whom

is

inscribed

Leagros, has been painted on

the coral-red ground of the inside of this

cup

(right).

On

the slaying of this

the outside are depicted

Geryon by Herakles and

three-bodied monster's great herd

of cattle.

The signatures

of the potter

Kachrylion and the painter Euphronios

appear on the rim of the foot. Leagros gives us an idea of

what an

aristocratic

Athenian youth of Late Archaic times

must have looked to a

like.

He

corresponds

number of statues of horsemen from

the Acropolis (below), early examples of

a type which was to

become popular

as

an important form of memorial statue.

Leagros. lion.

Cup

(kylix)

by Euphronios and Kachry-

Terra cotta with glaze paint, diameter of cup

le'/s". Attic, c. 510 B.c. From Vulci (Etruria). Antikensammlung, Munich

^

Horse and Rider. Marble painted brown, blue, and c. 510 b.c. From the Acropolis, Athens. Acropolis Museum, Athens black, height 44", length 31". Attic,

The

picture,

on the facing page, of the

mythological Peleus

match

wrestling

and Thetis

original mystery of the tale.

Thetis to escape from

The attempt

Peleus'

changing into animal form

between

none of the

retains

is

of

hold by

indicated only

by the inclusion of a lion and snakes

in the

scene. The fight itself has more of the appearance of a posed dance movement.

Peleus Wrestling

will: Thetis.

Cup

(kylix)

by

Pei-

thinos. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height s'/s",

diameter oV»"- Attic, shortly before 500 Vulci (Etruria). State

Ilg

Museums,

Berlin

B.c.

From

H

Temple

of Aphaia. Limestone coated with stucco

island of

and painted,

c.

45 x

95'.

Aeginetan,

c.

500

b.c.

On

tlie

northeast point of the

Aegina

This Doric temple (see page 96) has

columns on the short

six

surrounds the temple proper, which consists of a three-aisled each of which has two columns

goddess Aphaia, whose name sculptures

(now

may have been

in

of

///

is

amis

(see

known

page

1

17).

cella,

or sanctuary, with a porch at either end,

The temple was dedicated

to the

probably pre-Greek

to us only through an inscription. In the pediments were

Munich) depicting scenes of the Trojan War.

No

marble

trace has reinained of the metopes: they

The pediments were each crowned by a palmette tree flanked by two corners were griffins. The magnificent effect of this richly decorated temple was

wood and

female figures, and at the

and twelve on the long. The colonnade

sides

painted.

further enlivened by color, for not only were the marble figures painted, but parts of the architecture as well.

A

fine

white stucco covered the limestone, while the decorative

members

of the structure were accented in

red and blue and only the columns and the architraves remained completely white.

Man

Hurrying

120

Aid of u Fallen Warrior (detail). Marble, over-all height of the figure 38". Aeginetan, c. 490 B.c. From the pediment of the temple of Aphaia at Aegina. (The restored nose has now been removed.) Glyptothek, Munich

to the

right half of the east

^«^

As important examples of Aeginetan art, the pediment sculptures of the temple of Aphaia still manifest a strong bond with Archaic form. This this period

was

is

surprising, since the Aeginetan artist of

later considered to be a great pioneer.

pare the hairstyle with that on page 142.)

(Com-

by Demeter to bring agriculture to mankind, is painted round the steep The youthful Triptolemos sits on his serpent-chariot; Persephone pours him a libation; Demeter looks on from behind. The sheaves of wheat which Triptolemos and Demeter hold in their hands allude to the god's mission. The others present Zeus, Poseidon, Dionysos, Amphitrite, as well as Eleusis and Eumolpos are identified by inscriptions. Hieron's signature is incised into one of the handles. The

The departure

of Triptolemos, sent

walls of this drinking cup.

—

—

red-figure technique, in which the figures are reserved so that they stand out

glaze paint, can here be seen in

beauty.

all its

by the sparingly used purple color (for colorfulness of Archaic art. This was

by the

rich use of red

inscriptions),

and white color on the black silhouettes

paint with a needle and appeared light,

122

and

makes the

line

from the shiny deep-black of the

contrast of light and dark, not the least impaired is

in tune with the general rejection of the

manifested in the old black-figure vase painting (see pages 84, 86, loi)

motifs scattered over the background.

the glaze paint

details

The sharp

The is

of the figures, as well as in the ornamental

inner drawing, which was formerly scratched into the dark glaze

now

drawn with a

executed in black as a "relief line." The treacly consistency of

fine

brush stand out

in relief

on the ground and catch the

light.

•4

Skyphos, by Hieron (potter) and Makron (painter). Terra cotta with glaze paint, height 8V4". Attic, c. 485 b.c. From Capua (southern

Italy). British

Museum, London

White-ground lekythos. Terra cotta with cream-colored

slip

glaze paint, white color for the skin, height 14^/4". Attic, B.c.

c.

and 490

The Hermitage, Leningrad

This exceptionally fine picture of the goddess Artemis feeding a swan has been recognized as the

Pan

Painter.

The Archaic

delicacy

istic."

making

The white-ground

the picture zone liquid clay),

is

in the

inten-

whole seem "Archa-

the

lekythoi, in

oil,

great

amount

(coating of

They were containers afterlife. The

missible.

For

— and thus economy —forced the

of oil used for this purpose

authorities to regulate the this reason,

maximum

some

which made the jar seem

tained only a small set

slip

given to the dead for use in the

withdrawn from the national

insert

which theground of

essential part of Attic funeral

furnishings (see pages 167, 168). for

final

covered with a white

form an

of the

and

long folds of the garment are given a tional exaggeration,

work

and precision

amount

of

quantities per-

of the lekythoi have an full

oil.

high demands on the potter's

even when

it

con-

Their particular form art.

123

Standing Youth. Bronze, height VsVs Piraeus. National Museum, Athens

At

first sight, this

page set

Attic, c.

480

B.c.

(

?)

From

youth looks hke an Archaic kouros

(see

89), but the flowing sculptural forms, the right foot

forward, the inclination and turn of the head, are un-

Archaic features. Nor had Archaic

produced any lifeThe youth held a bowl in his right hand and some slender object (a bow?) in his left: he may be the god Apollo. The statue appears to be the work of an artistically conservative master. sized bronze statues

up to

art

this point.

i%.^J

This standing

woman,

identified

hand and by the Erotes

by the dove

in

peplos, corresponding to fifth-century b.c. fashion

gathers

it

up with her

left

her right

as Aphrodite, wears a simple

hand

like the

;

but she

Archaic korai. She

thus exemplifies the long survival of the Archaic element,

above

all in

the

from the head was supported

minor

arts.

The volute ornament growing

of the goddess held the at the

round mirror, which

back by a palmette.

Aphrodite and Erotes. Support for a mirror. Bronze, height B.c. From Sounion. British Museum, London

480-460

6'//'.

The Tyrannicides (Harmodios and Aristogeiton). Marble, height 76^4"Roman copies of bronze originals

by Kritios and Nesiotes, 477-476 B.c. From Rome. Museo Nazionale,

Naples

Beneath

which

group,

this

shows only the two conspirators

and not

their victim, ran

the inscription fell

"A

:

great hght

upon the Athenians, for with

together

Aristogeiton

Harmodios slew Hipparchos .

.

.

[and

freed

the

thereby]

land of our fathers." The two tyrannicides,

who

in

514

b.c.

slew Hipparchos, son of Peisistratos,

and prepared the way

for Athenian democracy, were

probably honored soon

after-

ward The first group by Antenor was by the erection of statues.

carried off to Persia in 480 b.c.

by Xerxes. In 477 B.c., victorious Athens renewed the monument, and the copies which

have survived reproduce

this

second work by Kritios and Nesiotes.

The group was a sym-

bol of the Greek love of free-

dom and a warning to all who dared cratic

126

attack the

those

demo-

form of government.

THE FIFTH CENTURY The

fall

of the

B.C.

of the tyrants of Athens in 510 b.c., the establishment

democracy

state represented

— that

is,

the transferral of

power from the

by an individual to the masses

— and

the

Wars mark the period which divides Archaic art from that of the fifth century b.c. The first victory over the Persians at Marathon (490 b.c.) proved the superiority of the new Persian

Despite the destruction of

political structure of the state.

Athens by the Persians (480B.C.),

was defeated both (Plataia,

this

mighty foe from the East

480 B.c.) and on land and was driven from Greek soil. This victory at sea (Salamis,

479 proved the validity of the new ideas and forms the background b.c.),

Greek genius

for the magnificent flowering of

during the

fifth

Persians necessitated olis

could

(see

page

now 1

28).

new

building; the

summit

of the

Acrop-

be leveled and new temple structures planned

The economic upsurge

of the realization of the city the great political

scene

in all fields

century b.c. The devastation wreaked by the

many

of

daring projects which

made

this

and cultural center of Greece. The Greek

now changed and

the remaining regions lost that artistic

independence which had made Archaic concentration alone

Athens was the basis

made

art so varied.

This

possible the breakthrough in art

which not only opened the way to the future but also resulted in

a consciousness of the fact that

We

do not use

this

term today

it

was uniquely

"classic."

something

in the sense of

exemplary and worthy of imitation however, the admiration ;

which

certainly, is

contemporaries probably, and later generations

its

accorded the art of the

historically justified)

is

fifth

century b.c. (and which

well expressed in the concept of

"classicism."

This statue (the so-called Kritios Boy) for the represents a

page

162).

human

first

time

being resting his weight on one leg (see

This relaxed posture resulted

in

a

new

distribution

of weight which led to technical difficulties in marble statues.

For

this

reason artists preferred to work in bronze.

Standing Boy. Marble, height H'ls". Before 480 Athens. Acropolis Museum, Athens

B.c.

From

the Acropolis,

•

h'.-

The Acropolis

After

its

of Athens.

View from the southwest, from the Monument of Philopappos

devastation by the Persians in 480 b.c., the Acropolis of Athens, which had been a citadel ever since

by new walls under Kimon and Perikles and decorated with the magnificent buildings which still today determine its outline. The mighty structure of the Parthenon (see page 150) rose up over the plateau, and next to it the Erechtheion (see page 166) appeared small and delicate. Further west is the Propylaia (see page 156) and, on the bastions in front of this, the temple of Athena Nike (see page 170).

Mycenaean

On

times,

was

fortified

the south slope of the rock rises the fagade of the Odeion which Herodes Atticus had built shortly after

A.D. 161. This B.c., see

was connected by the stoa (whose rear wall

page 250) with the old theater of Dionysos

(see

still

page

stands) of 169), the

Eumenes

II

of

Pergamon (197-159

auditorium of which, sunk into the

rock, can be seen in the photograph.

The statuette body turning hand. could

of a

young

athlete (two views of

may be a copy of a large-scale statue, for now best reveal the motion which had long It

Pythagoras were the leading 128

which are reproduced on the facing page) shows the

flexible

freely and leaning back to counterbalance the weight of the (now missing) discus in his right it

was through such

difficult subjects as this that sculptors

been fettered by Archaic

artists in this field (see also

page

136).

rules.

Myron

(see

page 146) and

Discus Thrower.

480-470

B.c.

Acropolis, tional

Bronze

height

statuette,

Tk"-

From

Athens.

the

Na-

Museum, Athens 129

i«4ef»^;

&-^

^'t

'

'<

<

Kilhara Player. Detail of an amphora. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height of the figure S'/j". Attic,

c.

(southern itan

480

Museum

Herakles,

c.

of

Atlas,

Metope from at

From Nola The MetropolArt, New York

B.c.

Italy).

and Athena.

the temple of Zeus

Olympia. Marble, height 63". 460 B.c. Museum, Olympia

The twelve metopes

of the temple of Zeus represent the twelve labors of Herakles; the east pediment

the preparation for the chariot race between Pelops and

Lapiths and centaurs (see page 134). The great temple

(c.

Oinomaos; and

showed

the west pediment the battle of

217 feet long) by the architect Libon housed Pheidias'

The Atlas metope shows Herakles supporting the heavenly vault, weighs down on him. A cushion and, above all, the helping weight bearable. In return for his help, Atlas brings him the apples

gold and ivory statue of Zeus (see page 155).

which, understood to be outside the actual

hand

of the goddess

Athena make the

relief,

of the Hesperides.

This graceful figure of a kithara player by the Pan Painter lends expression to the magic of music.

cannot be represented— the music itself— is indicated by the the presiding judge of a competition

is

effect that

it

has on the player.

On

What

the reverse,

shown. 131

Herakles Cleaning the Augean Stables.

Metope from

the

temple of Zeus at Olympia. Marble, height 63". c. 460 B.c.

Museum, Olympia

Head of Athena. Fragment

of a metope from

the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Marble, height g'/s"- c-

Athena looked dowti toward her protege Herakles who, exhausted by slain

Nemean

lion.

The

hair

above her

left eye,

460

B.c.

Museum, Olympia

his adventure, rested his foot

which could not be seen when the sculpture was

upon

the

in its original

was indicated by paint. The art of Olympia, as it appears in the pediment figures and metopes of the temple of Zeus, is anonymous. We have just as little reliable information about the origins of the architect

position,

Libon as we do about the pediment sculptors. also of

Tt is

contemporary large-scale painting can be

Herakles uses his

own

certain,

felt in

however, that the influence of Attic art and probably

the sculptural decoration of the temple.

great strength to cleanse the neglected stables of

King Augias of

Elis (facing page). In

the classic version of the story, he diverted the rushing torrents of a river to accomplish the task. Athena, here

with shield and helmet, supports him by her presence. 132

;4#^

^

*i.

M

4

Bullte of Lupiths

of the frieze

and

c. 4". c.

Cenlciiirx. Frieze

450

b.c.

From

on

the neck of a volute krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint, over-all height of the vase 25",

Italy.

The Metropolitan Museum

of Art,

New York

Both the picture of a battle with Amazons on the body of the vessel and that of a centauromachy (above) reveal the influence of large-scale painting,

made use of both subjects. The battle between the Lapiths

(a

favorite subjects of

which Herakles, Achilles, or Theseus

battle of the

assertion.

The theme

and

east

temple of Zeus at Olympia,

134

art (see pages

1

52,

invited. Intoxicated with wine, they

which every kind of improvised weapon

fight, in 1

65).

Together with the Amazonomachy,

the leader of the Greeks (see pages 135, 140, 154, 200), is

and the

a symbol of the desire of the Greeks for self-

therefore appeared with great frequency in the art of the

pediments of the c. 460 b.c. Reconstruction drawings (top)

is

Greek

gods and giants, the battle with the centaurs

victory of Greece over Persia.

West

which the centaurs had been

hands on the maidens and youths present. The resulting

was used, was one of the in

— according to the evidence of numerous literary sources

people of Thessaly) and the centaurs (see page 68) occurred at the wedding

feast of Peirithoös, a friend of Theseus, to laid

which

fifth

century B.c. after the

Battle of Greeks

Museum

of Art,

and Amazons. Calyx

krater. Terra cotta with glaze paint, lieiglit 22". c.

460-450

B.c.

From

Italy.

The Metropolitan

New York

The front and back of this krater are decorated with a continuous picture of a battle of Greeks and Amazons. The pains which the artist took in his perspective rendering of the mounted Amazon in the center can give us only a vague idea of the work of a great painter such as Kimon or Polygnotos. Their masterly achievements in this field are

(see also

unfortunately only

page 136)

known

to us through later literary references.

illustrate the limitations of this art

form: from

now

Vase paintings such as

this

on, vase painting and large-scale

painting are considered specific classes of art, and the former becomes a "minor art."

135

Youth with a Horse. Fragment of cup by the potter Kachrylion. Terra cotta with glaze paint, a

diameter

480 b.c. From Museo Nazionale,

2"!,". c.

Gela, Sicily.

Syracuse

Pegasus. Coin (trihemiobol). Silver, height length Va"- From Corinth. L. Milden-

='/s",

berg Collection.

A

famous painting by Polygnotos

in

Delphi showed a laden donkey seen

from the front and a horse rolling on the ground. The minor arts also attempted to adopt such innovations.

136

|iwf

Head of a Woman. Marble Museum, Athens

relief,

height 12^4", width u'/s" (diameter originally

c.

18").

Parian,

c.

460

b.c.

From

Melos. National

This head has been variously identified as a representation of Aphrodite, of a local nymph, and of the moon-

goddess Selene. However, be ruled out.

It

may

this last

would have occupied only about

be that the missing part of the

the question of her identity

Simple yet impressive,

and of whether

this

head

is

this

relief

was a votive

an example of Ionic

half of the original circle

and can therefore

contained an identifying inscription. Today, both relief

art,

or part of a tombstone remain unanswered.

adding a special

sensitivity to the sobriety of

contemporary Attic heads. 137

The front and reverse sides of this drinking cup make up a single scene: below, Odysseus lets fly his arrows; on the facing page, they strike the surprised carousing suitors of Penelope. Frightened maidservants look on in amazement. In the temple of Athena Areia in Plataia, Polygnotos had painted Odysseus "after he had slain the suitors," and therefore not as dramatically as the painter of this skyphos. On another skyphos in Chiusi (Italy), the same artist (known as the Penelope Painter) represented Penelope at her loom with Telemachos,

Odysseus Slaying the Suitors. Skyphos. Terra cotta with glaze paint, height j'/,". Attic,

seums, Berlin

138

c.

450

B.c.

From

Tarquinia. State

Mu-

and the foot-washing scene large-scale painting

is

in

which the old nurse recognizes her returning master by a

evident in both, even though

many

The

scar.

painters, particularly Polygnotos,

influence of

had given up the

"narrative" style in favor of the "situation" picture. Polygnotos" Odysseus was probably similar to the Herakles in the lion

metope from Olympia

(a

fragment of which

is

reproduced on page

132),

sunk

in

thought after

the death of the suitors.

^^mmmmmmm^^ 139

This scene of an thesileia,

and

Amazonomachy

—too

late

—

depicts the

moment

through the limits of the picture zone,

keep

with large-scale painting.

in step

which Achilles

recognizes that they love each other. In

figures burst

that a reflection of

in

it is

Mikon painted

its

Queen of the Amazons, Penway in which the attempt made by the vase painter to

kills

the

use of color and in the

an example of the

Amazons twice, and it may be The psychological moment shown is

a battle of Greeks and

one of these works has been caught

in this picture.

characteristic of the painting of the time.

The Athenian

sculptors of the

the result of the

new

Olympia metopes

attitude of the

Greeks to

(see

pages 131-33) had already "humanized" their gods,

their divinities.

The

votive relief on the facing page shows Athena

dressed in a simple peplos, her only armor a helmet. She leans on her spear and looks

may

of a palaestra.

The

actual content of the art

works of

this period

is

at a pillar,

which

not always as easy to grasp as in older

examples. The ethos, the mood, permeates the entire scene, inviting meditation 140

down

be a boundary stone, a stele inscribed with a legal edict, a temple inventory, or perhaps the winning post

in the observer.

i Death of Penlhesileia. Kylix. Terra cotta with glaze paint and mucli use of color and gilded relief, diameter of the

bowl

lö'/s"- Attic, c.

From

Vulci.

lung,

Munich

460

B.c.

Antikensamm-

"Mourning Alhena." Marble relief,

B.c.

height 21V4". c. 455 the Acropolis of

From

Athens. Acropolis

Athens

Museum,

»>

* t' ''ll

^*

< This

^

statue,

trident,

one of the few original bronze masterpieces to have escaped destruction,

which the god was

Every attempt to identify

in the act of hurling,

this

or another famous master on

work with stylistic

The

grounds has so

figure,

statue below probably represented

stract ideas

was one

of the

new

eyes,

which were once

complete except for the

a specific statue mentioned in literary sources or to attribute

the time (see page 121). Despite his completely

calm which emanates from the entire

and the

is

inlaid with colored materials.

far failed.

human

it

to

one

Poseidon wears the braided coiffure usual for

aspect, the

god

differs

and particularly from the

Agon, the personification

from an

athlete in the deliberate

face.

of competition.

tasks which the visual arts set themselves in the

The

first

giving of form to ab-

half of the fifth century

The challenging turn of the head would be consistent with such an explanation. Competition is a concept which took on special meaning in the fifth century b.c., for not only was athletic prowess measured in Olympia, Delphi, and Isthmia, but Agon also ruled over poetry and the visual arts. Contests between sculptors (see pages 159, 172) were just as natural as those between dramatists and musicians (see page 207). B.c.

Poseidon. Bronze, height 82V1". c. 455 B.c. Found in the sea off Cape Artemision on the north coast of Euboea. National seum, Athens

Head of a

Youth.

Copy

Mu-

of an original of

c.

Marble, over-all height of the statue 6272". From Greece (?). The Hermitage, Leningrad

460

B.c.

Athena, from the group of Athena and Marsyas. Roman copy of the bronze original by Myron on the Acropolis of Athens. Marble, height öS'/s"- Original c. 450 b.c. From Via Gregoriano (Pincio), Rome. Liebieghaus, Frankfurt

Pausanias saw this group on the Acropolis and

wrote

(I,

24, i) that here

Marsyas Silenus for

was "Athena,

tai

-

'^

'^^

-

f

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), by Polykleitos. Copy of bronze Marble, height 83V2"- Original c. 440 b.c. From the palaestra at Pompeii. Museo Nazionale, Naples

original.

The Spear Bearer was and

it

Polykleitos' best-known

work

seems probable that the sculptor created here

a sort of "canonical" figure, just as he had also explained his art theoretically in a book.

Pompeii the

The copy from

the best-preserved and only the spear in

hand

left

freely

is

missing.

is

—for the

The

time

first

right

hand hangs down

in a statue.

This figure shows the characteristic walking pose, in

which the weight of the body

on one foot

rests

while the relaxed leg bears no weight. After the conquest of the Archaic kouros type (see pages 89, 90, 108, '^'

1

10)

and the preparatory

transitional

forms

page 127) Polykleitos' "discovery" completely ated the

human

resulting

from

form. The sloping line of the hips

this

pose

into a correspondingly trappostd), this

and

(see

liber-

all

is

carried through the torso

opposed shoulder

parts of the

line {con-

body are drawn

into

movement.

Even

in

Antiquity the Diadoumenos seemed "softer"

when compared with the athletic figure of the Doryphoros. The walking pose is combined with a movement of the arms completely unlike that (Pliny 34, 35)

of the Spear Bearer.

;x-

The name "Diadoumenos" comes from

the fact

that, as victor of the competitions he founded, 1'*-'-

^«-

Theseus wears a

h

the Doryphoros, Polykleitos,

fillet it

bound around

was

his head.

the best-known

who probably executed

this

With

work

of

image of the

Attic hero during his Athenian period.

Theseus Diadoumenos (detail), by Polykleitos. Marble, over-all height, t^'/s"- c. 440

original.

politan

^itk.

Museum

of Art,

New York

Copy of bronze The Metro-

b.c.

mäk

^^4

•.SS'

SÄ

of Apollo, Bassae (Triphylia), by the architect Iktinos. Local dull-gray stone; the sculptural decoration, interior capitals, and roof in marble; c. 47' 6" x 125' 4". c. 425-410 b.c.

Temple

According to Pausanias (VIII, 41, architects of the Parthenon. tion of the cella, inside frieze ran

striking for

It is

along the architrave.

trace of

temple, set high its

up

in the

relative length (six

mountains, was built by Iktinos, one of the

columns by

fifteen) as well as for the

which short projecting walls attached the engaged columns to the side

A

sanctuary) and the cella proper.

no

9), this

single Corinthian

The metopes

column marked the dividing

at the front

and back of the

cella

line

walls.

forma-

A

relief

between the adyton (inner

were decorated with

reliefs,

but

pediment figures has survived.

Even though the

architect,

perhaps

in consideration of the local

workmen and

the hardness of the rock, gave

the temple no curvature (see page 150), the unique spatial form of the cella marks him as an important and

unconventional 164

artist.

Thus credence can be given

the traditional attribution of the design to Iktinos.

The

friezes of the

cella

Amazons. art.

temple were evidently executed by local

artists.

were depicted battles of centaurs, while the east and south

To

the west and north of the inside of the

friezes represented Herakles' battle with the

In style, the reliefs reveal a certain conservatism together with

Older motifs go hand

of the century.

The

in

"classic"

hand with the delight form found

in the

in

an attempt to keep astride of the new

flowing lines (see pages 171-75) characteristic of the end

Parthenon

frieze (see

page 151)

is

absent, for that could not be

imitated.

Centauromachy and Amazonomachy. from the Temple of Apollo, Bassae. Marble, height 25V4".

c.

420-410

b.c. British

Museum,

London

165

The Erechtheion. Marble, height of the columns of the porch, 21' 6"; height of the caryatids 7' 9". 420-406

B.c.

On

White-ground lekythos. Terra cotta with white slip and mat painting in red and blue, height of detail c. 8". c. 430 b.c. From Eretria. National Museum, Athens

the Acropolis of Athens

The

building of the Erechtheion probably began during that short period of peace (the Peace of Nikias, 421-

415

B.c.)

which

briefly interrupted the

Peloponnesian

War

(431-404

the Parthenon (see page 150), this temple has something gay

and

b.c.). In

delicate

comparison with the austerity of

about

it

— a feehng that

not only by the slender Ionic columns (see page 128) but also by the multiplicity of

its

human

figures as supports for the entablature

of the standard type of the is

not

in itself

maiden

(kore).

is

made new and

1

13).

its

rich

The use

pleasing in the clever rhythmical variations

While dependence on Archaic models cannot be denied, the temple

an archaistic feature, but rather the expression of a strong reaction against the excessive restraint

of the Periklean buildings and the beginning of a figures against a darker

gilded bronze bands

ground and

and

rosettes,

its

new joy

in

beauty of

detail.

The

frieze,

with

its

white marble

exceedingly fine ornamentation animated by inlaid molten glass and

emphasized the delicacy, the

the building, in which the style of the third generation of the

166

provided

members and

ornamentation. The main decoration, the Caryatid Porch, returns to an Archaic motif (see page of

is

fineness,

fifth

and perhaps even the playfulness

century b.c. was completely embodied.

of

Fragment of an Attic white-ground lekythos. Terra cotta with slip and red painting, height 4^//'. c. 425-410 b.c. National Museum, Athens

white

White-ground lekythos. Terra cotta with white yellow paint, height

Museum, Athens

c.

14". c.

450

b.c.

From

slip

and golden-

Eretria. National

'.>-

>-

A.

^;>,

r--

^

^^c*2^i?^pKSi;_

.'*

••

.-,*^-^

^^ ^Äf^-l

J^^.

/.i*te

'«•?

>«'

Theater of Dionysos on the south slope of the Athenian Acropolis, seen from above

This theater,

in

which the tragedies of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripides were presented, belongs to the

sanctuary of Dionysos. In about 420

b.c., the stage

closed off from the rest of the sanctuary by a hall.

and the orchestra, which had formerly been

The stepped

page 128) and were faced with marble. The theater was transformed,

its

lekythoi,

some

fall

circular,

Roman

times.

of which were painted with the usual glaze paint

and some with gay mat

were for the use of the dead. The delicacy of execution and the expressions of the youth and

fragment opposite (who were originally gazing at a tombstone

in the center of the picture)

of the masterworks created by the painter Parrhasios of Ephesos.

It

girl

col-

on the

provide an idea

was he who supplied Pheidias with the

sketches for the centauromachy on the shield of Athena Promachos (Pausanias

were particularly prized (Pliny

were

of the land (see

use until the end of Antiquity and was constantly

present design being largely the result of rebuilding in

The white-ground ors,

in

seats follow the natural

I,

28, 2)

and whose drawings

35, 68).

169

This small Ionic temple consists of a simple space open at the front

The The temple was demolished and

with four columns at the front and back. Kallikrates.

(c. i8'

6"

\

27') with

engaged

pilasters

and

structure goes back to an older project by the Parthenon architect its

parts re-used, but

it

was

later possible to re-erect

it

with the

original building materials.

was enclosed by a balustrade decorated on the outside with reliefs. Even in Antiquity to unlace her sandal (facing page) was famous, and Antique copies of this panel, the Nike who leans which flanked a small entrance stairway at the west, still survive. The reliefs repeated the same theme several

The Nike temple

precinct

down

times: Nikes bring sacrificial bulls and erect trophies in the presence of Athena.

theme of "Victory," which dominated the temple and balustrade, was in painful contradiction to The Peloponnesian War (431-404 b.c.) consumed the strength of Athens and ended For this reason, the eye took even greater pleasure not only in the theme but in the complete collapse. with her beauty of an art which combined soft forms and flowing lines into an image of a joyful, enchanting world.

The

single

the actual course of events.

170

^

Temple Marble,

Athena

of c.

420

b.c.

Nike.

To

the

right of the entrance to the

Athenian Acropolis (see page 128)

Nike Unlacing Her Sandal. Marble, height 41^/,". c. 420 B.c.

From

the balustrade of

the temple of

Athena Nike,

Athens. Acropolis

Athens

Museum,

The is

style

used here by this North Greek

artist

very close to that of the Nike balustrade and

other

works.

Attic

Technically,

too,

this

marble statue of a Nike, originally over nine

and a

half feet high,

scription

a masterpiece.

is

The

in-

on the socket reads: "The Messeni-

ans and the Naupaktians dedicated her to the

Olympian Zeus

as a tithe of the enemy's booty.

Mende made

Paionios of

her and was also

victorious in the construction of the temple acroteria." Pausanias (V, 26, inscription

and reported

own opinion,

i)

confirmed

this

that, contrary to his

the Messenians themselves relate

the dedication to a victory at Sphakteria in the

year 421.

A

god-

flying eagle at the feet of the

dess and the painting of the figure (which has

now disappeared) reinforced the impression hovering

flight.

The wind blows out

of

the cloak

behind her, which was also carved from the

same block of marble.

Six

maenads, some holding dismembered

mals, are

shown on

ani-

the wall of the krater on the

facing page, one of the rare examples of metal-

work

of this period. Athens

is

the

most

likely

place of origin.

Maemids

in Ecstasy, detail

height formerly

Olympia,

172

c.

420

b.c.

Museum, Olympia

of a krater. Bronze, over-all

17^/4", height of frieze 7'/«",

with

and copper inlay on the ornamentation and on the maenads (hair bands, arm rings), c. 410 B.c. From South Russia (probably from a mound near Maikop). State Museums, Berlin the ornament,

Flying Nike, by Paionios. Marble, height 85". Formerly on a column c. 295' high facing the east side of the temple of Zeus at

c.

11".

Silver

This over in the

and

is

life-size statue

had been broken up and used as

treatment of the drapery, the animated style of the

filling in a late

late fifth

Roman

fortification wall.

century b.c. with

its

works of

art themselves. It suggests the sculptor

the Corinthian capital (Vitruvius, IV,

I,

9-10).

Kallimachos,

who

epitomizes,

"baroque" exaggeration,

a typical tour de force of the same style that gave added beauty to figures on vases and

also to the

It

reliefs,

and thus

also said to have "invented"

is

However, the virtuoso mastery of the technique of carving

marble required by the Corinthian capital was not limited to any one sculptor but was necessary for the zation of almost

which reached

• '^•'48^

all artistic

its

ideas.

in

reali-

Of course painting,

apogee with Timanthes, Zeuxis, and

Parrhasios, was free of such technical problems.

4^^ki^

-^-4 The

superficial stylistic features of large-scale painting

of the late fifth century b.c. were reflected in Attic vase painting.

The

principal scene of the hydria

page shows Athena and Hera standing

and Hermes

in the center,

and on the

on the facing

at the left, Paris

right (in the detail

shown) Aphrodite seated with her attendants and her son Eros, while the sun-god"s horses rise up above them. In the

band below are represented

with Dionysos. The style

is

satyrs

and maenads

close to that of Meidias, one

of the leading vase painters of the time.

Aphrodite at the Judgment of Paris. Detail of an Attic hydria.

Terra cotta

witli glaze paint

vase

Late

ig'/j".

fifth

and

gilding, over-all height of the

century b.c.

From Ruvo

(southern

Italy).

Badisches Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe

Aphrodite. Marble, height 72".

Athens. Agora

174

Museum, Athens

c.

410

b.c.

From

the Agora,

^^ *-m-t^t\

•)

-J

3m /•^h.

^w^

:>*>,

f

^^

Jp;'«^k::>»S^sSi;-'%«

rrrr'

/

<

Hegeso and a Servant. Attic grave stele. Marble, height 58V»". 400 B.c. From the Dipylon cemetery, Athens. National Museum. Athens

c.

The

tomb human

series of Attic

struck a tenderly

reliefs,

which had already

note in Archaic times (see

page 107), re-emerged at the end of the B.c.

with masterpieces such as the

fifth

stele of

century

Hegeso.

The inscription beneath the pediment bears only the names of the dead Hegeso and of her father (or husband) Proxenos. She chooses a piece of jewelry (once painted) from a casket held by her maid. Yet, the real subject of the relief,

beauty of

line with the

loveliness of

life

which combines a modern

calm of Pheidian

and sorrow over

its

art, is

the

end.

(" Idolino"). Copy (or cast) of a bronze from the circle of Polykleitos. Bronze, height sS'/i". Original c. 410 b.c. From Pesaro (Italy). Museo Nazionale

Yonlh Sacrificing

original

Archeologico, Florence

The "discoveries"

of Polykleitos

pearance of statues of youths. of the

boy or the

linear beauty

and

From

his circle

continued to influence and, on the whole, determine the ap-

different angles, the "Idoliiio" reveals either the rather

and elegance

of his body. Similar figures

striking for the pleasing quality of their relaxed aspect

and

awkward

on contemporary grave

their peculiar elegiac

mood. This

stance

reliefs are also is

strengthened

here by the impression that the boy's thoughts are on other matters. This conflict, psychologically observed

by Euripides, determines the new "ethos" of works of

art of the period,

which saw the "classic" world of

Periklean Athens crumble.

177

^..^II,.--.

JI-ÄA

Medea and on

tlie

This

Ihe Daughters of Pelia.s, Copy of a marble relief, probably from Ihe "Altar of Compassion" Athenian Agora. Marble, height 42V2". Original c. 410 b.c. Museo Profano Lateranense, Rome

relief

depicting

tiie

daughters of Pelias following Medea's counsel and preparing to cut their father to

pieces in order to rejuvenate

him

is

one of a

series of four

which take psychological

between hope and doubt, as their theme. They can probably be related to the

which sealed the decline of Athenian might. The funeral dirge for those who by Euripides, and these 178

reliefs

seem inspired by the same Euripidean

fell

spirit.

conflict, the turning point

Sicilian expedition (413 B.C.)

before Syracuse was

composed

THE FOURTH CENTURY Like

the

(400-320

wars between Athens,

b.c.)

and

Sparta,

Thebes, the political catastrophe that resulted

in

the end of Athenian supremacy brought about a

turning

away from political life and toward that The relationships between comminds, between members of a family, be-

of the individual. patible

tween friends, and the awareness which Sokrates

had awakened of the individual

now took

self-responsibility of the

first

place. In art, this led to

new concept of the figures of heroes and gods. They are seen and interpreted as men but are a

raised

up to an

ideal sphere,

The

higher beings.

Greeks art

where they

intellectual

in the fourth

exist as

powers of the

century b.c. turned toward

and philosophy, and

their

achievements

these fields have survived over the centuries.

separation of the individual from the state the prerequisite for this

new concentration on

and philosophy: now that the state

was dispensable

Grave

this

in

The was art

had taken place,

to the individual.

Marble, height with base öS'/s"and wreath in Dexileos' hair, and the sword belt of the fallen warrior were of bronze. Shortly after 394 b.c. From the Dipylon cemetery, Athens. KeraDexileos.

The

stele.

bridle, reins, spear,

meikos Museum, Athens

The

inscription on the slightly concave base of the stele

Corinth and was killed there

above informs us that Dexileos of Thorikos

He

distin-

shown victoriously galloping over a fallen enemy, yet his eyes already hold a presentiment of imminent death. The models for both figures can be found in Pheidean art, and it is probable that the artist was deliberately inviting comparison with it. The Battle of Corinth in 394 b.c., in which Dexileos fell, is a little-known conflict between Athens and Sparta. In its great effort to recover from the political collapse brought about by the Peloponnesian War, Athens fought Sparta and aimed, like Thebes, at political supremacy in Greece. The victory of King Philip 11 of Macedon at Chaironeiain 338 b.c. brought these wars to an end and heralded the age of Alexander the Great. guished himself

in battle at

at the

age of twenty.

is

179

The

regularity of the encircling columns, the lack of corners

of a

round temple

set

up high on a

and

angles, as well as the

circular base explain the popularity

which

more intimate character

this type of building

enjoyed in

the fourth century b.c.

The rotunda ground

in

Delphi had twenty Doric columns, each of whose twenty

plan. Inside, ten Corinthian

of the cella.

acanthus

flutes

columns raised up on a continuous socle were

repeated the outlines of the set directly against the wall

The metopes were decorated with battles of Amazons and centaurs, the sima (gutter molding) with and lion-head spouts. The architect, Theodoros of Phokaia, wrote a book about

scrolls, palmettes,

this little temple, his

masterpiece (Vitruvius, VII,

12).

Tholos of the Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, Delphi, by Theodoros of Phokaia. Marble, cella floor and socle for the columns of dark Eleusinian limestone. Diameter of the cella 28' a'/s", height to the sima 27' 2V2"- c. 390 B.c.

r-

ittrs:^

-'K

^ '-*?S^'

•i'^*^

Nike

(?).

tury B.c.

Bronze, formerly gilded, height 9V2"- Early fourtli centhe Athenian Agora. Agora Museum, Athens

From

This bronze original, somewhat over half

life-size,

has lost the chignon on top of

its

head, the eyes, and the

and was fastened at each side of the neck in a vertical groove. and the small face dominated by the large eyes are indications

gilded silver foil which covered the bronze surfaces

The convincing, tender treatment of the hair new ideal and of a new striving by the artist

of a

to penetrate the surface in order to reveal the inner being. i8i

Leda and the Swan. Copy of bronze original, probably by Timotheos. Marble, height 52". Original c.

370

b.c. Capitoline

Museum,

Rome

m

This masterpiece, which has survived in countless copies,

is

attributed to

Timotheos, although ancient literature

makes no

reference to a

this sculptor. Stylistically

it

Leda by matches

the sculptures from Epidauros (see

facing

page)

where Timotheos

is

known to have worked. The artist has added an emotional dimension to the

theme of Leda's amorous with Zeus transformed into a swan. The figure of Leda expresses compassion for the swan

physical

encounter

(seemingly threatened by an eagle), childish innocence,

and

fear coupled

with a sudden recognition of the god.

Aura. Acroterium from the temple of Asklepios, Epidauros. Marble, height 3iV4".

c.

380

National

B.c.

Museum,

Athens

Maidens on horseback,

identified as wind-goddesses, decorated the corners of the

ing inscription states that the acroteria

on one

side

temple pediments. The build-

were executed by Timotheos, those on the other side by

an otherwise unknown sculptor named Theodotos. Since Timotheos, the most important sculptor, would be

more

likely to

dotos.

have done the principal east

Even though

the style, for (as

is

it is

side, this

unlikely, therefore, that

mounted Aura

is

no longer attributed

Timotheos himself made

stated in the inscription) he provided the ''typoi." that

this figure, is,

to

him but

to

Theo-

he would have determined

the working models for the sculp-

tural decoration.

183

Athena.

Copy

of bronze original by Timotlieos (?).

height 64Ve"- Original

c.

The goddess shown here has

the

same human

from the AcropoHs

in the votive reUef

Marble,

375 b.c. State Museums, Berlin

The imposing grandeur

(see

quality as

page

141).

of the Pheidian Alheims (see

pages 153, 158) has given way once more to a more girhsh appearance. theos, judging this Alliena

sculptor was probably Tiino-

between the head of

similarity

and that of Leda

name

tional

The

from the

(see

page

quite appropriate.

no mention of

The

182).

of the statue, Athena as a

Young

However, since ancient sources

this

tradi-

Girl,

work, the surprising turn of the

goddess' head has not yet been explained. There hint of shyness in her stance

sized

The

is

make is

a

which seems to be empha-

by her upward glance.

satyr pouring wine into a

cup

is

probably a repro-

duction of Praxiteles' Satyr, which stood

in

of the Tripods in Athens (see page 207)

the Street

and which

some replicas the water could be made to

Praxiteles considered his best work. In

statue

was so constructed that

flow through pipes from the jug into the cup.

Art connoisseurs of Antiquity rated Praxiteles as one of the greatest sculptors, alongside Pheidias, Polykleitos,

and Lysippos and

his

;

fame

Myron,

any of

far surpassed that of

his

contemporaries. The art of the fourth century b.c. reached its

apogee

in

the sculptures of Pra.xiteles, of which the

Aphrodite of Knidos was the most admired (see page 188).

more

It is it

was

difficult for us

in 1877,

when

today to appreciate

the discovery of his

was accompanied by extravagant

187)

than

his art

Hermes

page

(see

praise. This affinity

with the taste of the late nineteenth century caused his

works to be judged

makes

it

which

a false, sickly-sweet light,

in

hard for us to discard these concepts and gain a

Even if he conthem the creations of a "second classic" period, the modern observer, schooled in Archaic and classical sculpfresh appreciation of the art of Praxiteles. siders

ture,

cannot help doing them an

tionally.

i

injustice,

even

There remains a value judgment that

uninten-

if

feels obliged

to discern negative qualities in these works. This

perhaps, be excused by circumstances, but just as

wrong

it

may,

certainly

is

as the thoughtless projection of nineteenth-

century personal ideals into the sculptures of Praxiteles.

The

statues might be called sentimental, were

ambiguous meaning

of the term.

it

not for the

The same holds

true for

the assertion that Praxiteles took into consideration, in a hitherto

unknown way,

server. Yet, the artist veil

his

work on the ob-

marble statues

in

a

of quiet reflection which, by withdrawing the figures

from the world of

reality,

own

not surprising that the art of Praxiteles

world.

It

is

draws the viewer into the

tomb reliefs The painter Nikias (see pages 204-6), whom

statues'

exerted such a strong influence on

(see

202).

Praxiteles

r. 'f

the effect of his

does envelop

page

so highly esteemed, exerted a similar influence.

Satyr Pouring Wine.

Copy

height stVs". Original

c.

of an original by Praxiteles.

370

b.c.

Staatliche

Marble,

Kunstsammlungen,

Dresden

185

Apollo Saiiroktoms. Copy of the original by Praxiteles. Marble, height 65V4" (from the top of the head to the soles of the feet, 60V4"). Original atine,

c.

350

B.c.

From

The "Apollo

as a boy, teasing a lizard

with an arrow, the so-called tonos" (Pliny 34, 70), listed the ly

the Pal-

Rome. Vatican Museums, Rome

works of

Praxiteles,

Sawokamong

was frequent-

copied, despite the technical dif-

ficulties

tree

presented by the subject.

The

both an integral part of the

is

composition and a technically necessary support for the slender figure of

Apollo.

Why

it

was that Praxiteles

represented the god in this boyish

form,

apparently

playing

a

cruel

game with the lizard, remains a mystery. The wishes of the patron and the demands of the cult would child's

have been the determining factors. 186

I

Hermes

with the

Praxiteles. B.c.

From

Child Dionysos, by Marble, height 84^8". c. 330 the Heraion of Olympia. Mu-

seum, Olympia

The Statue was found in 1877 just where Pausanias had seen it (V, 17, 3)-

The "marble Hermes,

rying the child Dionysos, a

by Praxiteles"

is

car-

work

one of the few

surviving originals of the master.

The

virtuosity

apparent

in

the

treatment of the marble and the over-all elegance of the work confirm ancient opinions on the art of Praxiteles. Hermes has stopped to rest on his way to the nymphs who will take care of his infant brother Dionysos. He leans on a tree trunk to play with the child and offers him a cluster of grapes. The fatherly concern displayed by this childish game shows Hermes the messenger of the gods, in a moment of almost feminine affection, and reveals a new facet of the god to the observer.

187

Aphrodite of Knidos.

Copy

of the

original by Praxiteles. Marble, overall

nal

height of the statue 80'//'. Origic.

350

B.c.

Vatican Museums,

Rome

Praxiteles

is

said to have surpassed himself in his Aphrodite of Knidos. Pliny writes (36, 30) that

suffered the hardships of an ocean voyage just for a view of her;

showed the goddess completely naked

who

is

first

time.

Her

rapt gaze

many

people

statue,

which

was particularly admired. The goddess,

preparing for her bath, seems herself to have fallen under the spell of the forces that she embodies.

ever, this

human

quality

is

and elevates her to a new 188

for the

and other writers also praised the

How-

countered by her consciousness of the magic powers that she exerts on the beholder, ideal of divinity.

Artemis. Copy, probably of the Artemis Brauronia by Praxiteles. Marble, height 65". Original c. 340 b.c. From Gabii, near Rome. The Louvre, Paris

The goddess

is shown in the act of fastening her mantle. This unusual motif supports the

identification of this statue with the Praxiteles, since

W

work

of

temple inventories indicate

that offerings of garments were

made

to the

Artemis Brauronia on the Athenian Acropolis,

where the statue by Praxiteles stood (Pausanias I, 23, 7). The importance placed upon an insignificant

act,

which

huntress Artemis as a

girl

also

who

reveals

the

delights in

new

clothing, wholly corresponds to the Praxitelean

interpretation of the traditional concept of the

As show no gods.

in all Praxiteles'

works, the garments

trace of the ornately flowing line of

the turn of the century (see page 174), which

was long retained

in decorative

works. With

the techniques of classical art, Praxiteles has tried to capture the texture of the cloth gar-

ments, whose natural weight causes the folds to

hang

vertically

down. 189

^Ä5^fl

\

•.^..^afe-w-,.

< The

style of the

Aphrodite on the facing page, the lower part of whose body

who

is

draped, identifies

it

as the

work

known to have made several other statues of the same goddess in addition to the Knidian one. This Aphrodite may be somewhat earlier in date, although the differences between the two interpretations may rather lie in the fact that the artist has simply chosen to show here another aspect of the many-faceted of Praxiteles,

is

nature of the goddess of love.

On the outside is

drawing

his

of the mirror case below, a relief of a clothed Aphrodite

naked beauty, lovingly holding the Aphrodite.

Copy

From

little

of an original by Praxiteles.

ble, over-all height of the statue 76^/,".

350 B.c.

shows her seated next to an Eros, who

bow. The incised design on the inside of the cover, however, shows the goddess of love

Aries.

The Louvre,

Mar-

Original

Paris

Eros close to her

c.

in all

her

— and interfering with his aim. Aphrodite and Eros. Inner decoration of a folding mirror. Gilt bronze, diameter y'/a"- c. 350 b.c. From Tarquinia. The Louvre, Paris

191

Herakles in tlie Garden of Ihe Hesperides. Attic hydria. Terra cotta with glaze paint, white color, and gilding, height isV'z"- c. 350 b.c. From Cyrene, North Africa. British

A

Hero. Bronze, the eyes inlaid

in colored material, height 350 B.c. From the sea near Antikythera (island the southern Peloponnesus). National Museum, Athens

yö'/g". c.

off

Museum, London

The bringing together

of apparently unconnected figures

is

southern Russia ("Kerch vases") and North Africa. The tree

maidens, for

typical of the Attic vases in the

which were exported to

middle and the small Eros identify the four

whom Herakles seems to be searching, as the Hesperides

;

but this does not explain the other figures.

This class of vases marked the end of Attic vase painting, and pottery reverted once more to ornamental decoration.

The

technically

more demanding

vessels of

bronze (see page 208) or of precious metal

now came

to the forefront.

The young man

(facing page) extends his right arm, the half-closed

hand

small object. All attempts to identify either the subject inatter or the hero, so far met with

little

success.

Italy in the first century b.c.

192

The

statue sank to the

of

which seems to have held some

who

bottom of the sea when

it

has paused in mid-stride, have

was shipwrecked on

its

way

to

193

The

figure of the hero,

which completely dominates the picture, has the appearance of a

enthusiastically greeted by liberated Athenian children after he has killed the Minotaur. battle with the monster,

which

lies

dead

at his feet,

statue.

Still

Theseus

is

affected by his

he gazes out into the distance and seems, despite the pres-

ence of the crowd, isolated and tragic. In the Praxitelean sense, the scene merely serves as an occasion for

making the hero more movingly human. 194

^

Theseus after Killing the Minotaur.

Roman copy

of an original of

Height

c.

Wall painting from the House of Gavius Rufus, Pompeii. Museo Nazionale, Naples 350

B.c.

31'/«"-

\^^f#> j^ S.*?'l"

r'

»r

'«"^^^MS^^Z

/

^'t^:» Head of a Hero. From of the temple of

/

a pediment

Athena Alea

in

Tegea. Marble, height 8Vj". After 395 B.c. National Museum, Athens

Next to

Praxiteles,

Skopas of Paros was the outstanding sculptor of the fourth century

as an architect and, in 395 b.c., rebuilt the temple of

The pediment

Athena Alea

in

themes of the pediments: on the east

side, the

also active fire.

hunt of the Calydonian boar with Atalante,

Meleager, Theseus, and other heroes; on the west, Telephos and Achilles fighting

The forceful emotions shown raised

He was

sculptures, countless fragments of which have survived, can be considered his. Pausanias (VIII,

45, 4) describes the

He

b.c.

Tegea, which had been destroyed by

human

in the

passions to a sublime pathos and demonstrated in his

and even of the hero. In figures are, however,

Kaikos.

work

the tragic imperfection of

his efforts to depict the spiritual, he seems to have joined paths with Praxiteles,

more

to strike a responsive

in the Plain of

heads reveal Skopas as an outstanding master of the power of expression.

introverted in contrast to the

chord

in the

more openly

man whose

extrovert figures of Skopas. These seem

emotions of the viewer and demand

his

sympathy. Funerary

reliefs

were

strongly influenced by the art of Skopas (see page 202).

195

Roman copy

Pathos.

Skopas. Marble, 1

1".

Original

vour,

an original by

(without base)

5'

350 b.c. From the Via CaPalazzo dei Conservatori,

c.

Rome.

of

heiglit

Rome

Skopas made two statues of Eros' brother Pothos, the personification of desire

nias

— one for Samothrace (Pliny

and one for Megara (Pausa-

36, 25)

43, 6). This frequently copied

I,

statue of a standing youth leaning

one upraised arm,

on

his legs crossed,

his languishing eyes set in soft, al-

most effeminate

features, can there-

fore be attributed to Skopas.

human

personification of a

The

passion

is

quite in line with Skopasian art (see

page

195),

which was particularly

by

attracted

the

man's desires and

and by

his

overcome

conflict his

between

capabilities,

consequent longing to

his

own

limitations. Here,

the whole body, as well as the expression, of far-off,

Pothos seems to be longed-for goal.

set

on a

Maenad.

Roman copy

height ly^/j". Original

of an original by Skopas. Marble, c.

350

b.c. Staatliche

Kunstsamm-

lungen, Dresden

The Maenad of Skopas,

so highly praised

by the

ancient poets, was carved out of Parian marble. It

showed

at

beauty of the

one and the same time the feminine girl

with her long flowing hair and

the rapture of the orgiastic

animal of

in pieces (see

demoniac This

page

maenad as she tears an

173). It

was the epitome

ecstasy.

Roman copy probably reproduces Skopas'

masterpiece, for this maenad, as no other,

is

the

very personification of Dionysiac frenzy.

197

The Rape of Ganyineile. Relief on a folding mirror, perhaps originally fastened to a vessel. Bronze, diameter c. 6". c. 360 B.c. From the vicinity of Amphissa. State Museums, Berlin

The

art of the fourth

century

b.c.,

related to the feminine toilette.

so decidedly feminine in

The

often on the inside with incised designs (see page 191). ple

shown

198

man

leanings,

was

particularly

enamored of

The themes revolve primarily around

here, the youth willingly follows the eagle of

of the longing of

its

objects

folding mirrors are decorated on the outside of the cover with reliefs and

Zeus to Olympus, and one senses

for the higher, ideal world of Plato's philosophy.

love. In the

in the relief

exam-

something

.^, ^-^4

Mausolos 350

(?).

Marble, height

9' lo'/s"-

From the Mausoleum Museum, London

B.c.

Carian,

of Halikarnas-

sos. British

This

is

undoubtedly the statue of a

Carian prince, either a relative of Mausolos or

lence

Mausolos

The corpu-

himself.

and the long hair give the

"barbaric" appearance.

It

figure a

was part

of

the wealth of sculptural decoration on the

tomb monument

erected by Arte-

Mau-

misia for her deceased husband solos,

from which the word "mauso-

leum" is derived. The princes of Asia Minor competed with each other in the splendor

of

their

employed Greek

burial

places

artists for this

and

purpose.

Since this statue was found at the north-

ern

side

of

the

structure,

it

would,

according to Pliny's classification (see

page 200), be the work of Bryaxis.

Ainazononmcliy. Fragment of the

Mausoleum B.c. British

The

relief

decoration of the

of Halikarnassos. Marble, height 35".

c.

350

Museum, London

architects of the

Mausoleum

of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven

Wonders

of theWorld, were Pytheos and

Satyros; and the most famous sculptors of the time executed the rich sculptural decoration. Pliny (36, 30) states that

Timotheos was responsible for the southern

Leochares the west; but

this division is

side,

Skopas the

probably oversimplified.

It is

east front, Bryaxis the north side,

and

impossible to attributeany of the surviv-

ing reliefs with certainty to a particular hand, since their original position in the structure cannot always be definitely determined, this

the

is

and since there are no obvious

the fact that, since Vitruvlus

names of the

artists.

names

between the various

Praxiteles instead of Timotheos, there

is

reliefs.

Added

to

not even agreement as to

Leochares was probably the youngest, since he and Lysippos were the leading

of the time of Alexander the Great (see page 219).

200

stylistic differences

artists

All

we can say about

this scene,

takes place in the underworld.

over three hundred and relief

which also includes the figures of Herakles, Hades, and Persephone,

The temple

fifty feet

of Artemis at Ephesos, another of the

long and was surrounded by a double row of columns.

decoration on their lower parts, and one

is

said to have been the

with the style of various masters of the fourth century B.c.

Tlmnalos, Alkestis, ami Hermes. relief

of

Artemis

built B.c.

Column drum carved in from the new temple after

Marble,

British

Ephesos

in

the

fire

height

of

re-

356

To'/s".

Museum, London

Wonders

work

is

that

of the World,

Some

of these

it

was had

of Skopas. This relief has affinities

Demetn'a and Pamphile. Tomb relief. Marble on a prosoporos base, height 84V8"Mid-fourth century B.r. Dipylon cemetery, Athens

The standing Demetria and the seated Pamphile

in the

of the rehef

sharp

contrast

quality of the 176).

foreground turn out

toward the observer, to

the

Hegeso

stele (see

The two women seem

friends?)

same way

in

withdrawn

isolated in

page

(sisters

or

much

the

as the figures in the paint-

ings of Nikias (see pages 204-6), each

individually

seeking to detain the

passer-by with her glance. scription

The

in-

on the grave statue of Kroi-

sos (see page iio)

admonished the

viewer to "stand and mourn," but now it is

•tc-:*^. ',;;-;.-.

,^-»~r

'Ä^JäS^

'>uÄ-.-^v«»i.Vi'

'

".'i.

the figures themselves that invite

compassion. This class of funerary

^

relief

2V.

seems to reveal the influence of

Skopasian art (see page

Demeter

sits

on a throne, clothed

appearance of the whole

is

softened by

body, and by the turn of the head. sculptor, although

it

in rich

has certain

188), for instance, the goddess'

It

garments whose folds

diagonally across her body.

The blocklike

by the drapery on the upper part of the

has not yet been possible to attribute this original work to any particular

affinities

with Praxiteles and with his Aphrodite from the same island (see page

gaze into the infinite distance. Despite the fact that she would be oblivious to

her daughter Kore (who was probably standing beside her), she motherliness, that other side of feminine nature.

202

lie

the slant of the left lower leg,

195).

is,

in

contrast to the Aphrodite, the epitome of

Demeter

Enthroned.

height 6o'/4".

c.

340

Marble, b.c.

From

Knidos. British Museum, London

v

The fourth century from

this period

Phny

b.c.

is

and the

(35, 131) hsts an

the classic century of painting: both the great admiration later accorded paintings

them were made are evidence of Andromeda among the paintings by Niicias, and it

fact that copies of

painter of the picture above used yet been freed

it

as a model.

The

lack of action in the scene

this. is

is

probable that the Pompeian unusual.

from her bonds, and neither she nor her rescuer shows any sign of joy

—

Andromeda

in fact,

has not

they do not even

mood between such a painting and the statues of Praxiteles (see page 185) makes the close association of these two artists, mentioned by the writers of Antiquity, plausible. Nikias is said to have done the painting on some of Praxiteles' marble statues, and these are the very ones that Praxiteles is look at each other. The similarity of

said to have regarded as his

204

most

successful.

Perseus and Andromeda. Ro-

man copy

of

an

painting by Nikias 4!^/.,".

Original

(

original ?).

c.

Height

340

-*^

B.c.

Wall painting from the House of the Dioscuri, Pompeii. Museo Nazionale, Naples

and Argos. Roman copy an original painting by

lo of

Nikias

Height

(?).

Original

c.

340

painting

in

the

iS^'g"-

Wall Macellum, b.c.

Pompeii

lo,

whom

Zeus loved and who was turned into a cow by Hera,

companion

piece to the painting of Kalypso in the

(35. 131) as

being

of the

woman

among the works

of Nikias. In

portrayed, the real theme

is

all

same room

is

(see

watched over by the giant Argos page 206).

An

lo

is

in this

mentioned by Phny

the paintings of Nikias that are identified only by the

the contrasting thoughts with which she and her male

name

companion

are occupied.

These paintings are not pictorial narratives but psychological character

Hermes

to free To

is

not indicated in any

here of the guardian to his prisoner

is

way and,

human and

studies.

The imminent

arrival of

unlike the well-known version of the myth, the relationship

not without compassion.

205

Odysseus and Kalypso. Roof an original by Nikias (?). Height 321/«". Original c. 340 b.c. Wall

man copy

painting

in

the

Macellum,

Pompeii

Pliny (35, 131) mentions a Kalypso by Nikias, and the interpretation of the standing

Kalypso

is

most probable. The homesick Odysseus and the nymph who

is

woman

in this picture as

unwilling to see him go provide the

picture with that inner tension apparently characteristic of Nikias.

By

restricting the

the picture

himself less

is

in their situation.

by chance

in their

The combination

and the dead appear 206

of principal figures to two, Nikias avoided superfluous details

The

clear.

setting

is

The mythical

moment of

side

two by

almost always the same two people, a

of meeting, are the tragic

:

will

man and

a

of

woman, meet more or

soon separate. Pervading

bonds which

figures belonging to different spheres

side.

and the essence

figures force the observer to think their thoughts, to place

— certainly not on purpose — and their ways

two apart even path.

number

immediately made

is

tie their

echoed

in

all,

and keeping the

existence to a predetermined

grave

reliefs,

where the

living

Choragic monument of Lysikrates. Marble on limestone podium, height 34'. 334 b.c. Street of the Tripods, Athens

According to the inscription,

was

ment

this

monu-

dedicated by whose boys' choir won the musical competition

page

Lysikrates,

under the archon Euainetos

143). It

is

in the

temple

circular

with

(see

form

of a small

six

Corinthian

on a square podium. Tripods are sculptured in relief on the columns

rising

upper portion of the walls between the columns, and a large gilded tripod once

crowned the whole above the acanthus ornament on the representations satyrs'

top.

of

On

the frieze are

Dionysos,

pursuit of the pirates,

of

and

the of

their transformation into dolphins.

The round temple (see page 180) has become a high, almost columnar, pedestal for the tripod, which was the here

actual votive offering. This demonstrates that

it

was the beauty and individuality

of the architecture that counted, even

when

its

obscured.

true

function

had

become

Painted pottery could no longer satisfy the demands of the time for ever

Archaic

art

and bowls,

promoted

had produced bronze all

with

This krater with rissa,

relief

this art of

decoration, were

may

and

more sumptuous

in the fifth

made by outstanding artists

(see

vases (see page 192).

century b.c. metal cups, kraters,

page

173).

Wealthy Macedonia now

ornamented metalwork, which supplanted pottery.

its

rich decoration of reliefs

son of Anaxagoras,

bowl, and he

vessels with applique figures,

who

is

named

and applied

in the inscription,

also have been the artist.

figures

was found

Asteiounios of La-

in a grave.

was probably the owner

of this magnificent mixing

The decoration shows Dionysos and Ariadne and the

reveling

com-

panions of the wine-god. Despite tion, the

its

rich

ornamenta-

bowl does not appear

The

overladen.

has been

relief

kept within the general outline

and the

of the vase the

figures in

round are organically

re-

lated to the shoulders of the krater. ty

The whole forms

a uni-

which reveals the great

skill

of the craftsman.

Achilles

and

Bri.seis.

Roman copy

of an original painting of

c. 330 b.c. Height 50". Wall painting from the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii. Museo Nazionale, Naples

Krater.

Bronze,

height 35'/8"veni

340 (Macedonia).

Museum, 208

c.

Saloniki

partly B.c.

silvered,

From Dher-

Archaeological

f'U ^'

The unknown painter has

mood slave

created, in this picture of the enforced separation of Briseis

illuminated only by the heroic bearing of

girl.

The impending

pelling glance

draws

disaster has already been foreseen

in the

observer as well.

by means of the background the original

came

the impassive Achilles and the

figures, the

by the participants

The emphasis placed on

momentariness of the

into being under the auspices of the

Achilles

situation,

new order

from

Achilles, a

somber

pitiful figure of the beautiful

in the scene,

and

Briseis'

im-

and the other main characters

and the gestures are sure signs that

instigated

by Alexander the Great. 209

THE LATE GREEK ART OF ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE (336-146 B.c.)

Late Greek art

a mirror image of the historical

is

state of affairs that est

was determined by the

expansion of Greek

point

poHtical might.

great-

The

focal

the period of the reign of Alexander

lies in

and of

the Great (336-323 b.c.)

his

immediate

successors (the Diadochi, 323-280 b.c., and the

marked by Macedonia the Roman conquest of Greece and in the year 146 b.c. This period of almost two Epigones,

c.

280-220

b.c.).

The end

centuries of artistic production

the apogee of

Greek

is

was considered

by the ancients. In the

art

nourished by

century that followed, art was

still

this rich tradition, so that fine

works of

art

were

produced and the courts of the East Greek princes were provided with their necessary splendor.

But

in reality, this

ing to the end of

on

was only a passive phase lead-

Greek

art,

which now continued

Italian soil. This transferral of the

of the East to the West, life,

led to the

where

it

Greek

art

could win a new

somewhat primitive view of Pliny

and had not reawakened

(34, 52) that art

about 155 b.c. The term "Hellenistic," which is still used today for

had stopped

after the disciples of

Lysippos

until

this late

period of Greek

art, is

misleading. "Hellenism"

as a concept comes from historiography and comprises the time between the death of Alexander and the be-

ginning of the reign of Augustus. The attempt to classify the art of these three centuries as a unit and then to split

it

up

into subdivisions

was doomed

to failure, for this

method disregarded

historic conditions

based only on formal criteria which could not do justice to the great variety of Late Greek linguistic standpoint the

introduced

it

term "Hellenistic"

is

art.

and was

Even from a

was originated by the historian J. G. Droysen, who i), as opposed to the "Hebrews," were commonly used by those who make Hellenism a synonym

improper.

It

into historiography in 1836. "Hellenistai" (Acts, VI,

Hellenized Jews

who spoke

for Grecism. Late

Greek

Greek. The word

art,

however,

is

is

also

Greek

art

— not

Hellenized

— and therefore not Hellenistic. The term

has also been applied to the feeble end and collapse that took place after Greek art had long ceased to place itself in

the services of those princes

real rulers of the world.

210

who

continued to

live a

shadow

existence in complete dependence on the

ami Darius. Copy of an original painting by Apelles ( ?). Mosaic, Floor mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii. Museo Nazionale, Naples

Bailie of Alexander

This gigantic mosaic

is

8'

lo'/i" x

i6' 9^U".

Original

c.

325 B.c.

our only faithful copy of an Antique battle painting. The exact historical event (usually

identified as the Battle of Issos) cannot,

idealization of a battle, in

of the fleeing Persian king.

however, be determined with certainty; for the picture

which the elan of the attacking King of Macedonia

No doubt the

is

is

meant

as an

contrasted with the cowardice

original painting belonged to a cycle that narrated the

life

of Alexan-

der from his birth to his final victory. Later ages continued to produce works based on these originals, such as

Alexander's schooling, the burning of Persepolis, the fight with the lion, and his marriage to Roxana (see

page 213).

The

incongruities of the mosaic can be explained as misinterpretations

parts of the original painting, which had apparently already been

on the part of the

artist of

various

damaged. 211

;^t!;V^UV.i^^ai«ii»iiiööJ^;^,, .^^^^UmmiiUiiim^rrr^ ?'5T!H*'

~~~^

moMpinw

— JTiiwwM——WH

«Ufc»

Alexander agus.

in Battle.

Marble with

Frieze rich

on

the so-called Alexander Sarcoph-

painting, height of the frieze

over-all length of the sarcophagus,

Sidon. Archaeological

Found

in

Museum,

lo' 574"- c.

310 b.c.

2j^U".

From

Istanbul

a burial chamber in the royal necropolis of Sidon, this sarcophagus probably belonged to King

Abdalonymos,

whom

reveals an artist

who

deliberately

painting (see page 211).

The new

set on the throne. One side shows Alexander combat and of the chase also decorate the ends and

Alexander had

other, a lion hunt. Scenes of

The

rich

and harmoniously "classicized" motifs such

at the battle of Issos; the

the pediments.

style

ornamentation was also executed with exceptional delicacy.

ideal of the warrior battling against

enemies and wild beasts

is

in

complete conformity with wide-

spread old Greek ideas that were expressed as far back as Mycenaean times (see pages 34, 42).

212

The

as that of the Battle of Alexander

Images such as these on coins and gems probably represent details of paintings glorifying Alexander

and

his

deeds (see page 211). The Alexander with the Thunderbolt

was

a

famous painting by Apelles

that

was frequently

mentioned by the writers of Antiquity. (The inscription

on the gem below

The obverse

refers to a later

of the gold coin

owner.)

shows Alexander on

horseback attacking the Indian king Poros, to parry the thrust of Alexander's lance

On

who attempts

from

his elephant.

the reverse, Alexander, holding the thunderbolt of

Zeus,

is

crowned by Nike.

Obverse and reverse of a coin (decadrachm) of Alexander the Great. Gold, diameter iV4". c. 320 B.c. British

4 Gem

Museum, London

representing Alexander with the attributes of

Zeus. Carnelian, height

I'/s"- c.

325 b.c. The Her-

mitage, Leningrad

213

Herakles Resting (so-called Farnese Herakles). Copy, by Gly-

kon

of Athens, of the bronze

original

of

height lo' B.c.

Lysippos. Marble, Original c. 330

4^/4".

Museo Nazionale, Naples

For Antiquity, Greek sculpture reached

its

climax in the figures of Lysippos. Basing his work on earlier

at-

tempts and on the Polykleitan system (see page 162), which he improved, he freed Greek sculpture from the last of its

bonds. Together with Leochares (see pages 200, 219),

who

also received commissions

from Alexander,

Lysippos headed a large school of students, imitators, and followers, and prepared the way for the art of the third century b.c.

Although by

page) bears the signature of the copyist, an inscription on a replica

this colossal statue (facing

Florence describes his labors.

as "the

it

work

in

The artist has shown Herakles as he rests on his club, exhausted interpreting it as an allusion to the superhuman efforts which the ideals

of Lysippos."

One might be justified

in

of the times expected of a hero.

This statuette of the seated Herakles with a

drinking cup

in his right

hand (rather than

the apples added by the restorer) reproduces the silver Herakles which Lysippos pre-

sented to Alexander the Great. There

is

no

reason to doubt that the original was a table ornament, even

known

though the piece

to have been

later

owned by Novius

Vindex may have been only a copy. According to the poets Martial and Statins, Lysippos' Herakles looked up at the stars

and invited the guests

to the joys of the

festive meal.

Herakles Epilrapezios. Copy of the silver original by Lysippos. Marble, height 20~l,". Original c. 330 B.c. British

Museum, London 215

»r-1

I

—-fgmntji

Athletes. Detail of a sculptured statue base

Acropolis. Marble, over-all height SS'/s"- c.

320

The works

B.c.

Acropolis

ble, height 80^/4". Original c.

Museum, Athens

Vatican Museums,

original by Lysippos.

330 b.c.

From

the Tiber in

Mar-

Rome.

Rome

and the new interest that he aroused in the human body and in athletics strongly inmonuments of Late Greek art. athletes, whose names are inscribed beside them, runs along three sides of the plinth above. They

frieze of

all

have been caught being

Apoxyomenos. Copy of the bronze

from the Athenian

length 63V4", width

of Lysippos

fluenced almost

A

iS'/«",

in

various poses as they cleanse themselves with the

real-life studies.

The

statue which once stood on this base

strigil (scraper),

may have resembled

and give the the

effect of

Apoxyomenos

(see

facing page).

In the greater vivacity and slender proportions of the figure, the

new

style.

Apoxyomenos

is

the best example of Lysippos'

The athlete cleansing himself with a scraper dominates the surrounding space as never before.

evident that Lysippos returned to works of the early jecting the art of the immediate past.

The

to the technical difficulties involved. This

fifth

fact that only

copy had a

century b.c. (see page 129) for his inspiration, re-

one marble copy of

strut

It is

this

work

exists

is

probably due

between the right thigh and the outstretched right

arm, which was most disturbing and which also required a disproportionately large block of marble. The

Apoxyomenos 216

of Lysippos

was mentioned by Pliny

(34, 62).

~f

r>^

Apollo

Copy (?).

330

(so-called

Marble, height B.c.

Belvedere).

gS'/s"-

Original

From Anzio-Nettuno

vedere, Vatican

^

Apollo

of a bronze original by Leochares

(

?).

Museums, Rome

c.

Bel-

Leochares

is

said to have

worked on

the

Mausoleum

(see

200) and to have made gold and ivory statues of Philip

Macedon and

his family for a

Philippeion).

(the

He

round temple

also created,

II

of

Olympia

in

collaboration with

in

Lysippos, a bronze group dedicated in Delphi after 320

which showed Krateros saving Alexander from a seems to have been a master

page

b.c.,

lion.

He

in the representation of gods, in

which, like Pheidias (see pages 153-55) and Praxiteles (see

pages 185-90) before him, he established new ideals. This lightly

new

type of the god Apollo (facing page), stepping

forward and holding up

his

bow in

a victorious gesture,

seems to correspond to the self-awareness of the Greeks

who

conquered the world with Alexander. Apollo symbolically expresses the spirit of

Greek

culture,

new

Oriental concepts had set in a this

masterpiece to Leochares

The

reactions of

is

which comparison with

light.

The

attribution of

almost certainly

Winckelmann and Goethe

right.

to the Apollo

Belvedere were equally enthusiastic: they could both sense the greatness of the original in this rather poor copy.

Like the art of Lysippos, that of Leochares also had widespread effects, as

boy

lifted

can be seen

in this figure of a

restored) high above his head, fillet. is

youth

in Berlin.

The

both arms (which were missing and have been

and may have held a

The apparent weightlessness

typically Leocharian. His statue of

standing example of this quality, but figure of Apollo (facing page).

victor's

of the figure, in particular,

Ganymede

is

an outStanding Youth.

it is

also present in the

of

c.

320

Museums,

B.c.

Copy

of a bronze original

Bronze, height

50^/e". State

Berlin

219

4

Aristonautes. Marble, height 84V4" (with the base, 330 B.c. From the Dipylon cemetery,

9' A^li"). c.

Athens. National

The

Museum, Athens

influence of painting

on funerary

art

is

evident in the tombstone of Aristonautes.

The motif of a warrior rushing out of the background also appeared in a painting by Theon. This Hist.,

II,

is

44),

described by Aelian {Var.

who comments

that every

m.:

time the painter unveiled the picture he had

blown so as to heighten the

trumpets effect

on

the

produced by latest of Attic

public.

this

monument

funerary

— one

reliefs (see

and the only example of a sculpture in the

The impression

round

its

kind

of the

page 225),

—

set into

is

that of

an archi-

tectural recess.

The revolution which Lysippos' art signified in its new grasp of the human body (see pages 214-17)

expressed not only by the

is

figure of the standing athlete, but also in

the

seated

posture. elasticity

ideals,

or in the relaxed supported

This

Hermes,

whose youthful

corresponds to the new Lysippian

introduced into sculpture the motif

of a foot resting

on a support. The mes-

senger of the gods, pausing to lace his sandals, has been interrupted.

He

turns his

head, as though he has heard the voice of

Zeus giving him new orders.

Hermes. Copy of a bronze original by Lysippos ( ?). Marble, height 6oVs"- c. 320 b.c. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen

r^faäfiMMmaai

Htti

Copy of an original of c. 330 Marble, height with base 76V1".

Wrestler. B.c.

Kunstsammlungen, Dresden

Staatliche

This figure of an athlete, created

under the influence of Lysippos, probably shows a wrestler tensed to begin a contest with an op-

ponent who

not shown.

is

The alert preparedness of the young man, who turns his head as though toward a new threat, has something violent (see

Nike

energy

(

113^8")-

of

Samothrace harks back to an older theme which Paionios

as a divine being, while this

The

way with

Nike

his

in

c.

real

prow

monument cannot

.

height

96V2"

200

From Samothrace.

B.c.

(originally

Paris

page 172) had been the

Olympia. His goddess of victory

one stands on the very

specific victory at sea glorified in this

(see

Aristonautes

Winged Victory of Samothrace)

The Louvre,

represent in a completely novel

of

with the

page 220).

Marble,

The Nike

common

in

floats

first

to

down from Olympus

of a ship to which she has brought triumph.

be positively identified.

A

similar Nike, stand-

ing on a ship and blowing a trumpet, appears on a coin of Demetrios Poliorketes which celebrated his defeat of Ptolemy at sea in 306 b.c.

which are

The

in

However, the

Vienna) show that

it

a hand of the Nike of Samothrace (fragments of

out, empty, in front of her.

divine vision of Nike, her garments wet with sea spray whipped about by the wind, appears as a fellow

combatant leading her followers to 222

later discovery of

was held victory.

223

Philosopher.

Roman copy

of an original painting of the mid-third

century b.c. Height 63". Wall painting (detail) from the great hall of the House of P. Fannius Synistor, near Boscoreale. Museo

Nazionale, Naples

In the empire of Alexander, the figure of the philosopher

approached that of the

ruler in importance, just as

Aristotle, Alexander's tutor,

had brought about an un-

precedented fusion of power and

plementary extremes of

intellect.

human existence,

As

the

com-

these qualities

shaped a world that was also outwardly transformed.

The philosopher, leaning on

his staff

gazing toward the royal figures from rated by a painted

column

moving force behind

and thoughtfully

whom

page 246),

he

is

sepa-

is

probably the

the event illustrated.

The column,

(see

which forms part of the over-all decoration, also has the effect of setting the

philosopher apart, of giving him the

appearance of an outsider

who

is

not really present at

the proceedings.

Funerary monument of a youth. Marble, height B.c.

The tombstone from the

llissos (facing

his father has survived him. artist leaves

no doubt

in

Nothing

From

the llissos, Athens. National

66^jg". c.

page) depicts figures from two different worlds: the youth

in the external

appearance of the figures

our minds. The pensiveness of the old

man

330-320

Museum, Athens

is

dead and

specifically states this, yet the

as he gazes

on the splendid figure of

his

son leads the observer to meditate on the transitoriness of what on earth seemed almost perfect. The young

whose attendant and dog grieve at being abandoned, seems to fix admonishing eyes on the passer-by. The relief, which had an architectural frame (see page 220), far surpasses the general run of grave reliefs. Demehunter,

trios of Phaleron's decree

224

(between 317 and 307

b.c.) against

funerary luxury brought these to a sudden end.

^

A

/'

H|,

^'

1

9

\s

Tomb relief of a young woman.

height

Marble,

eS'/«"-

330-320 B.c. From Rhamnous (Attica). National Museum, Athens

c.

V. Although

man

page 225), the

(see

shown here vivor,

who

dead

to

tombstone

Ilissos

the

in

is

similar

dead youth on

that of the

his

pose

his

many ways

the sur-

is

gazes sadly at

He

wife.

gives

her his hand in farewell,

away

turns

she

while

with an eloquent gesture of her ly

left

arm, seeming-

an

impelled by

in-

exorable force to continue her journey to the

realm of the dead. The

"ethos" of

work

this

is

reminiscent of the early fifth

century

The

MO-

sentimentality of

funerary

reliefs (see

page

as

the

as

202),

(see

b.c.

pages 131, 133.

well

markedly feminine note in art,

How line

have disappeared. the new mascu-

ideal

Alexander

reinstated by influ-

also

enced the treatment of the female figure ly

evident here.

is

clear-

Medea Meditating the Murder of Her Children. Copy of an original Timomachos (?). Fragment of a wall painting, height ss'/e"Original c. 280 b.c. From Herculaneum. Museo Nazionale, Naples painting by

This surviving fragment of a larger painting shows Medea,

sword

in

hand, wrestling with the decision whether or not to

murder her

children.

The

actual presence of the children

quite unnecessary for an

is

understanding of the situation.

Posterity marveled at the brilliant psychological representa-

Medea of Timomachos. Timomachos drew Medea, cursed and

tion of inner conflict in the

"When

the

hand

of

torn between her children and the fury that raged within her, it

took the greatest pains to capture her inner conflict

— her

inclination to pity as well as her tendency to madness.

succeeded in both" (Antiphilos, Anth. Pal.. (35>

36)

reports

that

4,

136).

It

PHny

Caesar paid eighty talents (about

$250,000) for this painting.

227

Aphrodite. Marble, height So'/i". Second century B.c.

From Melos. The Louvre,

Paris

M

The " Venus de Milo" was discovered on the island of Melos, together with the signature

of a certain Aiexandros of Antioch

Maeander, who the sculptor. fully

her

'^^^1

^h'fi^'^f^'-'^'^MK h^^m '^^'J'^T^"?

•^V^'|f

:;^^B^^^J

•

^j^^^,

^^1

Here the

artist

left

hand the goddess probably held an symbol of the

island,

prototype had held a shield

which she looked

loss of the

in

made

this

whereas the both hands,

at her reflection.

arms shows

off to best

the elegant spiral twist of the

has

has success-

adapted a fourth-century model. In

apple,

in

on the

would appear to have been

The

advantage

body which

one of the best-known works

of Antiquity. This sturdy feminine ideal in

sharp contrast to that of the fourth

century b.c.

^^

/

is

Zeus and Hera. Copy of an inal painting of c.

painting, the

height

House

Pompeii.

300

b.c.

50^4"-

orig-

»-

!^''»

•

Wall

From

of the Tragic Poet,

Museo

Nazionale,

Naples

:i^

ÜUH F

The Pompeian artist who made this picture into a companion piece to the Briseis painting (see page 209) probably saw a relationship between the two scenes; or perhaps his only reason for doing so was to have both Briseis and Hera look directly out of the painting at the observer. The scene represented is not the well-known meeting of Zeus and Hera on Mount Ida, so important for the Trojan War (Homer, Iliad, XIV), but rather the sacred marriage of the two divinities. Like a shy bride, Hera is

ushered in by a winged figure. Symbols of Cybele on the central

the boys at the lower right have not yet been identified. is,

in fact,

The

pillar are a reference to

relationship of this picture to the Briseis painting

only superficial; for the pitifully pleading expression of Briseis produces a different

invoked by the self-consciously thoughtful gaze of Hera, picture undoubtedly symbolizes the union of Asia

Asia Minor, but

who

mood from

that

stands beside Zeus as his equal. Historically, the

Minor with Greece. 229

Apotheosis of Homer. Detail of a relief by Archelaos of Priene, after an original painting. Marble, over-all height 45V4"; height of the frieze izVs"- Original c. 220-200 B.c. From Bovillae (Marino, near Rome). British Museum, London

In the

upper portion of

this votive relief of a poet,

Archelaos of Priene depicted the Muses according to a well-

known statuary prototype. In the bottom register, Homer is honored by Myth, History, Poetry, Tragedy, Comedy, Nature, Virtue, Faithfulness, and Wisdom. Inscriptions explain the personifications. Behind Homer stands a royal couple, probably Ptolemy IV Philopator (221-204 b.c.) and Arsinoe III, who had erected a temple to Homer in Alexandria. This may have been the site of the original painting. 230

The

honor

particular

which

in

philological study of the Iliad

Homer was

The heroic

his heroes as examples.

held in the third century b.c., resulting in an intensive scientific-

and the Odyssey, can be explained by the importance that ideal, given

new currency by Alexander, was

Achilles,

this period set

on

whose tomb near

Troy the Macedonian king had visited. Late Greek art not only created one of the most impressive portraits of Homer, but also expressed in paintings its high esteem of the poet. The center of the cult was the Homereion in Alexandria, the scholarship of which is reflected in the allegorical figures surrounding Homer in this relief (facing page). Indications that the and the Odyssey were also illustrated are provided by accounts of mosaics with Homer, and by the "Homeric cups" terra-cotta bowls with scenes from the Homeric

Iliad

—

series of pictures

epics,

from

which are prob-

ably cheap copies of expensive gold or silver cups.

his Receiving lo

in

Egypt.

Copy

of

Wall painting from the temple of

In her flight, lo,

who was

an original of the third century Isis in

Pompeii.

b.c.

Height SjVs"-

Museo Nazionale, Naples

loved

by Zeus and transformed into a

cow by

page

the jealous Hera (see

205),

finally

I

f^

reached

Egypt, where she was warmly

^

This myth enabled

received.

the painter to allude to the old

bonds

between

Egypt,

which were renewed

and

Greece

during the Ptolemaic period.

Presumably the original was

in

Alexandria, which was a center of poetry

and learning

in the

third century b.c.

In

its

y'^/B

heroic-solemn mood,

as well as in the fact that both

seem

to point

toward the

ture, the lo picture

is

related to

Hera painting (see page 229). The promise of prosperi-

the

ty,

which the renewal of

mer bonds

will

promote,

common idea upon

"A

fu-

is

for-

i--^

>--v

the

which both

paintings are based.

231

Several kings of Egypt

brothers

Eumenes

II

and Pergamon were surnamed "Philometor" (He

(197-159

b.c.)

and Attalos

II

(159-138

b.c.)

honored

Who

their

Honors His Mother). The

mother Apollonis by erecting

a temple in Kyzikos. Here were depicted legendary examples of the love between mother and child brothers,

Amphion and

Zethos, revenge the

ill

:

two

treatment which their mother Antiope had suffered at the hand

of Dirke by tying the latter to the horns of a wild bull.

The learning

that sought inspiration in the past

found

here a theme in which active expression could be given to that respect which determined the relationship of the kings to their mother.

The

original painting

nese Bull in Naples.

was

also copied in Pompeii

and was probably the model

for the gigantic marble Far-

1^^

Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife. Copy of a bronze original in Pergamon, by Epigonos ( ?). Marble, height 83V8"- Original 235-230 B.c. Terme Museum,

Rome

The Gauls, who had

in-

vaded Asia Minor, were defeated by Attalos

I

(24 1 - 1 97

source of the

B.c.) at the

Kaikos (modern Bakir).The

was

victory

glorified

monument on

large

a

the

Pergamon. The

of

citadel

in

monument was the statue of a

centered on

Gaul who,

in

the face of inevitable defeat,

has killed his wife and

is

in

the act of committing suicide.

Fragments of the ped-

estal

were also found, as

well as the signature of the

famous artist Epigonos. The group in the Terme Mu-

seum is a copy made in Asia Minor that may have been intended for ly.

Rome original-

In Italy, the Gauls were

beaten

decisively B.c., after

Rome

in

222

they had harassed

for over a century.

Attalos

I,

an

ally

of the

Romans, may have taken this

opportunity to under-

score their mutual interests

through such a

gift.

Boy Wrestling

with a Goose.

Copy

of a bronze

original by Boethos. Marble, height 33V8 third century B.c. Glyptothek,

In is

its

"

Late

Munich

formal allusion to heroic groups,

this childish play

seems to point to future heroic deeds. The

not just any boy. Despite his physical exertions, his carefully arranged curls remain

gives the original

work

may

as that of Boethos,

who was

in place.

even more renowned as a silversmith. The goose

little

boy

Pliny (34, 84) in the

bronze

well have been plated with silver.

235

Rocky Landscape with a Spring. Wall bedroom of the House of

painting in the P.

Fannius Synistor, near Boscoreale. 40

c.

B.c.,

but

in

the style of the third

century b.c. The Metropolitan of Art,

^1

An

interest in the natural sciences,

and

Museum

New York

*:

particularly the romantic concept of nature as the fount of

life,

make

a

landscape seem worthy of representation. Not since Cretan times had nature played such an important part in art as

dent.

it

The

did in the third century B.c. artist

draws

it

into his

life

It is,

Icy waters cascading

in

which the transforming hand of man

from the broken rock,

rejoice!

shepherd-whittled figures of the nymphs;

Basins of the spring and these thousand images of you,

Soaked

in its waters, rejoice

you

O

virgins.

also

LEONIDAS OF TARENTUM, Anth.

Gr., IX,

326

(third century b.c.)

236

is

evi-

power which he honors and cherishes; and these landscapes The scene above seems to have inspired the poet who wrote:

as a divine

therefore usually have a sacred character.

And

however, a nature

Copy of a mosaic by Sosos of the second century B.c. 33'/2 >< sSVs"- From Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli. Capitoline Museum, Rome Drinking Doves.

Four doves have

settled

on the rim of a metal basin

and drink. They are tame vessels stood in

birds,

and a scene

filled

like this

with water, where they look around, preen themselves,

could only take place

in a

wealthy house where costly

the open. The gulf between nature and culture has been successfully bridged, just as

it

has in

the painting of the spring in the rocks (see facing page).

Three

Roman

mosaics, including this one, correspond in theme to a mosaic by Sosos of

Pergamon which

depicted doves perched on the edge of a wine cup. Pliny (36, 184) was particularly impressed by the fact that the

shadow

and was

of the drinking bird

was

originally the centerpiece

cast

on the surface of the water. Our example

is

an exceptionally

fine

copy

(emblema) of a large floor mosaic. 237

^

/

mäi. The Finding ofTelephos (detail). Copy of a Pergamene original of shortly from the "basilica" in Herculaneuni. Museo Nazionale, Naples

The

idyllic

after 190 B.c.

group of the doe suckling Telephos, son of Herakles, comprises the lower

which depicts Herakles' discovery of Telephos

in

Arcadia. At the same time,

Pergamene kingdom, which reached the height of power under Eumenes phos was the mythical founder

"The

II

it

left

corner of a painting

represents the greatness of the

(197-159

B.c.)

and of which Tele-

(see pages 250, 252).

intercrossing of the limbs of a delicate nursing

composition of such artistry that

238

Height of the detail 25V«". Wall painting

it

surpasses

all

boy with the nimble animal form of a graceful hind

admiration" (Goethe).

is

a

Boy Pulling a Thorn from His Foot. Copy of an original of the third century B.c. Bronze, height 28^/,".

Palazzo dei Conservator!,

Rome

r^r*"

The Spinario ("Thorn Puller") is known to have been in Rome since at least the twelfth century, from which time onward it has been used as a basis for all kinds of variations on the theme. Even in Antiquity there was no lack of grotesque thorn pullers, in which the original idea ridiculous.

The Capitoline

had been transformed

figure reproduces the original, in

into something coarse

which an insignificant act

is

and

used to portray the

He is a well-bred boy, nicely groomed, whose tender foot has been injured and shows the painful discovery of the alienation of the cultivated man from raw nature nature which he seeks out, all the same. The significance of this piece would be lost if the boy were a mere beauty of the youthful body. this trivial incident

;

—

peasant lad.

239

<

Veiled Head. Painted terra cotta, height ^U". Third century B.c.

From Cyprus.

This head of a

by a

British

Museum, London

woman, whose

face

was part of a Tanagra

veil,

a dancer.

The way

in

is

partially hidden

figurine,

perhaps of

which the flimsy material

covers yet reveals the lips and chin has been masterfully rendered. Terra-cotta figurines

from Tanagra

(Boeotia) were popular throughout the Greek world (see also

page 244).

Aphrodite bends over her small son, who

is

sitting

on a rock, and holds him fast with both hands. She seems to be giving him a lesson in archery, or perhaps she

The satyrs

—originally wild creatures Dionysos' man and half beast — were completely in

retinue, half

humanized and seen century 185).

in

an

b.c., particularly

Now, once more,

is

aiming

his

arrow

at a specific target.

Aphrodite and Eros. Gold ring,

From Kalymnos Museums,

'/s

(island between

x

'W- Third century

Samos and Rhodes).

B.c.

State

Berlin

ideal light in the fourth

by Praxiteles

(see

page

they regain something of

their original coarseness.

This frequently copied group of a satyr seeking to

embrace a lovely nymph, who

ineffective

resistance,

offers a rather

embodies

the

carefree,

joyous essence of nature's creatures as the antithesis of the

harrowed and thoughtful

reality (see also little

life

of

page 243). The sculpture has very

depth and

outlines are

its

more or

less

confined to a square; yet the composition offers

new aspect from every angle and way from a feeling of restriction.

a

•^

Nymph mid

Salyr.

Copy

no

of an original of the late third

century B.c. Marble, 23^«". lazzo dei Conservatori,

suffers in

From

Trastevere,

Rome. Pa-

Rome 241

Sleeping Satyr. Original or copy of a work of the late third century B.c. Marble, height

on

84''/8".

Restorations

the rock are by Bernini (1598-1680),

on the body

by Pacetti (1758- 826). From the 1

vicinity of Castel

Sant'Angelo, Rome. Glyptothek, Munich

The

so-called

Barberini Faun (facing page)

shows a drunken satyr sleep

(see

page 240), sunk

in

on a rock, the very picture of absolute

unconcern and unity with nature. At the same time, he

source

is

of

a symbol of that inexhaustible

itself.

bubbled from a hole

In Antiquity, water

in the rock.

Old Peasant Woman. Copy of an Marble, height zione,

49'V8"-

mankind

from which

strength

continuously renews

From

original of

c.

200 B.c.

the Via della Consola-

Rome. The Metropolitan Museum

of Art,

New

York

This peasant

woman

holds two chickens and a basket of fruit in her

ably offered other wares for

sale.

A genre picture such as this

left

hand. Her extended right hand prob-

shows that the

sensitivity of

Late Greek art for

down-to-earth subjects was not restricted to poetry. Once again, the rustic theme, closely bound to nature, contains within

it

an element of contrast: the

woman from

the country

is

going to the

city to sell her wares.

The outspoken realism evident in this figure of an old woman is characteristic of this phase of Greek art. The love of detail is in conformity with an attitude of mind that sees the great in the small and recognizes detail as an essential part of the whole. This naturalism is an integral part of the work of art taken in its entirety. 242

n v.

Two

H'oineii Gossiping. Painted terra cotta, height y'/«"-

Terra-cotta figurines, originally votive or as the fourth century b.c.

and humble material

and were used

of these figures, art

tomb

Second century

offerings,

B.c.

From Myrina

seem to have

(Asia Minor). British

Museum, London

partially lost this characteristic as early

as decorative objects in Late Greek times. In the modest dimensions

began to take an

interest in the

wholly private side of

life.

Their

inti-

macy endows these miniature works of art with a special charm and makes them easier to understand than the more important monumental sculpture. The two women are shown seated on a couch and leaning toward each other, the older one with some reserve. The younger girl, on the left, shows greater interest; presumably she is receiving some fascinating piece of information from her older friend. 244

Royal Couple. 4' 1 2", width

Cameo

of Indian sardonyx with nine alternating

The portion with Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna 1

Works

1

V4"-

of art in semiprecious stone

the strange collar

ruler, a

brown and white

layers, lieight

restored. First half of third century b.c.

now became more important

expensive stones which had previously been used only for

image of the

is

than ever.

Whole

seals. Particularly

vessels

were carved out of

popular were cameos with the

few examples of which have survived through having belonged to

Roman

emperors and

then passed into the possession of the church. Identification of this ruler with his richly decorated helmet and of the II

woman with an ornamented diadem is still

and Arsinoe

II.

uncertain, but they are probably Ptolemies

Such portrait cameos were made

honorary awards or

for,

or on the orders

of,

— perhaps Ptolemy

the rulers and were presented as

gifts.

245

Macedonian King and Seated Woman. Roman copy (c. 40 B.c.) of

an original painting

of the mid-third century b.c. 63". Wall painting from the great hall of the House of P. Fannius

Height

(detail)

Synistor,

near

Boscoreale.

Museo Nazionale, Naples

The peaceful tensity with

a

visit to

man

the underworld

of the picture

is

missing.

;

seems to be the

in the

figures, the prophetic

background

look of the

fixes her lend

but a more precise interpretation

The man

donian king. Further to the

246

two

association of the

which the

left,

spiritual force

in the left in this detail

woman

sitting

on the

a haunting air to the picture. is

can

hampered by the be identified

by

floor,

Some

and the

say

it

fact that the right-hand third

his

cap and shield as a Mace-

separated by a column, stands the thoughtful philosopher (see page 224),

behind the scene represented.

in-

depicts

who

Crouching Aphrodite.

Copy

of the original by Doidalsas

of Bithynia. Marble,

40V8". B.c.

Mid-third

lieiglit

century

From Hadrian's Villa at Terme Museum,

Tivoli.

Rome

Of

all

down

Aphrodite statues,

this is

perhaps the most intimate. The goddess, unaware that she

to her bath with the naturalness of a

which has broken the

nymph. She seems

is

observed, crouches

to have turned her head in response to a noise

silence of her solitude. This motif, originated

by Doidalsas, was

later

reproduced

in

many

variations.

247

Athena. Marble, height (with base)

Second century

B.c.

From

ii' 6Vi",

the Library of

(without base)

lo' 2".

Pergamon. State Museums,

Berlin

This statue of Athena stood in the Library of Pergamon,

second

in

learning.

fame

to that of Alexandria, as the patroness of

She was modeled on the Athena Parthenos of

Pheidias (see page 153), but

is

not an exact copy of that

masterpiece. Such a return to the forms of Pheidias' cult

image

is

not a sign of artistic decadence, but an expression

of the indebtedness of the time to the merits of the past.

Furthermore, she was made for display

museum

in

Greek an art

which important works were on show. Under

in

Athena's patronage, Pergamon intended to pursue her ancient cultural heritage, and even to vie with Athens

in

this respect.

Scenes of frightening brutality are fairly frequent in Greek

and the

art, ly.

battle of the

gods and giants

is

waged

merciless-

Here, the constellation Engonasin, fighting on the side

of the Olympians, giant,

who

bites

is lifted

him

in the

into the air by a serpent-footed

arm. His victory

is

by no means

certain.

The compensating beauty with which

the art of the

fourth century b.c. had covered the horrors of battle (see

pages 179, 2 1 2)

is

to

besought

in

vain in thisgigantomachy.

Some artists of the fifth century b.c., however, had

depicted

centauromachies (see pages 134, 152, 165) with the same horrific reality.

Head of a Giant. From the north frieze of mon. Marble, c. 180 B.c. State Museums,

the Great Altar of PergaBerlin

The Great Altar of Zeus and Athena

in

Pergamon was probably

erected by

Eumenes

II

(197-159

the few surviving letters of the dedicatory inscription could also be restored to read Attalos

B.c.),

although

(241-197

b.c.).

The creator of the altar building is assumed to have been Menekrates, whom Ausonius (Mosella, 307) names together with six other builders of victory monuments. Menekrates also appears among the names of sculptors that have been preserved, but these seem only to be artisans who executed the slabs after a master plan. Other names of artists are Dionysiades, Orestes, and Theorretos. The names of the gods and giants were also chiseled in the marble, making it easier to understand the representational program of the relief, which must otherwise have been difficult to decipher even for a cultured individual. The gigantomachy undoubtedly reflects the battle of the Pergamenes with the Gauls, interpreted as the victory of culture over nonculture. In just the same way, in The

frieze,

the early

some four hundred

[I]

century

fifth

b.c.,

feet long,

is

the

most imposing

had the Athenians represented

relief in

the whole of

Greek

art.

their victory over the Persians in the guise of battles

with centaurs and Amazons.

Their

own

mythical past was the theme of the smaller frieze in the raised altar court. The story of Telephos,

son of Herakles and Auge (see page 238),

who

as the

first

king of Mysia was the forefather of the Pergamene

Abandoned by his mother in the wilderness, Telephos was nourished by a wild animal, like Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, a city with which the Pergamene kings early entered into good relations; and it was Rome that eventually inherited their kingdom (133 B.c.). kings,

is

narrated in a series of consecutive scenes.

Leto and Apollo.

From

the east frieze of the Great

Ahar

of Pergamon. Marble, height 90V2".

c.

180 b.c. Stale

Museums,

Berlin

ismmmmmgmmm

,

111 I ti I

» < I

Mil tnrmvmmiru

Zeus Hurling His Thunderbolt against Porphyrion. From the east frieze of the Great AUar of Pergamon. Marble, height 9oV2"- c. i8o b.c. State Museums, Berlin

The by at

place of honor in the middle of the east side

side.

The

Porphyrion, a serpent-footed giant

part in the battle.

The

was given

to

Zeus and Athena, who are shown fighting side

thunderbolt of Zeus has already pierced the thigh of a giant, and the god launches a second bolt

A

who

wounded giant is on movement that

surging, powerful

attempts to shield himself with a lion's skin. Zeus's eagle also takes his

knees between these two adversaries.

enlivens the basically

monotonous

battle scenes

is

developed in a

(originally)

However, the outlines are softened by rear views, overlapping of the figures, and by painting, and the figures are free and unconstrained in their movements. As in classic relief, they

completely

fill

relatively contained relief.

^ Apollo

as an

the height of the frieze.

archer— similar

to the Apollo Belvedere (see page

218)— stands over

while Leto thrusts her burning torch into the face of the winged Tityos (?) lying

the fallen giant Ephialtes,

on the ground. 251

This scene of the finding of Telephos

although here

it is

is

is left

being explained by

from the

same

subject (see page 238),

literary version of the

myth which was

an obvious allusion to the boy's royal future.

frieze of the altar

landscape and space style

strongly reminiscent of the painting of the

a lioness that suckles the child. This deviation

followed in the painting

The Telephos

is

free

is

much more

above

picturesque than the Great Frieze, since the figures are set in a

their heads.

The two

friezes

must be contemporary, the differences

in

the diversity of their themes. Parts of the Telephos frieze remained unfinished.

The Finding of Telephos. Detail of Telephos frieze of the Great Altar of Perganion. Marble, height of the frieze, öz'/j"; of the fragment the

42V2". Berlin

252

c.

180 B.c. State

Museums,

Chronological Tables

B.c.

:

I.

Summary

IL Greek Art, Culture, and History

B.c. I

100

Sub-Mycenaean

art

Mycenaean

Doric migrations Collapse of the

syllabic script

disappears

Mycenaean empire Athens remains

iithC.

in the

hands

of the lonians

Protogeometric art

Formation of the Greek city-states

Protogeometric art

Creation of legends

Mycenaean rulers and the Trojan War of

loth C.

900

900

Early Geometric art

9th C.

Severe Geometric art

800

800

Mature Geometric

Development

art

Ivory and bronze statuettes

776 First in the

8th C.

Late Geometric art

700

700

of

Greek

alphabetic script list

of winners

Olympian games

754 Establishment of Spartan ephorate 740-720 First Messenian War

Homer,

Iliad

and Odyssey

6oo

Standing Goddess of Berlin Calf Bearer Temple of Apollo, Corinth Peplos Kore

594 Solon's reforms

in

Athens

Sappho, Alkaios 610-C. 546

560-527 Peisistratos, Tyrant of Athens

6th C.

538-522 Polykrates, Tyrant of Samos 528-510 Hippias, Tyrant of Athens 514 Assassination of Hipparchos by Harmodios and Aristogeiton

500

Exekias Late Archaic art Korai Kimon of Kleonai Red-figure vase painting

500

Temple of Aphaia, Aegina of Zeus, Olympia Poseidon from Cape Artemision 448-432 Parthenon

Temple

Myron,

Pheidias, Polykleitos, Kresilas

437-432 Propylaia

Temple

of Apollo, Bassae Paionios Erechtheion

Temple 400 400

Athena Nike

Late classical art stele of Dexileos,

Athens

500-494 Ionian uprising 490 Battle of Marathon 480 Battle of Salamis 479 Battle of Plataia 478/477 Formation of Delian League 449 Peace of Kallias 443-429 Perikles 431-404 Pelopponesian War 421-415 Peace of Nikias 415-413 Sicilian expedition 404 Defeat of Athens 404-403 Rule of the Thirty

544-c. 484 Herakleitos 525-456 Aischylos 518-438 Pindar c. 513 Birth of Parmenides c. 496-406 Sophokles c. 485-c. 425 Herodotos c. 485-c. 406 Euripides 469-399 Sokrates c. 46Q-C. 400 Thucydides c. 460-C. 370 Demokritos c. 450-c. 385 Aristophanes

Timotheos

400-386 War between Athens and Sparta 395-386 Corinthian War

436-338 Isokrates

386 Peace of Antilkidas Temple of Asklepios, Epidauros 379 Pelopidas in Thebes Kerch vases 378-372 Formation of second Athenian maritime league Piaxiteles Mausoleum of Halikarnassos 371 Battle of Leuktra Nikias, Skopas, Bryaxis 362 Epaminondas killed at Mantineia 334 Choragic monument of Lysikrates 359-336 Philip II of Macedon Late Greek art, Lysippos 338 Battle of Chaironeia Leochares, Bailie of Alexander 336-323 Alexander the Great 323-281 Wars of the Diadochi Apelles, Pella mosaics

Tholos

300

at

c.

Zeuxis, Meidias

Grave

4th C.

of

534 Thespis wins prize

510/508 Democracy established in Athens by Kleisthenes

Classical art

5th C.

Anaximandros

585 Thales predicts eclipse of the sun c. 570-C. 485 Anakreon c. 570 Birth of Theognis 565 Founding of the Panathenaic festival

in

Delphi

c. c.

430-C. 354 Xenophon 429-347 Plato

384-322 Aristotle 384-322 Demosthenes c. 370-C. 287 Theophrastos c.

342-c. 292

Menander

341-270 Epikouros 335-263 Zeno

c.

301 Battle of Ipsos

300

Followers of Lysippos and Leochares Boelhos Doidalsas Spinario

Kingdom

of

Statues of Gauls

Barherini Faun

in

edits

I

of

Homer's

Iliad

and

Odyssey in Alexandria 280-207 Chrysippos 275-194 Eratosthenes

Pergamon

Attalos of Pergamon (241-197) defeats the Gauls 223-187 Antiochos 111 (the Great) I

221-203 Ptolemy IV 220 Beginning of the decline

200-197 Second Macedonian War 197-159 Eumenes II of Pergamon 171-168 Third Macedonian War

The Finding of Telephos Great Altar of Pergamon

168

Myrina

146 Mummius destroys Corinth 138-133 Attalos III of Pergamon 133 Pergamon bequeathed

Aphrodile of Melos

305-c. 240 Kallimachos 280 Zenodotos of Ephesos

Pergamon

Nike of Samothrace

terra cottas

Athens

280-220 Period of the Epigonoi 279 Gauls in Delphi 276 Antiochos I defeats Gallic invaders 263-241 Eumenes

3rdC.

2nd C.

295-285 Demetrios Poliorketes 283 Philetairos founds

Roman

victory at II of

159-138 Attalos

to the

Pydna Pergamon

Homereion

in

Alexandria

185-109 Panaitios 168 Polybius deported to Rome 156 Karneades leads Athenian delegation of philosophers to Rome

c.

Romans

255

256

Mykonos )elos

L^ V^

The Kalymnos4)

Greek World

257

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teatrali greci e roinani, Florence,

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OVERBECK, ARIAS,

P. E.,

and HIRMER,

M.,

A

History of rooo Years of Greek

Vase Painting. New York, 1963 BECATTI, G., Scultura greca, Milan, 1961,

BOARDMAN, J.,

et al.,

New

York,

pieces of Greek Drawing and Painting,

Greek Painted Pottery, 2nd ed., London, 1966 Die klassisclie Kunst Griechenlands, Potsdam, 938 DEVAMBEZ, P., Greek Painting, New York, 1963

1935-63 RICHTER, G. M.

DINSMOOR, w. B., Tlie Arcliitecture of Ancient Greece. 3rd ed., London, 1950 HAFNER, 0., Geschichte der griecliisclien Kunst, Ztirich, 1961 KAHLER, H., Dos griechische Metopenbild, Munich, 1949 KAHLER, H., Der griechische Tempel: Wesen und Gestall, Berlin,

RICHTER, G. M.

R. M.,

CURTIUS,

L.,

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KRAAY, c. M., and HERMER, M., Greek Coins, New York, 1966 KRAIKER, w.. Die Malerei der Griechen, Stuttgart, 1958 LAWRENCE, A. w., Greek Architecture, 2nd ed., Baltimore, 1967 LIPPOLD, G., Die griechische Plastik, 5th ed., Munich, 1950 LÜBKE, w., and pernice, e.. Die Kunst tier Griechen, 17th ed. completely revised by B. Same, Vienna, 1948 LULLIES, r., and hirmer, m., Greek Sculpture, New York, i960

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York, 1955)

PICARD, c, Manuel d'archeologie grecqiie. Vols. I-IV, Paris,

1967

COOK,

Die antiken Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der

PEUHl,E., S4alerei und Zeichnung der Griechen, Munich, 1923, 3vols. (Shorter version, translated by J. D. Beazley, Master-

2 vols.

Greek Art and Archilecture.

J.,

bildenden Künste bei den Griechen, Leipzig, 1868

A.,

A Handbook of Greek

Art, 5th ed..

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York, 1967 A.,

The Portraits of the Greeks, London, 1965,

3 vols.

The Sculpture ami Sculptors of the Greeks. Haven, 1950 RICHTER, G. M. A., Three Critical Periods in Greek Sculpture. New York, 1951 ROBERTSON, D. s., A Handbook of Greek ami Roman Architecture, new ed.. New York, 1969 ROBERTSON, M., Greek Painting. Cleveland, 1959 scHUCHHARDT, w. H., Die Epoclien der griechischen Plastik, Baden-Baden, 1959 SCHUCHHARDT, w. H., Die Kunst der Griechen. Berlin, 1940 WEBSTER, T. B. L., Greek Terracottas. Edinburgh. 1950 RICHTER, G. M. 3rd ed..

A.,

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CRETAN-MYCENAEAN ART BOSSERT, H. T., The Art of Ancient Crete. London, 1937 CHADWICK,!., The Decipliernient of Linear B, New York, 1958 Corpus der minoischen unci mykenischen Siegel, Vol. I, Berlin, 1964, and Vol. VIII, Mainz, 1966. In progress DEMARGNE, P., The Birth of Greek Art. Pt. I, New York, 1964 EVANS, A. J., The Palace of Minos at Knossos. London, 1921-36, 5 vols.

HUTCHINSON, R. w.. Prehistoric Crete. Magnolia, Mass., 1965 KARO, o.. Die Schachtgräber von Mykenai. Munich. 1930-33,

sche Welt, Stuttgart, 1956 MYLONAS, G. E., Ancient Mycenae: The Capital City of Aga-

memnon, Princeton, 1966 MYLONAS, G. E., Mycenae and

the

Mycenaean Age. Princeton,

1966

PENDLEBURY,

J.

D.

s..

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The Archaeology of Crete.

York,

1965

SCHACHERMEYR,

F.,

Die ältesten Kulturen Griechenlands. Stutt-

gart, 1955 ZERVOS, C, L'Art de

Youths,

2nd

SCHR.4DER, H.,

ed.,

Greenwich, Conn., i960 Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der

et al..

ART OF THE FIFTH CENTURY ARIAS,

P. E.,

Mirone, Florence, 1940

ARIAS,

P. E.,

Pheidias. Catania, 1944

B.C.

p. E., Policleto, Florence, 1964 BECATTI, G., Prohlemi fidiaci. Milan and Florence, 1951 BIANCHI BANDINELLI, R., PoUcleto. Florence, 1938

ARIAS,

BROMMER, BROMMER,

F.,

F.,

Die Metopen des Parthenon. Mainz, 1967 Die Skulpturen der Parthenon-Giebel. Mainz,

1963 la

Crete neolithique et minoenne, Paris,

1956

EARLY GREEK ART DEMARGNE, P., The Birth of Greek Art, Pt. II, New York, 1964 DESBOROUGH, V. R. d'a., Protogeometric Pottery. New York, 1952 Geschichte der griechischen Kunst. Vol.

F.,

wich, Conn., 1961 RICHTER, G. M. A., Archaic Greek Art against Its Historical Background. New York, 1949 RICHTER, G. M. A., and RICHTER, I. A., Kouroi: Archaic Greek

Akropolis, Frankfurt, 1939

2 vols.

MARINATOS, s., and HIRMER, M., Crete and Mycenae. New York, i960 MATZ, F., The Art of Crete and Early Greece. New York, 1965 MATZ, F., Kreta. Mykene, Troja: Die minoische und die homeri-

MATZ,

LANGLOTZ, E., and SCHUCHHARDT, w. H., Archaische Plastik auf der Akropolis. Frankfurt, 1940 PAYNE, H., and YOUNG, G. M., Archaic Marble Sculpture from the Acropolis. 2nd ed., Chester Springs, Pa., 1950 RICHTER, G. M. A., The Arcluiic Gravestones of Attica. Green-

1950 OHLY, D., Griechische Goldbleche des

8.

Frankfurt,

I,

Jahrhunderts v.Chr.,

BRUNNSAKER, s., The Tyrant-Slciyers of Kritios and Nesiotes, Lund, 1955 BUNDGAARD, J. A., Mnesikles: A Greek Architect at Work, Copenhagen, 1957 CARPENTER, R., The Sculpture of the Nike Temple Parapet, Cambridge, Mass., 1929 DIEPOLDER, H., Die attischen Grabreliefs des 5. imd 4. Jahrhunderts v.Chr., Berlin, 193

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The Attic Grave-Reliefs of the Classical Period, Copenhagen, 195 PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, A. w.. The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, New York, 1946 RODENWALDT, G., and HEGE, w.. The Acropolis. Norman, Okla.,

JOHANSEN,

K. F.,

1958

Berlin, 1953

RODENWALDT, SCHEFOLD,

K.,

G., and HEGE, w., Olympia. London, 1936 The Art of Classical Greece, New York, 1966

ARCHAIC ART

ART OF THE FOURTH CENTURY BEAZLEY,

J.

1956 BEAZLEY,

J.

D., Attic

Black-Figure Vase-Painters.

New

ARIAS, D., Attic

Red-Figure Vase-Painters. 2nd

ed..

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York, 1963, 3 vols. J. D., The Development of Attic Black-Figure, Berke-

BEAZLEY, ley,

1

E.,

Altsamische

Standbilder,

Vols.

I-V,

Berlin,

1934-61

HOMANN-WEDEKING,

Skopas, RoiTie, 1952

T., Attische Plastik vom Tode des Phidias bis zum Wirken der grossen Meister des 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. Krefeld,

DOHRN,

,

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Die Anfänge der griechischen Gross-

E.,

The Art of Arcliaic Greece.

1968 K., Altattische

1957

GERKAN,

plastik, Berlin, 1950

HOMANN-WEDEKJNG, KÜBLER,

p. E.,

BLINKENBERG, c, Knidia: Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Praxitelischen Aphrodite. Copenhagen, 1933 CROME, J. F., Die Skulpturen des Asklepiostempels von Epidauros, Berlin, 1951

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BUSCHOR,

B.C.

York,

Malerei, Tübingen, 1949

New

York,

A.

VON, and MÜLLER-WIENER, w.. Das Theater von

Epidauros, Stuttgart, 1961

Mzzo. c. E., Prassitele. Milan, 1932 ZÜCHNER, w., Griechische Klappspiegel,

Berlin, 1942

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ART OF THE TIME OF ALEXANDER

h., Der grosse Fries von Pergamon, Berlin, 1948 Lawrence, a. w.. Later Greek Sculpliire and Its Influence on East and West. New York, 1927 LULLIES, R., Die kauernde Aplirodite, Munich, 1954

kahler,

AND THE DIADOCHI BIEBER, M., The Sculpture

of the Hellenistic Age, 2nd

ed..

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CHARBONNEAUX, J., La Venus de Milos. Bremen, 1958 DOHRN, T., Die Tyche von Antiochia, Berlin, i960

260

New

schmidt,

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SCHOBER, webster,

A.,

New

t.

The Great Altar of Pergamon. Leipzig, 1962 Die Kunst von Pergamon, Vienna, 1951 b. l.. The Art of Greece: The Age of Hellenism,

York, 1966

Index Abdalonymos. 212 Aegina, I20f

Temple

of Aphaia, I20f

Aeginetan

art. I20f

Corbeled vaulting, 51 Corinthian order, 96 Curvature of stylobate,

1

96, I50f, 164

Cyclopean construction,

Aelian, 221

Aischylos, 169 Alexander the Great.

179. 200. 209tT, 219, 231

Amazonomachy.

iff.

I34f, I40f,

150. I53f, 165, 180

Amazons,

see under Mythological figures Animal figures. 46. See also Hunting; Zoomorphic

Calf. 43

Deer, 63. 69. 72

Hind and Fa »«, 69 Dolphin. 58, 103 Horse. 7of. 118, 136, 149 Lion. 34. 37. 46. 65f. 73. 78. 81. 83. 252 Nautilus. 35

Antipholos. 227 Aphaia, temple of, see under

Aegina Apollo, temple of, see under Bassae: Corinth Apoxyomenos, 10. 216 Archaic art. 8f, 12, 95ff, 208

"Archaic smile." 97 Architects

Treasury of the

Sima, 180 Stylobate, 96, I50f Temple, see under specific

235 Bronze, 35, 66, 77, 179

183, 195

deity or site

Figures. 27. 68ff, 77. 79,

Aristogeiton, 126

88. 124. 129, 143. 145,

Aristotle, 224

177. 181. 192.

126, 144, 146, I58ff,

182, 214. 216. 218.

234f

Asia Minor. 9. 199. 229.234 Asteiounios of Larissa. 208 Athena Alea. temple of, see under Tegea Athena and Hephaistos, temple of, 5ft' under

Athens Athenians, Treasury of the, see under Delphi Athens. See also Dipylon cemetery Acropolis, 9, I27f Objects from. 76. 88. 98. 109. 114. 118

Agora, 157, 178 Erechtheion.

9. 128,

166

Odejon, 128 Parthenon. 9, 128, 150, 166 Sculpture, I48f, I5if 9,

Kallikrates. 170

Temple

Athena and

of

of

Theater of Dionysos. 128, 169

Atreus. 38 of. 5of iff.

95.

98. 103. i05fT.

Tholos tombs;

118. I23f. i27fT. I3if.

Treasuries

I38ff. 147. 168. 171, 174,

in, 120,

Column,

See also

artists

and

1

14.

1

specific

buildings

Ausonius, 250

Ashlar. 37

Color

177.

166

25, 96, 117, 120,

150, 156, 164, t66, 170, 180, 201, 207

Barberini Faun. 242 Bassae, temple of Apollo, i64f

Carian

93, 131,

134, 152, 165, 180, 248

Centaurs, see under Mythological figures Ceramics, see Pottery; Vases Chaironeia, 179 Chalkidian vases, too. 112 Chalkis. 101 Chigi ^'ase, 84 Citadels,

7, 37, 39. 58, 61 9ff, 127, 165, 177,

159IT. 162. 207 Copies of Greek originals. f See also under Bronze Corfu, lion. 81

16.

1

nians,

1

17

Siphnians,

1

13

Demetrios Poliorketes, 222 Diadem, 45 Diadochi. 10, 210 Diadoumenos, 162 Dipylon cemetery. 7. 61 Funerary monuments, 177, 179, 202, 221 Ivory figurines, 67 Vases. 61. 63. 65. 93 Discus Thrower. I28f, 146 Dish, 17 Disks, ornamental, 47 Doric migrations, 7. 61 Doryphoros. 162 Dreros. 77 Droysen. J. G.. 210 Duel over a Corpse, 86

199

art.

Centauromachy,

1

Palaces; Tholos;

Acroterium. 172. 183 Adyton. 150. 164

Caldron stand. 78 Calydonian boar. 195 Cameo. 245

Coins, 136, 155, 213 Competitions, 9, 131, 143.

Athena Nike,

Attic art. 9. 76. 88f. 9

Animal

figures

185

128. I70f

Treasury

Vases. 79. 172. 192, 208 Bull, see under

Classic art,

128, 156

Hephaistos ("Theseion"), 157

Temple

219.239

Mirror, 198 Statues copied in marble,

Propylaia,

Citadels; Metopes;

Processional way, 81 Delphi, 91, 136 Round temple, 180

His Foot, see Spinario Boy Wrestling with a Goose,

[48fT,

Iktinos. 164

Libon, 131 Menekrates, 250 Mnesikles, 156 Pytheos, 200 Satyros. 200 Theodoros of Phokaia. 180 Architecture. See also

War

III. 21

Treasury of the Athe-

Pediment, 120, 134,

Artemisia. 199

57. 70. 98, 232

Delos. objects from. 40. 81. 104, 116

2Ilff'

Duck, 43, 56 Bull. 25, 30. 32, 4of. 49.

Darius

Centauromachy; Gigantomachy;

Boscoreale, 224. 236. 246 Boy Pulling a Thorn from

Drinking Doves. 237

motifs

Amazonomachy;

51

Ionic order, 96

Arsinoe II. 245 Arsinoe III. 230 Artemis, temple of, see under Ephesos

Bird. 67. 69f, 237

Dagger. 35 Daidalic style. 79

See also

of Alexander the Great,

Doric order. 96

Dromos.

11, 34. 65. 83.

6flr,

10.

Troy, Trojan

37, 39 lof.

6.

Representations of, 21 219 "Altar of Compassion," Athens. 178

Cow and

Battles,

.

Corinth. 179 Coin from. 136 Temple of Apollo. 96

Corinthian art. 83f. 93f. 97. 74. See also Architecture: Corinth; Proto-Corinthian art Cretan art. see MInoan art Crete, objects from. 56. 77 Crown. 22 1

Cult vessel 3 Cycladic art.

Eleusis, 122. [46

Cameo;

Engraving, see

Gems;

Seals

Enkomi. 57 Ephesos. temple of Artemis

Column drum.

201

Statues. I59ff

Epidauros, temple of Asklepios Sculpture. 183

Epigones. 210 Eridanos. 61. 67 Etruria,

Eumenes

1

1,

101

II,

1

1,

128, 232.

238, 250

Euripides, 9, 169, 177

Faience, 21

Farnese Herakles, see under Mythological figures. Herakles Resting Fibulae, 66, 72 Fresco, 22, 24flr. See also

Wall painting Funerary monuments,

13. I5f. 59.

104.

1

16

185,

202 Aristonautes, 22

.

74fr. 81.

Eastern influence. 67. 81. 85 Egypt. 9. 21 Electrum, 44

if

Demetria and Pamphile, 202

261

Athena.

Dexileos, 179 Hegeso and a Servant 177,

Boys and youths.

202 Heroized Dead, 98 Kouroi. 89. 97 Kroisos, 0, 202 Lion guardian. 81

219, 224, 235.239 Gauls. 234

Mourners. 106

Halikarnassos Mausolos, 199 Melos, 75 Menekrates, 250

Mother and

Palace figures. 224. 246 Warriors, 18, 26, 40, 66,

Mesopotamia. 9 Metalwork. 41. 192. 208,

,

1

Child, 107

Reliefs, 98. 107, 137, 202.

206. 221, 224. 226

no. 202

Steles. 42. 55. 107. 177. 179

Young man, 224 Young woman. 137. 226 Gauls, 234

Gems. 6. 43. 213. See also Cameo; Seals Genre subiects, 110. 216. 235. 237. 239. 242. 244

Geometric art, 7f, 61 IT. See also Protogeometric

85. 105,

143.

177.

118, 136

Women

1

1

3.

1

34.

150, 153, 248, 250f

17. 31. 52,

241

and children,

36,

107

Hunting, 7, Hare, 83f

Goethe, J. W, von. 149. 219. 238 Gold, 9, 32, 34f, 41, 44tT, 72, 151. 153, 213. 219

Gold and

ivory statues,

9,

151, 153, 219

and steles, see under Funerary reliefs

monuments

Mausoleum, see

if,

Mosaic, 211, 231, 233, 237

Idols, 15, 18, 59

Mosaicists

Iliad, 87,

Gnosis, 233 Sosos, 237

231

Incense burner, 56

Mothakes, 79 Music and musicains,

Ionic art, 113, 137 Ivory, 9, 36, 40, 67, 85, 151, 153.

Mycenae, 4

219

iff'.

7. 17, 34, 36ff. 50ff',

Kamares ware,

41

Grave

see under

Pottery

Rameiros, 82, 86, 102 Kerch vases, 192 Knidos. 188, 203 Knossos. 19. 2 if, 25f, 28f, 41 Kore, 91, 100, 109, 14, 16, 1

1

166 1

10,

Lion Gate, 37 Shaft graves, 38, 4if. 45fr

Mycenaean

Herodes Atticus. 128 Herodotos. 91 Hipparchos. 126

Homer.

6f, 37, 87,

art

23of

10

I

Chiron, 69 Daidalos, 8f, 79 Demeter, 122, 146, 202f Dionysos, 103, 112, 122. 148, 187, 208 Dirke, 232f Engonasin, 248 Eros, 10, 174, 191, 241 Erotes, 124

Eumolpos, 122 Euphorbos, 86 Faun, 242

culture,

Lerna, 14 Linear A script. 28 Linear B script. 28 Lion, sec under Animal

Hunting

Livadia. 79 Lysikrates. choragic

Goddesses. 67. 77. 79. 91, 94. 113

Gods.

Myrina, 244 Mythological figures

77, 113. 134. 150.

153, 248, 250f

Hades. 201 Harpies.

2o8f, 231 6,

1341, i4of, 150.

180 Amphitrite. 122 Andromeda. 204f Antiope. 232 Aphrodite. 10. 91.

1

12

Hekate. 146 Hektor, 86, 101 Helen, 101

38

Helios, 149, 153 Hera, 229, 231

Herakles, 34. 66, 69, 73. 93. 113. 117. 131fr, 139, 157. 165, 192, 201, 2i4f, 238, 250, 1

252

13,

and Apollo, 66, 113 and Nessos, 69, 73. 93 and Telephos, 238. 250,

124, 137, 174, 185,

247 Aphrodite of Knidos,

252

10.

185, 188

Aphrodite of Melos, 228 Apollo, 10, 66, JSfT, 87,

Herakles, Atlas, and Athena, 131

Herakles Cleaning the

Augean

96f, 113, 124, 155,

186, 2l8f, 250f

Apollo Belvedere, 2l8f Apollo Sauroktonos, 186 Apollo of Tenea, 97 Ares, 113 Argos, 205 Artemis, 75, 77, 13. 123.

1

Hermes.

Macedonia.

musicans

Mythological figures Mantiklos. 87

Artemis Brauronia, 189

lo, 205, 231

Marathon, 127

Atalante, 195

lo

216. 222

10. 179. 208.

Maenads, see under

1

155, 189

Stables, 132

Herakles Epitrapezios, 215 Herakles in the Garden of the Hesperides, 92 Herakles Resting, 2I4f

Funerary monuments; Genre subiects; Kore; Kouros; Music and

210. 219. 246

198, 219

Giants, 113, 134, 150, 153. 248, 250f

188, 191, 228. 241,

18

Leonidas of Tarentum. 236

See also

Athletes, 10, I28f. 146.

262

1

monument. 207

figures figures.

Leagros,

and

I53f. I5'). >6i. 165.

Landscape. 236 Lapiths. see under Mythological figures

figures;

Horse, see under Animal

Human

Labyrinth. 6. 20. Ladas, 9. 12. 146

Charites, 94

7.17fr

Amazons,

Harmodios. 126

229 Centaurs. 68f, 73, 93. 131. 134. 152. 165, 180, 248

Geryon, 118

Agamemnon,

monuments

1

Briseis. 2o8f.

Ganymede.

Achilles. 69, 134, 140, 195, 89, 92, 97, 108,

Biton, 91 Boreas. 12

Circle B, 38, 44

44f,

Kroisos, see under Funerary

Hephaistos, temple of Athena and, see under Athens Heraion, see Samos Heraklids, Return of the. 7 Herculaneum. 12. 227. 238

34, 38,

Auge, 250 Augias, 133 Aura, 183

48

f,

Agon. 143 Alkestis, 201

Helots. 79

55, 59

Grave Circle A,

Krilios Boy, ill

Hellenism, 210

65, 76,

85, 131. 143

Hadrian's Villa, see Tivoli Halikarnassos. Mausoleum.

I3f

198

Idolino, 177

124 Krateros, 219

6f.

59f

of, 51

16, 124, 191,

Griffin, 43

Helladic culture.

I20,

art, 6f. 17fr, 33,

Minyas, Treasury Mirror,

Kouros,

I99f

Atlas, 131

Gold; Silver Metopes, 63, 69, 76, 94,

Minoan

233

151, I53f, 158.

184,248 Athena Lemnia, 158 Athena Parthenos, 9, 153, 158, 248

Mideia, 49

Lion, 34. 84, 21 Slag, 233

9. 13 if. I40f. I44f.

I48fl',

44

164. 180

233

34f,

Kaikos, 195, 234

figures

38,

Uifl', 139, 150, 152, 157,

Issos, 21 if

Goblet, 22 Gods, goddesses, heroes, etc., see Mythological

Martial, 215

Masks,

231. See also Bronze;

88, 120, 162

Women.

Inlay. 35. 85. 172. 192

art

Gigantomachy.

Grave

127.

Herdsman. 98 Men and horses.

1

Statues. 89. 97.

124.

146, 185, 187,

201, 205, 221

Heroes, 68, 192, 195 Hesperides, 192

and Argos, 205

Isis

Receiving lo in Egypt, 231

Kaiais,

1

12

Triptolemos, 122 Venus de Milo, see Aphrodite of Melos,

above

Kalypso, 205f Kleobis and Biton. 91

Zetes,

Köre. 202

Zeus. 79,

Lapiths. 131. 134 Leda and the Sn-an, 182,

184 Leto, 76f. 251

Maenads,

ii2f. 172, 197

1

1

statue by Pheidias, 131,

Zeus and Hera, 229 Mythological subjects, 134, 205f

by Archermos, 104 by Paionios. 172, 222 Winged Victory of Samolhrace. 222 Nike Unlacing Her Sandal, I70f

Niobe, 155

Nymphs,

15, 137, 187, 206,

241

Odysseus and Kalypso. 206 Odysseus Slaying the Suitors. I38f

Oinomaos,

Nature

8, 86,

1

10,

1

18,

in art, 6, 23f, 29, 59,

69, 236, 239, 242.

Naxos, 16

36

Pelias, 178

See also Wall painting

Protogeometric

art, 61, 63 Psychological studies. 178,

205f. 209. 227 Ptolemy II. 245 Ptolemy IV Philopator. 230

Panels, painted clay, 106 11, 51, 79, 86,

Niello, 35, 49

196 Peisistratos, Pella. 10.

169, 187, 189.

126

I3f.

1

233

Pergamon.

232. 234.

lof.

237f. 248fr

Relief, see under Bronze,

vases; Funerary

monu-

ments; Pottery; Sculpture Repousse work. 32f, 46 Rhyton. 41 Ring, 241

Great Altar, u. 248fr

Rome,

I

if,

154, 210,

239,250

Perikles. 9. 128. 156. 161

Odyssey. 231

Persia. Persians. 8. 109.

Olympia, 66, 68, 219

88, 13lfT,

Phaistos. 17 Palace. 20 Phigalia, see Bassae

Zeus, 131, 155

Philip

Olympus, 198, 222 Orchomenos, 51 Ornamentation. 13.

Abstract,

Sarcophagus, 212 Satyrs, see under Mythological figures Schliemann, H., 38

179

II,

Philometor, 232 Pinax, 76 42. 47,

6f, 46, 54. 60.

Sculptors

Plataia Battle, 127

Temple

Athena Areia,

of

138

63

Animal, 47 Band, 47 Checker, 7

Plate,

Salamis, 127

Samos, Heraion, 78, 85 Samothrace, 196, 222

I27f, 21

Flying Nike, 172, 222 Temple of Zeus, 131fr

Zoomorphic motifs

1

43

Prince with the Feather Crown, 22 Proto-Corinthian art. 82fr

93f, 103, 106, 132, 134fr,

144, 158,

Paris, 84, 174

Pegasus.

168

9, 11, I35f,

Theon, 221 Timanthes, 174 Timomachos, 227

Pausanias,

Nike, see uiuler Mythological figures Nudity. 87. 89, 188 Nymphs, see under Mythological figures

Rhodian. 86, 100, 102 White-ground, 123, 166, Priest.

Negroes, 26

Pandora, 153

Peirithoos, 69, 134 Peleus, 1 18

Polygnotos,

i39f, 146, 174, 202.

See also Animal figures; Zoomorphic motifs

19, 95,

100, 102

Zeuxis, 9, 11, 174 Panel painting, 9f, 69, 76,

49, 56, 61, 63, 86, 192. See also Geometric art;

131

Reserved motifs,

135

9,

I38f

use of,

Nike, 181

Relief line, 122

Kimon,

155

Marsyas, I44f of Pelias. 17S Medea Meditating the Murder of Her Children. Ill Meleager. 195 Menelaos, 86 Minos, 6 Minotaur, 6, 25, 110, 195 Mistress of the Beasts. 43 Nessos, 69, 73. 93

Apelles, 10, 211, 213

Nikias, 10, 12, 185, 204fr Parrhasios, 9, u, 169. 174

13, 122, 131,

148, 155, 229, 251

18

1

Relief, 74

Lydos, 106

12

Medea and

the Daughters

Red-ground,

Palaikastro, 56 Panel painters

86

Alexandres of Antioch. 228 Antenor, 126 Archelaos of Priene, 230

Archermos of Chios, 104

Plato. 10. 198

Boethos, 235

Pliny,

Bryaxis, I99f

I

if,

144, 158, 160, 169,

Pelops, 131 Penelope, I38f

Circle, 19, 45,

Curvilinear, 16

210, 216, 235, 237 Plutarch. 150

Penthesilea, I40f

Double

Polos, 67. 91

Doidalsas of Bithynia, 247 Epigonos, 234 Glykon, 214 Kallimachos, 174

Persephone, 91, 122, I46f Perseus and .Andromeda. 204f Phineus, 1 12 Porphyrion, 251 Poseidon, 122. 150

Flower, 46

Pompeii,

Kresilas, 9, 159, 161

statue

from Cape

186, 188, 196, 200, 204f,

47

ax, 25

Lily, 22, 24,

45

Portraits. 44. 245

Leochares, 10, 200, 2i8f.

Horns, 25 Meander,

Potters

233 Lysippos,

7,

67, 69, 102

Palmette, 46 Papyrus, 29

1

Satyrs, Ii2f, 144, i84f,

Spiral, 16, 19, 42, 46fr

Swastika, 72 Triangle, 7, [3 Zigzag. 7

Telemachos, 138 Telephos, 195, 238, 250, 252 Thanatos, 201 Theseus, 110, 117, 134, 157, 162, I94f

Thetis, 118

llieron. 122f

Kachrylion. 18. 136 Pottery. See also Vases

Rosette. 19. 25, 94 Shield, 40

Selene, 137, 149, 153 Silenus, 1 12

Kritios, 126

Guilloche, 102

Artemision, 143 Pothos. 10, 196 207, 24 if

12, 162. 195. 204ff,

2o8f. 211. 229, 23 if

Attic, 95,

1

10,

12, 192

1

Boeotian, 87 Chalkidian, loof, 12 Corinthian, 83f, loi Cycladic. 75 Eggshellware, 19 1

Vase painters Vase painting; Wall painting Palaces.

7, 20, 37,

Incised drawing,

8,

102,

122

Painting, see Panel painting;

61

style,

9. 12. 128. 144fr.

185 Nesiotes. 126

Paionios. 172, 222 Pheidias, 9, 131. 151. 153fr. I58f. 169, 179,

184, 219,

248

159 Polykleitos, 9, I59f, 162, 9,

177. 185

Kamares ware, Palace

Myron.

Phradmon,

Fikellura, 102 Painters, see Panel painters;

10, 185, 2i4ff.

219, 221, 233

19

29

Proto-Atlic, 73

Proto-Corinthian, 83f

Polymedes of Argos. 91 Praxiteles. 10. 184fr. 202.

204. 219, 241

Pythagoras, 128

263

Skopas, 202

Stabiae, 12

Tyrannicides, The,

Tyrants.

Sosikles, 161

Stand, caldron, 78 Statins, 215

Telesstas, 79

Steatite, 23. 41

Vaphio

10, 195fr, 200,

Theodotos, 183 Timotheos. i82ff. 200 Sculpture. Sec also Bronze, figures; Funerary monuments; Kore; Kouros; Metopes; Sarcophagus Freestanding figures. 6ff,

Steles, grave, see

Funerary monuments Stone vessels, 22f

Friezes, 113. 151. 250

Painting of, 109, 114, 120.

Tholos. 180 Tholos tombs, 32, 38, 43, 49ff.

Mycenae

Thorn Puller,

Peithinos.

7, 39,

1

of Minyas, 51 of the Siphnians.

1

1

17

13

Tripods. 66, 207 Troian Horse, The, 74 Troy, Trojan War. 34, 37, 74, 13, 120, 150,229,231

Athens,

229. 231.

236flr,

246

Nike

131

Wood,

77 Wrestler, 222

1

12

19, 82, 112, 118, 136.

Xerxes, 126

Zoomorphic motifs. See Animal figures

E.Böhm, Mainz, G.Hafner, Mainz, p.

p. 59.

also

Boar's head. 103 Butterfly, 47 Octopus. 47. 52, 58 Purple-dye mollusk, 54 Swan's head, 103

Bronze, 172, 208

p. 64, 88, 104, 131, 133, 225.

if.

Mythological figures,

29. 61, 63. 73f.

10.

credits: C. Albiker, Ettlingen, p. 40. Alinari, Florence, p. 234. Institut,

i

Winckelmann. J. J., 219 Winged Victory of Samo-

Krater, 57.60, 64f, 75, 100, I34f. 147

1

6f. 9.

I94f. 204ft". -o8f. 227.

Sec also Kylix, below Gold, 32f. 48f Goblet (steatite), 23 Hydria, 174. 192 Bronze. 79 Kantharos, 14, 65

17

of Atreus, jof

1

244

thrace, see under

Aryballos. 83 Bowl, 231 Chalkidian, 100.

Cup,

of the Athenians.

Archäologisches

Wall painting.

See also Pottery

93.

Art of. 79. 98 Spata, 106

Sphyrelalon figures, 77

69.

135, 146, 174. 192.

Amphora,

Sparta, 98, 179

Spinario, 239

6fr, 11, 13,

Vases. See also under

monuments

Spear Bearer, see Doryphoros Sphinx, 81

12,

58

Tombstones, see Funerary Treasuries.

76, 98, 230,

10

Pottery

Snake Goddess, Sophokles, 169

123. 131

18

74. 84. 93. 95. 103, 106,

237. 247

21

1

Vase painting,

see Spinario

[79

1

Penelope Painter. 139 Taleides.

58

Tivoli. Hadrian's Villa, 159,

Photo

Meidias, 174

1

Siphnians, Treasury of the, see under Delphi 9,

Venus de Milo, see under Mythological figures. Aphrodite of Melos Vitruvius, 180, 200 Votive offerings, 27. 59. 71.

Dipylon cemetery

Shaft graves, see under

Tiryns,

"Sauceboat," 13 Skyphos, 82, 123, I38f

18

Stirrup jar, 52

Pan Painter,

249fT

172, 208, 215

1

Alea. 195 Temples, see under speeiße deify or site

Thermon, 94

Silver, 35, 41, 44, 49, 136,

Plastic. 83, 100, 105

Vase painters Euphronios,

Makron, 123

198, 200, 216, 230, Seals. 34, 43. 58

Lekythos, 83, 123, 166, 168 Oinochoe, 95 Olpe, 84 Pan-shaped, 16

49

Tanagra. 241 Tegea. temple of Athena

I54f, 165, 171, 178,

Relief, 37, 40, 98, 137, 141,

Kylix, 103, 118. 141

Exekias, 103 Lydos, 106

Terra cotta, 30, 56, 71, 76, 241, 244. See also Vases Thebes, 83, 87, 179

132, 172. 177.204.251

32f.

26

Seals, 43, 49

Stucco, 52, 58 Syracuse, 178

81. 127, 146

Sokrates,

Cups,

under

1

I26f

8f, 95.

Photo Bulloz,

Paris, p. 223.

Deutsches

14, 15, 32, 34, 38, 42, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 54,

56, 57, 58 (2x), 60, 61, 62, 65 upper, 66, 67 (2x), 70, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 89, 90, 91, 95, 96, 98, 106, 108,

1

10,

1

19, 121, 123,

126, 128, 129, 132, 136, (2x), 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 153, 155, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 168 right, 169, 170, 172, 173, J74, 175, '78, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 189, 190. 191, 196, 197, 198, 199, 202, 205, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,

221, 222, 226, 228, 230, 232, 235, 239, 240, 242, 243, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251. 97, 150, 152. Holle Verlag,

Baden-Baden,

Hirmer Verlag, Munich,

p. 13, 18, 19, 36, 39, 44, 48,

p. 16, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 37, 53, 55, 71, 78, 85, 103, 116, 122, 137, 187, 224,

von Irmer, Munich, p. 156, 157, 164, 166. N. Kontos, Athens, p. 35, 49, 63, Copenhagen, p. 65 lower. J. A.Lavaud, Paris, p. 21, 23, 41. Foto 245. C.H.Moessncr, Munich, p. 140. J.Remmer, Munich, p. 246. O.Savio, Rome,

236, 237, 244, 252. Internationales Bildarchiv Horst

105, 109, II 4, 115, 117, 120, 142, 167, 179, 181, 207. L. Larsen,

Marburg, Marburg, p. 171. E.Meyer, Vienna, p. Foto Scala, Florence, p. 93, 118 lower, 127,

p. 84.

141, 154, 168

left,

176, 210-11.

M. Seidel, Mittenwald,

193, 194, 195, 204, 212, 227, 229, 231. J.Skeel, Ashford, p. 82, 83, 86, 100, 102, 125, 148, 192, 200, 203. 1 18 upper. T. B. L.Webster, London, have helped to make possible the Produktion of this book.

hesselohe, nr. Munich, p.

264

p. 40.

The author and publisher would

p. 80, 92, 94, 107, 124,

Uni-Dia Verlag, Gross-

like to

thank

all

those

who

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