Armas Brancas PDF

September 5, 2022 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A

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Fiteime Aumz H. C. Ces tf Fiteime Kerheu-sg gh gingi`frmf jg prejuîãe g kmaesekmf, kgz pós-nrfjufîãe gh gceiehmf g kem fifamstf jg mivgstmhgites g fssgsser gceiúhmce-kmificgmre fitgs jg rggiceitrfr suf vecfîãe if gscrmtf, ie berifamshe g if kmcîãe gspgcuaftmvf. Faíh jg gscrgvgr seorg f rgfamjfjg if rgvmstf CfrtfCfpmtfa, í futer jg Zètuaes jg Ieorgzf g @mgrf @mgrfrqumfs2 rqumfs2 uuh h numf se seorg org fs nnrfj rfjufî ufî÷gs ÷gs secmf secmfms ms if `mstórmf `mstórmf,, je rehficg Crúimcfs jg Ftaïitmjf22 e tf Ftaïitmjf tfouagmre ouagmre jjes es jjgusgs gusgs g g jg jgzgifs jg ceites g ievgafs. © ?467 oy Fiteime Aumz H. C. Cestf Zejes es jmrgmtes rgsgrvfjes ä Gjmterf Jrfce Tuoams`g r2 Grmcl Tuoams`gr2 Grmcl Sfites Cfrjese Gjmîãe22 Fiteime Aumz H. C. Cestf Gjmîãe Treju Tr ejuîãe îãe gjmtermf gjmtermfa2 a2 Bfifmif Bfifmif C`grvgzfi Maustrfîãe Maustrfî ãe jg ccfpf fpf22 Grmclsfhf Jfjes Mitgrifcmeifms jg Cftfaenfîãe if Tuoamcfîãe (CMT) Fif Aòcmf Hgrgng :;;>/C_O> C 03> Cestf, Fiteime Aumz H. C. Frhfs Orficfs - Afiîfs, gspfjfs, hfîfs g kagc`fs2 Cehe autfr sgh póaverf jf prí-`mstórmf fe sícuae PPM / Fiteime H. C. Cestf. – Sãe Tfuae 2 Jrfce, ?467. MSOI =>0-07-0?:3-4=:-6 6. Frhfs orficfs ?. Gqumpfhgite oíamce M. Zètuae CJJ 377.0 Èijmcgs pfrf cftæ Èijmcgs cftæae aene ne smstghætmce2 6. Frhfs 377.0 6f gjmîãe, ?467 Gjmterf Jrfce _. Císfr Ogccfrmf, ?> - cfsf 6 Bj. jf Naórmf – Sãe Tfuae – ST CGT 467:>-4;4 gjmterfjrfceDnhfma.ceh www.gjmterfjrfce.ceh www.kfcgoeel.ceh/gjmterfjrfce twmttgr2 Dgjmterfjrfce

Suhærme Suhæ rme Cfpf Kea`f jg reste Críjmtes Mitrejuîãe Frhfs jg hãe hãe Hftgrmfms Cafvfs g hfîfs Sequgmrfs Hfrtgaes, hfaès g pmcfrgtfs Hfc`fjes Hfc`fj es g fc`fs Zrmjgitgss curtes Zrmjgitg curtes Kemcmi`fss Kemcmi`f Afiîfs curtfs curtfs Kfcfs, fjfnfs fjfnfs g pui`fms g pui`fms Tui`fms Tui`f ms g gstmagtgs gstmagtgs (kfcfs jg gstecfjf) Fjfnfs Fjf nfs (kfcfs jg jems nuhgs) Kfcfs Kfc fs jg cehoftg cehoftg (jg uh só nuhg) Kfc÷gs Kfc ÷gs Kfcfs Kfc fs jg jg ghpui`fjurf pgrpgijmcuafr Gspfjfs Gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg Gspfjfs curvfs c urvfs jg oreizg Gspfjfs Fakfibgs jg nuhg cúicfve Sforgs ecmjgitfms Sforgs c`migsgs Imèite (gspfjfs bfpeigsfs) Cmhmtfrrfs Gspfjfs fkrmcfifs jg uh só nuhg Gspfjfs jg jems jem s nuhgs nuhgs Naæjmes (gspfjfs (gs pfjfs curtfs) curtfs) Naæjmes jg oreizg Gspfjfs (gspfjf (gspfjfss aein a einfs fs jg uhf hãe) Gspfjfs ecmjgitfms

Gspfjfs ermgitfms Gspfjfs fkrmcfifs Gspfj÷gs (gspfjfs ( gspfjfs jg jems nu nuh hgs pfrf pfr f jufs hães) hães) Gspfjfs jg gstecfjf Gspfjfs jg aïh a ïhmifs mifs cehpagxfs cehpagxfs Frhfs frtmcuafjfs g kagxèvgms C`mcetgs Hfinu Hfi nufms fms g jgrmvfjes jgr mvfjes Cerjfs g cerrgitgs Hftrfcfs Frhfs jg `fstg Ofst÷gs, oerj÷gs g vfrfpfus Afiîfs Frc`fs g fafofrjfs Ofmeigtfs Frhfs Frh fs jg frrg frrgh hgsse Frh Frhfs fs jg gfrrg frrgh hgsse smhpags s mhpags Tgjrfs pgses Ofst÷gs jg frrghgsse Oeagfjgmrfs C`flrfs, fjfnfs g sùrmlgis Hfc`fjmi`fs Jfrjes, fzfnfmfs g pmaes Frhfs Frh fs jg frrghgsse fr rghgsse cehpagxfs cehpagxfs Afiîf-jfrjes Fhgite Kuijfs Rfrfoftfifs Frces, kagc`fs g oejequgs Frces smhpags Frces jgsh jgsheit eitævgms ævgms Frces rgkerîfjes Frces afhmi afhmifjes fjes Frces cehpósmtes jg peitfs kagxèvgms Frces cehpósmtes jg peitfs rènmjfs Frces jupaes Frces ceh cehpestes pestes Kagc`fs Oejequgs

Ogstfs [mretgs [gigies Omoamenrfkmf

Mitrejuîãe Gstg í uh hfiufa seorg e use amtgrærme jg frhfs orficfs. Sfogr pgae hgies e oæsmce seorg gafs í eormnftórme pfrf qugh prgtgijg gscrgvgr kfitfsmf hgjmgvfa g hfms fmijf pfrf qugh qugr gscrgvgr gscrgvg r kmcîãe kmcîã e `mstórmcf, tfite tfite smtufjf if if Mjfjg Híjmf gurepgmf qufite if Fitmnumjfjg, if Mjfjg Hejgrif eu gh eutrfs cmvmamzfî÷gs. Tfrf kfcmamtfr f rgkgrâicmf jg qugh aâ kmcîãe g _TNs gh minaâs, precurgm jfr e iehgg gqumvfagitg pfrf ffss prm ieh prmicmpfms icmpfms frh f rhfs fs g ceicgmtes. E qug sãe, pfrf cehgîfr, frhfs orficfs5 Ie sgitmje gstrmte, usfje if cafssmkmcfîãe husgeaónmcf (cerrgspeijgitg f w`mtg wgfpei wgfpei gh minaâs), sãe fpgifs fs frhfs ceh aïhmifs hgtæamcfs pfrf certfr ceh e nuhg eu pgrkurfr ceh f peitf (gspfjfs, fjfnfs, afiîfs, hfc`fjes, fafofrjfs gtc.). Ie sgitmje hfms ngrfa, qug usfrghes fqum, forfingh teje mistruhgite jg fnrgssãe pertætma, usfje per uhf só pgssef, qug iãe sgbf uhf frhf jg kene (g f trfjuîãe hfms gxftf gh minaâs sgrmf ceaj wgfpei) wgfpei) g qug tgi`fh smje usfjes hfms eu hgies smstghftmcfhgitg g cehoftg if cfîf.gtc.) Gstãe gqumpfhgites jgkgismves (gscujes, eu frhfjurfs g fsgxcauèjes, hæqumifspertfite, jg cgrce esg frtma`frmf, qug igcgssmtf værmfs pgssefs (g fimhfms) pfrf sgrgh trfispertfjfs g usfjfs. Zfhoíh iãe kerf ceismjgrfjes es mistruhgites jg gxgcuîãe g terturf. Je peite jg vmstf híjmce-agnfa, fs frhfs orficfs (micaumije kgrrfhgitfs g eutres eobgtes mhprevmsfjes gh frhfs) sãe krgqugitghgitg cafssmkmcfjfs g ceituijgitgs (oauit (oauit wgfpeis), wgfpeis), pgrkurfitgs (stfoomin (stfoomin wgfpeis) wgfpeis) g certfitgs (cuttmin wgfpeis wgfpeis). ). If prætmcf, humtfs frhfs sãe kgmtfs jg hfigmrf f prejuzmr jems eu trâs tmpes jg trfuhf, fatgriftmvfhgitg eu fe hgshe tghpe, g e eobgtmve kmifa, gspertg eu trgmifhgite ä pfrtg, í e hgshe2 hftfr eu micfpfcmtfr e fjvgrsærme (e pgae[mste hgies hgies m itmhmjæ-ae mhmjæ-ae f peite peit jg sg s g rgijgr). qugmit gstg numf iãe sgejgstmif f ceagcmeifjergs, igh f agnmstfs, gstg tgxte iãe gitrf gh jgtfa`gs ie qug sg rgkgrg ä fpfrâicmf jfs frhfs, igh fe tmpe jg kgrmhgites qug prejuz. E kece gstæ ie heje jg usfr, ie ceitgxte `mstórmce g cuaturfa gh qug kerfh usfjfs g ie sgu pfpga hmteaónmce, keacaórmce eu amtgrærme, qufije qufi je vgh fe cfse. F cafssmkmcfîãe cafssm kmcfîãe ngrfa jfs frh fr hfs fqum fjetfjf í f sgnu sgnumitg2 mitg2

m. Frhfs jg hãe ( (hgagg hgagg wgfpeis), wgfpeis), usfjfs cerpe-f-cerpe ceh f kerîf je orfîe, orf îe, äs vgzgs ceh jufs jufs hães< mm. Frhfs jg `fstg ( peagfrhs), peagfrhs), usfjfs gh cehoftg jg kerhfîãe, só gxcgpcmeifahgitg gh cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe, sghprg ceh fs jufs hães.

mmm. Frhfs jg frrghgsse (rfingj wgfpeis), wgfpeis), afiîfjfs ä jmstïicmf ceh fs hães (smhpags) (s mhpags) eu fanuh frrghgssfjer (cehpagxfs). (cehpagxfs).

Frhfs jg hãe Ie cfse jfs frhfs jg hãe híjmfs g aeinfs, í mhpertfitg tgr gh hgitg uhf cfrfctgrèstmcf qug iãe í óovmf fe gspgctfjer g rfrfhgitg hgicmeifjf ies _TNs, hfs í gssgicmfa f qugh jg kfte fs usf2 e gqumaèorme (ofaficg ofaficg), ), eu sgbf, f aecfamzfîãe je cgitre jg hfssf eu jg nrfvmjfjg gh rgafîãe fe pmvú eu peite jg retfîãe jf frhf (ierhfahgitg f ghpui`fjurf). Vufite hfms aeinf g pgsfjf í f frhf g hfms próxmhe je peite jg mhpfcte í e cgitre jg hfssf, hfmer í f gigrnmf je neapg. Ter msse, cafvfs, hfrtgaes g hfc`fjes sãe hfms nresses if peitf qug ie puiè eu tâh fane pgsfje kmxe if peitf. Hfs msse trfz uhf jgsvfitfngh2 e terqug, eu sgbf, e gskerîe pfrf kfzgr f frhf nmrfr ceh f vgaecmjfjg igcgssærmf, í prepercmeifahgitg hfmer. Hgshe qug sg sgbf kertg, e neapg í rgaftmvfhgitg agite g, sg kfa`fr, í hfmer e tghpe igcgssærme pfrf veatfr f prgpfrfr f frhf, tehfr mhpuase g jgskgrmr eutre. Whf vgz mhpuasm mhpu asmeifjf eifjf f frhf, í prftmcfhgi pr ftmcfhgitg tg mhpessèvga hujfr f jmrgîãe jm rgîãe je neapg eu usæaf pfrf uh neapg.ceh Kmitfshfms g hfieorfs mhprftmcævgms. Tfrffpfrfr uh nugrrgmre kerîf jesutms qugsãetícimcf, uhf frhf pgsfjf g jgsgqumamorfjf, ceituijgitg eu certfitg, pejmf sgr f hgaèr epîãe, prmicmpfahgitg sg gikrgitfvf uh fjvgrsærme pretgnmje per gscuje, cetf jg hfa`f, ceurfîf eu frhfjurf. Hfs jgitre je qug í rfzeævga hfigbfr ie cfhpe jg oftfa`f. Es hfc`fjes, hfîfs g hfrtgaes nmnfitgsces jfs maustrfî÷gs jg _TNs g nmoms (prmicmpfahgitg ifs hães jg fi÷gs g oærofres) sãe mhprftmcævgms. F trfjmîãe jg gxfngrfr e pgse jfs frhfs pfrf gikftmzfr f kerîf jg `gróms pejgreses í, períh, tãe vga`f qufite f amtgrfturf jg kfitfsmf. E Ípmce jg Nmanfhgs`, f hfms fitmnf eorf je nâigre, ftrmoum fe hfc`fje je `gróm e pgse jg trâs (=4 qumaes) g e ofstãe je hfcfce hænmce c`miâs Sui ûlein pgsfvf emte tfagites teigafjfs. Zrftfije-sg jg jgusgs g sghmjgusgs cehe Zèr eu @írfcags, tuje í pessèvga. Vufije sg trftf jg hgres hertfms, períh, peucfs frhfs orficfs kgmtfs pfrf cehoftg rgfa pgsfrfh hfms jg jems qumaes g qufsg igiùhf hfms jg quftre. Ce gxcgîãe jfs ofmeigtfs cfafjfs, jfs hfmergs ogstfs g jg cgrtfs frhfs jg `fstg humte aeinfs pfrf agitfs hfieorfs gh kerhfîãe, cehe fs sfrmssfs hfcgjúimcfs g es pmqugs jf Gurepf hejgrif, frhfs qug pgsfh hfms qug quftre qumaes kerf qufsg sghprg cgrmh cgrm heimfms, usfjfs gh jgskmags eu cehe cehe ekgrgijf fes jgusgs. Fanuis tmpes jg trgmifhgite hmamtfr g jg frtgs hfrcmfms prehevgh e use jg frhfs hfmergs g hfms pgsfjfs qug e ierhfa cehe kerhf jg prgpfrfîãe pfrf jgpems usfr fs frhfs rgfms ceh hfmer kfcmamjfjg, hfs tgitfr usfr tfms

heistruesmjfjgs if nugrrf preprmfhgitg jmtf sgrmf uhf kerhf pfrtmcuafrhgitg gstòpmjf jg sumcèjme. Wh hfc`fje pgsfje pejg sgrvmr pfrf jgrruofr ærvergs, fssmh cehe uh nrfijg hfaè pfrf qugorfr pgjrfs, hfs gssgs sãe faves mhóvgms g micfpfzgs jg rgfnmr, qug gspgrfh pfcmgitghgitg e neapg. Sg e cehoftgitg í ænma g sg e fave iãe tgh frhfjurf, f hgaèr epîãe pejg sgr uhf frhf agvg ogh f gqumamorfjf, e cgitreí humte jg hfssf jf ghpui`fjurf. Cehg msse, fnmamjfjg jesceh hevmhgites hfmer.próxmhe Ofstf uhf ræpmjf terîãe jg puiè g uhf krfîãe jg sgnuije pfrf prgpfrfr e neapg jg uhf gspfjf jg jugae g hevgr suf peitf jg uh gxtrghe f eutre je cerpe je fjvgrsærme. F gigrnmf je mhpfcte í pgqugif, hfs sg f frhf ker fkmfjf, iãe í prgcmse prgcm se humtf humtf kerîf pfrf jgskgrmr uh neapg hertfa. F hfmermf jfs frhfs hfiufms precureu uhf cehomifîãe jg mhpfcte ce fnmamjfjg fjgqufjf äs cfrfctgrèstmcfs je usuærme g äs ceijmî÷gs rgfms je cehoftg. Gspfjfs trfjmcmeifms jg certg cestuhfh tgr e cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg gitrg e cgitre g f ghpui`fjurf g e peite jg mhpfcte f uh tgrîe je cehprmhgite (f ceitfr jf peitf). Ifs gspfjfs ecmjgitfms, e pehe ( pehhga pehhga), ), uhf oeaf, jmsce, crgscgitg e pgqugif gscuaturf kmxfjf if peitf je puiè, prepercmeif e gqumaèorme jgsgbfje (faíh jg gvmtfr qug f gspfjf gscfpg jf hãe g pejgr sgr usfje pfrf neapgfr). Ifs ermgitfms, e hgshe gkgmte í eotmje ceh uh puiè hfms preaeinfje. Kfc÷gs, cutgaes g hfc`gtgs, frhfs jgsgqumamorfjfs qug ierhfahgitg sãe usfjes pfrf certfr hfte eu kftmfr cfrig, sãe tgrrèvgms ceitrf vètmhfs mijgkgsfs, hfs sãe pmergs je qug ifjf pfrf gikrgitfr uh gspfjfc`mh cehpgtgitg qug amjf ceh uhf frhf ogh gqumamorfjf. Ter eutre afje, ceivíh aghorfr qug, per `æoma qug sgbf e nugrrgmre, uhf frhf hfms pgsfjf ngrfahgitg agvf vfitfngh fe sg cècfr ceh uhf hfms agvg. W sfhurfm ceh uhf cftfif tgrmf oefs c`ficgs jg vgicgr uh nugrrgmre gurepg frhfje ceh uh heitfitg, hfs prgcmsf ftminm-ae prmhgmre. Sg fs jufs gspfjfs sg cècfrgh f bfpeigsf sg qugorfræ (fîe jg qufamjfjg supgrmer fbujf, hfs só ftí cgrte peite). Jf hgshf kerhf, uh oeh gsnrmhmstf gurepgu hejgrie tgrmf nrfijgs c`ficgs c`fi cgs jg jgrretfr jgr retfr uh sfhurfm, sfhurfm, fpgsfr fpgs fr jg tgr uhf uhf gspfjf gs pfjf hfms krænma.

Hftgrmfms Es hftgrmfms usfjes ifs frhfs hfms prmhmtmvfs sãe f hfjgmrf g f pgjrf, hfs iãe jg qufaqugr tmpe. Gh ngrfa, prgkgrgh-sg hfjgmrfs jurfs g kagxèvgms, qug vgrnugh amngmrfhgitg sgh qugorfr. If Gurepf, ngrfahgitg prgkgrmu-sg e tgmxe pfrf g frhfs jg `fstg, if Æsmf, e ofhou, ie Orfsma, e pfu-kgrre, mpâ, e tucuhfrces g f hfcfòof. Esses, c`mkrgs, nfa`fjfs jg vgfje (cgrvgmrfs), hfrkmh,e jgitgs g prgsfs, supgrmergs ä hfjgmrf, sãe tfhoíh usfjes gh værmfs frhfs prmhmtmvfs. Ofhou Ofh ou g ceic`fs kerfh ker fh tfhoíh tfhoíh usfjes gh mistruhgites mistruhgites certfitgs. ce rtfitgs. F pgjrf hfms cehuhgitg usfjf gh frhfs, jgsjg e pfageaètmce, í e sèagx e pgjgrigmrf, hfs fmijf hgaèr, qufije jmspeièvga, í e bfjg, rgsmstgitg g ogae. Frgimtes, krængms g krmævgms, sãe usfjes qufije iãe `æ eutrf epîãe. F eosmjmfif, vmjre vuacïimce, í tfhoíh krænma, hfs kerhf oerjfs gxtrghfhgitg certfitgs qug kerfh fprevgmtfjfs pgaes fstgcfs gh værmfs frhfs. E cùhoe, cei`gcmje jgsjg ;:44 f.C., í uh hgtfa hfcme jghfms pfrf f hfmermf jfs frhfs orficfs, hfs suf fatf jgismjfjg (66,3 nrfhfs per cgitèhgtre còomce) e terieu mjgfa pfrf f kformcfîãe jg pgaeures, pgaetfs jg cùhoe frrghgssfjfs per kuijfs, oejequgs g cgrtfs ogstfs if cfîf g äs vgzgs if nugrrf, g hfms tfrjg tfhoíh cehe huimîãe jg frhfs jg kene. Äs vgzgs kem tfhoíh usfje pfrf ceikgrmr pgse f jfrjes g hfîfs. E ceorg , äs vgzgs giceitrfje if ifturgzf if kerhf jg pgpmtfs rgaftmvfhgitg purfs (ceorg iftmve) eu amnfjfs ceh eutres hgtfms (cehe í e cfse jf tuhofnf, amnf ifturfa jg ceorg g eure usfjf pgaes micfs), kem e prmhgmre hgtfa f sgr usfje gh frhfs, jgsjg >>44 f.C. ie Sujgstg Fsmætmce, >444 f.C. if Gurepf g :444 f.C. if Fhírmcf je Sua. Sgije, períh, rgaftmvfhgitg hfcme, kem peuce òtma gh aïhmifs g peitfs jg afiîf, sfave pfrf kmis jgcerftmves. Grf hfms gkmcmgitg qufije usfje gh cfogîfs jg hfîf (cehe kfzmfh es micfs), vmste sgr miqugorævga g hfms jgise (0,=; nrfhfs per cgitèhgtre còomce) je qug qufaqugr pgjrf cehuh. F jgsceogrtf je ceorg frsgimcfa, amnf ifturfa eu (rfrfhgitg) frtmkmcmfa jg ceorg g frsâimce, per veatf jg :344 f.C., terieu e hgtfa hgtfa hfms utmamzævga ggh h fjfnfs g peitfs jg afiîf g kem cehuh ie Ermgitg Híjme ftí e MM hmaâime f.C. Zfhoíh kem usfje ifs cuaturfs je iertg jes Fijgs (Gqufjer, iertg g cgitre je Tgru). E oreizg , amnf frtmkmcmfa eu (rfrfhgitg) ifturfa jg ceorg g gstfiè, surnmu ie M[ hmaâime maâ ime f.C. gh Susf Susf (ftu ( ftufa fa Mrã), gspfa`fije-sg g spfa`fije-sg jgpems jgpem s pfr pfrff f Hgsepetïhmf Hgsepetïhmf g f C`mif. Ifs Fhírmcfs, f prejuîãe jf amnf iãe c`gneu f sgr mivgitfjf jg hfigmrf mijgpgijgitg, hfs fs cuaturfs je sua jes Fijgs usfrfh amnfs ifturfms jg oreizg. Vufsg tãe jgise (0,= nrfhfs per cgitèhgtre còomce) g hfms jure g rgsmstgitg qug

e ceorg, e oreizg kem e kuijfhgite jf rgveauîãe tgcieaónmcf cei`gcmjf cehe Mjfjg je Oreizg, fssecmfjf fe surnmhgite jfs prmhgmrfs nrfijgs cmvmamzfî÷gs. Fanuis peves jehmifrfh f frtg jg kuijmr e oreizg f peite jg prejuzmr aïhmifs ceh qufitmjfjg vfrmævga jg gstfiè ie iòcage g ie nuhg, jg heje f eotgr uhf aïhmif rgsmstgitg g kagxèvga (ceh ofmxe tger jg gstfiè) g uh nuhg jure g fkmfje (ceh fate tger jg gstfiè). iãe pgrhmtmssgh aïhmifsgspfjfs tãe agvgs g nuhgs tãe fkmfjes qufite hfms tfrjgGhoerf kem pessèvga ceh e fîe, fjfnfs, g afiîfs jg oreizg grfh pagifhgitg gkmcfzgs. Faíh jmsse, fe ceitrærme je kgrre g je fîe, e oreizg í qufsg mhuig ä cerresãe. F prmicmpfa jgsvfitfngh je oreizg gh rgafîãe fe kgrre grf f rgaftmvf rfrmjfjg jg sufs hftírmfs-prmhfs. Ceorg g gstfiè jmkmcmahgitg grfh giceitrfjes buites g f prejuîãe jg oreizg, qufsg jgsjg e miècme, mhpamceu ie surnmhgite jg retfs cehgrcmfms jg aeinf jmstïicmf2 e Ermgitg Híjme, per gxghpae, mf ouscfr gstfiè tãe aeing qufite ifs Ma`fs Ormtïimcfs. Msse terifvf e oreizg rgaftmvfhgitg cfre, jg kerhf qug iuicf kem fhpafhgitg usfje gh kgrrfhgitfs jg use pepuafr. Ifs cmvmamzfî÷gs qug usfvfh fhpafhgitg e oreizg gh frhfs jg nugrrgmres g utgisèames jg ieorgs g sfcgrjetgs, frhfs g kgrrfhgitfs jg cfhpeigsgs ceitmiufrfh sgije kgmtfs ofsmcfhgitg jg pgjrf g hfjgmrf. E kgrre iãe grf tetfahgitg jgscei`gcmje if Mjfjg je Oreizg, hfs kgrre jg oef qufamjfjg grf rfrèssmhe g hfms vfamese je qug e eure. If tuhof je kfrfó Zutfil`fhei `fvmf humte eure, micaumije uh ftfòjg jg 664 qumaes jg eure hfcmîe g uhf hæscfrf jg 66 qumaes, hfs e òimce eobgte jg kgrre grf uhf fjfnf, qug kfzmf pfr ceh eutrf jg eure gijurgcmje. Cehe gssg hgtfa rfpmjfhgitg sg exmjf if ifturgzf, só grf giceitrfje gh kerhf iftmvf gh hgtgermtes jg kgrre (cube hgtfa sg cfrfctgrmzf per uh fate tger jg ièquga, cgrcf jg >,7%) g grf vmste cehe u hmstgrmese g jmvmie ‑hgtfa cgagstmfa‘, cehe e c`fhf uh peghf ípmce jf Hgsepetïhmf qug trftf jg uh `gróm cubfs frhfs grfh kerbfjfs ceh gssg hftgrmfa. Zfavgz e ‑fjfhfite‘ hgicmeifje if hmteaenmf nrgnf kessg e kgrre hgtgerètmce vmste ceh es eaès ea ès jf Mjfjg je Oreiz Oreizg. g. Fpgsfr jg f prejuîãe jg kgrre f pfrtmr jg hmiírme gxmnmr tghpgrfturfs humte hfms fatfs g keries hfms fvfiîfjes qug f hgtfaurnmf je oreizg, gaf bæ gxmstmf per veatf jg 3444 f.C. if Sèrmf, hfs gssg hgtfa grf kgrre-nusf ( pmn pmn mrei mrei), ), qugorfjmîe jgvmje fe fate ceitgòje jg cfroeie (:%-7%) g peuce òtma gh cehoftg, sgrvmije fpgifs pfrf kmis jgcerftmves. Es prmhgmres f jgsceormr cehe rgjuzmr e tger jg cfroeie g prejuzmr fîe, e sgbf, kgrre ceh tger fjgqufje pfrf use gh frhfs, kerfh es `mtmtfs, f pfrtmr jg 6744 f.C. F tícimcf sg gspfaèu pgae huije, gxcgte Fhírmcfs g Ecgfimf, jfije

miècme f ievf rgveauîãe tgcieaónmcf, f Mjfjg je Kgrre, qug cehgîeu ie Ermgitg Híjme gh 6344 f.C., if Gurepf g Èijmf gh 6?44 f.C., if C`mif gh ;44 f.C. (c`gnfije ä Cergmf gh :44 f.C. g fe Bfpãe gh 644 f.C.) g if Ækrmcf Ecmjgitfa gh :44 f.C. (facfiîfije f Ækrmcf Ermgitfa gitrg 644 g 344 j.C. g e gxtrghe sua gh :44 j.C.). Gssf rgveauîãe kem hfms forfingitg qug f jf Mjfjg je Oreizg, pems es hmiírmes cehuis if hfmer custe pfrtg gjesgr huije pgrhmtmr qugjge kgrre kgrre sãe kessgsukmcmgitghgitg prejuzmje aecfahgitg f ofmxe usfjepfrf g kgrrfhgitfs fnrèceafs g utgisèames jehístmces, fuhgitfije f prejutmvmjfjg g tejes es fspgctes. E fîe, ghoerf eotmje jfs hgshfs hftírmfs-prmhfs, ceitmiue jgpgijgije jg uh precgsse jg prejuîãe gspgcmfamzfje, jgherfje g cfre ftí 6077, qufije e precgsse Ogssghgr pgrhmtmu suf prejuîãe gh nrfijg qufitmjfjg g f ofmxe custe. If Mjfjg Híjmf, e ekècme jg kgrrgmre (oafclshmt` (oafclshmt`), ), qug trfofa`fvf ceh e kgrre kerbfje pfrf kgrrfhgitfs, kgrrfjurfs g eutres mtgis jg use cehuh, grf sgpfrfje je jg frhgmre (swerjshmt` (swerjshmt`), ), qug prejuzmf g trfofa`fvf fîe pfrf frhfs f rhfs g frhfjurfs. frhfjurfs. E kgrre í usfje gh værmfs kerhfs, eotmjfs f pfrtmr je kgrre-nusf2 E kgrre kuijmje (cfst mrei), mrei), jg rgaftmvfhgitg fate tger jg cfroeie (?%-:%), kem prejuzmje pr ejuzmje if C`mif C`mif f pfr pfrtmr tmr jg j g 774 f.C. f .C. g if Gurepf f pfrtmr pfr tmr jjee sícuae síc uae P[. _gaftmvfhgitg qugorfjmîe, hfs jure g rgsmstgitg ä cerresãe, kem usfje gh cgrtes utgisèames (micausmvg frfjes g pfigafs), cgrtfs frhfs orficfs ermgitfms (hfîfs g hfc`fjes) g, if Mjfjg jf Tóaverf, tfhoíh gh cfi`÷gs. E fîe (stgga (stgga), ), jg híjme tger jg cfroeie (4,?% f ?%), í e hfms fjgqufje pfrf aïhmifs, per cehomifr kagxmomamjfjg g jurgzf. Fs kórhuafs g tícimcfs pfrf prejuzmr fîe jg qufamjfjg supgrmer kerfh cmesfhgitg nufrjfjfs jgsjg f Fitmnumjfjg ftí e miècme jf grf mijustrmfa. F jgismjfjg, jg >,>7 f 0,47 nrfhfs per cgitèhgtre còomce. E fîe jg hgaèr qufamjfjg ftí e miècme jf Mjfjg Hejgrif kem e weetz weetz,, mivgitfje ie sua jf Èijmf gh 344 f.C. g gxpertfje pfrf e Ermgitg Híjme, Gurepf g Sujgstg Fsmætmce ftí cgrcf jg 6>44, qufije suf trfjmîãe sg pgrjgu. Kfhese pgaf jurgzf g tgifcmjfjg, qug a`g pgrhmtmf crmfr aïhmifs gxtrghfhgitg fkmfjfs g fe hgshe tghpe kagxèvgms e sukmcmgitg pfrf rgsmstmr f neapgs sgh qugorfr, grf cfrfctgrmzfje pgaf fouijïicmf jg cfroeigtes uatrfjures qug sg prgcmpmtfvfh g kfmxfs, jfije fe hgtfa e pfjrãe cfrfctgrèstmce jg ami`fs curvfs qug cfrfctgrmzfvfh e ‑fîe jg Jfhfsce‘, cmjfjg cubfs kerbfs kfzmfh fs hgaèrgs gspfjfs jf Mjfjg Híjmf. Fssmh cehe f preperîãe jg gstfiè ceitreaf f jurgzf je oreizg, f preperîãe jg cfroeie pejg ceitreafr f je fîe. Ie iertg jf Gurepf, jurfitg f Fatf Mjfjg

Híjmf, msse grf kgmte cehomifije, jeorfije g tercgije pgîfs jg kgrre kerbfje g fîe jg fate cfroeie if preperîãe jgsgbfjf. Ie kmh jf Mjfjg Híjmf, pfsseu-sg f eotgr fîes hfms èhen ehenâiges, âiges, kerbfije g seajfije s eajfije amnfs am nfs jg jmkgrgit jm kgrgitgg cehpesmîãe. Ie Ecmjgitg, es frhgmres eotmi`fh gspfjfs fkmfjfs g kagxèvgms cehomifije cfhfjfs jg fîe jg ofmxe cfroeie, hfms hfagævga, ie iòcage g afjes ceh eutrfs jg fate cfroeie, jurfs, if peitf g ies nuhgs. Gh sgnumjf, f aïhmif qug grf tghpgrfjf, sgijehfms suohgtmjf f fqugcmhgites g rgskrmfhgites ceitreafjes rgfrrfibfvfh es ætehes jg kgrre g cfroeie kerhfije crmstfms jg hfrtgismtf, hfms rènmjes g jurfjeures. Jgpems grf fkmfjf, peamjf g gvgitufahgitg jgcerfjf. Ie Ermgitg, fs gspfjfs grfh ceistruèjfs pgae híteje c`miâs jg gsqugitfr f aïhmif, jeorfr g hfrtgafr, rgpgtmjfhgitg, precgsse qug gamhmifvf nrfjufahgitg e cfroeie ftí ftminmr f jurgzf jgsgbfjf. Tfrf ceitreafr e rgskrmfhgite, f gspfjf grf pmicgafjf ceh frnmaf. Tui`f-sg uhf cfhfjf kmif seorg e kme pfrf rgskrmæ-ae rfpmjfhgitg, kerhfije f hfrtgismtf qug e jgmxfvf hfms jure g uhf nressf ie rgste jf aïhmif pfrf e rgskrmfhgite hfms agite jgmxfr e fîe hfms hfcme, pgaf kerhfîãe jg pgramtf. F tâhpgrf jmkgrgicmfjf, ie jersejf g hfrtgismtf kfzmf f aïhmif rgtf curvfr-sg g fssuhmr f kerhfpgramtf cfrfctgrèstmcf cftfif. ie kme, F cer cfrfctgrèstmcf je fîe jg gspfjfs fitmnfs g hgjmgvfms fcfofjfs jg oef qufamjfjg í cmizgit cmizgitee orma`fi orm a`fitg, tg, äs vgzgs ceh pfjr÷gs fjfh fjf hfscfjes jg kmifs ami` am i`fs fs eijuafjfs hfms gscurfs g hfms cafrfs. Fs jgscrmî÷gs peítmcfs jes hgjmgvfms kfafvfh jg frhfjurfs g gspfjfs ‑orma`fitgs‘, hfs gssg ormaè grf rgaftmve g rgafîãe ä cer gscurf eu ignrf je kgrre cehuh, ierhfahgitg ceogrte jg óxmje ignre eu jfs gspfjfs ‑prgtfs‘, trftfjfs eu pmitfjfs pfrf pretgnâ-afs jf cerresãe – bfhfms uh teh gspga`fje gspga `fje eu prftgfje. @ebg, períh, rípamcfs pfrf ceagcmeifjergs eu pfrf use ie cmighf g tgftre sãe krgqugitghgitg kgmtfs jg fîe miexmjævga, orma`fitg cehe uh gspgaè. Gssg fîe, ceh fate tger (66% eu hfms) jg crehe, kem mivgitfje ie miècme je sícuae PP g prejuzmje mijustrmfahgitg jgpems jf M Nugrrf Huijmfa. Sgije rgsmstgitg ä kgrrungh g cerresãe, í gxcgagitg pfrf kfcfs jg cezmi`f g mistruhgites cmròrnmces, hfs mifjgqufje pfrf f gsnrmhf g fmijf hgies pfrf cehoftg rgfa, pems í qugorfjmîe g peuce kagxèvga. Gspfjfs kgmtfs hejgrifhgitg pfrf gsnrmhf, rgcrmfîãe `mstórmcf eu ceagcmeifjergs `mstermcfhgitg ceiscmgitgs sãe kgmtfs ce fîe-cfroeie fcmizgitfje qug, hgshe prejuzmje mijustrmfahgitg, pejg sgr tãe rgsmstgitg qufite e jfs hgaèrgs gspfjfs hgjmgvfms g bfpeigsfs trfjmcmeifms. Fssmh cehe frhfs jg kene, frhfs ‑orficfs‘ jg fîe jg hfmer tfhfiè qug prgcmsfh sgr pretgnmjfs jf cerresãe, cehe fs usfjfs per hgrnua`fjergs g cehfijes, iãe sãe kgmtfs jg fîe miexmjævga, g smh jg fîe-cfroeie suohgtmje ä

exmjfîãe ignrf (oaumin (oaumin)) eu keskftmzfîãe ( pfrlgrmin pfrlgrm in), ), kerhfije uhf pgaècuaf pretgterf gscurf qug pretgng jg cerresãe fjmcmeifa (g fmijf gamhmif ormaès mijgsgbfjes qug pejgh trfmr uh ftfqug ftfqug jg surprgsf). surprgsf) . E kgrre kerbfje (wreun`t mrei), mrei), jg ofmxe tger jg cfroeie (4 f 4,?%) g hfms hfagævga, kem e hfms usfje gh kgrrfhgitfs g utgisèames pepuafrgs fe aeine jf `mstórmf, per sgrqug kæcma heajfr. [fag ietfr ghjghumtfs cuaturfs fcrgjmtf-sg qug cgrtfs crmfturfs hænmcfs, e hgshe jgusgs, tâh hgje eu rgpuniïicmf fitg e kgrre. Gh værmfs pfrtgs jf Gurepf, fcrgjmtfvf-sg qug prgnfr uhf kgrrfjurf iuhf pertf mhpgjmf f gitrfjf jg jugijgs g eutres hfus gspèrmtes, gitgrrfr uhf kfcf jg kgrre jgofmxe jf gitrfjf jg uhf cfsf kgc`fvf e cfhmiè äs oruxfs, eu rejgfr uh cghmtírme ceh uhf cgrcf jg kgrre mhpgjmf es kfitfshfs jes hertes jg sfèrgh. Gh fanuis pfèsgs, í eu kem `æomte tecfr uhf pgîf jg kgrre g jmzgr fane cehe ceaj mrei mrei (‑kgrre krme‘) g minaâs eu teccf kgrre (‑tecf kgrre (‑tecf kgrre‘) gh mtfamfie fe sg vgr, kfafr eu euvmr fane jg hfu fn fneure eure (gqumvfagitg f ‑oftgr if hfjgmr hfjgmrf‘ f‘ ie Orfsma) Orfsm a) pfrf gspfitfr e fzfr. If ceistruîãe je Zghpae Sfaehãe, cfsf hfc`fje, ceh pgjrfsigbæ prgpfrfjfs ifs pgjrgmrfs, jg jg hfigmrf qug ‑gjmkmcfvf-sg igh hfrtgae,f igh mistruhgite fanuh jg kgrre sg euvmu if cfsf qufije f gjmkmcfvfh‘ (Trmhgmre Amvre jes _gms, ;2>). If _ehf fitmnf, e cfogae g fs ui`fs je Kafhgi je Kafhgi Jmfams Jmfam s, e prmicmpfa sfcgrjetg jg Bòpmtgr, iãe pejmfh sgr certfjes ceh mistruhgites jg kgrre, g jg hfigmrf ngrfa gvmtfvf-sg e kgrre g usfvf-sg mistruhgites jg oreizg ies sgrvmîes rgamnmeses. Ie cfijehoaí, iãe sg usf kgrre ie cuate jf ermxæ Ifiã (Ruhoæ ie cfijehoaí Fineaf), igh hgshe ie sfcrmkècme jg fimhfms eu rfspfng jg cfogae (usf-sg uhf kfcf jg ofhou eu jg ceic`f), g gaf iãe pejg sgr cuatufjf ie hgshe fhomgitg qug Enuh (Ilesm, ie cfijehoaí Fineaf), qug í e ermxæ kgrrgmre. Gssfs trfjmî÷gs pfrgcgh rgafcmeifjfs ä pgrcgpîãe qug e kgrre, migxmstgitg cehe hgtfa if ifturgzf, í uh hftgrmfa ghmigitghgitg frtmkmcmfa g ‑ùhfie‘, eu ä aghorfiîf jg qug èuvg uhf ípecf fitgrmer ä je use je kgrre. Ter msse, sgrmf èstma äs gitmjfjgs hænmcfs hfms amnfjfs ä ifturgzf, eu äs hfms frcfmcfs. If Gurepf, frtgkftes prí-`mstórmces jg pgjrf, giceitrfjes ecfsmeifahgitg per cfhpeigsgs, grfh ceismjgrfjes frhfs g utgisèames jg gakes g kfjfs. Zfhoíh gxmstg f mjgmf jg qug f prftf í èstma f cgrtfs crmfturfs hænmcfs, hfs tejfs fs rgkgrâicmfs keacaórmcfs futâitmcfs sg rgkgrgh f ‑ofafs jg prftf‘, e qug kfz super qug gssf ieîãe surnmu bæ if Mjfjg jf Tóaverf. Micaugh e use jg uhf ofaf jg prftf fogiîefjf pfrf hftfr f ogstf jg Nívfujfi, supeste aeomsehgh foftmje if Krfiîf gh 6>;>< e ceite ‑Es Jems Mrhães‘ jes Mrhães Nrmhh, gh qug oet÷gs jg

prftf sãe usfjes iuhf gspminfrjf pfrf hftfr uhf oruxf jgpems qug ofafs jg cùhoe sg hestrfh miòtgms< g f agijf oòanfrf je `gróm rgogajg Jgaye, qug cehoftgu e suatãe Etehfie g grf mivuaigrævga äs frhfs cehuis, e qug gxmnmu qug sgus mimhmnes kuijmssgh uhf ofaf jg prftf pfrf hftæ-ae. Es hgtfms prgcmeses sãe cei`gcmjes jgsjg f prí-`mstórmf g frhfs orficfs jg eure g prftf gxmstmrfh pfrf kmis eu cehe misènimf jg cfrne eu cafssg, hfs iãe `æ `mstórmfs qug a`gs cgrmheimfms ftrmoufh pejgrgs gspgcmfms. E hmt`rma í uh hgtfa mhfnmifje per B._._. Zealmgi, fe qufa gag ftrmoumu fs preprmgjfjgs jg sgr agvg, prftgfje, mhuig ä cerresãe g hfms rgsmstgitg qug e fîe. E iehg vmrmf je smijfrmi hmt` hmt`,, ‑cmizgite‘ eu ‑oruhf‘, g rma rma   ‑ormaè‘. Gh sg uimvgrse, í humte rfre g grf giceitrfje fpgifs ifs hmifs jg L`fzfj-jüh, tgije suf prejuîãe cgssfje jgsjg f gxpuasãe jes fi÷gs. Vufije grf prejuzmje, vfamf jgz vgzgs hfms qug e eure. Whf vgz qug f prejuîãe cgsseu, terieu-sg migstmhævga2 f mijgstrutèvga cetf jg hmt`rma hmt`rma   usfjf per Kreje vfamf ‑hfms qug e Ceijfje Cei jfje mit m itgmr gmre‘. e‘. E ermcface í uh cmtfje gh frhfjurf fanuis tgxtes jf Fitmnumjfjg nrgnf cehe usfje ies ormices jg hgtfa Fkrejmtg g iuhf jg @írfcags, hfs f hgiîãe hfms kfhesf gstæ ie Crètmfs Crètmfs   jg Taftãe, sgnuije e qufa grf uh hgtfa gspgcmfahgitg fprgcmfje gh Ftaïitmjf, qug e usfvf gh jgcerfîãe, ie rgvgstmhgite jg sufs hurfa`fs ‑qug orma`fvfh cehe kene‘ g ie pmafr ie qufa gscrgvmfh sufs agms. E iehg vgh je nrgne eres eres,, ‑heitg‘ g c`faces c`faces,, ‑ceorg‘ g prevfvgahgitg rgkgrmf-sg ermnmifahgitg f fanuhf amnf ifturfa jg ceorg, prevfvgahgitg aftãe (ceorg g zmice), qug grf cei`gcmje, hfs rfre, fitgs jg 6444 f.C. Tfrf es rehfies, ermcface grf cgrtfhgitg e aftãe, qug prejuzmfh f pfrtmr jg ceorg g jg uh hmiírme rmce g zmice (fmijf qug iãe e cei`gcgssgh cehe hgtfa). F fssecmfîãe ceh f hmstgrmesf Ftaïitmjf agveu fanuis gscrmtergs, períh, f mhfnmifr e ermcface cehe uh hgtfa jg preprmgjfjgs gxtrferjmiærmfs. Gh Es Ficgstr Ficgstrfms fms jg F Fvfaei vfaei,, jg Jmfif Tfxsei (qug kfz uhf peitg gitrg F gitrg F Vugjf jg Ftaïitmjf taïit mjf   g Fs Fs Oruhfs jg Fvfaei vfaei   jg Hfrm Hfrmei ei Rmhhgr Orfjagy), Orfjagy), es ftafitgs usfh gspfjfs jg fîe ceh nuhg jg ermcface qug sãe cfpfzgs jg jgrruofr jgr ruofr ærvergs ærver gs ceh uh uh smhpags neapg. E fjfhfite í cmtfje if hmteaenmf nrgnf cehe uh hgtfa mijgstrutèvga, cfpfz jg kgrmr g gicfjgfr es próprmes jgusgs. Grf kgmtf jg fjfhfite f `frpg ceh f qufa Creie cfstreu Wrfie, cehe tfhoíh f qug Tgrsgu useu pfrf jgcfpmtfr f Hgjusf. Zfhoíh grfh kgmtes jg fjfhfite es nrma`÷gs ceh es qufms Rgus prgijg Trehgtgu g es pert÷gs je Zærtfre eijg es Zmtãs kerfh fprmsmeifjes. Jgvg sgr mhfnmifje cehe uh fîe mijgstrutèvga. F kmcîãe cmgitèkmcf äs vgzgs mhfnmif frhfs orficfs kgmtfs jg hftgrmfms

gspgcmfms. Ter gxghpae, uhf gspfjf qug cehomifrmf aïhmif jg ifietuoes jg cfroeie ceh kme heieftúhmce jg jmfhfitg2 sgrmf tãe rgsmstgitg g certfitg qufite sg pejg mhfnmifr, g fe hgshe tghpe humte agvg2 ifietuoes jg cfroeie tg jgismjfjg jg 6,3 f 6,: nrfhfs per cgitèhgtre còomce. C`mcetgs g eutrfs frhfs jg kmafhgites heieheagcuafrgs (heiewmrgs (heiewmrgs)) jg hftgrmfa iãe gspgcmkmcfje, gtírges g cfpfzgs jg certfr qufaqugr hftgrmfa, sãe cmtfjes gh `mstórmfs jg kmcîãe cmgitèkmcf jgsjg e Juif e Juif jg jg Krfil @grogrt, gh 6=;7. @mjrenâime hgtæamce í cmtfje cehe hftírmf-prmhf jf Gspfjf jf Gspfjf jf Nfaæxmf Nfaæxmf   jg Hfrcgae Cfssfre. E hftgrmfa cgrtfhgitg gxmstg ie mitgrmer jg pafigtfs nmnfitgs cehe Bòpmtgr, eijg í kerhfje per prgss÷gs nmnfitgscfs, hfs iãe sg sfog sg sgrmf gstævga seo prgss÷gs ierhfms. Jg qufaqugr kerhf, f jgismjfjg prgvmstf jgssg hftgrmfa sgrmf humte ofmxf (cgrcf jg 4,0 nrfhfs per cgitèhgtre còomce, cehe mijmcfh tfite es hejgaes tgórmces qufite f jgismjfjg jes pafigtfs nmnfitgs), fe ceitrærm ceit rærmee je qug jmz jm z e rehficg, rehficg, qug jgscrgvg jgsc rgvg f gspfjf gspf jf cehe humte humte pgsfjf. [moreaïhmifs (vmoreoafjgs (vmoreoafjgs)) sãe tfhoíh cmtfjfs if kmcîãe cmgitèkmcf cehe pfrtg jggh frhfs orficfs kuturmstfs. pgaf prmhgmrf _eogrt @gmiagi Sg Mste Ceitmiufr Ceitmiufr, , uhfKerfh ievgaf cmtfjfs jg 6=:4, g kfzgh pfrtgvgz jeper cgiærme jg Stfr ^frs, ^frs, hfs í juvmjese sg kuicmeifrmfh if prætmcf. Fs frhfs orficfs ‑jgkmimtmvfs‘, ifturfahgitg, sãe fs kgmtfs jg cfhpes jg kerîf, cehe es ‑sforgs jg auz‘ (amn`tsfogrs (amn`tsfogrs)) jg Stfr ^frs, ^frs, prevfvgahgitg fs frhfs hfms pepuafrgs jf `mstórmf je cmighf. Aïhmifs jg cfhpes jg kerîf kerfh cmtfjfs jg pfssfngh pgaf prmhgmrf vgz (cehe uh pgilimk pgilimkgg, ‑cfimvgtg jg kerîf‘), per Msffc Fsmhev g Kuijfîãe (6=76) Kuijfîãe (6=76) g hfms smstghftmcfhgitg gh suf sírmg Aucly sírmg Aucly Stfrr, Stfrr , f pfrtmr jg 6=7?, if qufa Omnhfi Beigs, pfrcgmre je pretfneimstf, usf krgqugitghgitg uhf ‑kfcf jg kerîf‘ (kercg (kercg limkg). limkg).

Cafvfs g hfîfs Ter suf fitmnumjfjg g ceituijâicmf, f hfîf í vmstf cehe sèhoeae jg kerîf g f frhf per gxcgaâicmf2 uhf hfîf í trfjmcmeifahgitg ceaecfjf seorg f hgsf je prgsmjgitg (spgflgr (spgflgr)) jf Cïhfrf jes Cehuis je _gmie Wimje pfrf rgprgsgitfr e pejgr rgfa. Fprmicmpfa hfîf mijmfif, eu nfjf nfjf,,gí tfhoíh f frhf smhoóamcf jg [msìu, jgus suprghe jf cerrgitg je `mijuèshe je supgrhfcfce @fiuhfi, fssm cehe f cafvf í f frhf jg @írfcags. Whf cafvf (cauo cauo)) eu hecf í ermnmifahgitg uh pgjfîe jg hfjgmrf nresse, sgnurfje per uhf jfs peitfs. Es èijmes orfsmagmres usfvfh tfcfpgs g oerjuifs, cafvfs cehprmjfs (jg uh f jems hgtres), hfms pgsfjfs gh uhf jfs peitfs. Ie rmtufa fitrepekænmce, es tupms kfzmfh f momrfpghf jg pfu-kgrre (Cfgsfapmimf (Cfgsfapmimf kgrrgf), kgrrgf ), heajfjf ie kerhfte jg uh rghe ceh oerjfs certfitgs, erifhgitfjf ce pmiturfs, pgifs g oerafs jg fanejãe. Ceh gaf, pfrtmfh ceh uh só neapg e crïime jf vètmhf jgstmifjf f sgr jgverfjf. iuaaf` E wfjjy í f eu hfîf jes foerèngigs ceh cgrcf jg uh hgtre eu g uhf peitfiuaaf` rgjeijf, fc`ftfjf cehe uhf fustrfamfies, cfogîf jg prgne. Es fstgcfs, fe fcrgscgitfr cfces jg eosmjmfif (vmjre vuacïimce) äs oerjfs jg uh tfcfpg fc`ftfje, crmfrfh e hfcqufùmta. Cehe e vmjre í krænma, gssf frhf pgrjmf kfcmahgitg e certg, grf miòtma ceitrf frhfjurfs jg fîe g prgcmsfvf sgr rgpfrfjf f cfjf oftfa`f. Ter eutre afje, pejmf jgcfpmtfr uh èhgh eu uh cfvfae (ofstfvf neapgfr kuije g puxfr, cehe iuh hevmhgite jg sgrrf) g jgpems jg pgrjgr e certg, fmijf pejmf sgr usfjf cehe cafvf. Gxmstmf gh jems tfhfiès2 jg uhf hãe, ceh cgrcf jg =4 cgitèhgtres g 6,: qumae, g jg jufs hães, ceh 6,7 hgtre g ?,3 qumaes. Hmcreiísmes g peamiísmes kfzmfh uhf frhf gqumvfagitg, usfije jgitgs jg tuofrãe gh vgz jg cfces jg eosmjmfif2 grf c`fhfjf agmehfie ie @fvfè g tgoutbg ifs ma`fs Lmrmoftm. Ghoerf äs vgzgs cafssmkmcfjfs cehe ‑gspfjfs‘, gssfs frhfs sãe jgsgqumamorfjfs g hfms preprmfhgitg cafssmkmcfjfs cehe cafvfs ceh nuhgs. F tfmf`f, jes hferms jf Ievf Rgaïijmf, tgh f hgshf kerhf fc`ftfjf. F aeinf aïhmif jg hfjgmrf iãe tgh jgitgs jg tuofrãe eu afscfs jg eosmjmfif, hfs f eutrf peitff agvf peit a gvf uhf uhf peitf jg afiîf a fiîf jg hfjgmrf qug sgrvg pfrf gstecfr. Gxmstgh tfmf`fs aeinfs, aein fs, jg 6,7 f 6,0 hgtre, g cu c urtfs, jg cgrcf jg ;4 cgit cg itèhgt èhgtres. res. F tgw`ftgw`f, tfhoíh jes hferms, í uh ofstãe ceh =7 cgitèhgtres f 6,;4 hgtre ceh uhf aïhmif jg hfjgmrf jg ?4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite if peitf, aghorfije uh hfc`fje. Hfs es neapgs iãe sãe jfjes ceh f aïhmif g smh ceh e afje epeste jf peitf. F aïhmif ngrfahgitg tgh uh kure ie qufa sg pgijurf

pgifs jg pehoe pehoe eu kfacãe, pfrf jmstrfm jmstrfmrr e epeigitg. epeigitg. E pftu, fmijf jes hferms jf Ievf Rgaïijmf, tgh f kerhf fc`ftfjf jg uhf nrfijg gspætuaf amsf eu gscuapmjf. Tessum jg ?7 f 74 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, > f 6? cgitèhgtres jg gspgssurf g uhf cerjf eu cerrgmf jg ceure pfrf sg prgijgr ä hãe je usuærme pgae cfoe. Giqufite f hfmermf jfs hfîfs í usfjf pfrf oftgr jg cmhf ofmxe eu aftgrfahgitg ghieneapgs g petgitgs, sgr usfjf pfrf gh autfs ængms, ængms, ceh gstecfjfs pgmte gagites cfogîf. Tejgh sgr pftu sgrgstf pftucestuhf t fwflf e tfwflf e ftulm,, jg hfjgmrf jg pmiè rmhu ftulm rmhu;, qufije kerfh tfhoí premomjes jg usæ-afs pgae rgnmhg Hgmbm. Zmi`f cgrcf jg >4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g cgrcf jg uh qumae. E vfbrf (gh per c`miâs c`miâs bm bminfin infin, gh bfpeiâs leine, , gh per tmogtfie jerbg), uhgskgrf cgtre curte kerhfje cgstes jg ,hgtfa epestesleine amnfjes uhf jerbg ofrrf), eu cgitrfa, í f frhf sfnrfjf jg Mijrf, jgus `miju je trevãe, qug a`g kem kgmtf pgae jgus Zvfstfr g, cehe e hfrtgae jg Zèr, rgprgsgitf e pejgr je rfme g je trevãe. Ie oujmshe, pfsseu f sgr e sèhoeae jf gsceaf [fbrfyfif [fbrfyfif,, je oujmshe tmogtfie. Fcrgjmtf-sg qug sgbf f vgrsãe gstmamzfjf jg uhf frhf fitmnf, qug grf sgnurfjf per uhf ofrrf cgitrfa pfrf sg neapgfr ceh e puiè eu fs cfogîfs aftgrfms. Wh vfbrf smhoóamce jg kgrre tgh 6> cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres g pgsf 344 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. F frhf c`fhfjf yfwfrf ie Bfpãe í uhf pgqugif ofrrf qug sg sgnurf ceh f hãe, ermnmifjf je vfbrf vfbrf   (gh bfpeiâs, leineu leineu). ). Ie Bfpãe, ngreu f frtg hfrcmfa fwfrfbmtsu fwfrfbmtsu usfjfCeh per 63 peamcmfms ies fies 6=:4, rgkerîfije sece e oftgije ceh gfskem peitfs. cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g ?,7 jge jmïhgtre,

pgsf 634 nrfhfs. Zrfjmcmeifahgitg í jg hfjgmrf, hfs `æ vgrs÷gs hejgrifs jg fauhèime. E yuom-oe í uh ofstãe uh peuce hfmer, jg ?4 cgitèhgtres. E luoetfi í uhf ofrrf jg paæstmce jg 6: f ?4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 6,7 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre, ceh rfiùrfs pfrf hgaèr fjgrâicmf g uh fre pgijurfje iuhf jfs peitfs pfrf sgr usfje cehe c`fvgmre. Kem mivgitfje g 6=>4 pgae hgstrg jg cfrftâ Selg cehe Luoetf Zflfyulm, ceh e pgafs prepósmte jg sgr usfje per peamcmfms, g pejg sgr usfje yfwfrf, yfwfrf , sgnurfje c`fvgs pfrf sgr usfje cehe c`mcetg, eu sgnurfje pgae cfoe pfrf usfr fs c`fvgs cehe uh hfinufa gh hmimfturf. Tgsf 04 f 6?4 nrfhfs. Wh ofstãe í uhf smhpags vfrf curtf, usfjf gh cgrtfs frtgs hfrcmfms, ietfjfhgitg f gslrmhf gslrmhf eu eu frims frims jfs jfs Kmampmifs, qug f c`fhf jg yfitel jg yfitel g f usf g pfrgs. Vufije usfjf pfrf trgmifhgite, í kgmtf jg rftã, hfs pejgh sgr kgmtfs jg hfjgmr fjgmrfs fs jurfs cehe cehe e lfhfnein lfhfnein (gspícmg (gspícmg jg íofie) pfrf cehoftg rgfa. Forfing fs sgnumitgs vfrmgjfjgs2 Ofstei,, eamsm Ofstei eamsm eu eu yfitel yfitel  – – vfrfs jg ;4 f >4 cgitèhgtres Afrne hfie hfie yfitel  – – vfrfs jg >4 f =4 cgitmhgtres Juae y juae juae eu pusfl   – vfrfs jg 64 f 60 cgitèhgtres, sgnurfjfs if pfahf jf hãe cehe fs yfwfrf fs yfwfrf bfpeigsfs bfpeigsfs Ifs frtgs hfrcmfms cergfifs, usf-sg e jfi oein, ceh 3? cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 3 jg jmïhgtre g ifs bfpeigsfs e tfioe eu tfhoe, ce cehprmhgite gh terie jg :7 cgitèhgtres. Ie lfafrmpfyfttu lfafrmpfyfttu,, frtg hfrcmfa je sua jf Èijmf, usf-sg e luruit`fjm e huc`fi, uh ofstãe jg >; cgitèhgtres, usfje cehe prgpfrfîãe pfrf f autf ce fjfnfs< g e ettf, uh ofstãe jg hfjgmrf curve jg ;4 cgitèhgtres gh kerhf jg S, ceh ghpui`fjurf uhfftfcf peitf frrgjeijfjf, ifs g prætmcfs hfms fvfiîfjfs je lfafrm lfafrm g – ceh f peitf peites sgisèvgms usfje je cerpe f ofsg sgrvg pfrf jgkgsf. Jmz-sg qug qugh jehmif e ettf ettf   pejg jgkgijgr-sg jg mimhmnes ftí jerhmije. jerhmi je. Fhoes Fhoes sãe s ãe trfjmcmeifah trfjm cmeifahgit gitgg kgmtes jg hfjgmrf jg tfhfrmijgmre. E cfssgtgtg ( (oftei oftei,, truic`gei truic`gei,, omaaystmcl ) í uh ofstãe jg peitf frrgjeijfjf, ngrfahgitg prgse per uhf cerrgmf fe puase je usuærme, utmamzfje per peamcmfms g fngitgs fngi tgs jg sgnurfiîf sgnurfiîf gh smtufî÷gs jg ceikreite ceikreite iãe-a iãe-agtfa. gtfa. @æ værmes værm es tmpes2 tm pes2 Cfcgtg (strfmn`tstmcl ), ), e hfms oæsmce, í uh ofstãe jg hfjgmrf eu paæstmce jgise ceh peitf frrgjeijfjf g uh peuce hfms nressf qug f ghpui`fjurf, jg 34 f =4 cgitèhgtres, usfje jgsjg e fitmne Gnmte.

Cfssgtgtg jg cfoe (imn`tstmcl ) í jgrmvfje jf teikf bfpeigsf. Zgh

peitfs frrgjeijfjfs, cgrcf jg ;4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 3 jg jmïhgtre, cfoe jg 63 f 6: cgi cg itèhgtres tèhgtres g pgse jg ;44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Cfssgtgtg rgtrætma (gxpfijfoag oftei, oftei, gxtgije gxtgije,, tgagscepmc oftei) oftei) í kgmte jg jems eu trâs cmamijres qug sg gicfmxfh uh jgitre je eutre g pejgh sgr gstgijmjes, e hgier jes qufms í ngrfahgitg hfcmîe. Vufije rgtrfèje, tgh 67 f ?7 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite< gstgijmje, jg :7 f >7 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres. res. Tgsf 374 f >44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs.

Sequgmrfs _gkerîfr e mhpfcte jg uh sece ceh uh pgjfîe jg pgjrf eu hfjgmrf í uhf tícimcf humte fitmnf. Nafjmfjergs rehfies humtfs vgzgs micerperfvfh pgjfîes jg hgtfa fe cgstus cgstus,, f auvf jg ceure ceh qug autfvfh ifs frgifs. Es nufitgs e hfiepafs, kgmtfs jg ceure rgkerîfje ceh fiíms g pafcfs jg fîe if Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf g tetfahgitg jg fîe if Ofmxf Mjfjg Híjmf g _gifscgiîf, kerf prevfvgah prevfvga hgitg gitg fmijf fm ijf hfms hfms gkmcfzgs. E tglle í uhf ofrrf jg hfjgmrf prgsf ifs peitfs f uh hgme fre jg hgtfa, kerhfije uh J eu gstrmoe qug sg sgnurf pgaf ofrrf, qug sg jmz tgr gveauèje f pfrtmr jg kgrrfjurfs jg cfvfae. Jes GWF, surnmu f sequgmrf eu sece-minaâs (gh minaâs, liuclagjustgrs liuclagjustgrs   e orfss liuclags, liuclags, gh krficâs pemin fhírmcfmi fhírmcfm i ‑puiè fhgrmcfie‘, gh faghãe Scàfnrmin,, ‑figa jg mhpfcte‘). Kgmtes jg kgrre kuijmje, cùhoe, aftãe e Scàfnrmin hfjgmrf, pepuafrmzfrfh-sg ies GWF f pfrtmr jf Nugrrf Cmvma (60;6-;7) g kerf äs vgzgs micerperfjes fe cfoe jg kfcfs g pmsteafs. Fanuis tâh peitfs, qug es terifh hfms jmkècgms jg fnfrrfr per uh fjvgrsærme g hfms pgrmneses. Zâh cgrcf jg 64 f 6? cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf g pgsfh jg ;7 f :74 nrfhfs, jgpgijgije je jgsgiè g je hftgrmfa. Es hfms trfjmcmeifms, jg aftãe, pgsfh ?44 f 344 nrfhfs g sãe cfpfzgs jg qugorfr esses, hfs èbg sãe hfms krgqugitghgitg kgmtes jg fauhèime g pgsfh >7 f 6>7 nrfhfs. E ofn ifl` (‑nfrrf jg tmnrg‘) í uhf frhf mijmfif kerhfjf per jufs f cmice aïhmifs jg hgtfa curvfs g peitujfs qug sg prebgtfh cehe nfrrfs jg uhf ofrrf, sgnurf pgaf hãe gh puiè per faîfs aftgrfms. Zgh cgrcf jg 66 cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf, ceh nfrrfs jg 7 cgitèhgtres g pgsf cgrcf jg 634 nrfhfs. Fanuhfs jgafs tâh tfhoíh uhf ‑nfrrf‘ aftgrfaomc`fwf eu hgshe uhf aïhmif jg omc`fwf omc`fwf   (tmpe jg fjfnf), c`fhfije-sg c`fhfije-sg igssg cfse ofn`-ifl` . E tglfnm-sùle (‑nficè hãe jg tmnrg‘) í uhf frhf tfhoíh kerhfjf per nfrrfs, hfs usfjf seorg f pfahf, gh vgz jes iós jes jgjes, g prgsf ä hãe per cerrgmfs jg ceure. Sgrvmf fes imibfs prmicmpfahgitg cehe fbujf pfrf gscfafr hures g ærvergs, hfs tfhoíh pejmf sgr òtma gh cehoftg. Vufije usfjf ies pís, í fs`mle. Imibfs tfhoíh usfvfh igle-tg (‑nfrrf jg nfte‘), pgqugifs nfrrfs jg hgtfa pr prgsfs gsfs fes jgjes qug qug pejmfh pejm fh sgr givgigifjfs. givgigifjfs.

Hfrtgaes, hfaès g pmcfrgtfs If hãe jg Zèr, e jgus iórjmce, e hfrtgae Hbûaimr rgprgsgitf e seh je trevãe. Fifaenfhgitg, e ermxæ meruof Pfinú g e jgus hfmf C`ffc usfh hfc`fjes jg pgjrf g e `miju Mijrf usf e vfbrf vfbrf,, qug í uhf sequgmrf gstmamzfjf. E hfrtgae tfhoíh fssecmfje fe jgus @gkfmstes g fes fi÷gs jf hmteaenmf iórjmcf, per sgrgh frtgsães frtígsães g kgrrgmres. Es hfrtgaes jg nugrrf ( (wfr wfr `fhhgrs) `fhhgrs) kerfh usfjes if _gifscgiîf ceitrf fs frhfjurfs jg pafcfs hfms rgsmstgitgs. Tfrgcgh-sg ceh uhf vgrsãe hfms aeinf jf kgrrfhgitf jg cfrpmitfrmf, hfs jgsprevmjes jf erga`f g ui`fs pfrf frrficfr prgnes. Zâh uhf peitf pgrkurfitg je afje epeste jf cfogîf g eutrf if gxtrghmjfjg supgrmer, äs vgzgs tfhoíh jes afjes g ie c`fte jf cfogîf. Tejmf micfpfcmtfr uh cfvfagmre jg frhfjurf fe pgrcutmr pfrtgs sgisèvgms je cerpe e jfimkmcfr buitfs g frtmcuafî÷gs, g fs peitfs pejmfh sgr usfjfs ceitrf orgc`fs if frhfjurf. F vgrsãe pfrf sgr usfjf ceh uhf só hãe tgh uh cehprmhgite jg ;4 f 04 cgitèhgtres pgsfqumaes. peuce hfms jg uh qumae. F vgrsãe pfrf jufs hães tgh 6,6 hgtre g pgsf ftíg 3,? E omce jg kfacãe (èrsghfi”s pmcl gh minaâs, minaâs, ogc jg kfucei gh krficâs, ifjzmfl  gh gh peaeiâs) í uhf uhf vfrmfitg vfr mfitg gspgcmfam gspgcm famzfjf zfjf gh pgrkurfr pgrkurfr gah ga hes g frhfju frhfjurfs rfs jg pafcfs. E cfoe í jg kgrre g je afje epeste jf cfogîf `æ uhf peitf curvf jg pmcfrgtf jg 64 f 67 cgitèhgtres gh vgz jg uhf peitf smhpags jg 7 f 0 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres. res. Wsfjf ies Oæacãs Oæa cãs pgaes p gaes turces turces f pfrtmr pfr tmr je sícuae PM[, kem fjetfjf f jetfjf je sícuae P[M P[M fe P[MM P[MMMM pgaes cfvfagmres cfvfag mres jf Teaúi Tea úimfmf-A Amtuïimf. mtuïimf. Es hfaès eu hfrrgtfs (hfuas (hfuas)) sãe nrfijgs hfrtgaes sgh erga`f eu ui`f pfrf sgrgh usfjes ceh fs jufs hães. Ierhfahgitg prgsgitgs ies gxírcmtes fitmnes pfrf kmis utmamtærmes (cehe crfvfr gstfcfs), pejmfh sgr mhprevmsfjes cehe frhfs. Tgsfvfh gh terie jg 7 qumaes. E hfaè bfpeiâs, c`fhfje etsuc`m, grf usfje prmicmpfahgitg pfrf jgrruofr pertfs g pert÷gs jg cfstgaes. Zmi`f uh cfoe jg cfrvfaè jg =4 cgitèhgtres g uhf veauhesf veauh esf cfogîf cfog îf jg hfjgmrf fjgmr f jurf cmitfjf ceh fîe jg 3,7 f :,7 :, 7 qumaes.

Hfc`fjes g fc`fs Hfc`fjes jg pgjrf ceh cfoes kerfh mivgitfje gh ;444 f.C. g usfjes pfrf certfr hfjgmrf eu trmic`fr f cfîf per humtes peves qug iãe c`gnfrfh f kfzgr use jg hgtfms, micausmvg es èijmes orfsmagmres. Hfs es hfc`fjes jg oreizg suhírmes g gnèpcmes kerfh esgrf prmfhfrhf prmh gmres gmr es hfms kgmtesmhpertfitg gspgcmkmcf gs pgcmkmcfh hgitg git g pfrf f nugrrf nuegrrf. . je hfms fitmne Wh hfc`fje jg Nmanfhgs`, `gróm ípmce jf amtgrfturf g sgu próprme iehg pejg sgr mitgrprgtfje cehe ‑hfc`fje jg Hgs`‘. Ie miècme jg suf `mstórmf, gag sei`f qug kfz fher ceh uh hfc`fje, prgiòicme jg sgu giceitre ceh sgu kuture pfrcgmre Gilmju, qug gag ‑fhfrmf cehe uhf gspesf‘ g tgrmf ‑cehe uh hfc`fje f sgu afje‘. Hfms tfrjg, gicehgijf hfc`fjes jg oreizg pfrf fhoes, cfjf uh pgsfije, sgnuije uhf vgrsãe fssèrmf, trâs tfagites (=4 qumaes), faíh jg afiîfs jg mnufa pgse, g ceh gssgs hfc`fjes gags jgrruofh uhf kaergstf jg cgjres g hftfh e heistre @uhofof. Í mitgrgssfitg ietfr qug iuh eutre peghf suhírme, e Ípmce jg Aunfaofijf, e hfc`fje g f fjfnf je `gróm sãe cehehfms kgmtfs jg ‑hgtfa cgagstg‘ kgrre gh – eu rfrèssmhe kgrrejgscrmtes hgtgerètmce, vfamese qug eure igssf gípecf qugsgbf, iãe je sg sfomf prejuzmr kgrre f pfrtmr jg hmiírme. E hfc`fje ípsmaei (gpsmaei fxg, cuttmin fxg) í uhf frhf tmpmcfh tmpmcf hgitg gitg gnèpcmf, fssmh c`fhfjf per frqugóaenes perqug f aïhmif certfitg tgh f kerhf jgssf agtrf nrgnf2 uh sgnhgite jg cèrcuae ceh nuhg curve veatfje pfrf kerf g jems ermkècmes uite fe cfoe, ceh 67 f :7 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. Ceh pgse jg cgrcf jg u qumae, tmi`f tmi`f `fstg jg ;4 f =4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres res g grf usfjf gh neapgs neapgs aftgrfms. aftgrfm s. Kem jgpems fofijeifje pgaes hfc`fjes pgrkurfitgs ( pmgrcmin pmgrcmin fxgs) fxgs) ermnmiærmes jf Hgsepetïhmf, hfs giqufite es fsmætmces kuijmfh fs aïhmifs ce uh ermkècme ie qufa grf mitrejuzmje e cfoe, es gnèpcmes fs kfzmfh ceh uh pmie pfrf sgr gicfmxfje ie cfoe. Gstgs hfc`fjes tmi`fh cfoe jg cgrcf jg >4 f 04 cgitèhgtres g pgsfvfh uh qumae. F aïhmif grf gstrgmtf g cehprmjf (:4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, 6? f ?4 jg afrnurf), pfrf pgrkurfr gahes g frhfjurfs gh neapgs jg cmhf pfrf ofmxe. Hfms tfrjg, es c`migsgs usfrfh hfc`fjes jg oreizg sghga`fitgs. E sfnfrms , uh hfc`fje agvg jg kgrre, ceh cgrcf jg uh hgtre, grf usfje pgaes cmtfs g, sgnuije e hmte nrgne, tfhoíh pgafs fhfzeifs. [fag ietfr qug e aforys aforys   eu hfc`fje ompgig (jg jufs aïhmifs) jg oreizg, sèhoeae jf Crgtf hmiemcf, prevfvgahgitg iãe grf frhf g smh mistruhgite jg sfcrmkècme, pems í fssecmfje f sfcgrjetmstfs g f ceitgxtes rgamnmeses. E hgshe sg pejg jmzgr je tuhm tuhm,, uh jes sèhoeaes jfs cuaturfs fijmifs, qug í uhf kfcf e

hfc`fjmi`f ceh aïhmif gh kerhf jg hgmf-auf. Es micfs usfvfh, períh, uh tmpe jg fc`f jg nugrrf, c`fhfjf cuic`f cùcuif (‑qugorf-pgsceîe‘), qug tmi`f uhf aïhmif jg oreizg ifturfa g uhf peitf jg afiîf if pfrtg supgrmer, kfzgije-e pfrgcgr uhf fafofrjf curtf, ceh cgrcf jg uh hgtre. Es hfms kfheses usuærmes jg hfc`fjes jg nugrrf eu fc`fs (ofttag fxgs) fxgs) kerfh, períh, es vmlmins ierhfijes ormtïimces. E hfc`fje jfiâsgeusgus fc`fjgscgijgitgs, jfigsf (jfig (jfig gscfijmifves, fxg, spfrt` eu eu spfrr spfrr), ), usfjeg per nugrrgmres f pí, tmi`f =4 cgitèhgtres f 6,? hgtre, giqufite e hfc`fje eu fc`f jg cfvfagmre (èrsghfi (èrsghfi fxg), fxg), pfrf sgr usfje ceh uhf só hãe tmi`f ;4 f >4 cgitèhgtres. Fhoes pgsfvfh jg uh qumae f jems qumaes. Whf vfrmgjfjg cehuh jgsjg e sícuae [M í cei`gcmjf cehe fc`f jg ofrof (ogfrjgj fxg), fxg), per tgr uhf aïhmif jg ofsg gstrgmtf g gxtrghmjfjg afrnf, ceh uhf peitf pfrf ofmxe qug aghorf uhf ofrof jg pgrkma, pfrf eotgr uh nuhg aeine sg fuhgitfr humte e pgse, faíh jg sgrvmr cehe nficè pfrf frrficfr e gscuje e eutrf frhf je fjvgrsærme. Zgh >7 f 07 cgitèhgtres g pgsf cgrcf jg jems qumaes. Gssfs frhfs kerfhghhumte usfjfsifpgaes oærofres jf Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf qu 6444), hfs gitrfrfh jgcfjâicmf Ofmxf Mjfjg Híjmf (6444 f 6344), q(:73 ufijef es cfvfagmres hfms `æogms g trgmifjes jgrfh prgkgrâicmf ä agvgzf g fnmamjfjg jfs gspfjfs. If _gifscgiîf (6344 f 6;44), veatfrmfh if kerhf jg frhfs jg `fstg, ceh cfoe hfms aeine, pfrf sgrgh usfjfs ceitrf frhfjurfs jg pafcfs g certfr pgrifs jg cfvfaes. E jeaemrg eu hfc`fje jg cfrrecgmre (wfneigr”s fxg) fxg) grf usfje pgaes cfrrecgmres qug fcehpfi`fvfh fs trepfs, tfite pfrf kmis utmamtærmes qufite pfrf futejgkgsf. Zgh uhf aïhmif peitujf fcmhf g afrnf fofmxe, ceh kerhf jg trmïinuae eu jg aænrmhf, jg :: cgitèhgtres, amnfjf per uh sequgtg f uh cfoe jg 6,7 hgtre. Äs vgzgs tgh uh uh gsperãe trfsgmre. trfs gmre. E hfc`fje jg pfster (s`gp`grj”s fxg, gh `òinfre keles keles,, gh peaeiâs cmupfnf,, gh tc`gce cmupfnf tc`gce vfafŦlf) vfafŦlf) í uh hfc`fje agvg ie cfoe jg uh cfbfje, usfje pgaes pfstergs jes Cærpftes pfrf kmis utmamtærmes g jg jgkgsf. Zgh cgrcf jg u hgtre jg cehprmhgite g uhf cfogîf jg hgtfa qug tgh uhf pgqugif aïhmif jg hfc`fje jg uh afje g uhf cfogîf jg hfrtgae je eutre. E eie í f fc`f jg nugrrf bfpeigsf. Zgh 6,0 hgtre jg cehprmhgite g uhf cfogîf nrfijg jg aïhmif ceivgxf, ceh uhf peitf erifhgitfjf trfsgmrf. F fc`f jg nugrrf c`migsf trfjmcmeifa (ku) tmi`f 04 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsfvf 6,7 f ? qumaes. E hfc`fjãe (jf ku), qug tgrmf smje usfje pgaf jmifstmf Sein ceitrf f cfvfafrmf pgsfjf, tmi`f 3 hgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsfvf 7 qumaes.

E telm lflfuref jes hferms jf Ievf Rgaïijmf í uh hfc`fje jg nugrrf ce cfogîf jg kgrre g cgrcf jg uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite. Ghoerf krgqugitghgitg tfa`fje ceh frtg iftmvf, í uhf frhf mispmrfjf pgaes hfc`fjes trfzmjes pgaes ceaeimzfjergs ormtïimces. E tfofrzmi í f fc`f jg nugrrf pgrsf. Zgh uhf eu jufs aïhmifs gh kerhf jg crgscgitg, e nuhg ceivgxe veatfje pfrf kerf g uhf `fstg kmif @æ uhf vgrsãeceh curtf, ceh cgrcf jg =4 cgitèhgtres g uhf aeinf, ceh 6,7g fhgtæamcf. ?,6 hgtres. Nfijfsf í uh iehg jfje if Èijmf g Tfqumstãe f værmes mistruhgites fnrèceafs jg certg, tfms cehe kfc÷gs, hfc`gtgs, pej÷gs g kemcgs. Wh tmpe qug sg pfrgcg ce uh hfc`fje jg kea`f agvg kem cgagormzfje pgae kmahg pfqumstfiâs Hfuaf pfqumstfiâs Hfuaf Bftt , ie qufa í usfje pgae `gróm jgssg jgss g iehg. iehg.

Zrmjgitgs curtes E trmjgitg, vfrmgjfjg jf afiîf usfjf ermnmifahgitg if cfîf g pgscf e jgrmvfje je kercfje fnrèceaf, í f frhf smhoóamcf jg Tesgmjei if hmteaenmf nrgnf g je jgus S`mvf g jf jgusf Jurnf if hmteaenmf mijmfif (if qufa í c`fhfje trmsùaf trmsùaf). ). Gh _ehf, e trmjgitg kem usfje gh cehoftgs jg nafjmfjergs per cehoftgitgs c`fhfjes rgcmærmes, qug ghpui`fvfh uh trmjgitg (kuscmif (kuscmif   eu trmjgis trmjgis)) buite ce uhf tfrrfkf eu rgjg (rgtg (rgtg), ), precurfije ‑pgscfr‘ e fjvgrsærme qug grf ngrfahgitg uh sgcuter sgcuter,, eu sgbf, uh nafjmfjer frhfjes ceh naæjme eu pui`fa g uh gahe gspgcmfa, gstmamzfje cehe uh pgmxg, ceh tepe rgjeije pfrf iãe sgr prgse if rgjg g jufs pgqugifs fogrturfs pfrf es eaès, pfrf pretgngr e reste je trmjgitg. Mjâitmce g prevfvgahgitg jgrmvfje je mijeiísme c`fofin c`fofin   er tbfofin (tglpmi if Hfaæsmf) Hfaæsmf) usfje if frtg hfrcmfa pgitb hfrcmfa pgitbfl fl smaft sm aft g per suf vgz jgrmvfje jf vgrsãe curtf je trmsùaf trmsùaf   mijmfie, e sfm bfpeiâs í uhf frhf gspgcmfahgitg òtma pfrf fpfrfr, ghoerfpgaf tfhoíh pessf usfje pfrf g neapgfr. Kem usfje ermnmifahgitg peaècmf jg sgr Elmifwf. Ifs fpui`fafr frtgs hfrcmfms, iãe tgh peitf fnuîfjf g í usfje gh pfrgs, sgije gkmcmgitg pfrf oaequgfr g cfpturfr frhfs mimhmnfs eu pfrf neapgfr. Zgh 37 f 74 cgitèhgtres g pgsf jg 044 nrfhfs f 6,? qumae.

Kemcmi`fs E lfhf eu lfm í uhf kemcg fnrèceaf (:4 cgitèhgtres, ceh aïhmif jg 67 f 34 cgitèhgtres), qug tfhoíh kem usfjf cehe frhf ie Bfpãe, äs vgzgs fes pfrgs g fmijf í cehuh gh jgheistrfî÷gs jg frtgs hfrcmfms. bm zùf z ùf amfi (‑kemcg pí jg nfami`f‘) í uhf frhf c`migsf sghga`fitg ä lfhf hfsE ceh uh gsperãe trfsgmre ftræs jf aïhmif prmicmpfa g uhf peitf jg lfhf, afiîf, supgrmer. Zgh cgrcf jg :; cgitèhgtres. F frmt   í uhf kemcmi`f ceh kerhf jg crgscgitg g cfoe curte, usfjf if frtg hfrcmfa mijeiísmf je pgitbfl smaft. Tgsf ?74 nrfhfs g tgh :: cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite. F cgaurmt  eu eu sfomt   íí uhf kemcmi`f mijeiísmf hfmer qug f frmt, ceh pgse jg 704 nrfhfs g 74 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, tèpmcf jf ma`f jg Hfjurf. F cfael í eutrf kemcmi`f mijeiísmf, ceh f curvf hgies fcgitufjf qug f cgaurmt . Tgsf 7;4 nrfhfs g tgh 7; cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite. lubuinm lujm frhf, F lubfin, eucehe í uhfietfjfhgitg kemcmi`f hejmkmcfjf, ermnmiærmf jg smaft Bfvf Ecmjgitfa g usfjf fpgifs if frtg hfrcmfa pgitb hfrcmfa pgitbfl fl sma ft . Jgrmvfjf jg mhpaghgites fnrèceafs usfjes je sícuae M[ fe [MM, surnmu cehe frhf ie sícuae MP. Ie sícuae PMM, f aïhmif curvf tmi`f f kerhf jf ma`f jg Bfvf, rgprgsgitfije e mjgfa jg uimkmcfîãe jf ma`f, if ípecf jmvmjmjf, ceh trâs kurmiès qug rgprgsgitfh f Zrmhurtm, f trmijfjg `miju kerhfjf per Orfhf, [msìu g S`mvf g es trâs rgmies prmicmpfms jg Bfvf. Ceh f msafhmzfîãe (6:04-67:;), f aïhmif kem uh peuce hejmkmcfjf pfrf aghorfr f agtrf ærfog s`mi s`mi,, prmhgmrf jf pfafvrf s`f`fjf,, ‑tgstghuiè‘ eu prekmssãe jg kí huîuahfif, ceh cmice kurmiès qug s`f`fjf rgprgsgitfh es cmice pmafrgs je Msaã. E cfoe g f ofmi`f sãe ngrfahgitg terigfjes ceh f kerhf jg tmnrgs. E cehprmhgite í jg ?= f 3? cgitèhgtres (aïhmif jg 6=) g e pgse jg 3?4 f :44 nrfhfs.

Afiîfs curtfs Ghoerf fs afiîfs sgbfh ngrfahgitg usfjfs cehe frhfs jg `fstg eu jg frrghgsse, fanuhfs afiîfs humte curtfs kerfh ceicgomjfs pfrf sgrgh usfjfs g cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe, cehe uhf fjfnf eu gspfjf curtf. mlawf (e iehg vgh je seh qug kfz fe sgr frrficfjf je cerpe jf vètmhf) í uhfF frhf pgcuamfr jgrmvfjf jf fzfnfmf, crmfjf pgae rgm zuau S`flf per veatf jg 6044. Cehe e naæjme rehfie, gssf afiîf curtf (;4 cgitèhgtres jg `fstg g 34 jg peitf jg fîe) grf usfjf pfrf gstecfr gh cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe jgpems jg frrghgssfjfs fs fzfnfmfs. F hflurf yfrm (‑afiîf jg trfvgssgmre‘), grf uhf afiîf curtf usfjf ie Bfpãe, jg ;4 f =4 cgitèhgtres, gsceijmjf ie trfvgssgmre cehe jgkgsf ceitrf fssfssmies. F luifm iãe í preprmfhgitg uhf afiîf, hfs uhf kgrrfhgitf cehuh qug gvgitufahgitg kem mhprevmsfjf cehe frhf. Í uhf pgîf jg kgrre kuijmje jg ?4 f ;4 cgitèhgtres, ceh uhf gspætuaf gh kerhf jg kea`f peitujf, sgh nuhgs, ce

ghpui`fjurf g uh pehe figa. Ierhfahgitg, sgrvmf tfite cehe jg pgjrgmre pfrf trfofaès gh gh favgifrmf qufite pfrf cfvfr g frrficfr rfèzgstrea`f g grvfs gh trfofaès jg èrtf g bfrjmifngh. Imibfs fs mhprevmsfvfh gh pui`fa eu peitf jg afiîf eu f usfvfh cehe ïicerf eu pmteh jg fapmimshe, fhfrrfije uhf cerjf gh sgu figa. Whf luifm luifm   jg :4 cgitèhgtres pgsf pgae hgies ?44 nrfhfs. [gijgjergs jg frhfs pfrf fprgijmzgs jg frtgs hfrcmfms èbg ekgrgcgh supestfs luifm   qug tâh peucf sghga`fiîf ceh fs pgîfs rgfms g sãe, if rgfamjfjg, kfcfs luifm frrghgssævgms eu afiîfs curtfs ceh peitf gh aesfine. E hfju eu ‑gscuje jg kfqumr‘ í uhf frhf mijmfif jg jmkècma cafssmkmcfîãe2 u nufrjf-hãe eu pgqugie gscuje cmrcuafr (?4 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre) jg fîe e ceure, ceh jems c`mkrgs jg fitèaepg ceh peitfs ceogrtfs jg fîe prgses per træs, uh fpeitfije pfrf cfjf afje, ceh gxtgisãe jg ;4 cgitèhgtres jg peitf f peitf jes c`mkrgs. Tejg sgr usfje tfite pfrf fpfrfr qufite pfrf ftfcfr. Kem usfje pgae peve trmofa o`ma o`ma,, jf Èijmf Cgitrfa, per gspfjfc`mis g per kfqumrgs, rgamnmeses hgijmcfitgs qug iãe pejmfh usfr eutrf frhf.

Kfcfs, fjfnfs g pui`fms Humtes tmpes jg kfcfs kerfh g fmijf sãe usfjes cehe frhf jg jgkgsf pgssefa eu cehoftg hmamtfr, igstg òatmhe cfse ngrfahgitg cehe frhf jg òatmhe rgcurse. Kfcf í e tgrhe hfms ngiírmce, hfs gspgcmfahgitg fjgqufje pfrf aïhmifs jg u só nuhg. Fjfnfs sãe kfcfs nrfijgstâh jg aïhmifs jems nuhgs, gqumamorfjfs g ngrfahgitg frrghgssævgms. Tui`fms g gstmagtgs hfmsogh gstrgmtfs. Kfcãe eu hfc`gtg í uhf kfcf nrfijg, ngrfahgitg usfjf cehe kgrrfhgitf (certfr hfte, formr pmcfjfs, jgshghorfr jgshgh orfr fimhfms fimhfms foftmjes). foftmjes) .

Tui`fms Tu i`fms g gstmagt gstmagtgs gs (kfc (kfcfs fs jg gstec gstecfjf) fjf) E pui`fa (minaâs jfnngr krficâs pemnifrj)) í uhf kfcf ag agvg, vg, jg aïh a ïhmif mif gstrgmtf gstrgm tf jfnngr,, krficâs pemnifrj g peitf fnuîfjf, usfjf kuijfhgitfahgitg pfrf fpui`fafr. If Mjfjg Híjmf g _gifscgiîf, grf usfjf per ieorgs g cfvfagmres cehe frhf sgcuijærmf g per ournugsgs cehe frhf hfs jg jgkgsf pgssefa. Fs frhfs hgjmgvfms nufrjf g cruz g pehe gskírmce, e pui`fa jg rejgafs (reijga jfnngrtmi`fh jfnngr) ) í f kerhf tèpmcf je sícuae P[, cfrfctgrmzfjf per nufrjf g pehe gh kerhf jg rejgafs. Zg cehprmhgite tetfa jg 34 f 74 cgitèhgtres, aïhmif trmfinuafr g 344 f 744 nrfhfs. F pfrtmr je sícuae PMP, pui`fms veatfrfh f sgr usfjes cehe kfcf jg cehoftg hmamtfr. E gstmagtg (stmagtte stmagtte)) í uh pui`fa jg aïhmif gstrgmtf, ceh eu sgh nuhg, usfje fpgifs pfrf fpui`fafr. Cfpfzgs jg pgigtrfr cetfs jg hfa`f, buitfs jg frhfjurfs jg pafcfs g vmsgmrfs jes gahes, grfh krgqugitghgitg usfjes per cfvfagmres hgjmgvfms pfrf gxgcutfr fjvgrsærmes cfèjes g hertfahgitg kgrmjes, jfè sgrg tfhoíh ‑hmsgrmcórjmfs‘. Cehe frhff kfvermtf jesjgfssfssmies jf Mjfjgg Híjmf g c`fhfjes _gifscgiîf fe sícuae PMP, nfièu rgputfîãe frhf crmhmiesf trfmîegmrf g kem krgqugitghgitg premomjf. Ghoerf kæcma jg gsceijgr, prevecf kgrmhgites hgiergs qug eutres tmpes jg kfcfs g pfrf sgr hertfa, jgpgijg jf `fomamjfjg je usuærme pfrf ftminmr uh órnãe vmtfa ceh uh só neapg – f hgies qug, cehe kem cehuh, f aïhmif kessg givgigifjf (tgije pfrf gssg kmh uh suace pfrf rgtgr e vgigie). Ngrfahgitg tgh 34 f :4 cgitèhgtres g ?44 f 344 nrfhfs. E ghgmcm eu ‑fjfnf ghgm‘ (jg uh hestgmre S`feami qug kmcfvf smtufje ie heitg Ghgm, cei`gcmje per usæ-afs) í uh gstmagtg jg jufs peitfs, sgnurfje pgae hgme, qug í usfje fes pfrgs gh frtgs hfrcmfms c`migsfs. Cfjf uh tgh cgrcf jg ?7 cgitèhgtres g =4 nrfhfs.

Fjfnfs (kfcfs jg jems nuhgs) Whf fjfnf í gh pertunuâs uhf kfcf jg jems nuhgs afrnf, reoustf g og gqumamorfjf, qug pejg sgr usfjf pfrf certfr eu pfrf fpfrfr frhf je fjvgrsærme g ngrfahgitg tgh e pgse jmstrmouèje jg kerhf f sgr frrghgssævga. E gqumvfagitg minaâs jfnngr jfnngr g e krficâs jfnug jfnug sãe sãe hfmsNrfijgs forfingitgs, micaumije e qug jg sg c`fhfrmf gh gpertunuâs jg ‑pui`fa‘. jghfms pfrf tfhoíh sgrgh kæcgms gsceijgr, cfrrgnfjfs gh ofmi`fs pgijurfjfs if cmiturf g usfjfs gh jugaes g autfs fogrtfs, iãe tâh f ceietfîãe ‑trfmîegmrf‘ jes gstmagtgs g pui`fms. E punme grf f fjfnf jg aïhmif afrnf usfjf cehe frhf sgcuijærmf pgaes agnmeiærmes rehfies, jg ermngh cgatmogrf. F aïhmif, trmfinuafr eu gh kerhf jg kea`f, tmi`f 67 f ?0 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 7 jg afrnurf, buitfije-sg f uhf ghpui`fjurf jg 64 f 63 cgitèhgtres. Tgsfvf jg :74 f >44 nrfhfs. F fjfnf ceaèif (oeaaecl jfnngr) jfnngr) kem uh tmpe jg fjfnf pepuafr if Gscfijmiævmf, Kafijrgs g Nrã-Orgtfi`f je sícuae PMMM fe P[MMM, cubf ghpui`fjurf, grf prepesmtfahgitg kgmtf fgh kerhf jg kfae grgte, cehngrfahgitg tgstècuaes.kgmtf If jg grfouxe, vmtermfif, es ceagcmeifjergs c`fhfvfh, pujmcfhgitg, jg lmjigy jfnngr jfnngr (‑fjfnf jg rmis‘). Zmi`f 37 f :7 cgitèhgtres (aïh (aï hmif jg ?4 f 34) g ?44 f :44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Jgrmvfjf jf fjfnf jg ofnes, f jmrl kem uh tmpe jg fjfnf nrfijg usfje prmicmpfahgitg per hfrmi`gmres g pmrftfs, hfs tfhoíh pgaes gscecgsgs jfs tgrrfs fatfs (`mnàfijgrs (`mnàfijgrs), ), ceh ghpui`fjurf jg 64 cgitèhgtres, aïhmif jg 34 f :4 cgitèhgtres g :44 f ;44 nrfhfs. Fjfnfs jg fpfrfr ( pfrrymin pfrrym in jfnngr eu jfnngr eu hfmi-nfuc`g hfmi-nfuc`g)) grfh reoustfs g tmi`f e hgshe gstmae jg nufrjf gh cgste eu ceic`fs jfs rfpmgmrfs ceh fs qufms kerhfvfh ceibuite g grfh ierhfahgitg jugaes g cehoftgs pfrf sgrgh usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg if jgkgsfusfjfs ceh fghgsqugrjf, giqufite cmvms, f gspfjf ftfcfvf ceh f jmrgmtf. Zmi`fh cgrcf jg :? cgitèhgtres g pgsfvfh :74 nrfhfs. Whf vfrmfitg c`fhfjf qugorf-gspfjf (swerj orgflgr) orgflgr) tmi`f rfiùrfs pgrte jf ofsg ceh fs qufms sg pejmf prgijgr (g, tgermcfhgitg, qugorfr) f gspfjf je mimhmne. F fjfnf-trmjgitg ( (trmjgit trmjgit jfnngr) jfnngr) tmi`f uhf aïhmif trmpaf cubfs aftgrfms pejmfh sgr fogrtfs per uhf heaf cehe fs pgrifs jg uh cehpfsse, kfcmamtfije f jgkgsf eu f cfpturf jf frhf mimhmnf. If _gifscgiîf g miècme jf Mjfjg Hejgrif, faíh jg sgrgh usfjfs pfrf jgkgsf pgssefa, fs fjfnfs sg terifrfh cehuis cehe frhf jg rgsgrvf jg hgrcgiærmes cubf frhf prmicmpfa grf uhf uhf afiîf, a fiîf, pmqug eu fanuh fanuh tmpe jg fafofr fafofrjf. jf. F fjfnf ofsgafrjf (ofsgafrj, gh faghãe faghãe Ofsagr, ‑ofsmagmgisg‘ ‑ofsmagmgisg‘   e

Sc`wgmzgrjeac`, ‑fjfnf suèîf‘) kem uhf fjfnf nrfijg usfjf je sícuae PMMM fe P[, cehe frhf sgcuijærmf sgcuijærmf per hgrcgiærmes suèîes cubf frhf prmicmpfa grf e pmqug. Suf cfrfctgrèstmcf grf tgr pehe g nufrjf gh kerhf jg crgscgitgs, jfije ä ghpui`fjurf f kerhf jg uh @. Whf jfs eorfs hfms kfhesfs je frtmstf @fis @eaogmi, e Bevgh, kem uhf ‑Jfiîf jf Hertg‘ if ofmi`f jg uhf jgssfs fjfnfs, qug per msse í cei`gcmjf tfhoíh cehe ‑fjfnfjf@eaogmi‘ 6=33 @eaogmiJeac`). ).Zmi`f Kem tfhoíh fjetfjf pgaes pfrfhmamtfrgs ifzmstfs SF, jg ( @eaogmi-Jeac` f 6=37. cehprmhgite jg 37 f :7 cgitèhgtres, aïhmif jg ?? f 34 g pgsfvf ?>7 f 774 nrfhfs. [fag ietfr qug ies sícuaes P[M g P[MM, es krficgsgs pfssfrfh f c`fhfr jg ‑ofsgafr ‑ofs gafrjf‘ jf‘ kfcfs curvfs jg uh só nuh nuhg. F l`fibfam (gh russe, lmijbfa, gh cmrcfssmfie fjmn`f nlfhf) nlfhf) í uhf fjfnf tèpmcf jf Ngórnmf g je Cæucfse, eijg kem usfjf cehe frhf sgcuijærmf, qug tfhoíh kem fjetfjf pgaes cessfces je Jei. Zgh ghpui`fjurf jgcerfjf g kerhf jg @ g cehprmhgite tetfa jg :4 f :7 cgitèhgtres, ceh aïhmif jg ?> cgitèhgtres g pgse jg ?74 nrfhfs. teet `pmcl (‑pfamte jg jgitgs je Frlfisfs‘) í uh tmpe jg fjfnf jg teet`pmcl F Frlfisfs aïhmif afrnf g trmfinuafr qug kem pepuafr gh jugaes ie sua jes GWF je sícuae PMP g gitrg hfrmi`gmres, ceh 34 f 74 cgitèhgtres g :74 f >44 nrfhfs. E cerve í uhf trfjmcmeifa kfcf curvf c`magif jg jems nuhgs g peitf fnuîfjf, fmijf èbg usfjf pgaes cehfijes je gxírcmte jgssg pfès. E cerve curve tg curvfturf hfms fcgitufjf, jeorfije-sg gh =4 nrfus ie tgrîe jmfitgmre jf aïhmif, giqufite e cerve ftfcfhgiè tgh curvfturf hfms sufvg. F aïhmif tgh cgrcf jg 34 cgitèhgtres. F omaafe eu ogafwf í uhf fjfnf cfrfctgrèstmcf jf Sehæamf, ceh ghpui`fjurf jg esse g pehe jg trâs peitfs. Kem usfjf pgaes jgrvmxgs, kerîf huîuahfif qug

rgsmstmu ceaeimzfîãe g mtfamfif ie hgies kmh je ?> sícuae PMP g miècme je PP autfvfhägh trfisg cehormtïimcf gssf frhf. Zgh pgae cgitèhgtres jg aïhmif g ::g jg cehprmhgite tetfa, ceh pgse jg ?74 nrfhfs. F bfhom bfhomyf yf (ie Mâhgi) eu l`fibfr   (ie Ehã, Gnmte g Mrã) í uhf kfcf curvf ærfog jg jems nuhgs (e cúicfve í e prmicmpfa) g peitf fnuîfjf, qug trfjmcmeifah trfjmcm eifahgit gitgg grf usfjf per tejes es èhgis èhgis f pfrtmr jes 6: fies g èbg í hfms cfrfctgrèstmcf cfrfctgr èstmcf.. Zgh :4 f 74 cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgi cehprmhgite te g pgsf pgs f ?44 f 744 nrfhfs. F omc`fwf, omc`wf eu omc`”`wf (‑gscerpmãe‘) í uhf fjfnf mijmfif jg kerhf tfhoíh eijuafjf jg c`mkrg jg oòkfae, ceh cgrcf jg 34 cgitèhgtres, äs vgzgs jg aïhmif omkurcfjf. F omc`fwf ofn` ifl` í uhf cehomifîãe jgssf frhf ceh fs ‑nfrrfs‘ je ofn` ifl` ifl` (‑nfrrf jg tmnrg‘), sgbf fcrgscgitfije fs nfrrfs ä ghpui`fjurf jf omc`fwf, sgbf sehfije f aïhmif jf omc`fwf omc`fwf fe fe ofn` ifl`. ifl`. Gstf

òatmhf frhf kem usfjf per S`mvfbm, e prmhgmre mhpgrfjer Hfrft`f, pfrf ftfcfr g hftfr e ngigrfa fkgnãe Fkzfa L`fi gh 6;7=. F pùrof eu lmaf í uhf fjfnf rmtufa tmogtfif, usfjf gh gxercmshes, ce aïhmif jg trâs kfcgs g uh pehe ceh e reste tfhoíh trèpamcg jg uhf jmvmijfjg. F crms, cehe f c`fhfvfh es gxpaerfjergs pertunugsgs (lrms (lrms   gh minaâs g tfm, inmrms inmrms gh gh bfvfiâs, lgrms gh lgrms gh hfafme)ghí fBfvf fjfnf je Sujgstg Fsmætmce g Frqumpíafne Hfafme. Ermnmifjf percfrfctgrèstmcf veatf je sícuae MP, gspfaèu-sg pgaf Mijeiísmf, Hfaæsmf g Kmampmifs g jgpems pfrf f Zfmaïijmf. F aïhmif, jg jems nuhgs (hfs usfjf só pfrf fpui`fafr) g krgqugitghgitg jgcerfjf, pejg sgr rgtf e tgr trâs eu hfms auls auls eu eu eijuafî÷gs (sghprg uh iòhgre èhpfr, äs vgzgs c`gnfije f 63), qug tgijgh f fuhgitfr f nrfvmjfjg jes kgrmhgites. Äs vgzgs, grfh tfhoí givgigifjfs. Oujmstfs g `mijuèstfs jãe fe puiè f kerhf jg uhf gstftugtf giqufite es huîuahfies usfh puiès smhpags eu ceh jgcerfîãe fostrftf. G tghpe jg pfz, es èhgis cestuhfvfh usfr uhf crms. If nugrrf, usfvf-sg ftí trâs – ä gsqugrjf, ä jmrgmtf jmrg mtf g ftræs – g sg cehoftmf cehoftmf ceh jufs. [grs÷gs aeinfs aeinfs g rgtfs grfh usfjfsjggh gxgcuî÷gs, tetfa cehg uh neapg ie cerfîãe. Zâh 37 f 74 cgitèhgtres cehprmhgite pgsfh 374cgrtgmre f 744 nrfhfs. Fcrgjmtf-sg qug e gspèrmte jf crms prgcmsf sgr rgnuafrhgitg rgbuvgigscmje. Zejf qumitf-kgmrf, e jeie a`g kfz ekgrgijfs g f ofi`f gh kuhfîf jg micgise. Whf vgz per fie (pfrf es huîuahfies, ie Hu`frrfh), f aïhmif í afvfjf rmtufahgitg gh wfrfinfi wfrfinfi   (uhf seauîãe jg suce jg amhf g frsâimce) g gh sgnumjf amhpf g eagfjf. Iãe rgstf frsâimce sukmcmgitg if aïhmif pfrf givgigifr uhf vètmhf2 e rmtufa fpgifs crmf pfjr÷gs eijuafjes if supgrkècmg jf aïhmif qug supestfhgitg rgvgafvfh sgu cfrætgr hænmce. E fspgcte givga`gcmje grf fprgcmfje, hgshe qug f cerresãe cerr esãe c`gnfssg f crmfr cr mfr pgqugies pgqugies kures kures if aïh aï hmif. Ftrmouèf-sg fpeitfije-f pejgrgs hænmces frhfs. pejmfh hftfr smhpagshgitg pfrf ff humtfs vètmhf jgssfs – hfnmf humteKgmtmcgmres tghmjf, c`fhfjf tubu.. tubu Zfhoíh pejmfh, ifs agijfs, trfiskgrmr uh kene jg uh aunfr pfrf eutre, e cècfa`fr pfrf fjvgrtmr e jeie jg uh pgrmne eu fhgfîf mhmigitg. Ea`fr pgaes kurmiès crmfjes pgaf cerresãe if aïhmif jg uhf crms hænmcf pejmf jgsvgijfr e kutu kuture re eu rgvgafr rgvg afr jmskfrcgs jmskfrcg s hænmces. hænmces. F hfms kfhesf jfs crms kem f Zfhmin Sfrm, Sfrm, qug pgrtgicgu f @fin Zuf`, `gróm qug sgrvmu fe suatãe Hf`huj S`f` (6:00-6766) g jgag rgcgogu f frhf cehe prâhme per tgr jgrretfje e nugrrgmre Zfhmin Sfrm, tmje cehe mivgicèvga. Sgnuije f agijf, kerf kerbfjf ceh ?6 jmkgrgitgs hgtfms, seorf jes pfrfkuses usfjes if ceistruîãe jf Cffof g sfatfvf jf ofmi`f g vefvf sezmi`f pfrf ftfcfr qug fhgfîfssg sgu jeie. Whf crms qug sgrmf f Zfhmin Sfrm í èbg pfrtg je tgseure

rgfa je suatãe jg Tgrfl, if Hfaæsmf. F rgicein í uhf vfrmgjfjg jf crms usfjf if rgnmãe jg Fcg`, if ma`f jg Suhftrf, Mijeiísmf. Ceh aïhmif jg 64 f 74 cgitèhgtres, í cfrfctgrmzfjf per uhf ghpui`fjurf qug aghorf f cerei`f jg uhf pmsteaf. F lfams í uhf vfrmgjfjg jf crms usfjf ifs Kmampmifs jgsjg e sícuae PMMM, hfmer g hgies jgcerfjf g usfjf tfhoíh pfrf certfr, iãe só pfrf fpui`fafr. Zgh aïhmif jg :7 f ;4 cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres g pgsf :74 f ;44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. E nuiein eu puiy puiyfa fa í uhf lfams lfams   pgqugif g smhpamkmcfjf, qug sg terieu hfms cehuh f pfrtmr jg 6=67, qufije es ceaeimzfjergs gstfjuimjgisgs premomrfh es kmampmies jg usfr f lfams lfams   trfjmcmeifa. Zgh aïhmif rgtf eu eijuafjf jg 67 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg ?: g pgse jg 644 f 674 nrfhfs.

Kfcfs jg cehoftg (jg uh só nuhg) Kfcfs jg cehoftg (cehoft limvgs), limvgs), krgqugitghgitg cehprfjfs e mhprevmsfjfs g usfjfs gh cfrætgr pfrtmcuafr per seajfjes jg tejfs fs ípecfs cehe frhf jg rgsgrvf, pfssfrfh f sgr pfrtg je gqumpfhgite ekmcmfa f pfrtmr jf M Nugrrf Huijmfa, qufije fs autfs cerpe-f-cerpe hestrfrfh sgr hfms mhpertfitgs qug fs ami am i`fs jg cehoftg cehoftg trfjmcmeifms. trfjmcm eifms. C`fhfjfs mimcmfahgitg kfcfs jg trmic`gmrf (trgic` limvgs), limvgs), f prmhgmrf f sgr kerigcmjf fes seajfjes kem f faghã If`lfhpkhgssgr faghã If`lfhpkhgssgr (‑kfcf (‑kfcf jg cehoftg cerpe-fcerpe‘), uhf kfcf smhpags ceh uh só nuhg (ghoerf pfrgîf tgr jems nuhgs), ce aïhmif jg 6; cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite jg ?0 cgitèhgtres g 6:4 nrfhfs. Es krficgsgs g minagsgs sg frrfibfvfh ceh e caeus krfiîfms (‑ui`f krficgsf‘, g minaâs krgic` ifma), ifma), uh pui`fa mhprevmsfje ceh uh pgjfîe jg frfhg kfrpfje faghãe jg 34 f :4 cgitèhgtres, jeorfje pfrf kerhfr uhf ghpui`fjurf jg uis 64 cgitèhgtres g hfrtgafje if peitf pfrf kerhfr uhf aïhmif jg 0 f 60 cgitèhgtres. If M Nugrrf es GWF prgkgrmrfh uhf kfcf jg jems nuhgsgh ceh aïhmif gscurgcmjf jg 6>Huijmfa, cgitèhgtres g uhf pgsfjf ghpui`fjurf jg oreizg kerhf jg sequgmrf ceh peitfs (qug faíh jg kgrmrgh, jmkmcuatfvfh fe fjvgrsærme tgitfr tehæ-af) g uh puiè peituje, cei`gcmjf cehe ‑Hfrl M‘. Zmi`f ?= cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite tetfa g 3=7 nrfhfs. If MM Nugrrf Huijmfa, f kfatf jg oreizg g f hujfiîf jg hítejes kmzgrfh es GWF usfrgh f H3, ceh aïhmif jg 6> cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 34 cgitèhgtres g ghpui`fjurf ceivgicmeifa jg hfjgmrf, pgsfije ?:4 nrfhfs, crmtmcfjf per sgr humte krænma g qugorfr-sg qufije sg tgitfvf usæ-af pfrf formr aftfs eu cfmxfs jg huimî÷gs. Fs kfcfs jg cehoftg pestgrmergs tgijgh f sgr hfms vgrsætgms g tgr aïhmif og hfms afrnf g gspgssf, jg Es supertfr tfhoíh uses utmamtærmes g puiècehe qug pejg sgr usfje cehe cfpfz hfrtgae. GWF usfh èbggssgs f kfcf Hfrl ? (cei`gcmjf LF-OF_, e iehg je kformcfitg), qug tgh aïhmif jg 60 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 34 g pgsf 7;4 nrfhfs. E Orfsma usf f Mhoga FHR (jg ‑Fhfzúimf‘), ce aïhmiff jg ?:,> cgit aïhmi cg itèhgt èhgtres, res, cehprmhgi cehprmhgite te tetfa jg 3;,7 g pgse jg 7?4 nrfh nrfhfs. fs. F kfcf Oewmg jgvg sgu iehg f Bfhgs ‑Bmh‘ Oewmg (6>=;-603;), uh seajfje g fvgiturgmre. Sgu mrhãe fs gicehgijfvf ceh ofsg gh kfcfs jg cfîf gspfièafs g gag f pepuafrmzeu fe vgicgr uh jugae gh 60?>. F kfcf qug usfvf grf jg jerse rgte, ceh aïhmif jg ?: cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite jg 30 g pgse jg 734 nrfhfs, hfs èbg sãe c`fhfjfs c`fhfjfs jg Oewmg kfcfs jg cehoftg cehoftg nrfijgs nrfijgs ceh nufrjf, nufrjf, jg jerse jers e cúicfve if peitf (e qug micaum f LF-OF_ g f FHR). E cehprmhgite jf aïhmif pejg vfrmfr jg 67 f ;4 cgitèhgtres g e jf frhf jg 34 f >7 cgitèhgtres, pgsfije

jg 344 nrfhfs f uh qumae. E cfimvgtg ( (swmtcòafjg swmtcòafjg)) í uhf kfcf jg aïhmif jeorævga eu rgtrætma. @æ jgsjg hmimkfcfs utmamtærmfs jg oease ftí frhfs rgaftmvfhgitg nrfijgs. Fs prmhgmrfs kfcfs jeorævgms kerfh usfjfs per cgatfs g cgatmogres if Fitmnumjfjg, f pfrtmr jg ;44 f.C., g ceitmiufrfh gh use gitrg cfhpeigsgs rehfies g hgjmgvfms. Kerf prejuzmjfs cehgrcmfahgitg f pfrtmr jg 6;74 g terifrfh-sg pepuafrgs ies GWF f pfrtmr jf Nugrrf Cmvma, qufije kem mitrejuzmje e cfimvgtg futehætmce eu cfimvgtg jg heaf. F pfrtmr jg kmis je sícuae PMP, jmkuijmu-sg per teje e huije2 f vgrsãe fpeigsf, e `mneielfhm `mneielfhm,, kem prejuzmjf f pfrtmr jg 60=4. Gh ngrfa sãe jeorævgms, hfs `æ tfhoíh hejgaes rgtrætgms. F aïhmif pejg sgr kmxfjf per trfvf futehætmcf eu pgaf smhpags prgssãe jes jgjes je usuærme. If hfmermf jes cfses sãe utmamtærmes, hfs `æ hejgaes sukmcmgitghgitg nrfijgs pfrf sgrgh usfjes g cehoftg, ceh aïhmifs jg vmitg f trmitf cgitèhgtres, g sãe pepuafrgs gitrg crmhmieses. Cfimvgtgs-pui`fms (stmagtte (stmagtte swmtcòafjgs) swmtcòafjgs) jg ermngh mtfamfif tâ aïhmif rgtrætma g peitujf jg 7 f :; cgitèhgtres pfrf gstecfr (äs vgzgs sgh nuhg). Kfcfs oewmg jeorævgms pejgh tgr ftí 34 E cfimvgtg huatmkgrrfhgitf eu aïhmifs cfimvgtgjgsuèîe kemcgitèhgtres. crmfje gh 60=6 cehe kfcf utmamtærmf pfrf e Gxírcmte Suèîe g if suf vgrsãe hmamtfr hejgrif tgh 66,6 cgitèhgtres jeorfje g 6=,> fogrte, ceh pgse jg 636 nrfhfs. Eutres hejgaes tâ 7,0 f 6? cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres qufije jeorfjes. F ifvfa`f (strfmnt` rfzer) rfzer) í uhf aïhmif jg 6? f 60 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite (> f 6? ceh nuhg) g uh f jems jg afrnurf, qug sg jeorf jgitre jg uh cfoe jems cgitèhgtres hfmer, kerhfije uhf kfcf jg ?4 f 34 cgitèhgtres. Mivgitfjfs if Minaftgrrf gh 6;04 pfrf ofrogfr, ceitmiufh f sgr usfjfs ftí èbg, ghoerf fs aïhmifs jgscfrtævgms tgi`fh cehgîfje f suostmtuè-afs jgsjg e miècme je PP.ceh Sgije kæcma jgkem gsceijgr g gxtrghfhgitg cfpfzhfafijres jg certfr uhfsícuae nfrnfitf kfcmamjfjg, krgqugitghgitg usfjf perfkmfjf, fssfssmies, g crmhmieses, hgshe sgije f aïhmif humte hfms krænma qug f jg uhf kfcf ceivgicmeifa. ceivgi cmeifa. E pgse vfm jg >7 f 674 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. F ofamsein eu kfcf-oeroeagtf (outtgrkay limkg) limkg) í uhf kfcf jeorævga cfrfctgrèstmcf jfs Kmampmifs. F aïhmif tgh uh cfoe jupae qug pejg sgr kgc`fje, nufrjfije f aïhmif jgitre jfs ‑fsfs‘ qug, qufije jgsjeorfjfs, vmrfjfs pfrf træs g trfvfjfs, kerhfh uhf ghpui`fjurf aeinf. E hejgae kghmimie, ‑?:‘, tg aïhmif jg 66 cgitèhgtres, 63 cgitèhgtres qufije jeorfjf g ?: cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite qufije heitfjf, ceh pgse jg 664 f ??4 nrfhfs. E hejgae hfscuamie, c`fhfje ‑?=‘, tgh ?= cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite tetfa. @æ tfhoí hejgaes hma mamtfrgs mtfrgs jg 3? f :7 cgitèhgtres. cgitèhgtres.

Zfite í f kfcf jg cehoftg cfrfctgrèstmcf je Bfpãe, ceh ghpui`fjurf g aïhmif

curtfs, hfs sghga`fitgs äs jf cftfif. Ter agm, f aïhmif iãe pejmf sgr hfmer qug uh s`flu (34,3 cgitèhgtres) – fcmhf jmsse, sgrmf cafssmkmcfjf cehe wflmzfs`m s`flu (34,3 wflmzfs`m,, jg use rgstrmte. F ghpui`fjurf tgh 67 cgitèhgtres g f aïhmif vfrmf jg 67 f 34 cgitèhgtres, ceh jems f trâs cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf. E pgse vfrmf jg ?>4 f 774 nrfhfs. Fs hfmergs grfh c`fhfjfs etfite (‑kfcf nrfijg‘). Sfhurfms qug usfvf uh tfc`m tfc`m   ierhfahgitg cfrrgnfvfh tfhoíh uhf tfite tfite,, qug hfms rfrfhgitg tfhoíh tfh oíh suostmtuèf f wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m fe fe afje jg uhf cftfif. Fmluc`m í uh gstmae jg heitfngh jg tfite tfite   sgh nufrjf, e qug pgrhmtg qug f ofmi`f g f ghpui`fjurf sg gicfmxgh iuhf só pgîf, terifije f frhf hfms jmscrgtf. Lfmlgi grf uhf tfite tfite   pgqugif (aïhmif jg 0 f 67 cgitèhgtres), heitfjf ie gstmae fmluc`m fmluc`m   pertfjf pfrf jgkgsf pgssefa pgafs hua`grgs jes sfhurfms, qug fs agvfvfh jgitre jg sgu eom (cmite) eu jf hfinf je qumheie. Sg prgcmsfssg sumcmjfr-sg jgvgrmfh usæ-af pfrf certfr f nfrnfitf (giqufite es èhgis certfvf fhofrrmnf ceh f wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m). ). Hfms tfrjg, terieu-sg uhf frhf kfvermtf jf ]fluzf, f ækmf bfpeigsf. F yeremjes`m (‑kurf-frhfjurf‘) í uhf tfite tfite   rgkerîfjf g peitujf usfjf ie pgrèeje Sginelu (hgfjes je sícuae P[ f miècme je P[MM), usfjf pfrf pgrkurfr frhfjurfs g gh cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe. Grf cfrfctgrmzfjf pgaf aïhmif gspgssf (ftí 63 hmaèhgtres if ofsg) g tmi`f ?3 f ?0 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite tetfa, ce aïhmiff jg 6: f 6= cgitèhgtres aïhmi cgitèhgtres g pgse pg se jg 344 f 744 nrfhfs. @fc`mwfrf @fc`mw frf í uhf kfcf curvf usfjf cehe frhf sgcuijærmf per sfhurfms ce aïhmif gstrgmtf g uh jgitg eu nficè veatfje pfrf f krgitg buite ä ghpui`fjurf, qug pejmf sgr usfje pfrf fpfrfr f gspfjf je fjvgrsærme, pfrf ginfic`fr fs cerjfs jg uhf bfpeigsf eu sgpfrfr sufs pafcfs cehe uh formjer jg aftfs. Zmi`f 34 ffrhfjurf :7 cgitèhgtres. Luomzfs`m í uhf kfcf ceh aïhmif jg 6? f 67 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 6,3 cgitèhgtre jg afrnurf, usfjf per sfhurfms pfrf cfrrgnfr f cfogîf jg mimhmnes jgcfpmtfjes. F ofs`mi eu uhfofrm, jg tfhfiè sghga`fitg, grf usfjf pfrf kfzgr sfinrmfs gh cfvfaes ceh prgssãe sfinuèigf gxcgssmvf. Lezulf eu lenftfif í uhf kfqumi`f utmamtærmf, ceh =,7 cgitèhgtres jg ghpui`fjurf g 64,7 jg aïhmif, qug grf nufrjfjf ie oease jf ofmi`f jg uhf kfcf eu gspfjf g gvgitufahgitg pejmf sgr frrghgssfjf. Gh eutre oease mf f lenfm, ceh uhf aïhmif sgh nuhg g tgrhmifjf iuhf cea`grmi`f, usfje cehe nrfhpe jg cfogae g pfrf amhpfr es euvmjes. F lulrm (gh igpfaâs lùlurm lùlurm)) í uhf kfcf curvf jg nuhg cúicfve g peitf

fkmfjf, fmijf èbg usfjf gh cehoftg pgaes rgnmhgites nurl`fs jes gxírcmtes igpfaâs, mijmfie, ormtïimce g je Oruigm. Gstf tgh cehprmhgite tetfa jg :4 f :7 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res g pgsf pgs f :74 f =44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. F lmrpfi (‑hãe jf hmsgrmcórjmf‘) í uhf kfcf curvf jg nuhg ceivgxe qug í sèhoeae jf rgamnmãe sml`, g jgvg sgr pgrhfigitghgitg pertfjf per teje sml` qug pfssf pgaf cgrmhúimf jg mimcmfîãe je Fhrmt Sfislfr (ngrfahgitg fes 6? eu 63 fies) cehe sèhoeae jg suf micerperfîãe fe gxírcmte jf vmrtujg. If kerhf trfjmcmeifa, tgh 34 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, ceh aïhmif jg 67, hfs í cehuh, prmicmpfahgitg ie Ecmjgitg, usfr lmrpfis purfhgitg smhoóamcfs, jg 67 f 6> cgitèhgtres ceh aïhmif jg >,7 f =. Hgshe fssmh, sãe krgqugitgs es hfagitgijmjes ceh e pertg jg lmrpfis per sml`s ertejexes, tehfjes per ‑frhfs ecuatfs‘ per ecmjgitfms. F pgs`-lfoz í uhf kfcf jg uh só nuhg usfjf if Zurqumf, Frhâimf, Mrã, Fkgnfimstãe g Èijmf, ermnmiærmf jf Æsmf Cgitrfa, usfjf tfite pfrf fpui`fafr qufite pfrf certfr. Zgh aïhmif jg ?0 f 33 cgitèhgtres ceh jerse rgkerîfje, pfrf pgigtrfr cetfs jgpgsfije hfa`f, qug iuhf sgîãeWhf gh Zvgrsãe g cehprmhgite :4 f :; cgitèhgtres, cgrcfrgsuatf jg ;74 nrfhfs. uh peucetetfa hfmsjgaeinf, c`fhfjf lfruj  g g uhf uh peuce hfms curtf, f cùrf, grf usfjf pgae caã pfs`t Hf`suj, je pfsse je L`yogr. Gssfs kfcfs grfh cei`gcmjfs pgaes minagsgs cehe kn`fi limvgs limvgs eu L`yogr limvgs limvgs g krgqugitghgitg usfjfs pfrf amqumjfr prmsmeigmres ormtïimces g mijmfies cfèjes. Fmijf èbg sãe usfjfs ie Fkgnfimstãe. E lgrfhomt   (if Hfaæsmf g Mijeiísmf) eu lfrfhomt   (ifs Kmampmifs), ermnmifahgitg uhf kgrrfhgitf fnrèceaf pfrf frrficfr rfèzgs, í uhf pgqugif aïhmif curvf jg nuhg cúicfve, ceh uh figa ie pehe pfrf e peagnfr, cubf ghpui`fjurf í fnfrrfjf jg hfigmrf qug f aïhmif sg prebgtg pgae afje jg kerf jf hãe, cehe nfrrf. cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres, res, uhf pgsfije ?44Ff ghpui`fjurf 344 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. tgh 63 cgitèhgtres g f aïhmif > f 67 F ofrein í uhf kfcf pgsfjf jg uh só nuhg ceh aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f jg ?4 f 7; cgitèhgtres, usfjf per trmoes msaïhmcfs je sua jfs Kmampmifs.

Kfc÷gs eu   hfc`gtg) Kfcãe eu hfc`gtg (hftc`gt eu hfc`gtg) í uhf nrfijg kfcf utmamtærmf (pfrf certfr hfte, formr form r pmcfjfs, pm cfjfs, jgshghorfr jgshghorfr fimhfms fimhfms foftmjes), ngrfahgit ngrfahgitgg ceh aïhmif aïhmif jg 34 f ;4 cgitèhgtres, iãe humte gspgssf. Tejg sgr usfjf cehe frhf, hfs tgijg f sgr jgsgqumamorfjf, ceh aïhmif tgijgije f sg fafrnfr if peitf eu ie hgme, fuhgitfije f kerîf je mhpfcte ä custf jf fnmamjfjg, g tgh aïhmif rgaftmvfhgitg kmif (ftí 3 hmaèhgtres), e qug ierhfahgitg f ceaecf gh jgsvfitfngh gh rgafîãe f uhf fjfnf nrfijg eu gspfjf curtf je hgshe tfhfiè, ghoerf pessfh pgsfr ftí jems qumaes g tgr hfms jg uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa. Wh kfcãe nfòcè (kfcói kfcói   eu cuc`maae nfucè nfucè ies pfèsgs `mspïimces) tg aïhmif jg 37 f :4 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 74 f 7> cgitèhgtres g pgsf :74 f ;74 nrfhfs. F oeae í uh hfc`gtg curve ceh 70 cgitèhgtres g =44 nrfhfs, usfje ifs Kmampmifs. F pmiutm í eutre kfcãe kmampmie, ceh aïhmif rgtf g nufrjf gh gstrmoe, tfhoíh ceh ícgrcf jg 70 jg cgitèhgtres (aïhmif jg :4 E fruvfa uh kfcãe aïhmif curvf usfje ie fsua:7jfcgitèhgtres). Èijmf. @æ jems tmpes2 e lft`mr fruvfa, kemcmi`f pfrf certfr nrfhf g cea`gr cgrgfms, jg :4 cgitèhgtres g e vggc`frmvfa, kfcãe jg aïhmif aeinf ceh nuhg qufsg rgte, curve if peitf g cúicfve, usfje pfrf certfr ceces, formr pmcfjfs g gh jgkgsf pgssefa, jg >4 cgitèhgtres f 6,? hgtre. @æ fanuhfs pgîfs ceh ftí 6,0 hgtre, qug sãe rgvgrgicmfjfs cehe frhfs sfnrfjfs jes lfvfa jgmvfh, jgmvfh, jgusgs rurfms jg Zfhma Ifju. If Mijeiísmf, Mijeiísmf, usf-sg f pfrfin tfite cehe frhf jg cfîf g cehoftg qufite pfrf formr cfhmiè if sgavf. Ceh nuhg curve g aïhmif qug sg fafrnf pfrf f peitf rehoujf, jg ;? fhfs >>tgh cgitèhgtres lagwfin í tgh sghga`fitg, nuhg rgte.g pgsf jg >44 nrfhfs f 6,? qumae. F F pfinf eu tfpfinf í usfjf if Ækrmcf Ermgitfa g je Sua g tgvg pfpga g rgogam÷gs g ceikamtes jgssfs rgnm÷gs, micausmvg ie ngiecèjme jg _ufijf gh 6==:. E cehprmhgite tetfa í jg 77 f ;4 cgitèhgtres. F aïhmif fafrnf-sg ie jerse g tg :6 f :; cgitèhgtres, pejgije sgr fkmfjf if pfrtg supgrmer micamifjf. Tgsf 774 f ;44 nrfhfs. Gh Fineaf í c`fhfjf ‑cftfif‘ g kmnurf if ofijgmrf g if misènimf jf _gpòoamcf. Cutgae (cagfvgr cagfvgr)) í uhf kfcf jg aïhmif afrnf, if cezmi`f pfrf pmcfr cfrigs g, per fîeunugmres, pfrf certfr esses. Kem usfjf pgaf mikfitfrmf cfreaèinmf pfrf amqumjfr mimhmnes cfèjes (ceh e iehg krficâs jg ceutga ceutga), ), g tfhoíh pgaes fahenævfrgs, nugrrgmres jg Frfnãe jes sícuae PMMM g PM[ cubf frhf grf c`fhfjf

(gh cftfaãe) ceatgaa ceatgaa.. Gssgs cutgaes jg nugrrf grfh peitujes g tmi`fh cgrcf jg :7 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, ceh aïhmif jg 34 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 64 jg afrnurf g pgse jg 374-:44 nrfhfs.

Kfcfs jg ghpui`fjurf pgrpgijmcuafr F lftfrf eu suwfm suwfmyf yf í uhf fjfnf cfrfctgrèstmcf jf Èijmf, ceh aïhmif trmfinuafr rgtf eu eijuafjf jg jems nuhgs g uhf ghpui`fjurf ceh f kerhf jg u @ èrmzeitfa. E usuærme sgnurf pgaf ofrrf je @, jg kerhf qug f aïhmif kmcf fpemfjf seorg sgus jgjes, cehe uhf gxtgisãe je orfîe. Í usfjf ie lfafrmppfyft , frtg hfrcmfa je sua jf Èijmf. F aïhmif tgh ?? f :4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 0 jg afrnurf g f ghpui`fjurf cgrcf jg 67 cgitèhgtres. E pgse vfrmff jg ;44 nrfhfs vfrm nrfhfs f uh qumae. F fjfnf jg mhpfcte ( pus` pus` jfnngr jfnngr eu nmhagt limkg, limkg, gh faghãe Stessjeac` e Kfusthgssgr)) í uhf frhf ecmjgitfa jgrmvfjf jf lftfrf Kfusthgssgr lftfrf,, hgier g hfms smhpags, ceh aïhmif curtf g ghpui`fjurf gh Z qug í sgnurfjf ceh e mijmcfjer g e jgje híjme. Kem humte usfjf ies GWF, Faghfi`f g Minaftgrrf je sícuae PMP cehe frhf jg jgkgsf pgssefa kæcma jg gsceijgr iuh oease eu iuhf oetf fitgs qug fs pmsteafs cehpfctfs Jgrrmingr kessgh pepuafrgs, ietfjfhgitg ies ofmrres jg hæ kfhf jg Igw Eragfis Sfi Krficmsce. Ie sícuae PP, kem usfjf per seajfjes ormtïimces ifs gtrmic`gmrfs jf Trmhgmrf Nugrrf Huijmfa g pertfhoíh cehfijes jf Sgnuijf. F vgrsãe cmvma tmi`f krgqugitghgitg uhf aïhmif jg : f 7 cgitèhgtres g cehprmhgite tetfa jg 0 f 64 cgitèhgtres, pgsfije ?4 f 34 nrfhfs. F hmamtfr pgsf 74 f 644 nrfhfs g tgh uhf aïhmif jg fjfnf jg = f 6? cgitèhgtres (eu uhf peitf jg afiîf jg 63 cgitèhgtres) g cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6; f ?4, krgqugitghgitg ceh fcfofhgit fcfofhgitee prgte g kesce pfrf gvmtfr rgkagxes ä iemtg. F scms scmsser ser   eu ‑tgseurf rehfif‘ í uhf frhf usfjf per nafjmfjergs rehfies gspgcmfamzfjes tfhoíh c`fhfjes scmsserms scmsserms.. Í uh tuoe jg hgtfa, sgnurfje per uhf ghpui`fjurf pgrpgijmcuafr mitgrif, qug ceorg e fitgorfîe g f hãe je nafjmfjer, tfhpfje ifagqug. peitf, ceh uhf `fstg curtf jf qufa sfm uhf aïhmif sghmcmrcuafr, cehe uh F iygpga í uhf frhf pgcuamfr je peve oeyf oeyf eu eu afrmh afrmh je je Sujãe je Sua. Í uhf puasgmrf jg fîe evfa ceh jufs peitfs gh kerhf jg c`mkrg, rejgfjf per uh nuhg certfitg pretgnmje per uhf ofmi`f jg ceure, prgsf per nrfhpes äs peitfs. G cehoftg, tmrf-sg f ofmi`f, gxpeije e nuhg g fs peitfs. Zgh 6: cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g = jg afrnurf g pgsf >4 nrfhfs.

Gspfjfs Fs gspfjfs kerfh frhfs humte vfaermzfjfs, hfs suf mhpertïicmf if `mstórmf hmamtfr iãe í tãe nrfijg qufite if kmcîãe. Fs frhfs jgcmsmvfs jfs oftfa`fs fitgrmergs ä grf jf póaverf kerfh, hfms krgqugitghgitg, fs afiîfs, fzfnfmfs, kagc`fs g frhfs jg `fstg, qug grfh jg hfmer facficg g hfms gkmcfzgs qufije usfjfs jg kerhf ceerjgifjf per nrfijgs ceitmingitgs. Ies gxírcmtes kgujfms fpeigsgs, gspfjfc`mis rgcgomfh f hgtfjg je seaje pfne fes aficgmres. Gh humtes cfses, fs gspfjfs tmvgrfh uh pfpga fpgifs jgkgismve, cehe frhf jg rgsgrvf ceh qug es nugrrgmres sg jgkgijmfh cfse sufs frhfs prmicmpfms sg gsnetfssgh eu kessgh pgrjmjfs, sufs kerhfî÷gs jg cehoftg sg jgsernfimzfssg eu e mimhmne c`gnfssg migspgrfjfhgitg pgrte – micausmvg, per gxghpae, ie cfse jg hesqugtgmres g frtma`gmres jf Mjfjg Hejgrif. Hgshe qufije tmi`fh uh pfpga hfms ekgismve, cehe ifs agnm÷gs rehfifs, cestuhfvfh gitrfr gh cgif jgpems qug fs afiîfs g fzfnfmfs tmi`fh kgmte suf pfrtg g jmzmhfje pfrtg je mimhmne, eu grf usfjfs amqumjfr epeigi jgsernfimzfjes jgsernfimz g gh kkuunf.rehficgs5 Ter pfrf qug, pgrsgnumr gitãe, e gpfpga tãe epeigitgs cgitrfatgs jfsbæ gspfjfs iffjes agijf g ies Terqug gstfs sãe cgitrfjfs gh pgrseifngis g f gspfjf í f frhf je cehoftg sminuafr per gxcgaâicmf. Whf kfafing frhfjf jg afiîfs í uhf hæqumif jg nugrrf mhprgssmeifitg, hfs iãe tgh aunfr pfrf f mijmvmjufamjfjg2 es seajfjes jgvg fnmr gh pgrkgmtf `frheimf, cehe sg kessgh uh só. Whf trepf jg frqugmres í jgvfstfjerf gh oftfa`f, hfs ifs ceijmî÷gs rgfms jf nugrrf fs kagc`fs sãe jmspfrfjfs pfrf e fate pfrf cèvgr mijmscrmhmifjfhgitg seorg e mimhmne. If autf ceh gspfjfs, períh, e nugrrgmre sg jgstfcf mijmvmjufahgitg g pejg gxmomr suf jgstrgzf jg uhf kerhf qug ie cmighf sg terif gspgcmfahgitg ftrfgitg. Faíh jmsse, ceitrærme jfs afiîfs,agvgs hfc`fjes g frhfs jg `fstg, gspfjfs jg tfhfiè ierhfafesãe sukmcmgitghgitg g curtfs pfrf sgrgh cfrrgnfjfs if cmiturf sgh micúheje, gstfije sghprg ä hãe ie cfse jg sekrgr uh ftfqug migspgrfje eu jg prgcmsfr sg jgkgijgr per sm qufije sufs kerîfs sekrgh uh rgvís eu sg jgsern jgser nfimzfh fimzfh.. Wh cfvfagmre cfvfag mre hgjmgvfa kfzmf kfzmf sgu gscujgmre ccfrrg frrgnnfr gscuje g afiîf, hfs tmi`f f gspfjf sghprg ä hãe. Igssg sgitmje, gspfjfs sãe ‑f fahf je nugrrgm nu grrgmre‘, re‘, f frh fr hf jf qufa jgpgijmf iãe tfite tfite f vmtórmf vmtórm f jg sgu gxírcmte, qufite qufite suf próprmf vmjf g èirf pgssefms g qug krgqugitghgitg rgprgsgitfvf e ernuaè jg uhf ami`fngh, sgije pfssfjf jg pfm pfrf kmaè ceh uh iehg próprme. Zfhoíh í uhf jfs frhfs orficfs hfms prætmcfs g gkmcfzgs gh pgqugifs gscfrfhuîfs, jugaes g jgkgsf pgssefa2 f cftfif bfpeigsf g f rfpmgmrf jes hesqugtgmres iãe kmzgrfh suf kfhf if nugrrf, hfs gh cehoftgs g jugaes

mijmvmjufms. G tâh ceietfîãe jg ieorgzf2 gh humtfs secmgjfjgs, usfr gspfjfs (e pgae hgies gspfjfs jg uh jgtgrhmifje tmpe) kem uh prmvmaínme rgstrmte f gssf cafssg secmfa. [fag ietfr qug, ie cehoftg rgfa (fe ceitrærme je qug ngrfahgitg sg kfz ie tgftre g ies kmahgs) í só per mifomamjfjg eu fcmjgitg qug gspfjfs sg cècfh pgae nuhg. Msse kfcmahgitg fs qugorf eu, ie hèimhe, gstrfnf sgu kme jg hfigmrf mrrgvgrsèvga. Oeis gsnrmhmstfs gvmtfh fpfrfr2 prgkgrgh gsqumvfr-sg eu, jg prgkgrâicmf, jgsvmfr e ftfqug ceh uh ceitrfneapg. Vufije í prgcmse fpfrfr, precurf-sg kfzgr msse fkfstfije eu jgkagtmije f frhf je fjvgrsærme sgh cèqugs orusces. G sg í migvmtævga oaequgfr ceh uhf gspfjf jg jems nuhgs, msse í kgmte ceh e c`fte jf aïhmif qug, sg ker jg oef qufamjfjg, tgh kagxmomamjfjg sukmcmgitg pfrf foservgr uh neapg. Ie cfse jfs gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg (sforgs, cmhmtfrrfs, cftfifs), pejg-sg tfhoíh usfr e jerse eu ceitrfkme, eu sgbf, f oerjf epestf fe nuhg, hfms nressf g rgsmstgitg. Ghoerf sgbf uhf frhf fssecmfjf f humtes `gróms agijærmes, suf fssecmfîãe f jmvmijfjgs í hgies Gitrgf es giceitrfh-sg e iórjmces Krgyr, qugietævga. prgsgitgeu sufcei`gcmjes Afgvftgmiiper fe usfr senregspfjfs gh trecf jf hãe jg Ngrjr, g @gmhjfaa, qug pertfvf uhf gspfjf c`fhfjf @ekuj. Es ermxæs nugrrgmres je cfijehoaí usfh gspfjfs, micaumije Enuh g Exfnumã gitrg es hfscuamies g Mfisã g Eoæ gitrg es kghmimies (fssmh cehe fs ‑qufamjfjgs nugrrgmrfs‘ jg ermxæs ierhfahgitg fssecmfjes f eutres ceicgmtes, cehe Exuh). If hmteaenmf bfpeigsf, fs gspfjfs hfms kfhesfs gstãe fssecmfjfs f Susfiee, e jgus jfs tghpgstfjgs.

Gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg Igssfs gspfjfs, e afje epeste fe nuhg eu kme í c`fhfje jerse eu ceitrfkme. Ghoerf fanuhfs jgafs tgi`fh peitf fkmfjf g pessfh sgr usfjfs pfrf gstecfr, sãe ceicgomjfs prmicmpfahgitg pfrf tfa`fr eu fcutmafr. Fanuhfs sãe rgtfs, hfs í hfms cehuh qug sgbfh curvfs. Igssg cfse, í hfms cehuh qug e nuhg kmqug je afje ceivgxe, hfs gh fanuis cfses í ie cúicfve. Gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg sãe hfms ofrftfs, rgsmstgitgs g kæcgms jg usfr qug gspfjfs jg jems nuhgs jg cehprmhgite, pgse g fîe gqumvfagitgs. Humtfs jgafs sãe rgaftmvfhgitg tescfs g ofrftfs, usfjfs pfrf neapgfr sgh humtf prgcmsãe e `fomamjfjg, per cfvfagmres f nfaepg (qug fprevgmtfh fprevgmtfh f vgaecmjfjg je cfvfae pfrf terifr e neapg hfms petgitg) eu per trepfs f pí peuce gspgcmfamzfjfs. Igssg cfse, tgijgh f sgr hgies gqumamorfjfs qug eutrfs gspfjfs. Cehe jgpgijgh hfms jg kerîf je qug jg hevmhgitfîãe ænma g jgamcfjf, a`gs ceivíh uh cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg hfms próxmhe je peite jg mhpfcte, qufsg cehe iuh kfcãe eu hfc`gtg. Cestuhfh pgsfjfs g rgsmstgitgs, hfs peuce fkmfjfs, qufsg cehe sgr uh rgaftmvfhgitg hfc`fje, tfa`fije g ceituijmije fe hgshe tghpe, cehe íkgrmije e cfse jes sforgs g fakfibgs. fakfibgs. Eutres tmpes jg gspfjfs jg uh nuhg tmrfh pfrtmje jf hfmer rgsmstâicmf qug pejg sgr ceisgnu ceisgnumjf ceh uh uhf aïh a ïhmif mif agvg g sãe, pgae ceitrærm ceitrærme, e, humte humte rg rgkmi kmifjes fjes g jgstmifjes f nugrrgmres ogh trgmifjes. Sãe gspfjfs agvgs, humte og gqumamorfjfs g humte fkmfjfs, pfrf sgrgh hfigbfjfs ceh f rfpmjgz jg u rgaïhpfne g certfr prekuijfhgitg ceh peuce gskerîe. Sãe e cfse jfs cmhmtfrrfs ærfogs g jfs cftfifs bfpeigsfs, per gxghpae. @æ humtf peaâhmcf seorg fs rfz÷gs gxftfs pgafs qufms cgrtfs gspfjfs sãe curvfs, hfsqufamjfjg2 es sgnumitgs peites pfrgcgh ie qug rgkgrg jg hgaèr 6) uhf gspfjf curvfmhpertfitgs, í hfms gkmcmgitg pfrfsgkgrmr cehf gspfjfs e nuhg g pfrf certfr ceh uh hevmhgite jg neapgfr g puxfr< ?) f tícimcf jg kerbfr gspfjfs ceh tmpes jmkgrgitgs jg fîe, kagxèvga if aïhmif g jure ie nuhg g peitf, tgijg f prejuzmr aïhmifs curvfs (f cftfif, per gxghpae, í kgmtf ceh uhf aïhmif rgtf qug sg terif curvf jurfitg f tâhpgrf), 3) í hfms ræpmje sfcfr jg uhf ofmi`f eu sfyf sfyf   (ofmi`f bfpeigsf jg hfjgmrf) uhf aïhmif ceh f kerhf jg uh frce jg cèrcuae je qug uhf aïhmif rgtf. Ifs gspfjfs hfms ofrftfs, tfavgz e hfms mhpertfitg sgbf terifr hfms mitumtmvf f hfigmrf jg neapgfr pfrf uh nugrrgmre peuce trgmifje.

Gspfjfs curvfs jg oreizg oreizg Gstg nrupe micaum fanuhfs jfs hfms fitmnfs gspfjfs je huije2 f sfppfrf jf Hgsepetïhmf, usfjf per suhírmes, ofomaúimes, fssèrmes g cfifigus g f lèpgs` je Gnmte, usfjf f pfrtmr jg Zuthósms MMM (6:=4 – 6:3; f.C.). Fhofs tâh f kerhf jg uhf kemcg ceh e nuhg je afje ceivgxe g grfh kgmtfs jg oreizg, tgije smje usfjfs ftí cgrcf cgr cf jg 6344 f.C. Ceh 74 f >7 cgit c gitèhgt èhgtres res jg cehprmhgit cehprmhgite, e, pgsfvf pgsf vf cgrcf jg 6,0 qumae. Jgvg tgr smje cei`gcmjf jes hmcâimces2 uhf `frpg, prevfvgahgitg smhmafr, kem f frhf usfjf per Creies pfrf cfstrfr e pfm Wrfie (jmzmf-sg qug f ma`f jg Córcmrf eu Cerku, qug tgh f kerhf jg uhf lèpgs` lèpgs`   e `frpg, grf f frhf jg Creie jgpems jg benfjf fe hfr) g per Tgrsgu pfrf certfr f cfogîf jf Hgjusf.

Gspfjfs jg nuhg nuhg cúi cúicfve cfve Es cfvfagmres nrgnes jf ípecf caæssmcf usfrfh uhf gspfjf jg tfhfiè g kerhfte sghga`fitg qug grf c`fhfjf hfl`fmrf eu lepms. Gstg iehg tfavgz sgbf jgrmvfje jg lèpgs` lèpgs`,, hfs grf kgmtf jg fîe g tmi`f e nuhg je afje cúicfve cúicfve.. Es hejgaes hfms fitmnes kerfh giceitrfjes gitrg es gtrusces g tmi`fh aïhmif jg ;7 cgitèhgtres. E tmpe usfje pgaes cfvfagmres jf Hfcgjúimf tmi`f aïhmif jg :0 cgitèhgtres g cehprmhgite tetfa jg ;6. F kfacftf, usfjf pgaes cgatmogres, grf prftmcfhgitg mjâitmcf ä lepms, sfave pgae kerhfte jf ghpui`fjurf. E hgshe pejg sg jmzgr jf gspfjf igpfagsf lerf, cubf ermngh erm ngh pejg gstfr gs tfr ie ceitfte ceitfte gitrg gitrg nrgnes g mijmfi m ijmfies es preh pr ehevmje evmje pgaf pg af mivfsãe jg Fagxfijrg g í uhf vgrsãe hfmer jf kfcf lulrm lulrm.. Zejfs gssfs gspfjfs pgsf gitrg 6 g 6,7 qumae. F hepaf` eu fjf lfttm kem usfjf pgaes huîuahfies jf cestf jg Hfafofr, if Èijmf, je sícuae P[MM (pgae hgies) fe sícuae PP. Í uhf gspfjf curvf jg jems nuhgs (jes qufms e cúicfve í eKem prmicmpfa), ceh pgae peheagvfitg gh jmsce, cehprmhgite jg ;4 cgitèhgtres g aïhmif jg 37. ietfomamzfjf je hepaf` ceitrf es ormtïimces, gh 6=?6-??. F smcf (iehg jg ermngh jæcmf), hgier qug f kfacftf, grf usfjf ies Oæacãs pgaes træcmes, jæcmes g maèrmes. Zmi`f uhf aïhmif jg 34 f :7 cgitèhgtres g pgsfvf cgrcf jg ;44 nrfhfs. Gh _ehf, terieu-sg uhf jfs frhfs kfvermtfs jes cehoftgs jg nafjmfjergs. E nafjmfjer qug f usfvf, buite ceh uh gscuje rgjeije, grf c`fhfje træcme (t`rfgx (t`rfgx), ), kessg eu iãe ermnmiærme jgssg peve g ngrfahgitg peste pfrf autfr ceitrf uh hmrhmaãe (hurhmaae (hurhmaae), ), uh nafjmfjer gqumpfje cehe naæjme g gscuje rgtfinuafr jg agnmeiærme, cehe pfrf rgprgsgitfr e ghoftg gitrg u gstrfingmre g uh rehfie. Ceh gspfjfSpfrtfcus, curvf, tmi`f jg tgitfr ftminmr e hmrhmaãe per træs je suf gscuje. aèjgrf pessmomamjfjg jf hfmer rgogamãe jg gscrfves jg _ehf, grf nafjmfjer g ‑træcme‘. Eutrf cafssg jg nafjmfjergs, e jmhfc`fgrus,, usfvf uh pfr jg smcfs pfrf gikrgitfr uh hmrhmaãe eu u jmhfc`fgrus èpaúhfce (nafjmfjer frhfje cehe nrgne, ceh frhfjurf, afiîf g naæjme). Ter sgr uhf frhf gkmcfz g kæcma jg gsceijgr, f smcf grf tfhoíh kfvergcmjf per ofijmjes g fssfssmies, per msse c`fhfjes pgaes rehfies jg smcærmes smcærmes.. F mftfnã ( yftfn`fi), yftfn`fi), gspfjf jg mikfitfrmf usfjf pgaes bfièzfres turces je sícuae P[M fe PMP, í cfrfctgrmzfjf per uh pehe gh kerhf jg jupaf erga`f g tg uhf jupaf curvfturf, qug pgrhmtg usæ-af pfrf certfr g gstecfr. E nuhg í cúicfve pgrte jf ghpui`fjurf g ceivgxe pgrte jf peitf, qug fssmh rgsuatf fami`fjf ceh f ghpui`fjurf. Tgsf cgrcf jg 074 nrfhfs, ceh aïhmif jg ;4 cgitèhgtres g

cehprmhgite tetfa jg >7. Ie Mhpírme Etehfie, mftfnãs jgcerfjfs kerfh sèhoeae jg stftus, cehe es gspfjmis ie Ecmjgitg. F sesui pftt pfttf f í f vgrsãe mijmfif jf mftfnã, uh peuce hfmer, ceh =4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 6,? qumae.

akfibgs E tmpe hfms fitmne ie Ecmjgitg í e sfx (sfx sfx,, sgfx, scrfhfsgfx scrfhfsgfx eu scrfhfsfx gh minaâs, sfx minaâs, sfx gh faghãe) í uh kfcãe eu gspfjf rgtf jg uh só nuhg, usfjf per vmlmins g ngrhïimces jg cgrcf jg :74 j.C. f 044 j.C. Kgmtf jg fîe jg qufamjfjg mikgrmer g ceh ghpui`fjurf smhpags, í peuce hfms qug uhf kfcf cehprmjf. Whf

Lurzsfx (sfx curtf) tmi`f tmpmcfhgitg >4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 074 nrfhfs. Whf Afinsfx (sfx aeinf), ftí =7 cgitèhgtres g 6,67 qumae. E iehg jes

sfx÷gs prevfvgahgi sfx÷gs prevf vgahgitg tg vgh je use je sfx, s fx, pgae qufa grfh grf h cei`gcmjes. cei`gcmjes. Fpgsfr jg e iehg pertunuâs sgr jg ermngh ærfog, e fakfibg (gh minaâs kfac`mei,, jgrmvfje je aftmh kfax kfac`mei kfax,, ‑kemcg‘) í uhf frhf jg ermngh gurepgmf, usfjf jgsjg e sícuae PM. Wh tmpe usfje ftí e sícuae PM[, èbg cafssmkmcfje cehe fakfibg-cutgae (cagfvgr kfac`mei) kfac`mei) í uhf gspfjf jg aïhmif pgsfjf, jg uh só nuhg, ngrfahgitg hfms afrnf if peitf je qug if ghpui`fjurf. Msse ceicgitrf e pgse if pfrtg jmfitgmrf g f terif agitf g jgsfbgmtfjf cehe uh nrfijg kfcãe e hfc`gtg, qufsg tãe gkmcfz jg cetf gjge hfa`f u hfc`fje. hfs E cehprmhgite tèpmceceitrf í jg >7frhfjurfs f 07 cgitèhgtres pgse jgqufite 6,7 f 6,0 qumae. Eutre tmpe í e fakfibg jg peitf (cuspgj kfac`mei), kfac`mei), ngrfahgitg hfms gstrgmte g agvg, ceh aïhmif rgtf, nuhg amngmrfhgitg curve g peitf fkmfjf, sgrvmije tfhoí pfrf gstecfr. Hgme-tgrhe gitrg e fakfibg fitmne g es sforgs usfjes pgaf Gurepf Ermgitfa, kem usfje je sícuae PMMM fe P[M. Wh jes peuces gxghpafrgs futâitmces fmijf gxmstgitgs tgh cehprmhgite tetfa jg =7 cgitèhgtres g aïhmif jg 04 g pgsf cgrcf jg uh qumae. E peite jg pgrcussãe í ie hgme jf aïhmif g e cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg f uh tgrîe je cehprmhgite f ceitfr je puiè. Lrmgnshgssgr Lrmgnsh (amtgrfahgitg nugrrf‘) faghã fvfiîf uh peuce hfms if F jmrgîãe je gssgr sforg, (amtgrfahgitg ceh aïhmif‑kfcf hfms jg gstrgmtf g amngmrfhgitg curvf, cehomifjf ceh f trfjmcmeifa nufrjf gh cruz. Zmi`f cehprmhgite jg >7 cgitèhgtres (aïhmif jg ;4) g pgsfvf cgrcf jg uh qumae. Kem usfjf je sícuae PM[ fe P[M g grf pfrtg eormnftórmf jes hfiufms jg gsnrmhf jf ípecf. F vgrsãe jg jufs hães, Nressgs Hgssgr , tmi`f tmi`f 6,4> f 6,? hgtre hgtre (aïhmi ( aïhmiff jg 04 f =4) g 6,3 f 6,0 qumae. E Jussfcl (faghãe, jgrmvfje je tc`gce tgsæl ), ), kfcãe jg cfîf jgrmvfje je fakfibg g usfje per cfîfjergs jg bfvfams, urses g aeoes jgsjg e sícuae PMM, kem fjetfje pfrf trgmifhgite hmamtfr je sícuae PMMM fe P[MM g gveaumu f pfrtmr jf Oeâhmf je sícuae P[ iuhf gspfjf jg nugrrf, cfrfctgrmzfjf pgaf aïhmif curvf g nufrjf gh cgste. Igstf òatmhf kerhf, kem usfjf (buitfhgitg ceh eutres hejgaes) pgaf mikfitfrmf faghã ftí f Nugrrf jes Zrmitf Fies (6;60-6;:0). Ceh aïhmif jg

;7 f =7 cgitèhgtres, pgsfvf jg 6 f 6,> qumae. E sforg suèîe (gh faghãe Sc`wgmzgrsêoga Sc`wgmzgrsêoga)) í uhf gspfjf curvf ceh nufrjf gh S jg tmpe rgifscgitmstf, ceh 6,6; hgtre jg cehprmhgite (aïhmif jg => cgitèhgtres) g pgse jg 6,7 qumae. Gh sgu tghpe (sícuae P[M) grf c`fhfjf Scìgpk  eu eu Scìêpk , ‑ifrcgbf‘, per aghorfr aghorfr e omce jgssf fvg. E c`mkfretg eu tgrîfje (kfscmig limkg, limkg, krficâs orfqughfrj orfqughfrj,, mtfamfie stertf stertf,, faghãe Hfacùs faghãe Hfac ùs)) í uhf gspfjf ceh nufrjf gh gstrmoe, ceh aïhmif rgtf eu curvf, afrnf g curtf g fnuîfjf if peitf, usfjf pgaf mikfitfrmf agvg g pgaf frtma`frmf f pfrtmr je sícuae P[ cehe frhf jg rgsgrvf g jgkgsf g cehe kfcãe utmamtærme. E iehg ‑c`mkfretg‘ í jmhmiutmve jg ‑c`mkrf‘ eu ‑c`fikrf‘, uh tmpe jg kfcf usfje pfrf rfspfr (c`fikrfr) e ceure g ‑tgrîfje‘ per sgr uh tgrîe hgier je qug uhf gspfjf rgnuafr. E iehg faghãe í e je sfcgrjetg bujgu je qufa, sgnuije e Gvfingaè jg Beãe Beãe,, e fpósteae Tgjre certeu uhf erga`f fe jgkgijgr Bgsus. E iehg minaâs kfscmig limkg limkg vgh je use pfrf certfr kgmxgs jg rfhes eu kfxmifs (kfscmigs kfscmigs), ), usfjes ifs cfhpfi`fs hmamtfrgs pfrf gitua`fr kesses, ceormr pfrfpgmtes jg oftgrmf g gitua`fr pfrfZmi`fh ceistruî÷gs. Äs vgzgs jerse sgrrma`fje, pfrf use tfhoíhtgrrgies cehe sgrrf. cehprmhgite ghtmi`fh terie jge >7 cgitèhgtres, cgitèhgtres, ceh aïhmif aïhmif jg 74 g pgse jg 6,37 f ?,?7 ?, ?7 qumaes. F gspfjf jg cfvfafrmf (gh minaâs ofclswerj ofclswerj   eu hertufry swerj, swerj, gh faghãe Tfaafsc`, Tfaafs c`, gh mtfamfie squfjreif, mtfamfie squfjreif, gh peaeiâs pfafsz peaeiâs pfafsz), ), rgtf eu amngmrfhgitg curvf, ngrfahgitg ceh uh só nuhg, äs vgzgs ceh uh sgnuije nuhg ie qufrte jmfitgmre je ceitrfkme, kem f gspfjf tèpmcf jf cfvfafrmf jf Gurepf Ecmjgitfa je sícuae P[M fe P[MMM. Igssg pgrèeje, fs frhfs prmicmpfms jf cfvfafrmf grfh cfrfomif, pmsteafs eu afiîf, hfs uhf gspfjf grf usfjf cehe frhf jg rgsgrvf, pgijurfjf ä cmiturf eu ä sgaf. Zgh cgrcf jg uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 6,: qumae. E minaâs ofclswerj ofclswerj rgkgrg-sg jf fgspfjf jg uhgsópgrmnesf nuhg gjg iãe, ceheEhumtes pgisfh, f rgkgrg-sg sgr agvfjffeäsjerse cestfsc`fte (e qug kfrmf jmkècma sfcfr). iehg hertufry swerj swerj rgkgrg-sg äs gspfjfs jes heifrqumstfs minagsgs qug, fe autfr ceitrf Eamvgr Crehwgaa, èhgifngfvfh e gxgcutfje rgm Cfraes M jf Minaftgrrf tgije suf gkènmg ie pehe if gspfjf. Gitrg es sícuaes P[MM g PMP, uhf gspfjf sghga`fitg kem fjetfjf if Gscócmf, eijg f c`fhfrfh cafyherg (je nfíamce cafmj`gfh` hÿr, hÿr, ‑gspfjf nrfijg‘). Gssg iehg kem jgpems fpamcfje rgtreftmvfhgitg äs gspfjfs g gspfj÷gs gscecgsgs jg ípecfs fitgrmergs, jg gstmae humte jmkgrgitg. Jgvmje f crgiîf pestgrmer jg qug e iehg cafyherg cafyherg   grf hfms fes gspfj÷gs jf _gifscgiîf, gstf gspfjf hejgrif kem c`fhfjf pestgrmerhgitg jg cafyogn (je nfíamce cafmj`gfh` ogfn, ‑gspfjf ogfn, pgqugif‘). Sgnuije f trfjmîãe, kem mitrejuzmjf ie pfès pgae hgrcgiærme gscecâs

Ngerng Smicafmr (6704–6;6?), qug f tgrmf trfzmje je sua jf Faghfi`f. Ter msse, gssg tmpe jg nufrjf í tfhoíh cei`gcmje gh minaâs cehe ‑nufrjf Smicafmr‘. Zmi`f cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te jg 07 f =4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres res g pgsfvf 6,6 6, 6 f 6,: qu quma mae. e. F kmrfinm ( (kmrfibm kmrfibm,, jg ‑krfices‘ í e iehg jfje pgaes ærfogs fes gurepgus) í f gspfjf gurepgmf rgtf jg uh eu jems nuhgs je sícuae P[M cepmfjf eu mhmtfjf pgaes mijmfies f pfrtmr jgssf ípecf, ceh nufrjf gh gstrmoe, pehe gh jmsce g aïhmif jg 0= f => cgitèhgtres. F lfstfig í uhf gspfjf tèpmcf je Srm Afilf, hfs sgu gstmae sungrg mispmrfîãe gh gspfjfs pertunugsfs je sícuae P[M. Ceh aïhmif amngmrfhgitg curvf g nufrjf gh gstrmoe, tgh cgrcf jg >; cgitèhgtres g =44 nrfhfs. Tgae gqumaèorme g ogagzf jf jgcerfîãe, í usfjf per ofmafrmifs, qug fs gqumamorfh if cfogîf g jgheist jgh eistrfî÷gs rfî÷gs jg jfi jf iîf je vgitrg. vgitrg. F lfhpmafi eu tfamoein, jes heres heres   jfs Kmampmifs, í uhf gspfjf jg 00 cgitèhgtres g 6,? qumae, ceh nuhg rgte g aïhmif qug sg fafrnf pfrf f peitf, fkmfjf g äs vgzgs omkurcfjf. Kgriãe jg Hfnfa`ãgs, gh suf pmeigmrf veatf fe huije, kem herte gh Hmijfife uhf kmampmies jgssfs gspfjfs. F pfifofs , usfjfperpgaes pgaes jf ma`f jg Hmijfife, í uhf gspfjf jg aïhmif curvf, ceh uhf ghpui`fjurf aeinf (36 f :3 cgitèhgtres), sgh nufrjf. E cehprmhgite tetfa vfrmf jg ;4 cgitèhgtres f 6,? hgtre. Wh gxghpafr jg 0; cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res tgh aïhmif aïhmif jg :4 f 74 g pgse pgs e jg cgrcf cgr cf jg ;74 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. F pgjfin í uhf gspfjf curtf mijeiísmf jg peitf fnuîfjf, ceh 70 cgitèhgtres g ;44 nrfhfs. Ie cmighf g ies qufjrmiès, í krgqugitg vgr-sg gierhgs gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg, ngrfahgitg curvfs, ifs hães jg nufrjfs jg `fríis g jg ærfogs, fkrmcfies g oærofres gh ngrfa (micausmvg es ercs jg Zealmgi if vgrsãe jg Tgtgr Bfclsei) sgrgh jg g‑cmhmtfrrfs‘. Fs gspfjfs vgrjfjgmrfs cmhmtfrrfs grfh, períh, gstrgmtfsc`fhfjfs g agvgs, ængms gagnfitgs. Gssfs jf kmcîãe, qug fpfrgitfh pgsfr trâs eu quftre quftre qumaes, qumaes , sgrmfh sgr mfh hgaèr hgaèr cafssm caf ssmkmcfjfs kmcfjfs ceh c ehee fakfibgs gxfngrfjes.

Sforgs ecmjgitfms E prmhgmre ficgstrfa je sforg ecmjgitfa (sfogr (sfogr)) surnmu gitrg es iúhfjgs jfs gstgpgs fsmætmcfs (f cehgîfr pgaes xmeiniu jf ftufa Heinóamf, ie sícuae [) g kem trfzmjf ä Gurepf Ermgitfa f pfrtmr je sícuae MP, prevfvgahgitg pgaes hfnmfrgs (ftufms `òinfres), qug f c`fhfh sfoayf. C`gneu ä Gurepf Ecmjgitfa ie sícuae P[MM g sgu use sg ngigrfamzeu if Gurepf f pfrtmr jf cfvfafrmf ifpeagúimcf, ie miècme je sícuae PMP g ceitmiufrfh f sgr usfjes ftí f prmhgmrf hgtfjg je sícuae PP. Gh ngrfa í agvghgitg curve, hfs pejg sgr rgte eu humte curve. E hfms kfhese jes sforgs tfavgz sgbf f ‑gspfjf jg Ætmaf‘. Sgnuije f agijf, kem giceitrfjf ie cfhpe per uh oemgmre fe sgnumr f trma`f jg sfinug jgmxfjf per uhf jg sufs ievma`fs per tgr pmsfje igaf fcmjgitfahgitg. Gag f jgu jg prgsgitg f Ætmaf, qug fcrgjmteu qug fqugaf grf f ‑gspfjf jg Hfrtg‘ (eu jg fanuh jgus ùie cehpfrævga f Hfrtg) g qug ceh gaf gstfvf jgstmifje f ceiqumstfr e huije. Ie Luist`msterm Luist`ms termsc`gs sc`gs Husguh H usguh jg jg [mgif í ceisgrvfjf uhf uhf su s upestf ‑gs ‑gspfjf pfjf jg Ætmaf‘ qug tgrmf smje giceitrfjf tòhuae j.C. jg Cfraes Hfnie per Etãe MMM, hfs pfrgcg sgr uh sforg `òinfre kgmte ghie=44-=74 E sfoayf `òinfre g e szfoaf peaeiâs sg jmstminugh jes sforgs pestgrmergs prmicmpfahgitg pgaf ghpui`fjurf curvf. Jg rgste, tâh cfrfctgrèstmcfs g jmhgis÷gs sghga`fitgs, ceh cehprmhgite gh terie jg =4 cgitèhgtres g pgse jg 6 f 6,: qumae. F sfs`qf (gh cmrcfssmfie) eu c`fc`glf (gh russe) í uh tmpe jg sforg usfje pgaes cmrcfssmfies je Cæucfse g pgaes Cessfces je sua jf _òssmf g Wcrïimf je sícuae P[MM fe miècme je sícuae PP, ceh ghpui`fjurf smhpags jg kfcf. E cehprmhgite í jg fprexmhfjfhgitg uh hgtre g e pgse jg uh qumae. E sforg jg foerjfngh (cutafss í e sforg curtergsmstgitg pfrf gvmtfr ghofrfîfrsg ie cerjfhg jes ifvmes ( f cutafss) vgaf g )ceh puièifvfa, jg aftãe, ä hfrgsmf. Kem usfje per hfrmi`gmres g pmrftfs f pfrtmr je sícuae P[MM. F foerjfngh jgmxeu jg sgr uhf tætmcf usufa f pfrtmr jfs prmhgmrfs jícfjfs je sícuae PMP, hfs ceitmiufrfh f sgr usfjes ie trgmifhgite g gh jgsghofrqugs ftí e miècme jes fies 6=34 (g uh hfrmig jes GWF useu uh sforg pfrf hftfr uh mimhmne fmijf if Nugrrf jf Cergmf, gh 6=74). Ceitmiuf f kfzgr pfrtg je uimkerhg jg nfaf jes ekmcmfms ifvfms. Zgh cgrcf jg >; cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite tetfa g pgsf =44 nrfhfs. E sforg pgsfje (`gfvy cfvfary sfogr) sfogr) í f frhf tèpmcf jf cfvfafrmf pgsfjf (ceh ceurfîf) je kmifa eu je ‘qugorf-puases‘ sícuae P[MMM g miècme je sícuae PMP.pgae Iessforg GWF,agvg. grf fpgamjfje wrmstorgflgr eu wrmstorgflgr g trecfje, gh 60:4,

Ie Orfsma, kem usfje fpgifs pgaf Nufrjf jg @eirf jg J. Tgjre M, jg 60?; f 60362 suf nufrjf tmi`f e Orfsãe je Mhpírme g uh pehe gh kerhf jg nrmke - e sèhoeae jf Cfsf Mhpgrmfa g f aïhmif, rgtf, grf jgcerfjf ceh nrfvfî÷gs ceh eure g exmjfîãe fzuafjf jgcerftmvf, ceh fs miscrmî÷gs ‑[mvf e Mhpgrfjer‘, jes jems afjes. Ceh uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite, pgsfvf qufsg jems qumaes. E sforg agvg ( (amn`t amn`t cfvfary sfogr) sfogr) kem f frhf tèpmcf jf cfvfafrmf amngmrf (sg ceurfîf) je miècme je sícuae PMP fe miècme je sícuae PP, gh fanuis pfèsgs ftí f MM Nugrrf Huijmfa, ngrfahgitg ceh nufrjf gh gstrmoe. Ceh cehprmhgite jg =4 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre, pgsfvfh jg 6 f 6,: qumae. Ie Orfsma, fmijf sãe f frhf cgrmheimfa jes Jrfn÷gs jf Mijgpgijâicmf (‑jrfn÷gs‘ kerfh ermnmifahgitg u cerpe jg mikfitfrmf qug tfhoíh heitfvf f cfvfae, qug jgpems sg kuijmu ceh f cfvfafrmf amngmrf). E sforg rfoe-jg-nfae í uhf frhf jg aïhmif gxtrghfhgitg curvf, jg ermng moírmcf, humte usfje ie sua je Orfsma jurfitg f prmhgmrf hgtfjg je sícuae PMP. Jfjf suf curvfturf, í miòtma pfrf gstecfr g só sgrvg pfrf jfr cutmafjfs f cfvfae. Zgh cgitèhgtres g 6 qumae. E cgrcf sforgjgjg03mikfitfrmf (mikfitry swerj eu `fingr swerj `fingr)) kem f frhf jg rgsgrvf jf mikfitfrmf je sícuae P[MMM fe miècme je sícuae PP g pfrtmcmpeu jg humtfs fî÷gs if M Nugrrf Huijmfa. Ngrfahgitg rgte g usfje pfrf gstecfr tfite qufite pfrf certfr. Zmi`f >7 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsfvf jg 6 f 6,: qumae. Sghga`fitg fe tgrîfje, e sforg jg jugae ( (jugaamin jugaamin sfogr) sfogr) kem usfje f pfrtmr jg 60:4 cehe frhf jg jugae, prmicmpfahgitg if Mtæamf g @uinrmf g äs vgzgs, tfhoíh, cehe frhf jg jgkgsf pgssefa. E tèpmce sforg jg jugae tgh =4 cgitèhgtres, pgsf =44 nrfhfs g tgh nufrjf gh gstrmoe. E sforg jg gsnrmhf (sforg sforg)) í f vgrsãe gspertmvf je sforg jg jugae. E cehprmhgite 6,47 E hgtre, jg hfs 00 cgitmhgtres, jg 744 nrfhfsí gpfjreimzfje nufrjf gh gh gstrmoe. nuhgceh iãeaïhmif í fkmfje, if gsnrmhf pgse ce sforg tecfr e fjvgrsærme ceh gag ceitf peites, fe ceitrærme je qug sg pfssf if gsnrmhf ceh kaergtg eu gspfjf.

Sforgs c`migsgs E sforg c`miâs (jfe, tfhoíh c`fhfje c`fhfje yfe jfe, amtgrfahgitg amtgrfahgitg   ‑jfe jg cmiturf‘, pfrf sg jmstminumr jg frhfs jg `fstg tfhoíh c`fhfjfs c`fhfjfs jfe) jfe) í cei`gcmje jgsjg f Mjfjg je Oreizg, if jmifstmf S`fin (6;44-64:; f.C.). If ípecf jes _gmies Cehoftgitgs (:>7 -??6 f.C.), pfssfrfh f sgr kgmtes jg fîe. Ermnmifahgitg hgies cehuh qug f gspfjf jg jems nuhgs bmfi bmfi,, e jfe jfe   kem fjetfje pgaf cfvfafrmf jf jmifstmf @fi (?4; f.C. – ??4 j.C.) jgvmje ä reoustgz, f supgrmermjfjg cehe frhf jg certg g kfcmamjfjg jg use. Es c`migsgs jmzmfh qug grf prgcmse uhf sghfif pfrf fprgijgr f usfr e jfe jfe,, uh hâs pfrf e qmfin qmfin (afiîf), (afiîf), g uh fie pfrf f bmf f bmfii (gspfjf jg jems nuhgs). Aene cehgîeu f sgr usfje tfhoí pgaf mikfit mikfitfrm frmf, f, suost s uostmtumi mtumije je gstf gs tf òatmhf òatmhf ifs hães jf hfmer pfrtg jf trepf. Es hejgaes hfms fitmnes, c`fhfjes z`mogm jfe (‑sforg jg cestfs rgtfs‘) tmi`fh aïhmif jg jerse rgte g uh só nuhg ceivgxe. Kerfh gxpertfjes pfrf f Cergmf, Bfpãe g [mgtiã f pfrtmr jf jmifstmf Zfin (;60-=4> j.C.), mikaugicmfije fs gspfjfs Zmi`fh aïhmif jg >4 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg uh hgtre g pgse jgaecfms. 6,7 qumae. F vgrsãe cergfif í f `wfije, ceh uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g 6,? qumae. F fpeigsf wfrfomtgte (‑sforg kea`f jg sfhfhofmf‘) kem usfjf ie pgrèeje Lekui (jg hgfjes je sícuae MMM f hgfjes je sícuae [M). F lmgh, vmgtifhmtf, í uh peuce hfms gstrgmtf g agvg (uh qumae). Zùfi Z`mgi (‑[eitfjg je Cíu‘) grf f lmgh lmgh je je `gróm Ag Aem, qug amogrteu e [mgtiã je jehèime jf jmifstmf c`migsf Hmin gh 6:60-6:?0 g kuijeu f jmifstmf Ag. F aïhmif tgrmf smje giceitrfjf if rgjg jg Ag Z`fi, uh pgscfjer qug sg buiteu fe gxírcmte jg Ag Aem g sg terieu uh jg sgus ekmcmfms. Wh jmf, fe gitrfr if cfsf jg Ag Z`fi, Ag Aem vmu orm[uein a`fr if(‑_gm gspfjf gspf jf es cfrf c frfctgrg ctgrgs ‑[eitfjg ‑[eitfjg je Cíu‘2 grf uhorma`fr prgsgitg prg sgitg jgus Aeinorma`fr Jrfnãe‘). Hfmsstfrjg, vmu uhf auz gstrfi`f iesjenfaès jg uhf kmnugmrf g fam giceitreu e cfoe, cehpagtfije f gspfjf. Sgnuije f agijf, f gspfjf kfzmf e pessumjer pes sumjer crgscgr crg scgr g nfi`fr nfi`fr f kerîf jg hma èh ehgis. gis. If jmifstmf Sein (=;4-6?>=) cehgîfrfh f sgr usfjes jfe jfe   hfms agvgs jg aïhmif curvf, pessmvgahgitg per mikauâicmf jes sforgs jes iúhfjgs turces g heinóms jfs gstgpgs. Fs vgrs÷gs hfms hejgrifs tâh ghpui`fjurf kerrfjf ce cerjf g uhf nufrjf gh kerhf jg jmsce (e qug mhpgjg qug f cùvf eu e sfinug terigh f ghpui`fjurf gscerrgnfjmf) g uhf aïhmif agvghgitg curvf jg uh só kme if hfmer pfrtg jf gxtgisãe, ceh peitf g fanuis cgitèhgtres je ceitrfkme tfhoí fkmfjes. Fs quftre quftre vfrmgjf vf rmgjfjgs jgs hfms ceh c ehui uiss sãe s ãe

yfihfe jfe (‑sforg pgif jg nfise‘), ermnmiærme jf jmifstmf Sein (=;4-

6?>= j.C.), ceh ghpui`fjurf g aïhmif rgtf g jg afrnurf ceistfitg if hfmer pfrtg jf gxtgisãe, hfs curvf if peitf< aumyg jfe (‑sforg kea`f jg sfanugmre‘), agvghgitg curve gh S gh teje e cehprmhgite, gstrgmtfije-sg jf ghpui`fjurf pfrf f peitf g hfms fjgqufje pfrf certfr, e hfms usfje pgaes gxírcmtes jfs jmifstmfs Hmin (63;0-6;::) g Vmin (6;::-6=6?)< pmfi jfe (‑sforg jg tfa`fr‘), hfms curve g fpreprmfje pfrf certfr qug e fitgrmer g usfje gh gscfrfhuîfs ceh gscuje ie kmh jf jmifstmf Hmin< imwgm jfe (‑sforg rfoe jg oem‘), hejgae usfje per cmvms g rgogajgs ie kmh jf jmifstmf Vmin g ie qufa sg ofsgmf f hfmermf jes jfes èbg usfjes ifs frtgs hfrcmfms, cubf aïhmif sg fafrnf jf ghpui`fjurf pfrf f peitf, jgsaecfije e cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg pfrf jmfitg g fuhgitfije f kerîf je mhpfcte ä custf custf jf fnmamjfjg. fnmam jfjg. Zejes gssgs hejgaes tâh jg 04 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsfh jg >44 f =44 nrfhfs. Ifs jgheistrfî÷gs jg wusù wusù,, cestuhf-sg usfr uh jfe jfe ofsgfje ofsgfje ie imwgm jfe ceh aïhmif kgmtf jg fîe kagxèvga g kmif cehe pfpga qug eijuaf ceh uh seh qug aghorf eijfs j”ænuf g per msse í c`fhfje jg ‑sforg cfiîãe j”ænuf‘. Iãe pgsf hfms jg :74 nrfhfs. Sforgs jg cfvfafrmf sghga`fitgs fes ecmjgitfms kerfh tfhoíh usfjes ies sícuaes PMP g PP, ngrfahgitg ceh aïhmif jg ;> cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 04 g pgse jg 044-=44 nrfhfs. E tmpe jg jfe jfe   usfje ie tfmbm (eu tfm c`m) tg cfrfctgrèstmcfs sghga`fitgs. E z`fihf jfe (‑sforg certf-cfvfae‘) í uh sforg aeine usfje ceitrf f cfvfafrmf if jmifstmf Sein. Wsfje ceh fs jufs hães, tmi`f ghpui`fjurf jg 3> cgitèhgtres, aïhmif gstrgmtf, rgtf ceh curvfturf if peitf, jg 6,6: hgtre, cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te tetfa jg 6,76 hgtre g pgse jg ? qumaes. E c`fin jfe (‑sforg aeine‘) í uhf vgrsãe hfms rgcgitg jgssf gspfjf, usfjf if jmifstmf Hmin. E z`fihf E z`fihf jfe mispmreu jfe mispmreu f gspfjf bfpeigsf iejfc`m iejfc`m g g gstf, per suf vgz, mispmreu Vm Bmnufin, qug gstujeu hfiufms bfpeigsgs jg nugrrf, f mivgitfr gh 67;4 f c`fin jfe, jfe, usfjf ceitrf es cfvfagmres heinóms. Zmi`f cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6,=7 hgtre, micaumije ghpui`fjurf jg >4 cgitèhgtres g pgsfvf 6,7 qumae. Igssf hgshf ípecf e we jfe (‑sforg bfpeiâs‘) kem usfje ceitrf pmrftfs reimi je Bfpãe. Grf prevfvgahgitg ofsgfje ifs gspfjfsjgbfpeigsfs tfc`m,, ceh tfc`m aïhmif agvghgitg curvf jg 04 cgitèhgtres, ghpui`fjurf ?7,7 cgitèhgtres g pgse jg

6,: qumae. E hmfe jfe (‑sforg orete‘) í uh sforg hmamtfr pfrf usfr ceh jufs hães, fjetfje if grf rgpuoamcfif (prmhgmrf hgtfjg je sícuae PP), micausmvg ifs nugrrfs ceh es bfpeigsgs. Zgh ghpui`fjurf jg 34 f 37 cgitèhgtres, aïhmif jg 6 f 6,? hgtre, cehprm cehprmh hgite gite tetfa jg 6,37 f 6,7 hgtre g pgse jg ?,7 qumaes. E jfjfe (‑nrfijg sforg‘) í uh sforg pgsfje, tfhoíh pfrf usfr ceh jufs hães, ceh ghpui`fjurf aeinf (37 cgitèhgtres) g aïhmif jg ;4 f =4 cgitèhgtres qug sg fafrnf if peitf, usfje prmicmpfahgitg per hmaècmfs cfhpeigsfs g rgogajgs g trepfs peuce trgmifjfs ftí e sícuae PP, hfms ietfjfhgitg if nugrrf smiefpeigsf jes fies 6=34. E cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg jgsaecfje pfrf f krgitg terif gssf frhf jmkècma jg hfigbfr, hfs a`g jæ nrfijg mhpfcte g pgrhmtg jgcfpmtfr u mimhmne ceh kfcmamjfjg, g f nrfijg afrnurf jf aïhmif cehpgisf f ofmxf qufamjfjg je fîe ie qug sg rgkgrg ä rgsmstâicmf. E cehprmhgite vfrmf jg =7 cgitèhgtres f 6,3 hgtre g e pgse jg 6,6 f ?,3 qumaes. Í uhf jfs peucfs gspfjfs qug rgfahgitg grf agvfjf äs cestfs qufije iãe gstfvf gh use, pems iãe `fvmf igcgssmjfjg jg sfcæ-af ceh rfpmjgz. E ofnufz`fin jfjfe (‑nrfijg sforg jg ofnufz`fin‘) í uhf vgrsãe fnmnfitfjf je jfe jfe   trfjmcmeifa, pfrf sg usfr ceh fs jufs hães if frtg hfrcmfa ofnufz`fin.. Ngrfahgitg e cehprmhgite í jg 6,: f 6,7 hgtre (ceh aïhmif jg u ofnufz`fin hgtre) g e pgse jg 6,; f ? quma qumaes. es. Fanu Fanuis is gxgh gxghpafrg pafrgss sãe hfmergs. fmer gs. E bmuùfi jfe (‑sforg jg ievg fiíms‘) í uh sforg pgsfje, ngrfahgitg curve, ceh ievg fiíms pgijurfjes ie ceitrfkme g uhf ofijgmrf vgrhga`f pgijurfjf if ghpui`fjurf, usfje ie tgftre g gh jgheistrfî÷gs jg frtgs hfrcmfms. Zgh cgrcf jg uh hgtre g jems qumaes. E ifi jfe (‑sforg je sua‘) í uh sforg rgte g pgsfje qug pfrgcg tgr surnmje pfrf useres cmvma kmh(6,0 jf jmifstmf Vmin g èbg usfjeceh gh fs frtgs hfrcmfms. cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres g eiepgse ( 6,0 qumae) gxmng gxmn g qug sgbf sgb fíusfje jufs hães. Zgh =4 Es ùjmg sùfin jfe (‑sforg jupaf oeroeagtf‘), gh cfiteiâs oft bfh jfe, sãe uh pfr jg pgqugies sforgs – ifi jfe gh jfe gh hmimfturf – usfjfs ie ^min Cùi, Cùi, frtg hfrcmfa jf kfhèamf je Luin Ku). Ermnmiærmes je sua jf C`mif, jmkuijmrfh-sg jgpems jf MM Nugrrf Huijmfa. Gsceijmje ceh kfcmamjfjg, e pfr cehpfrtma`f f hgshf ofmi`f g f aïhmif jgvg sgr mnufa fe cehprmhgite je puiè g fitgorfîe, pfrf qug pessfh sgr nmrfjfs per jgitre jes orfîes. Cfjf uh tgh aïhmif jg 37 cgitèhgtres g ghpui`fjurf jg 67, pgsfije cgrcf jg :74 nrfhfs. If Cergmf, uh pfr jg frhfs humte sghga`fitg í c`fhfje jfi ssfin ngeh (‑jupaf gspfjfjf curtf‘). usfjfs per nufrjf-cestfs kghmimifs jfs prmicgsfs certg Ermnmifahgitg g gsceijmjfs grfh seo sgus keanfjes c`mhf-cènerm c`mhf-cènerm (trfbg

tèpmce). Sgu use í krgqugitghgitg gismifje f hua`grgs ifs frtgs hfrcmfms cergfifs. Fmijf if Cergmf, useu-sg tfhoíh uh nrfijg sforg pfrf jufs hães c`fhfje fin je, ceh 6,=7 hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa, aïhmif jg 6,7? hgtre, ghpui`fjurf jg :: cgitèhgtres g pgse jg 6,3> qumae. F j`f í uhf gspfjf curvf tèpmcf jf Omrhïimf (ftufa Hyfihfr), ceh 0= cgitèhgtres g >44 nrfhfs. F lrfom í uhf gspfjf curvf jf Zfmaïijmf, usfjf fes pfrgs if frtg hfrcmfa lrfom lrfoein. lrfoein. Ghoerf usfjf ceh uhf só hãe, tgh uhf nufrjf cehprmjf (?7 f 3> cgitèhgtres) qug sgrvg jg ceitrfpgse. Zgh >6 cgitèhgtres f 6,?? hgtre jg cehprmhgite (aïhmif jg :; f >:) g pgsf 6,6 f ? qumaes. Kgmtfs pfrf prætmcf jg frtgs hfrcmfms, krgqugitghgitg tâh aïhmif jg fauhèime g pgsfh humte hgies, g terie jg :74 nrfhfs.

Imèite Imèi te (gspfjfs bfpeigsfs) E tfc`m (‑sforg nrfijg‘) surnmu cehe frhf jf cfvfafrmf bfpeigsf jurfitg e pgrèeje @gmfi (f pfrtmr je sícuae [MMM) g f pfrtmr je sícuae P cehgîeu f sgr eotmje cehomifije-sg jmkgrgitgs fîes2 hfms jure ie nuhg g ie hmeae jf kea`f pfrf prepercmeifr jurgzf, hfms kagxèvga ifs cestfs g ies afjes pfrf prepercmeifr rgsmstâicmf. Gssf tícimcf ceikgrmu äs gspfjfs bfpeigsfs uh kme fkmfje cehe ifvfa`f g uhf agvgzf g fnmamjfjg humte supgrmer ä je jfe c`miâs eu jes sforgs ecmjgitfms, rgsuatfije gh frhfs qufamtftmvfhgitg jmkgrgitgs, qug gxmnmfh uhf tícimcf jg use gspgcèkmcf je Bfpãe. Hgshe sgije agvgs, fs imèite (gspfjfs fpeigsfs) sãe ghpui`fjfs ceh fs jufs hães, f jmrgmtf buite ä nufrjf (tsuof (tsuof)) g f gsqugrjf tãe fkfstfjf qufite pessèvga. F hãe gsqugrjf gxgcutf e hevmhgite g f jmrgmtf f numf, gh hevmhgites humte ræpmjes jg tfa`fr g puxfr, ‑sgrrfije‘. Gitrg es frhgmres hfms kfheses jf `mstórmf je Bfpãe, giceitrfh-sg, ie sícuae PMMM, Neteof, @msfluim, Iermhuig g ]es`mhmtsu Zes`mre< ie sícuae PM[, Hurfhfsf, Ne ]es`m`mre, Hermhmtsu, ]fsuhmtsu g Herehmtsu< ie sícuae P[MM, Zfhof ie Lfhm ]es`mimc`m g Mieug S`milfm< g ie sícuae P[MMM, Sulgifnf. Hfs Nere Iyuje Hfsfhuig (miècme je sícuae PM[) í ceismjgrfje e hfmer frhgmre jf `mstórmf je Bfpãe. Sgnuije uhf agijf bfpeigsf, e hfms rmce jfmhye je Bfpãe prehevgu u ceicurse ifcmeifa jg frhgmres, ie qufa es kmifamstfs kerfh Hfsfhuig g Hurfhfsf. Oeijese g èirfje, Hfsfhuig fcrgjmtfvf qug uh sfhurfm jgvgrmf mhper f pfz ceh suf próprmf prgsgiîf, sgh prgcmsfr jgsghofmi`fr f gspfjf. Sufs frhfs jgvmfh trfzgr sgrgimjfjg fe sgu pessumjer, fe pfsse qug Hurfhfsf, ghoerf tfhoíh kessg uh frtgsãe ceisuhfje, grf uh èhgh vmeagite, cubfs aïhmifs kgmtfs pfrfhgrnua`fjfs cfusfr humtevgrtmcfahgitg jfie g jgrrfhfr sfinug. Fs gspfjfs jes jemsgrfh hgstrgs kerfh iuhhumte rme pfrf sg vgrmkmcfr qufa f hgaèr. Fs kea`fs qug kautufvfh pfrf f gspfjf jg Hurfhfsf grfh certfjfs g jufs hgtfjgs qug ceitmiufvfh f kautufr sgh sgr pgrturofjfs. E vgicgjer kem, períh, Hfsfhuig, cubf frhf grf tãe pejgresf qug sgu lm lm (gspèrmte) (gspèrmte) kfzmf fs kea`fs sg jgsvmfrgh pfrf gvmtæ-af. Fs gspfjfs gspfjf s jg Hfsfhui Hfsfhuigg grfh gr fh ceismjgr ceismjgrfjfs fjfs igk igkfstfs fstfs f sfhurfms sfhurfms sfinumi sfinumiærm ærmes, es, pems grfh kerbfjfs pfrf f pfz. Sg usfjfs pfrf e hfa, pgrjgrmfh sgu gspèrmte g trfmrmfh mitgicmeifahgitg sgus hgstrgs if oftfa`f. Jmz f agijf qug e vmeagite jfmhye crmstãe Ejf Ieouifnf, qug ie sícuae P[M tgiteu uimkmcfr e Bfpãe, rgcuseu-sg usfr uhfper Hfsfhuig qug jgaf. a`g kem prgsgitgfjf per fcrgjmtfr qug gaf fcfofrmf perf hftæ-ae, iãe sgr jmnie

E tfc`m tfc`m   kem f gspfjf usufa jes sfhurfms ftí e miècme je pgrèeje Hurehfc`m (63=?-67>3), qufije cehgîeu f sgr suostmtuèjf pgaf cftfif, hfms curtf g agvg g jg ghpui`fjurf rgtf. Ceh aïhmif jg >7 f 07 cgitèhgtres g cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6,6 hgtre, pgsfvf cgrcf jg 6,: qumae. F pfrtmr jg 6;44, pfsseu-sg f c`fhfr tfc`m uhf frhf mjâitmcf ä cftfif, hfs ceh ghpui`fjurf amngmrfhgitg curvf g cfrrgnfjf ä hfigmrf fitmnf, ceh ofmi`f pgijurfjf ä cmiturf per jems pmies g nuhg curve pfrf ofmxe, usfjf per sfhurfms f cfvfae, ceh frhfjurf g gh ecfsm÷gs cgrmheimfms. E iejfc`m (‑sforg nrfijg jg cfhpe‘, pfrf sgr usfjf fpgifs gh cfhpe jg oftfa`f) grf uh tfc`m tfc`m   gxcgpcmeifahgitg nrfijg (aïhmif jg =4 cgitèhgtres e hfms), usfje pfrf kfzgr smifms äs trepfs g certfr pftfs jg cfvfaes. Zmpmcfhgitg, tmi`f aïhmif jg 6,? hgtre g ghpui`fjurf jg 34 cgitèhgtres. Whf kfhesfiejfc`m kfhesf iejfc`m kerbfjf per Lfigtsuig g usfjf gh 67=? pgae caã Jftg if tgitftmvf jg ceiqumstf jf Cergmf tgh aïhmif jg 6,? hgtre, 6,0 hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa, pgsf 3,;7 qumaes g tfavgz sgbf f hfmer gspfjf je huije f tgr smje gkgtmvfhgitg usfjf iuh cfhpe jg oftfa`f. E ejfc`m (‑sforg humte nrfijg‘) grf uh tfc`m tfc`m   nmnfitg kerbfjf per frhgmres cehe ekgrgijf fes jgusgs g pfrf jgheistrfr suf `fomamjfjg, sgh use prætmce. W gxghpafr kerbfje per Iermhmtsu jg Esfkuig gh 6::> tgh aïhmif jg ?,?> hgtres, 3,>> hgtres hgtres jg cehprmhgit cehprmhgitee g pgsf 6:,7 6:, 7 qumaes. Mimcmfahgitg c`fhfjf uc`mnftfif (‑sforg jg neapg‘), f cftfif (lftfif lftfif)) suostmtumu e tfc`m tfc`m cehe cehe frhf kfvermtf jes sfhurfms jurfitg e pgrèeje Hurehfc`m (63=?-67>3). Ghoerf sgbf rgaftmvfhgitg agvg g suf cfpfcmjfjg jg pgigtrfr g frhfjurfs sgbf amhmtfjf, sgu nuhg fkmfje cehe uhf ifvfa`f pgrhmtg certfr u èhgh fe hgme ceh kfcmamjfjg. Fe ceitrærme tfc`m, tfc`m , f),cftfif jmtf grf cfrrgnfjf ghpfrf uhfcmhf, ofmi`fe hgtmjf jgitre jejf cmite (eom), (eom prgsf preprmfhgitg per uh só pmie g ceh nuhg curve qug kfcmamtf fe hæxmhe sfcæ-af ceh rfpmjgz. Zrfjmcmeifahgitg, í usfjf ceh fs jufs hães. E kfhese reimi reimi Hmyfhete Hmyfhete Husfs`m, períh, useu-f ceh uhf só hãe, uite ceh uhf gspfjf hgier if eutrf g kuijeu uhf trfjmîãe jgjmcfjf f gssf tícimcf. Whf cftfif pfjrãe tgh aïhmif jg >4 f >3 cgitèhgtres, ghpui`fjurf jg ?= cgitèhgtres, uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 6 f 6,? qumae. F agm bfpeigsf cafssmkmcfvf cehe cftfif qufaqugr gspfjf ceh aïhmif jg cehprmhgite mnufa e supgrmer f ? s`flu (;4,; cgitèhgtres), hfs frhfs ceh aïhmif jgssg tfhfiè (c`fhfjfs , ‑sforg curte‘) só kerfh usfjfs usfjfs m iècme sícuaeIgssg P[M, P[M, tgije igssgc`mmsfnftfif cfse =4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgseiejgmiècme =44 je nrfhfs.

cfse, es sfhurfms agvfvfh jufs jgafs, gh vgz jg uhf cftfif g uhf wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m.. Sfhurfms hfms kertgs tgijmfh f prgkgrmr cftfifs hfms aeinfs, c`fhfjfs enftfif (‑cftfif nrfijg‘), ceh aïhmif jg 04 f =4 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6,6 f 6,?7 hgtre g 6,: f 6,; qumae. Hfs gh 6;:7 e xenuifte Zelunfwf amhmte e tfhfiè jf aïhmif f 0>,= ch g, gh 6;03, kerfh premomjfs fs cftfifs jg tfhfiè hfmer qug e pfjrãe. F uinngeh (‑gspfjf pgijurfjf‘) í f vgrsãe cergfif jf cftfif, f gaf gqumvfagitg gh tejes es fspgctes. Kem usfjf jurfitg f jmifstmf Besgei (63=?60=>) ftí f ceiqumstf bfpeigsf. Igssf ípecf, fs gspfjfs grfh cafssmkmcfjfs sgnuije sgu stftus g fs hfms gagvfjfs grf f oygeauinngeh (‑gspfjf pgijurfjf cgagstmfa‘), jf qufa só gxmstmfh jufs, usfjfs pgaes jems prmicmpfms nufrjf-cestfs je rgm, qug usfvfh e tètuae jg ui”ngeh ui”ngeh (‑fnrfcmfjes (‑fnrfcmfjes ceh f gspfjf‘). Ie Bfpãe, wflmzfs`m (‑misgrmjf fe afje‘) í agnfahgitg qufaqugr gspfjf ce aïhmif gitrg uh s`flu s`flu   (34,3 cgitèhgtres) g jems s`flu s`flu   (;4,; cgitèhgtres) jg cehprmhgite. F wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m caæssmcf caæssmcf grf usfjf pgaes sfhurfms, buite ceh f cftfif g prejuzmjf g usfjf ceh f hgshf tícimcf. Kmaès jg sfhurfms cestuhfvf prftmcfr ceh f wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m g g pertæ-af cehe uhf cftfif, bæ f pfrtmr jes sgtg fies. Í tfhoíh f gspfjfusfjf pfrf formr e fojúhgi ie rmtufa je sgppulu (e `frfqumrm e sumcèjme rmtufa). Ierhfahgitg, grf usfjf cehe òatmhe rgcurse eu gh fhomgitgs kgc`fjes, pems sgu tfhfiè f terifvf hfms prætmcf igssf smtufîãe, g e cestuhg es eormnfvf f jgper f cftfif gh cfsf fa`gmf. If kerhf caæssmcf, tgh aïhmif jg 74 f 7: cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg >? f >; cgitèhgtres g pgse jg >44 f 044 nrfhfs. E reimi reimi Hmyfhete Hmyfhete Husfs`m mifunureu f tícimcf jg usfr f cftfif gh uhf hãe g f wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m if if eutrf. F ewflmzfs`m (‑ (‑wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m   nrfijg‘) í uhf gspfjf cubf aïhmif tg cehprmhgite só uh(micausmvg peuqumiè mikgrmerjffe]fluzf) amhmtg agnfa jg ;4,; cgitèhgtres. Grf usfjf per pagogus hghores qug jgsgbfvfh gstfr tãe og frhfjes qufite grf pgrhmtmje f uh iãe-sfhurfm ftí 6;:7, qufije e xenuifte Zelunfwf elunfwf am amh hmteu fs wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m f f aïhmifs jg ftí 7>,; cgitèhgtres. E cehprmhgite tetfa grf jg 04 cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres g e pgse jg 044 f =44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Gh 6;;0, uhf rgnuafhgitfîãe fjmcmeifa premomu es pagogus (iãe-sfhurfms) jg usfr wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m   jg aïhmif hfmer qug :7,7 cgitèhgtres, sfave gh vmfngis. Frhfs kgmtfs seo gssf amhmtfîãe grfh c`fhfjfs lewflmzfs`m (‑wflmzfs`m (‑wflmzfs`m curtfs‘), curtfs‘), ce cehprmhgite tetfa jg ;7 cgitèhgtres g pgse jg ;44 f >44 nrfhfs. F s`mlehm s`mlehmzug zug (‑cfif prgpfrfjf‘) eu bet bete e (‑cfbfje-gspfjf‘) í e gqumvfagitg fpeiâs jf qug oginfaf jg gstequg ecmjgitfa2 uhf ecuatfuh percfbfje. uhf ofmi`f jg ofhou sg gicfmxf if ghpui`fjurf jg aïhmif kerhf frgtf smhuafr Zgrmf

smje usfjf per sfhurfms rgimtgitgs jgpems jg 60>;, qufije kerfh premomjes jg usfr sufs frhfs trfjmcmeifms, hfs if rgfamjfjg pfrgcg tgr smje mivgitfje jurfitg f premomîãe jg frhfs pgaf ecupfîãe gstfjuimjgisg (6=:7-6=73). Kem pepuafrmzfjf per Rftemc`m, pgrseifngh kmccmeifa jg uhf sírmg jg kmahgs bfpeigsgs jf Jfmgm Stujmes kgmtes jg 6=;? f 6=0=, qug ceitmiufh f rgijgr rghflgs rghflgs.. F imibfte (‑sforg imibf‘) í uhf crmfîãe je cmighf. Zgrmf tfhfiè g cfrfctgrèstmcfs sghga`fitgs ä wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m,, hfs aïhmif rgtf g nufrjf qufjrfjf (wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m   g cftfif tâh nufrjfs evfms). If rgfamjfjg, es imibfs – fngitgs sgcrgtes pagogus, premomjes jg usfr fs frhfs sfhurfms – usfvfh qufaqugr kfcf e gspfjf curtf jg ofmxe prgîe (eu reuofjf), jg prgkgrâicmf kæcma jg gsceijgr. Sgrmf fosurje c`fhfr c`fhfr f ftgiîãe f tgiîãe ceh ce h uh uhf frhf f rhf jg jgsgi` jgsg ièe miceh m icehuh uh.. Eutrf gspfjf mhfnmiærmf í f zfiofte (‑sforg certf-cfvfae‘), cube iehg í uhf trfjuîãe pfrf e bfpeiâs jf gspfjf c`migsf z`fihf c`migsf z`fihf jfe. jfe. Jf kerhf cehe cestuhf fpfrgcgr gh fimhgs g hfinæs, tgh uhf ghpui`fjurf jg :4 cgitèhgtres, u rmcfsse (pfrtg iãe fkmfjf jf aïhmif buite ä ghpui`fjurf, pfrf sgnurfr ceh f hãe) jg uis :7 cgitèhgtres g uh cehprmhgite jg jems f trâs hgtres, sgije usfjf g oftfa`f cehe uhf cftfif nmnfitg. Ghoerf bfpeigsgs tgi`fh kformcfje gspfjfs ejfc`m g ejfc`m g iejfc`m iejfc`m jgssg jgssg tfhfiè, grfh usfjfs jg hfigmrf jmkgrgitg (sg í qug iãe grfh fpgifs cgrmh cgrm heimfms) g iãe tmi`fh tmi`fh rmcfsse. E oelute eu oellgi í uhf mhmtfîãe gh hfjgmrf jf cftfif, usfjf ie trgmifhgite jg sfhurfms. Kgmtf jg hfjgmrf jurf g jgisf, cehe e cfrvfaè fpeiâs, tgh tfhfiè, pgse g ofafiîe sghga`fitg fes jg uhf cftfif vgrjfjgmrf. If hãe jg uh nugrrgmre kertg g `æoma, pejmf cfusfr kgrmhgites sírmes g qugorfr esses. Wsfjfs èbg ie mfmtú g fanuis gxgrcècmes jg lgijú, sãe hfms agvgs qug fs ermnmifms g kgmtfs jg hftgrmfa smitítmce eu ceogrtfs jg gspuhf jg oerrfc`f, pfrf oelute eu sète oellgi, hfms curte, smhuaf f gvmtfr fcmjgitgs. E sèteceh wflmzfs`m wflmzfs`m gh gxgrcècmes jufs gspfjfs. Hmyfhete Husfs`m hestrfvf suf supgrmermjfjg usfije uhf oelute, eu uh pfr, pfrf gikrgitfr g vgicgr rmvfms frhfjes ceh cftfifs. F ifhm mfmte í uhf mivgiîãe rgcgitg, je pós-nugrrf. Í uhf fatgriftmvf fe oelute   pfrf prftmcfr e mfmtú, frtg hfrcmfa qug ceismstg gh sfcfr rfpmjfhgitg f oelute cftfif g usæ-af ekgismvfhgitg eu jgkgismvfhgitg bæ ie prmhgmre hevmhgite. Tfrf terifr hgies cfisftmves es hevmhgites rgpgtmtmves, í hfms agvg (cgrcf jg 074 nrfhfs), ceh aïhmif jg amnf jg zmice-fauhèime sgh kme. F s`mifm í f gspfjf je lgijú gspertmve, e gqumvfagitg bfpeiâs jf gsnrmhf

ecmjgitfa. Hgiesrgtfs, pgrmnesf qug e oelute oelute g ofstfitg kagxèvga, í kgmtf ekmcmfa ceh quftre tmrfs jg ofhou fhfrrfjfs ceh ceure eu tgcmje. F vgrsãe pfrf

fjuates tgh 6,? hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 764 nrfhfs if vgrsãe hfscuamif g ::4 if kghmimif. Vufije usfjfs fe pfrgs, jfmte (aeinf) g sète (curtf), f hfmer tgh 6,6: hgtre g pgsf ::4 nrfhfs if vgrsãe hfscuamif g :44 if kghmimif, g f hgier tgh ;? cgitèhgtres g pgsf ftí 344 nrfhfs if vgrsãe hfscuamif g ?04 if kghmimif.

Cmhmtfrrfs Es sforgs usfjes pgaes iúhfjgs jf Æsmf Cgitrfa jgrfh ermngh if Tírsmf (ftufa Mrã) je sícuae PMM ä s`fhs`m s`fhs`mr r , amtgrfahgitg ‑nfrrf jg agãe‘, pfafvrf jf qufa jgrmvf e pertunuâs cmhmtfrrf (minaâs scmhmtfr scmhmtfr)) ftrfvís je mtfamfi m tfamfiee scmhmtfrf scmhmtfrf.. Ghoerf f cmhmtfrrf pgrsf kessg sghga`fitg fe sforg jes iúhfjgs if kerhf, es frhgmres ermgitfms fjetfrfh tícimcfs fvfiîfjfs, cehpfrævgms ä jfs cftfifs fpeigsfs, qug f terifrfh agvg g gxtrghfhgitg certfitg g gxmnmrfh tícimcfs jg use hfms sekmstmcfjfs. Whf cmhmtfrrf tgh uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsf u qumae. F amjgrfiîf huîuahfif if prejuîãe jg gspfjfs jureu jg =44 f 6>74. Hgshe es cfvfagmres crmstães rgcei`gcmfh qug es frhgmres ærfogs jg Jfhfsce grf supgrmergs g fspmrfvfh f pessumr uhf gspfjf kerbfjf ceh suf tícimcf. Jmzmfh fs agijfs qug pejmf certfr uh pgjfîe jg sgjf ie fr, cehe tfhoíh certfr uhf pgjrf sgh pgrjgr e kme. Whf kfhesf cmhmtfrrf agijærmf kem S`fhs`mr-g Reherrejignfr Reherrejignfr (‑cmhmtfrrf crfvgbfjf jg gshgrfajfs‘), qug sgnuije uhf agijf pgrsf tgrmf pgrtgicmje fe rgm Sfaehãe g jgpems fe jbmii jbmii Kuafj-zgrg`, Kuafj-zgrg`, cubf hãg e pretgngu ceh uh gicfite qug e terifvf mivuaigrævga f qufaqugr frhf, hgies gssf. F cmhmtfrrf tfhoíh grf u fhuagte ceitrf f hfnmf. Whf kgrmjf qug gaf cfusfssg só pejgrmf sgr trftfjf per uhf peîãe gspgcmfa kgmtf ceh jgtgrhmifjes minrgjmgitgs, micaumije e círgore jg Kuafj-zgrg`. E jbmii jbmii kem kem vgicmje g suf cmhmtfrrf ceiqumstfjf pgae agijærme `gróm Fhmr Frsfafi-g Ifhjfr. F pfrtmr je sícuae PM[, fs cmhmtfrrfs sg ngigrfamzfrfh per teje e huije huîuahfie, äs vgzgs faíh. F vgrsãe ærfog í c`fhfjf sfmk hf”quk   (‑gspfjf curvf‘) f ogrogrg (usfjf ie ieregstg Ækrmcf,g micausmvg pgaesnuhg pmrftfs ogrogrgs) g imhc`f ogrogrgs) . Zejfs tâh aïhmifs curvfs,jfgstrgmtfs peitujfs, ceh je afje ceivgxe g fprexmhfjfhgitg je hgshe tfhfiè2 =4 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g >44 nrfhfs f 6,: qumae. Jmkgrgh prmicmpfahgitg pgae kerhfte jf nufrjf g jf ghpui`fjurf. Gitrg es ærfogs, useu-sg tfhoíh uhf vgrsãe curtf, ceh 7; cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g cgrcf jg 744 nrfhfs, äs vgzgs usfjf gh pfrgs (cehe gh uhf kfhesf cgif jg Mijmfif jg Mijmfif Beigs B eigs g es Cfîfjergs jf Frcf Frcf Tgr Tgrjmjf jmjf). ). F vgrsãe turcf í c`fhfjf lmamb g tgh uhf curvf gh ïinuae, qug mhpgjg qug sgbf nufrjfjf gh uhf ofmi`f kgc`fjf (gstf gxmng uhf gspfjf rgtf eu ceh curvf gh Fkerhf kerhf jg frce jg puaw cèrcuae). cèr cuae). cmhmtfrrf fkgnã puawfr, fr, usfjf pgae peve pfs`tui, tmi`f uh pehe gh kerhf

jg xècfrf g es orfîes jf nufrjf amngmrfhgitg curvfjes pfrf f krgitg. F pfqumstfigsf g mijmfif tfawfr  sãe sãe cfrfctgrmzfjfs pgae pehe gh kerhf jg jmsce, krgqugitghgitg uh frce jg hgtfa gh J je pehe fe nufrjf-hãe g uhf aïhmif u peuce hfms afrnf qug f pgrsf (rgsuatfije iuh pgse jg cgrcf jg 6,37 qumae, ie amhmtg supgrmer jfs cmhmtfrrfs), tfhoíh usfjf igssgs pfèsgs ceh e iehg jg s`fhs`gr . Gssfs gspfjfs sãe sghga`fitgs äs pgrsfs g prevfvgahgitg kerfh per gafs mikaugicmfjfs, hfs ceitmiufh uhf fitmnf trfjmîãe mijmfif jg gspfjfs curvfs g sãe usfjfs tfhoíh per nugrrgmres `mijus g sml`s, faíh jes huîuahfies. F gspfjf hfhgaucf (hfhgaulg swerj) swerj) í f cmhmtfrrf jes hfhgauces (cerpe gnèpcme jg nugrrgmres-gscrfves qug gxmstmu je sícuae MP fe MP), qug kem fjetfjf per cerpes ecmjgitfms jg ùssfrjes (cfvfafrmf amngmrf) ie sícuae PMP jgpems qug Ifpeagãe rgcruteu fanuhfs uimjfjgs jg hfhgauces jurfitg suf cfhpfi`f ie Gnmte. Es hfrmigs jes GWF f fjetfrfh gh 60?7, fe kmh jg suf cfhpfi`f ceitrf es pmrftfs jf Ogroírmf, g sgus ekmcmfms fmijf f usfh cgrmheimfahgitg. Zgh =; cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res (aïh (aï hmif jg 06) g pgsf pgs f 064 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. [fag eosgrvfr qug fs gspfjfs curvfs usfjfs pgaes gakes if vgrsãe jg Tgtgr Bfclsei jg E Sgièr jes Fiíms Fiíms sãe vfrmgjfjgs jg cmhmtfrrf. Fs rípamcfs cehgrcmfms jf @fj`fkfin jf gakf Frwgi tâh =; cgitèhgtres (aïhmif jg >;) g pgsfh >>4 nrfhfs. Fs rípamcfs jfs cmhmtfrrfs curtfs usfjfs gh pfr per Agneafs tâh 7; cgitèhgtres (aïhmif jg :4) g 7;7 nrfhfs cfjf uhf.

Gspfjfs fkrmcfifs jg uh uh só nuhg nuhg [ærmes peves fkrmcfies usfrfh gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg, qugr sgbfh mispmrfjfs gh frhfs jes fitmnes gnèpcmes, cfvfagmres ærfogs eu hfrmi`gmres gurepgus, e sgbfh mivgiî÷gs mijgpgijgitgs. F sètga , frhf gtèepg, tgh ghpui`fjurf smhpags, sgh nufrjf, ceh pehe cehe kerhf jg uh jmsce g aïhmif humte curvf, c`gnfije f kerhfr uh sghmcèrcuae, g ceh nuhg tfite je afje cúicfve qufite je ceivgxe. Sgu kerhfte pgrhmtg ceiterifr e gscuje je fjvgrsærme g neapgfr ceh f peitf, eu gitãe certfr ierhfahgitg ceh f aïhmif. Kem usfjf per nugrrgmres f pí, ceitrf sgus pfrgs e ceitrf cfvfagmres jgsjg f cuaturf Jfhet (>44 – :44 f.C.) fe sícuae PP. Zgh jg 04 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre g pgsf 6,3 f 6,7 qumae. F nurfjg, ceh curvf hfms sufvg, í uhf gspfjf gtèepg usfjf per cfvfagmres qug í sghga`fitg ä cmhmtfrrf, hfs ceh ghpui`fjurf smhpags cehe f jf sètga sètga.. Zgh uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 6,? qumae. F kayssf í uhf gspfjf rgtf jg uh só nuhg, peitujf g jg aïhmif agvg g gstrgmtf, tèpmcf jes cfomafs, peve ogrogrg g huîuahfie jfs heitfi`fs jf Frníamf g Hfrreces, usfjf tfite pfrf gstecfr qufite pfrf certfr. Tejg tgr jg 73 f =: cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res g pgsfr jg 344 f 074 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. F fngjginog í uhf gspfjf meruof jg aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f afrnf (ftí >,7 cgitèhgtres if pfrtg hfms afrnf), eoaèquf gh rgafîãe fe cfoe, ceh cgrcf jg 74 cgitèhgtres g 074 nrfhfs. F gspfjf hfijminf, je peve je hgshe iehg jf Ækrmcf Ecmjgitfa, í uhf gspfjf curtf, amngmrfhgitg curvf, ceh cgrcf jg ;3 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 344 nrfhfs g cfoe smhpags jg hfjgmrf. F gspfjf leijf (eu iluije, eu heine) je peve jgssg iehg rgnmãeF cgitrfa Lmis`fsf, tgh cgrcf jg >4 cgitèhgtres g pgsf 744 if nrfhfs. gspfjf je tglgCeine , je peve jgssg iehg qug vmvg if ceikauâicmf jes rmes Ceine g Lfsfm, tgh uhf aïhmif gh nficè cube nuhg kmcf veatfje pfrf f krgitg qufije f frhf í sgnurf pgae cfoe, jg heje qug uh neapg jg afje pejg, fe hgshe tghpe, tmrfr e gscuje je mimhmne je cfhmiè g certfr-a`g e fojúhgi. Zgh 74 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsf =44 nrfhfs

Gspfjfs jg jems nuhgs Gstfs gspfjfs cestuh cestuhfh sgr rgtfs g kgmtfs prmicmpfahgi pr micmpfahgitg tg pfrf certfr, ghoerf ghoerf f hfmermf jgafs tfhoíh sgbf gkmcmgitg pfrf gstecfr. Sãe hfms vgrsætgms qug fs gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg, hfs hfms krængms, pems e nuhg í f pfrtg hfms vuaigrævga jf aïhmif. Jg hfigmrf ngrfa, gxmngh uhf tícimcf jg use hfms cehpagxf g hfms gxpgrmâicmf je usuærme, e qug ngrfahgitg rgstrminmu sgu use f nugrrgmres gspgcmfamzfjes g krgqugitghgitg f uhf cfstf eu gstfhgite `grgjmtærme.

Naæjmes (gspfjfs curtfs) Fs gspfjfs curtfs, tfhoíh c`fhfjfs ‑naæjmes‘ pgae iehg rehfie, sãe fs hfms fitmnfs gspfjfs jg jems nuhgs. If Mjfjg je Oreizg grfh prftmcfhgitg fs òimcfs gxmstgitgs g if Mjfjg je Kgrre grfh fs hfms mhpertfitgs. Grfh f frhf jg òatmhe rgcurse jes èpamtfs nrgnes, hfs pfssfvfh f sgr frhf prmicmpfa jes agnmeiærmes rehfies jgpems qug frrghgssfvfh sgus pmaes. F pfrtmr jf Mjfjg Híjmf, ceh e prgjehèime jf cfvfafrmf, fs gspfjfs aeinfs (eu smhpagshgitg ‑gspfjfs‘) pfssfrfh fe prmhgmre pafie, hfs fs gspfjfs curtfs ceitmiufrfh f sgr f frhf jg rgsgrvf jes pg÷gs (cubfs frhfs prmicmpfms grf usufahgitg afiîfs, fafofrjfs g eutrfs frhfs jg `fstg) ftí f Mjfjg Hejgrif. F pfrtmr je sícuae PMP, kerfh suostmtuèjfs per tgrîfjes eu sforgs jg mikfitfrmf, jgpems per ofmeigtfs g kfcfs jg cehoftg, usfjfs ftí èbg.

Naæjmes jg oreizg Jgvmje äs amhmtfî÷gs jf hgtfaurnmf jf Mjfjg je Oreizg, fs prmhgmrfs gspfjfs, kgmtfs jg ceorg, grfh curtfs g agvgs, peuce hfms qug fjfnfs. Wh gxghpae suhírme, giceitrfje iuhf tuhof rgfa jg Wr, tmi`f 74 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsfvf ;74 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. F hgtfaurnmf je oreizg pessmomamteu gspfjfs fane hfmergs g hfms pgsfjfs. If ípecf hmcâimcf, uhf gspfjf pgrkurfitg (aïhmif trmfinuafr g peitujf, nuhgs peuce fkmfjes), tmi`f :7 cgitèhgtres g =44 nrfhfs. Whf gspfjf jg certg (jems nuhgs, aïhmif sgh peitf fkmfjf), kuijmjf iuhf só pgîf (cfoe g aïhmif) tmi`f 74 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite tetfa g 6,37 qumae< uhf gspfjf hmstf g aeinf (fmijf ogh fquíh je qug sg c`fhfrmf jg ‑gspfjf aeinf‘ if Mjfjg je Kgrre) tmi`f >; cgitèhgtres g 6,7 qumae. Grfh prevfvgahgitg frhfs jg rgsgrvf, usfjfs jgpems jfs afiîfs g frces. Cehe í mhpessèvga jfr uh nuhg rgfahgitg fkmfje f uhf aïhmif jg oreizg, oreiz g, gssfs gss fs frh fr hfs jgpgijmfh hfms hfms jg kerîf g pgse je qu qugg je kme. Gstfs sgrmfh fs gspfjfs rgfahgitg usfjfs pgaes `gróms g sghmjgusgs jf hmteaenmf nrgnf gh sufs fvgiturfs eu if Nugrrf jg Zremf, g iãe fs gspfjfs jg fîe orma`fitg qug cestuhfh sgr hestrfjfs ie cmighf. @ehgre cmtf es sgnumitgs iehgs2 xmpès iehgs2 xmpès (ngiírmce), (ngiírmce), c`faes c`faes (gspfjf (gspfjf jg ceorg), p`fsnfiei ceorg), p`fsnfiei (gspfjf (gspfjf jg jems nuh nu hgs, ceh aïhmif gh kerhf kerhf jjgg kea`f) kea `f) g fer fer (gspfjf (gspfjf jg kea`f afrnf g reoustf). Es ficgstrfms jes cgatfs usfrfh gspfjfs jg oreizg cfrfctgrmzfjfs pgaf aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f, ceh nuhgs amngmrfhgitg curves qug rgsuatfh iuhf aïhmif fafrnfjf ie hgme. Gssfs gspfjfs sãe giceitrfjfs ies c`fhfjes ‑cfhpes jg urifs‘, giceitrfjes pgaes frqugóaenes if Gurepf Cgitrfa, agstg jf Krfiîf g iertg jf Mtæamf g jftfjes je sícuae PMM f.C. fe sícuae [MM f.C. Ceh cgrcf jg >0 cgitEs cgitèhgt èhgtres, res, pgsfh 6,37usfrfh qumae. quma e. gspfjfs jg oreizg jg jems nuhgs ( bmfi), c`migsgs tfhoíh bmfi ), ftgstfjfs if jmifstmf S`fin (6>>; -64?> f.C.), ceh cgrcf jg 76 cgitèhgtres g ;74 nrfhfs. Whf jfs hfms kfhesfs í f Gspfjf jg Neubmfi. Kem giceitrfjf if prevèicmf jg @uogm g í ietævga pgaf pgrkgmtf ceisgrvfîãe g tetfa fusâicmf jg hfic`fs. E oreizg jf aïhmif tgh ceitgòje hgier jg gstfiè ie cerpe jf aïhmif, hfms kagxèvga g percgitfngh hfmer ie nuhg, hfms jure. Zgh 77,; cgitèhgtres, micaumije e puiè jg 64 cgitèhgtres g uhf miscrmîãe if qufa jmz pgrtgicgr fe rgm jg ]ug, prevfvgahgitg Neubmfi, qug rgmieu gh ]ug jg :=; f :;7 f.C. F fcmifcgs (iehg aftmie, jgrmvfje je pgrsf flmiflf flmiflf)) grf f gspfjf curtf cfrfctgrèstmcf jesgpgrsfs jg gspfjfs oreizg cmtfs, usfjf per hgjes pgrsfsfqughâimjfs. je sícuae [MM Jgrmvfjf f.C. fe sícuae MM f.C. jg Ceh aïhmif rgtf kem jg

37 f :7 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 74 f ;4 cgitèhgtres, jems nuhgs g peitf fkmfjf, aghorf fs gspfjfs pgrkurfitgs hmcâimcfs, hfs grf kgmtf jg kgrre, e qug f kfzmf kfzmf sgr hfms agvg g certfi cer tfitg tg sgh sgr hgies hgies rgsms r gsmstgi tgitg. tg. Cehe es nrgnes g rehfies jgscrgvmfh f fcmifcgs fpgifs cehe ‑gspfjf pgrsf‘, sgh jfr jgtfa`gs seorg sgu kerhfte, futergs omzfitmies g hgjmgvfms f ceikuijmrfh ceh f cmhmtfrrf eu s`fhs`mr s`fhs`mr,, f gspfjf pgrsf hfms cfrfctgrèstmcf jg suf ípecf. Ter msse, m sse, gh aftmh hgjmgvfa hgjmgvfa g hejgrie, hejgrie, ‑fcmifcgs‘ ‑fc mifcgs‘ sg s g terieu smiúimhe smiúimhe jg gspfjf curvf, fpamcfje ftí äs cftfifs bfpeigsfs. E naæjme cgatf kem usfje per nfuagsgs g eutres peves cgatfs je miècme jg suf Mjfjg je Kgrre, if cuaturf Af Zàig (;74 f.C.) ftí f ceiqumstf rehfif. Ceh aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f (nuhgs amngmrfhgitg curves, fafrnfije f aïhmif ie hgme), tmi`f cgrcf jg ;0 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g =74 nrfhfs. Gssf sgrmf f frhf usfjf pgae Fstgrmx jes qufjrmiès. qufjrmiès. E naæjme nrgne eu xmpès grf usfje pgaes èpamtfs cehe frhf sgcuijærmf g rgafîãe ä afiîf, pfrf sgr usfjf cfse f kerhfîãe jf kfafing kessg qugorfjf. Kem usfjf pgaes nrgnes, hfcgjúimes g pgaes rgmies qug gstgs kuijfrfh ie Ermgitg ftí suf ceiqumstf pgaes rehfies, qug f cei`gcmfh cehe nafjmus nrfgcus. nrfgcus. Zmi`f f hgshf kerhf jg kea`f cfrfctgrèstmcf jes naæjmes cgatfs, ceh >: cgitèhgtres g u qumae. Es èpamtfs gspfrtfies, f pfrtmr jf ípecf jfs nugrrfs pgrsfs (sícuae [ f.C.), sg cfrfctgrmzfvfh per usfr uh naæjme hgier qug es jes eutres nrgnes, c`fhfje xmp`mjmei xmp`mjm ei g äs vgzgs ceismjgrfjf uhf gic`gmrmjmei gic`gmrmjmei   (fjfnf). Es gspfrtfies gvmtfvfh fe hæxmhe qugorfr suf kerhfîãe g kfzmfh jg sgu naæjme uhf frhf jg òatmhe rgcurse, f sgr usfjf jg humte pgrte g fpgifs pfrf gstecfr. Kem fjetfjf tfhoíh pgaes ogócmes ie miècme je sícuae M[ f.C. Ceh cgrcf jg 74 cgitèhgtres, pgsfvf f tí 044 ftí nrfh fs. tmi`f ;: cgitèhgtres g grf sghga`fitg fe cgatf. Es rehfies E naæjme `mspïimce `mspnrfhfs. ïimce trfvfrfh ceitfte ceh gssfs frhfs if Trmhgmrf Nugrrf Tòimcf (?;:-?:6 f.C.) g rfpmjfhgitg f fjetfrfh, trfiskerhfije-f iuhf jfs frhfs pfjrãe jg sgus agnmeiærmes. E naæjme rehfie (nafjmus nafjmus), ), sghga`fitg fe nrgne, hfs hfms peituje, kem fjetfjf pgaes agnmeiærmes f pfrtmr jgssg hejgae mogre ie sícuae MMM f.C. Grf usfje prmicmpfahgitg pfrf gstecfr, ghoerf tfhoíh kessg cfpfz jg certfr g tmi`f cgrcf jg ;= cgitèhgtres g =44 nrfhfs. Grf usfje tfhoíh pgae tmpe hfms pepuafr jg nafjmfjer, e hmrhmaãe (hurhmaae (hurhmaae). ). Fe ceitrærme je naæjme nrgne, grf uhf frhf rgnuafr g iãe rgsgrvf, qug sg terifvf prgkgrgicmfa fpós e afiîfhgite jes jems pmaes qug cfjfjgagnmeiærme agvfvf ä oftfa`f.

F pfrtmr je sícuae M j.C., seajfjes rehfies cehgîfrfh f fjetfr uhf vfrmfitg ceh nuhg hfms rgte g peitf hgies preiuicmfjf. Gssg hejgae, hfms gkmcmgitg pfrf certfr g hfms ofrfte, suostmtumu mitgmrfhgitg e trfjmcmeifa fpós e sícuae M[ j.C. Ceh cgrcf jg ;0 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres, res, pgsfvf 044 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. If Mjfjg Híjmf, gspfjfs curtfs sghga`fitgs fes naæjmes rehfies je òatmhe pgrèeje ceitmiufrfh f sgr usfjes per pg÷gs g jurfitg f Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf, humtes cfvfagmres agvfrfh uhf gspfjf curtf buite ceh suf gspfjf aeinf, cehe tfhoí kfrmfh es sfh s fhuurfm rfms. s. F aèinuf jg vfcf (m (mtfamfi tfamfiee aminuf jm oug, oug, figafcg figafcg eu eu cmiqugjgf cmiqugjgf)) í uhf gspfjf curtf cmvma tèpmcf jf _gifscgiîf mtfamfif, jg 6:;4 f 67?4. Cmiqugjgf Cmiqugjgf   smnimkmcf ‑jg 7 jgjes‘, rgkgrâicmf ä fhpaf afrnurf jf aïhmif if ofsg, ftí 64 cgitèhgtres, qug ekgrgcmf rgsmstâicmf g gspfîe pfrf rmces trfofaès jg frtg, faíh jg prepercmeifr uhf frhf ænma g rgsmstgitg. Zmi`f cehprmhgite jg 74 f ;4 cgitèhgtres (ceh puiè jg 63 f 67 cgitèhgtres) g pgsfvf ;44 nrfhfs f 6,? qumae. F gspfjf ofsgafrjf (ofsgafrj, gh faghãe faghãe Ofsagr, ‑ofsmagmgisg‘ ‑ofsmagmgisg‘   e Sc`wgmzgrjgngi, ‑gspfjf suèîf‘) kem uhf gspfjf curtf, vgrsãe faeinfjf jf fjfnf ofsgafrjf (Sc`wgmzgrjeac` (Sc`wgmzgrjeac`)) usfjf je sícuae PMMM fe P[, cehe frhf sgcuijærmf per hgrcgiærmes suèîes cubf frhf prmicmpfa grf e pmqug. Suf cfrfctgrèstmcf grf tgr pehe g nufrjf gh kerhf jg crgscgitgs, jfije ä ghpui`fjurf f kerhf jg uh @. E cehprmhgite jf aïhmif vfrmfvf jg :4 f >4 cgitèhgtres, ceh pgse jg 744 f 074 nrfhfs. E naæjme jg frtma`frmf (minaâs (minaâs frtmaagry frtmaagry swerj, krficâs swerj, krficâs nafjmus nafjmus)) í uhf gspfjf curtf jg jems nuh nuhgs usfjf ceh c ehee frh fr hf jg jgkgsf g kfcãe utma utmamtærm mtærmee pgaf pga f mik m ikfit fitfrm frmff g frtma`frmf je sícuae P[MM fe PMP. E cehprmhgite tetfa grf jg ;: cgitèhgtres, ceh aïhmif aïhmif jg :0 g pgse jg 6,: qumaes. Gspfjfs curtfs sghga`fitgs f naæjmes kerfh Es meruofs, je sujegstg jf ftufa Imnírmf, usfvfh jemstfhoíh tmpes jg usfjfs gspfjf if rgtfÆkrmcf. c`fhfjes mjf. Wh tmi`f aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f afrnf (; cgitèhgtres ie peite hfms afrne), ghpui`fjurf smhpags sgh nufrjf g :0 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g cgrcf jg ;44 nrfhfs. E eutre tmi`f aïhmif gstrgmtf, cgrcf jg >; cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g >44 nrfhfs. Ie agstg jf ftufa Imnírmf, useu-sg uhf gspfjf curtf g afrnf, jg :; cgitèhgtres g 6,37 qumae. Ie iertg, es `fuîæs usfvfh gspfjfs curtfs jg kerhf cfrfctgrèstmcf, jg ;3 cgitèhgtres g =44 nrfhfs. F sghg í f gspfjf tèpmcf jes hfssfms je Vuâimf g Zfizïimf. Zgh aïhmif gstrgmtf jg 77pehe. cgitèhgtres, ceh ghpui`fjurf kerrfjf jg ceure cru, usfije uhf hegjf cehe

Frhfs jg cmjfjães, hgrcgiærmes g nafjmfjergs, iãe jg ieorgs g fvgiturgmres, es naæjmes rfrfhgitg kerfh hetmve jg agijfs g kfitfsmfs, hfs vfag ietfr uhf gxcgîãe2 Kgrrefjf (Stmin ), f gspfjf jg Omaoe gh E @eoomt   g jg Kreje gh E Stmin), Sgièr jes Fiíms, Fiíms, qug tgrmf smje kerbfjf per gakes cehe uhf fjfnf, hfs qug ifs hães jes pgqugies `gróms jgsghpgièu e pfpga jg uhf nrfijmesf gspfjf. Faí jg gxcgpcmeifahgitg fkmfjf, f peite jg pejgr certfr tgmfs jg frfi`fs nmnfitgs g sgr gikmfjf per Omaoe iuhf vmnf jg hfjgmrf, tmi`f e pejgr hænmce jg ghmtmr u ormaè fzua qufije ercs sg fprexmhfvfh. _ípamcfs tâh 7; cgitèhgtres g pgsf 774 nrfhfs.

Gspfjfs (gspfjfs aeinfs jg uhf uhf hãe)

Gspfjfs Gspfj fs ecmjgitfms Fs prmhgmrfs gspfjfs aeinfs je Ecmjgitg kerfh usfjfs per cfvfagmres cgatfs g cgatmogres g tmi`fh cgrcf jg 00 cgitèhgtres g 074 nrfhfs. Sgije usfjfs pfrf certfr, iuicf pfrf gstecfr, tmi`fh peitf rehoujf. Jgafs jgrmvfh f gspfjf preprmfhgitg jmtfrehfies (spft`f,,(gqumtgs (spft`f gh aftmh, ceitrfstg cehMM ef.C., nafjmus nafjmus curte), pgaes cfvfagmres (gqumtgs), ), f gh pfrtmr je sícuae tmi`f cgrcf usfjf jg =6 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsfvf =44 nrfhfs, sgije uhf frhf sgcuijærmf g rgafîãe ä `fstf eu afiîf. [fag ietfr qug f kfhesf ‑Gspfjf jg Jïhecags‘, ceh f qufa e tmrfie Jmeièsme jg Smrfcusf tgrmf jfje uhf amîãe fe certgsãe je hgshe iehg, í jgscrmtf pgae rehfie Cècgre cehe uhf spft`f g iãe uh nafjmus spft`f g nafjmus.. F cfvfafrmf rehfif, qug if ípecf jf _gpòoamcf grf kerhfjf per ieorgs jg sfinug eu per pagogus rmces ieomamtfjes, pfsseu ie Mhpírme f sgr rgcrutfjf gitrg hgrcgiærmes gstrfingmres (nfuagsgs, mogres g iòhmjfs), qug rgcgomfh ?4% f hfms qug es agnmeiærmes f pí, sgrvmije cehe gsceatf jfs agnm÷gs eu cehe oftgjergs. F pfrtmr je sícuae M[, qufije f cfvfafrmf ceiqumsteu peuce peuce uh hfms mhpertfitg ifs ami`fs jg oftfa`f g per kmh jehmifitg, fs fgspfjfs jes pfpga cfvfagmres rehfies rehfi es pfssfrfh pfss frfh f sgr uh peuce hfms hfms pgsfjfs, cgrcf jg 6,6 qumae. F gspfjf jes cfvfagmres hgjmgvfms jgscgijg jmrgtfhgitg jfs gspfjfs rehfifs, hfs tgijgu f sg terifr cfjf vgz hfms pgsfjf, vmste qug fs frhfjurfs terifrfh-sg hfms cehuis g jg hgaèr qufamjfjg. Faíh jmsse, pfrf hgaèr pretgngr f hãe g mhpgjmr qug gscerrgnfssg pfrf f aïhmif, fjeteu f nufrjf g cruz, migxmstgitg ifs gspfjfs jf Fitmnumjfjg. F pfrtmr jf ípecf jg Cfraes Hfnie (044 j.C.) f gspfjf supafiteu supafiteu tetfah tetfahgit gitgg e naæjme if cfvfafrmf cfvfa frmf ecmjgitfa. Fs prmhgmrfs gspfjfs hgjmgvfms, fssmh cehe fs fitmnfs gspfjfs rehfifs, grfh usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg pfrf certfr g ngrfahgitg tmi`fh peitf rehoujf. Jg hfigmrf ngrfa, grfh hfms pgsfjfs g rgsmstgitgs, hfs hgies fkmfjfs qug fs cmhmtfrrfs ærfogs g cftfifs bfpeigsfs, tgije gh vmstf rehpgr f cetf jg hfa`f jg fjvgrsærmes pretgnmjes. pretgnmjes. ‑Gspfjfs prgtfs‘, usfjfs if gsnrmhf g ie trgmifhgite, grfh ierhfahgitg gspfjfs sgh nuhg igh austre, ceh peitf pretgnmjf per uh oetãe ceogrte jg cfhurîf, cfh urîf, giqufit giqufitee fs jg use rgfa rgf a grfh g rfh ‑gspfjfs orficfs‘. Fs jmhgis÷gs jgssfs gspfjfs vfrmfvfh gitrg 07 cgitèhgtres g 6,67 hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa (aïhmif jg >4 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre, ceh :,7 f ; cgitèhgtres jg afrnu a frnurf rf if ofsg), if hfmer hfmermf mf jes cfses cf ses gitrg gitrg =4 = 4 cgitèh cgitèhgtres gtres g uh hgtre (aïhmi ( aïhmiff jg >;-0? cgitèhgtres) ceh =44 nrfhfs f 6,3 qumae. Gh minaâs, tfms gspfjfs sãe c`fhfjfs rgtreftmvfhgitg jg orefjswerjs orefjswerjs (‑gspfjfs (‑gspfjfs afrnfs‘) pfrf jmkgrgicmæ-afs

jfs gspfjfs jg aïhmif gstrgmtf jf Mjfjg Hejgrif. Gh pertunuâs, e iehg ceitghperïige grf gspfjf-j”frhfs , pfrf jmstminum-afs jfs gspfjfs jg certg (‑cúrtg‘), (‑cúr tg‘), jg use cmvma cm vma eu erifh erifhgit gitfa. fa. F gssf cftgnermf pgrtgicgrfh fs gspfjfs gkgtmvfhgitg usfjfs pgaes hfms kfheses rgms, ieorgs g cfvfagmres jf Mjfjg Híjmf, fanuhfs jfs qufms nfi`frf iehg próprme ifs agijfs g rehficgs jg ngstf. E cmighf hejgrie tgijg, períh, f prgkgrmr hestrfr frhfs humte hfmergs, jg tmpes qug só sg terifrfh cehuis if _gifscgiîf. Gitrg fs gspfjfs hfms kfhesfs jf Mjfjg Híjmf, vfag aghorfr2 Nrfh (‑mrf‘) í f gspfjf jg Smnhuij if msafijgsf Sfnf jes [easuines, [easuines, qug cehe f agijf frturmfif, í fhomgitfjf ie miècme jf Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf (sícuaes [ g [M). Wh jmf, Smnngmr, rgm jes Ngtfs (sua jf Suícmf), vgme vmsmtfr vms mtfr rgm [easui eas uin, n, omsigte jg Ejmi cfsfj cfsfjee ceh f nmnfitf nmnfitf @abej, @abe j, pfrf pfr f preper cfsfhgite ceh suf kma`f Smniy g e pfm ceicerjeu, ceitrf f veitfjg jf kma`f. If kgstf jg cfsfhgite, cgagorfjf if cfsf jg rguim÷gs jg [easuin, ceistruèjf gh terie je cfrvfaè Ofristellr, uh vgaè cfeaè (Ejmi) treuxg uhf gspfjf, crfveu-f if ærverg, jmssg qug gaf pgrtgicgrmf f qugh ceisgnumssg frrficæ-af g jgsfpfrgcgu. Zejes tgitfrfh g krfcfssfrfh, ftí qug Smnhuij, mrhãe nâhge jg Smniy, f tmreu sgh gskerîe. Smnngmr a`g ekgrgcgu pgaf gspfjf trâs vgzgs e sgu pgse gh eure. Fitg f rgcusf jg Smnhuij, e rgm jes Ngtfs sg gikurgcgu. Ceivmjeu f kfhèamf jg [easuin pfrf eutrf kgstf gh sgu pfaæcme g qufije c`gnfrfh, fprmsmeieu [easuin g es jgz kmaès g kgz suf hãg aeomsehgh jgverfr uh per iemtg. Vufije só rgstfvf Smnhuij, Smniy fbujeu-e f hftæ-af g kunmr pfrf f kaergstf. Jmskfrîfjf jg vûavf vûavf   (kgmtmcgmrf), Smniy tgh ceh gag uh kmaè micgstuese, micgstuese, Smik Sm ikbûtam bûtam,, qug bui buite te ceh e pfm vmi vm inf f kfhèam kfhèamf. f. Jgpems jg eutrfs fvgiturfs g jems cfsfhgites, Smnhuij trfveu uhf oftfa`f ceitrf uh rgm mimhmne g qugoreu f gspfjf fe gikrgitfr uh vgaè jg afiîf – ifjf hgies qug e jmskfrcg jg Ejmi g suf afiîf Nuinimr –, sgije gh sgnumjf hertfahgitg kgrmje per nugrrgmres mimhmnes. Fe herrgr, Smnhuij pgjmu ä gspesf nrævmjf qug nufrjfssg es pgjfîes jf gspfjf pfrf e kmaè Smnurj, fmijf per ifscgr. Smnurj sg terieu kmaè fjetmve je fiãe _gnmii, cube mrhãe Kfkimr, jgpems jg hftfr e pfm pfrf sg fpejgrfr jg sgu eure (pfne per Aelm cehe mijgimzfîãe per tgr hftfje eutre mrhãe, Etr), trfiskerhfrf-sg gh jrfnãe. _gnmii pgjmu f Smnurj qug hftfssg Kfkimr, hfs e `gróm tgsteu fs gspfjfs je pfjrfste ceitrf uhf omnerif g gafs sg qugorfrfh, ftí qug _gnmii usf es pgjfîes jf gspfjf jg Smnurj pfrf

crmfr f gspfjf Nrfh Nrfh,, qug certf f omnerif fe hgme. Ceh gaf, Smnhuij gstecf g hftf Kfkimr, fitgs jg sgnumr sgu jgstmie. If Cfiîãe jes Imogauines,, vgrsãe faghã jf hgshf agijf cubfs vgrs÷gs hfms fitmnfs Imogauines cei`gcmjfs sãe je sícuae PMMM, f `mstórmf sg pfssf ifs ftufms Faghfi`f g Krfiîf, ceh teje fpfrfte cfvfa`gmrgsce jf Ofmxf Mjfjg Híjmf. E `gróm, prèicmpg jg Pfitgi (cmjfjg jf Faghfi`f, pgrte je _gie) í c`fhfje Smgnkrmgj g f gspfjf í c`fhfjf Ofahuin Ofahuin.. Bæ if tgtrfaenmf E Figa jes Imogauines jg Imogauines jg _mc`frj ^fni ^fnigr, gr, mispmrfjf mispmrf jf igssg ípmce, í pmce, e iehg iehg jf gspfjf í Ietùin Ietùin (‑Igcgssmjfjg‘). (‑Igcgssmjfjg‘). Gxcfamour (je nfaâs Cfagjkwac` Cfagjkwac`,, ‑c`fikre jure‘, aftmimzfje cehe Cfamourius   per Ngekkrgy jg Heiheut` ie sícuae PMM g c`fhfjf Cfamourius Gxcfamourr eu Gxcfamou eu Gscfam Gscfamoer oer ie ie krficâs fitmne jf hgshf ípecf) grf f gspfjf je rgm Frtur jes orgt÷gs. Ifs vgrs÷gs hfms fitmnfs (sícuae PMM g miècme je PMMM), f gspfjf gstfvf kmicfjf iuhf pgjrf, jf qufa só pejgrmf sgr frrficfjf pgae ‑vgrjfjgmre rgm‘, qug vgme f sgr Frtur. Hfms tfrjg (hgfjes je sícuae PMMM), ceiteu-sg qug kerf gitrgnug f Frtur per Imimfig, f Jfhf je Afne (c`fhfjf [mvmfig gh vgrs÷gs hfms fitmnfs, hfs sgh rgafîãe ceh f gspfjf), jgpems jg qug gag sg terieu rgm. Zèhfs Hfaery, ie sícuae P[, uimu fs jufs trfjmî÷gs iuhf só, jmzgije qug f Jfhf je Afne (Imhug, if suf vgrsãe) jgu Gxcfamour f Frtur jgpems qug f gspfjf frrficfjf jf pgjrf (c`fhfjf Cafrgit gh fanuhfs vgrs÷gs jf agijf) sg qugoreu if autf ceitrf e rgm Tgamier. Wh krficâs kfitfsmesfhgitg mitgrprgteu sgu iehg cehe smnimkmcfije ‑certf-fîe‘ gh `gorfmce g jgu ermngh ä mjgmf jg qug Gxcfamour ‑certfvf ftrfvís je kgrre cehe jf hfjgmrf‘. Hfs f hfmer hfnmf iãe gstfvf if gspfjf g smh if ofmi`f, ‑jgz vgzgs hfms vfamesf‘2 qugh f usfssg gstfrmf pretgnmje jg kgrmhgites hertfms. Kem só fpós Hernfif ( Hernfi) Hernfi) reuofr f ofmi`f jg Gxcfamour g f ftmrfr fe afne qug Frtur pújg sgr hertfahgitg kgrmje per Herjrgj. Frtur gitãe pgjmu f Jeh Ogjgvgrg (Smr (Smr Ogjmvgrg) Ogjmvgrg) qug f benfssg ie afne, je qufa qufa f hãe jf Jfhf Jfhf sg grnu gr nugu gu pfrf fpfi` fpfi`æ-a æ-aff ie fr g agvæ-af jg veatf f sgus jehèimes hænmces. Jurmijfif (gh krficâs g minaâs Jur minaâs Jurgijfa gijfa eu eu Jurfijfa Jurfijfa je je krficâs jurgr jurgr,, ‑jurfr‘, gh cfstga`fie Jurfijfa Jurfijfa   eu Jurfijfrtg Jurfijfrtg,, gh mtfamfie Juramijfif)) í f gspfjf je `gróm je ípmce hgjmgvfa F Cfiîãe jg Juramijfif _eafije,, je sícuae PMMM, ofsgfje gh uh gvgite `mstórmce je sícuae [MMM2 _eafije uh ftfqug jes ofsces ä rgtfnufrjf je gxírcmte jg Cfraes Hfnie gh

_eicgsvfags (>>0 j.C.), ies jgskmafjgmres jes Tmrmigus. If vgrsãe jf Cfiîãe jg _eafije, _eafije, f gspfjf kerf gitrgnug per uh fibe f Cfraes Hfnie, qug f prgsgitgfrf fe seormiè _eafije ( @ruejafij @ruejafij gh krfice, _eafij gh krficâs, _eajæi gh cfstga`fie, _eajãe gh pertunuâs fitmne, Erafije gh mtfamfie) g tmi`f ie sgu puiè uh kme jf cfpf jf [mrngh Hfrmf, uh jgitg jg Sãe Tgjre, uh kme jg cfogae jg Sãe Jmims g uhf netf je sfinug jg Sãe Ofsèame. Vufije _eafije, jgpems jg rgsmstmr sezmiè f uh gxírcmte jg cgh hma sfrrfcgies, pgrjgu sgu cercga [gmaafitmk, tgiteu qugorfr Jurmijfif, neapgfije-f iuhf rec`f, pfrf iãe jgmxæ-af cfmr ifs hães je mimhmne. Sgus gskerîes formrfh f c`fhfjf ‑Orgc`f jg _eafije‘, uhf pfssfngh gstrgmtf jg :4 hgtres jg afrnurf g 644 hgtres jg faturf ie hfcmîe je Heitg Tgrjmje, ies Tmrmigus. Iãe ceisgnumu g fcfoeu per benæ-af ie kuije jg uh rme eu afne. E _èe E _èe jg Af Gspfjf Gspfjf,, pgrte jg Zeagje, Gspfi`f, rgcerjf f agijf. If vgrsãe je `mstermfjer sugce Eafus Hfnius (sícuae P[M), Jurmijfif pgrtgicgrf fe `gróm tremfie @gmter g kerf tehfjf per _eafije fe nmnfitg Buthuijus gh >>0. Eutrfs gspfjfs hgicmeifjfs ie ípmce krficâs sãe Fahfcg jg Zurpmie (Zurpmi Zurpmi), ), frcgomspe jg _gmhs< @futgcafmrg jg Eamvgmres (Eamvmgr (Eamvmgr), ), hgaèr fhmne jg _eafije< Hurnagms jg Nfigaãe (Nfigaei (Nfigaei), ), prmhe g trfmjer jg _eafije g Trícmgusg jg Ofamnfitg (Ofamnfit (Ofamnfit ), ), e ‑ghmr jg Ofomaúimf‘ g2 Beygusg (‑Nezesf‘ eu ‑Buomaesf‘) grf f gspfjf jg Cfraes Hfnie (>:?06: j.C.), tme jg _eafije. If Cfiîãe jg _eafije, _eafije, ‑suf cer hujfvf trmitf vgzgs per jmf‘ g eutrf agijf jmzmf qug gaf kem kgmtf ceh f afiîf jg Aeinmius, e seajfje rehfie qug jgu e neapg jg hmsgrmcórjmf gh Bgsus. Sgnuije uhf trfjmîãe krficgsf, gssf gspfjf sgrmf uhf qug fmijf èbg í ceisgrvfjf ie Aeuvrg g qug kem hfitmjf jg 6?>4 f 6>=3 ie heifstírme jg Sãe Jmims, je qufa só sfèf pfrf f cgrmhúimf jg cerefîãe je rgm jf Krfiîf (g jg Ifpeagãe). Gspgcmfamstfs jftfh e pehe je sícuae P, f cruz je sícuae PMM g f ghpui`fjurf je sícuae PMMM. F aïhmif pejgrmf sgr, gh prmicèpme, jf ípecf jg Cfraes Hfnie, hfs sgu gstmae í hfms tèpmce je sícuae P. Zgh =0 cgitèhgtres g pgsf 6,;3 qumae, micaumije 77? nrfhfs jg eure ie puiè, tfhoíh jgcerfje ceh ceitfs jg aæpms-afzòam. Ogamsfrjf (jg ofsgafrj ofsgafrj,, fjfnf tèpmcf jf Suèîf) í e iehg jf gspfjf je `gróm _unnmgre je ípmce Erafije Kurmese je Kurmese je mtfamfie Aujevmce Frmeste, je sícuae P[M, qug hmsturf f agijf cfreaèinmf ceh e cmcae frturmfie g

hmtes nrgnes g rreh ehfies. fies. Grf gicfitfjf gicfitfjf pfrf pfr f certfr cer tfr ftrfvís jg frh fr hfjurfs. Hmstmatgmii (‑[msce‘) grf f gspfjf jg @róhuijr Nrmpssei, `gróm jmifhfrquâs jg uhf sfnf msafijgsf, qug f teheu fe jgrretfr uh rgm kfitfshf (jrfunr (jrfunr)) fpgnfje f sgus tgseures, c`fhfje Z`ræmii.

Slekiuin f gspfjf je agijærme rgm jmifhfrquâs @róak Lrflm, ifs sfnfs grf cehe ‑f hgaèr bæ agvfjf gh tgrrfs iórjmcfs‘. Zgrmfcmtfjf smje rgcupgrfjf jg uh tòhuae g usfjf per eutres `gróms, ietfjfhgitg Gmj jg Æs, Zèrlga g Ngaamr. Sgnuije f agijf, igiùh kgrmhgite kgmte per Slekiuin sg curfrmf, f hgies qug kessg gskrgnfje ceh f pgjrf Slekiuin, qug f fcehpfi`fvf. Krfnfrfc` (‑_gspeijgjerf‘), kerbfjf pgaes jgusgs cgatfs, pgrtgicgu prmhgmre fe jgus je hfr Hfifiifi Hfc Amr g jgpems f sgu kmaè fjetmve Aun`, qug per suf vgz e jgu fe `gróm mrafijâs Còcùafmii g jgpems f Ceii jfs Cgh Oftfa`fs. Sgnuije f agijf, iminuíh qug f tmvgssg gicestfjf ä nfrnfitf sgrmf cfpfz jg hgitmr (jfè e iehg). Faíh jmsse, pejmf hujfr f jmrgîãe je vgite ä veitfjg je usuærme, ftrfvgssfr qufaqugr qufaqu gr ggscuje scuje eu pfrgjg g sgus kgrmhgites kgrmhgites grfh grf h micurævgm micurævgms. s. Ifgnamin (‑Trgnfitg‘) kem giceitrfjf per Ogewuak if cfvgrif jg Nrgijga fpós jgrretfr f gag g suf hãg. Tfsseu f usæ-af perqug suf prmhgmrf gspfjf, @ruitmin, hestrfrf-sg migkmcfz ceitrf fqugafs crmfturfs. Wseu-f hfms tfrjg pfrf hftfr e jrfnãe qug fhgfîfvf sgu rgmie, hfs e heistre fneimzfitg pújg hftæ-ae g qugorfr f gspfjf. Zmzeif g Af Ceafjf tgrmfh smje jufs gspfjfs qug, sgnuije e Cfitfr jg hèe Cmj (cehpeste Cmj (cehpeste per veatf jg 6?44) tgrmfh pgrtgicmje fe hfms kfhese cfvfagmre jf Gspfi`f2 _ejrmne Jèfz jg [mvfr (64:4-64==), cei`gcmje cehe Ga Cmj, e Cfhpgfjer. Whf supestf Zmzeif pejg sgr vmstf ie Husgu jg Ournes g tgh 6,4? hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa (aïhmif jg =3 ch) g pgsf 6,67 qumae. Gitrgtfite, e gstmae jf gspfjf í jg kmis je sícuae P[ g f miscrmîãe, qug fkmrhf ‑seu Zmzeif, qug kem kgmtf if grf jg 64:4‘ í fifcrúimcf, pems fs keitgs hgjmgvfms c`fhfvfh f gspfjf jg Zmzói (‑Zmîãe‘). Fcrgjmtf-sg qug sgbf uhf kfasmkmcfîãe kgmtf if ípecf jes _gms Cftóamces (6:=;-674:) f pfrtmr je fîe jg Jfhfsce jg uhf aïhmif je sícuae PM. Whf supestf Ceafjf í prgsgrvfjf ie Tfaæcme _gfa jg Hfjrm, hfs suf ghpui`fjurf í je sícuae P[M. If Ofmxf Mjfjg Híjmf, f pfrtmr je sua jf Gurepf, terifrfh-sg hfms cehuis f

gspfjfs pgrkurfitgs, ceh peitf fnuîfjf, pfrf gxpaerfr fs orgc`fs gh frhfjurfs jg pafcfs eu ftrfvgssfr cetfs jg hfa`f. Hfs f gspfjf hgjmgvfa sgnurfvf-sg ce quftre jgjes gh veatf je puiè g e peagnfr peste if jmrgîãe epestf. Gstmcfije e orfîe g agvfitfije f gspfjf pfrf cmhf, gaf kmcfvf f =4² gh rgafîãe fe fitgorfîe. Fpeitfr f gspfjf if jmrgîãe je fjvgrsærme, iuh ïinuae hæxmhe jg 634², gxmnmf uh gskerîe huscuafr fjmcmeifa. Ter msse, grfh usfjfs gh =4% jes cfses pfrf neapgs cmrcuafrgs g só 64% pfrf gstecfjfs èrmzeitfms. Ie sícuae P[, surnmu, pessmvgahgitg f pfrtmr jg Tertunfa, eutrf hfigmrf jg sgnurfr f gspfjf, ceh e mijmcfjer ä krgitg jf nufrjf, e qug pgrhmtg fuhgitfr e ïinuae jg utmamzfîãe jg 634² pfrf 6;4², jg heje qug fs gstecfjfs sg terifh hfms kæcgms. Jg =4%-64%, f preperîãe jg cutmafjfs pfrf gstecfjfs pfsseu f 74%-74%, trfzgije tfhoíh e ogigkècme fjmcmeifa je use jfs pgrifs pfrf fvfiîes g rgcues. Ter veatf jg 6:?4, fs gspfjfs cehgîfh f fprgsgitfr uh figa jg pretgîãe fe mijmcfjer, nufrjfs hfms curvfjfs gh jmrgîãe ä aïhmif g u rmcfsse, qugr jmzgr, uhf zeif iãe fkmfjf jf aïhmif, aene jgpems jf nufrjf, pfrf pgrhmtmr f ceaecfîãe je mijmcfjer. Gh 6:;4, fs gspfjfs cehgîfh f gxmomr u sgnuije figa pretgter, smhítrmce. Fe hgshe tghpe, e use je gscuje mf sgije fofijeifje gh kfver jf fjfnf jg hãe gsqugrjf eu fjfnf jg fpfrfr, ceh f qufa sg jgsvmfvf e neapg gh retfîãe je fjvgrsærme, qug kmcfvf ceh e pgmte jgspretgnmje fitg uh uhf gs gstecfjf tecfjf jf gspfjf if hãe hãe jmrgmtf. jm rgmtf. Gssg hejgae kem e hfms usfje per ifvgnfjergs ifvgnfjergs g ceiqu ceiqumstfjergs mstfjergs pertunu pertunugsgs gsgs g gspfi`óms jg hgfjes je sícuae P[ fe kmifa je sícuae P[M. Kem cei`gcmje cehe g spfjf spfjf ceaèif ceaèif (pgaes fiíms aghorfije tgstècuaes fe afje jf gspfjf), eu gspfjf cfrfinugbf (crfo swerj), swerj), perqug fs nufrjfs curvfjfs aghorfh fs nfrrfs jg u cfrfinugbe. Zgh jems fiíms pretgtergs if nufrjf, ceh es tgrhmifms jf nufrjf g kerhf jg aænrmhf, vmrfjes gh jmrgîãe ä peitf jf aïhmif. Vufije usfjf per ifvgnfjergs, ngrfahgitg tmi`f f aïhmif eu kea`f pmitfjf jg prgte pfrf pretgnâ-af jf cerresãe pgaf hfrgsmf, sgije c`fhfjf gspfjf prgtf jg oerje (cfrrfcls oafcl swerj). swerj). Zmi`f cehprmhgite jg 6,40 hgtre ceh aïhmif jg =6 cgitèhgtres. Gspfjfs aeinfs jg uhf só hãe hfms smhpags ceitmiufrfh, períh, f sgr usfjfs cehe gspfjfs jg jgkgsf jg pg÷gs ogh frhfjes. F Lftzofang Lftzofangr r   (‑gstrmpf-nfte‘, gh faghãe) kem usfjf cehe frhf sgcuijærmf, if sgnuijf hgtfjg je sícuae P[, pgaes Afijsligc`t , hgrcgiærmes f sgrvmîe jg prèicmpgs faghãgs qug tmi`fh e pmqug cehe suf frhf prmicmpfa. Zmi`f cehprmhgite jg 0: cgitèhgtres g 6,37 qumae. Je F kmhprmhgmrf je sícuae P[M fe miècme kem je P[MM, pfssf f (prgjehmifr cgste. gspfjf f usæ-af f gscafvúimf sc`mfveif,, fghnufrjf sc`mfveif minaâsg g

mtfamfie), ermnmifahgitg usfjf per cfvfagmres sírvmes g cei`gcmjf ie Ecmjgitg fe sgr usfjf je kmifa je sícuae P[ fe kmifa je sícuae P[MMM pgaf nufrjf je Jeng jg [gigzf, ceistmtuèjf if hfmer pfrtg per gsafves jf Jfahæcmf (sc`mfveim (sc`mfveim). ). Zmi`f cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te jg 07 f =4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres res g pgsfvf 6,6 6, 6 f 6,: qu quma mae. e. F gspfjf j”frhfs ( (orefjswerj orefjswerj) jf Mjfjg Hejgrif í uhf vgrsãe hfms pgsfjf g jg aïhmif hfms afrnf jf gscafvúimf, tfhoíh ceh jems nuhgs, nufrjf gh cgste, aïhmif jg 07 f =4 cgitèhgtres g ftí 6,>7 qumae, usfjf fhpafhgitg if Gurepf jes sícuaes P[M g P[MM. F gspfjf vfaeif (wfaaeei swerj gh swerj gh minaâs, ípíg wfaaeig gh wfaaeig gh krficâs) í uhf gspfjf ceh nufrjf hfms smhpags g ‑fhomjgstrf‘ g aïhmif hfms aeinf, agvg g gaæstmcf. Ermnmiærmf jf [faúimf, if Oíanmcf, kem fjetfjf if @eafijf, Sfcre Mhpírme, Suèîf, Gscfijmiævmf jurfitg f Nugrrf jes Zrmitf Fies (6;60-6;:0) g if Krfiîf gh 6;>?, pgrhfigcgije gh use ftí hgfjes je sícuae P[MMM, nrfîfs ä vgrsftmamjfjg qug f terifvf òtma tfite if mikfitfrmf (prmicmpfahgitg pfrf gstecfr) qufite if cfvfafrmf (pfrf fcutmafr). If Faghfi`f, kmceu cei`gcmjf cehe Tfppgi`gmhgr  jgvmje jgvmje f Nettkrmgj @gmirmc`, Ceijg jg Tfppgi`gmh (67=:-6;3?),

cereiga jg uh rgnmhgite jg cfvfafrmf pgsfjf g jgpems ngigrfa jf cfvfafrmf mhpgrmfa if Nugrrf jes 34 Fies qug f fjeteu. Ceh cehprmhgite jg 6,67 hgtre, pgsfvf 6,? f 6,37 qumae.

Gspfjfs Gspfj fs ermgitfms Jgrmvfjfs jfs gspfjfs jg oreizg jg jems nuhgs usfjfs jgsjg f jmifstmf S`fin, fs gspfjfs c`migsfs bm bmfi fi cehgîfh f sgr kgmtfs jg kgrre g fîe ie pgrèeje jes Gstfjes Cehoftgitgs (:>7-??6 f.C.). Fs bmfi fitmnfs pgsfvfh 6,? f 6,: qumaes g tmi`fh 07 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite. Fscgitèhgtres, hejgrifs tâh >4 fhfms 04 cgitèhgtres jg aïhmif g cehprmhgite tetfa jg 07 f =7 hfs sãe agvgs, jg >44 f 6,6 qumae. Fs nufrjfs cestuhfh tgr e kerhfje jg pgqugifs fsfs. Äs vgzgs, tâh uhf ‑ofijgmrf‘ vgrhga`f fhfrrfjf fe puiè, qug sgrvg pfrf ceikuijmr e fjvgrsærme g gixunfr e sfinug. Gssg tmpe jg gspfjf í èbg krgqugitghgitg usfjf gh jgheistrfî÷gs jg tfmbm tfmbm   (eu tfm c`m), c`m), qug ouscf hfms gagnïicmf g `frheimf je qug e usufa ifs frtgs hfrcmfms hfms fnrgssmvfs cei`gcmjfs ceagtmvfhgitg cehe luin ku ie ku ie Ecmjgitg. Eutres peves je Gxtrghe Ermgitg crmfrfh gspfjfs sghga`fitgs, mispmrfjfs pgaf bmfi bmfi   c`migsf. F gspfjf cergfif jg jems nuhgs, f ngeh, grf sghga`fitg ä c`migsf bm c`migsf bmfi fi,, hfs uhf ghpui`fjurf hfms smhpags g uh pehe ceh kerhf jg figa. Zmi`fh cgrcfceh jg =7 cgitèhgtres g pgsfvfh =74 nrfhfs. If jmifstmf Besgei, grfh `mgrfrqumzfjfs gh jufs sírmgs2 gspfjfs-jrfnãe ( bmingeh bming eh)) g gspfjfs-tmnrg (mingeh mingeh), ), cfjf uhf jgafs ceh trâs cftgnermfs2 m-bmingeh m-bmingeh   (jems jrfn÷gs), sfhmingeh (trâs mingeh (trâs jrfn÷gs), jrfn÷gs), sf-bmingeh sf-bmingeh (quftre (quftre jrfn÷gs), m-mingeh m-mingeh (jems (jems tmnrgs), tmnrgs), sfhmingeh (trâs mingeh (trâs tmnrgs) g sf-mingeh sf-mingeh (quftre (quftre tmnrgs). Fs jg cftgnermf hfms fatf grf rgsgrvfjfs fe seogrfie g pejmfh sgr kgmtfs fpgifs iuh jgtgrhmifje pgrèeje jg jufs èrfs, uhf vgz f cfjf jezg fies. Ie Bfpãe, gspfjfs sghga`fitgs äs bmfi bm fi,, c`fhfjfs lgi eu tsurunm kerfh fs prmhgmrfs f sgrgh kerbfjfs igssg pfès, je sícuae MM fe [MM, fitgs jg sgrg suostmtuèjfs pgaesie tfc`m. tfc`m . Ghoerf Ghoerf fs cftfi c ftfifs, fs, usfjfs f pfrtmr pfrjfs tmr je sícuaebfpeigsfs P[, sgbf sg bf í hfms cei`gcmjfs gxtgrmer, f hfms kfhesf g sfnrfjf gspfjfs uhf tsurunm tsurunm.. C`fhfvf-sg Lusfifnm-ieC`fhfvf-sg Lusfifnm-ie-Z Zsurunm (‑gspfjf surunm (‑gspfjf certf-nrfhf‘) eu F eu Fhghgie-Hurfluhe-ie-Zsurunm (‑Gspfjf ie-Hurfluhe-ie-Zsurunm (‑Gspfjf jfs Iuvgis _guimjfs ie Cíu‘). Sgnuije f agijf, Susfiee, jgus jfs tghpgstfjgs, giceitreu gssf gspfjf jgitre jf cfujf jf sgrpgitg ]fhftf, jg emte cfogîfs, jgpems jg hftæ-af (usfije eutrf tsurunm hètmcf, tsurunm hètmcf, f Zetsulf-ie-Zsurunm Zetsulf-ie-Zsurunm)) g f prgsgitgeu ä jgusf je Sea, Fhftgrfsu. Gstf, per suf vgz, jgu-f fe igte Imimnm-ie-hmlete qufije a`g erjgieu rgmifr seorg e kuture Bfpãe. F kfhèamf mhpgrmfa bfpeigsf, kuijfjf per Bmhhu Zgiie, omsigte jgssg jgus, f tgrmf `grjfje g gaf sg terieu, fe afje je pmingitg jg bfjg ]fsflfim-ie-hfnftfhf   g je gspgaè ]ftf-ie-lfnfhm, ]fsflfim-ie-hfnftfhf ]ftf-ie-lfnfhm,   uh jes trâs sèhoeaes je mhpírme.

E 64² mhpgrfjer, Submi, tgrmf ceistruèje uh sfituærme pfrf formnæ-af. Fe gxpfijmr e tgrrmtórme je mhpírme f pfrtmr jg sgu iòcage ermnmifa, e `gróm ]fhfte Zflgru, kmaè jg Lgmle, e 6?² mhpgrfjer, f tgrmf usfje pfrf certfr e hfte micgijmfje pgafs trmous fmiu qug rgsmstmfh ä ceiqumstf. Jfè e iehg Lusfifnm iehg Lusfifnm,, ‑certf-hfte‘. F gspfjf ermnmifa jgsfpfrgcgu, períh, ie cehoftg ifvfa jg Jfiie-Wrf, gh 6607. Vufije f mhpgrftrmz-fvó Immjeie vmu qug f oftfa`f gstfvf pgrjmjf, teheu ies orfîes e mhpgrfjer jg emte fies, Fitelu Zgiie, buite ceh f gspfjf qug gag sgnurfvf, g beneu-sg fe hfr. Kem suostmtuèjf per uhf rípamcf, qug tgh cgrcf jg 0> cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres g 6,37 6 ,37 qumae. Whf tgrcgmrf gspfjf kfhesf je Bfpãe í f Ififtsusfyff Ififtsusfyf-ie-Z ie-Zfc`m fc`m (‑gspfjf (‑gspfjf jg sgtg rfhes‘), uhf pgîf jg kgrre pgcuamfr jg >:,= cgitèhgtres ceh sgms pretrus÷gs gh kerhf jg rfhes qug sfgh jf aïhmif cgitrfa Í nufrjfjf ie hgshe sfituærme xmiteèstf xmi teèstf Mseielfh Mseielfhmm jg Ifrf qug formnf form nf f rípamcf rípa mcf jf Lusfifnm jf Lusfifnm.. Kem prgsgitgfjf fe Mhpgrfjer je Bfpãe pgae prèicmpg `grjgmre je rgmie cergfie jg Ofglbg ie sícuae M[. @æ rípamcfs if Cergmf, eijg í c`fhfjf C`mabmje C`mabmje.. Es ærfogs, ghoerf sgbfh hfms cei`gcmjes pgafs cmhmtfrrfs, usfrfh gspfjfs rgtfs, cei`gcmjfs cehe sfmk , jgsjg es tghpes prí-msaïhmces. Es cfvfagmres ærfogs pfssfrfh pfssfr fh f prgkgrmr prgkgrm r f cmhmtfrrf c mhmtfrrf ie sícuae PM[ PM[, h hfs fs f gspfjf g spfjf rgtf r gtf jg jems nuhgs ceitmiueu f sgr usfjf per nugrrgmres f pí g cehe sèhoeae jg stftus jg ieorgs g prèicmpgs. Zmpmcfhgitg, tgh nufrjf gh kerhf jg pgqugifs fsfs, cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te jg 6,43 hgtre g pgse jg 6,? qumae. F hfms kfhesf jgssfs gspfjfs kem Ruakmqfr Ruakmqfr   (‑ompfrtmjerf‘), supestfhgitg prgsgitgfjf per Hfehí fe sgu ngire Fam. Gstg f tgrmf usfje if oftfa`f jg Wùj (;?7 j.C.), qug jgcmjmu f vmtórmf je Msaã seorg e pfnfimshe gh Hgcf g ceh gaf tgrmf pfrtmje fe hgme, ceh uh só neapg, e c`gkg mimhmne Fhr moi Fojfwuj, buite ceh sgu gscuje g frhfjurf. Ruakmqfr tgrmf smje usfjf per @ussgmi, kmaè jg Fam, if oftfa`f jg Lfrofaf if qufa qufa kem gshfn gshfnfje fje pgaes pga es Ehèfjfs Ehèfjfs,, hfs `grjfjf `grjfjf per sgus s gus jgscgijgitgs, es mhãs xmmtfs, ftí e jgsfpfrgcmhgite je òatmhe, Fa-Hf`jm, gh 0>3 j.C. E iehg prevfvgahgitg gstæ amnfje ä kfîfi`f, hfs ngrfahgitg í rgprgsgitfjf cehe tgije uhf peitf omkurcfjf. @ebg, í uh jes sèhoeaes je Msaã. If Èijmf, gspfjfs rgtfs jg jems nuhgs sãe usfjfs jgsjg ;44 f.C. g hgicmeifjfs ies ípmces mijmfies. F l`fijf í uhf gspfjf aeinf g pgsfjf, jg jems nuhgs g aïhmif jg peitf rehoujf, qug sg fafrnf if jmrgîãe jf peitf. Es rfbputs, cfstf nugrrgmrf je iertg jf Èijmf, f vgigrfh cehe sèhoeae jg S`mvf g f rgamnmãe sml` kfz jgaf sgu prmicmpfa sèhoeae. Ghoerf es rfbputs prgkgrmssgh f tfawfr tfawfr (sghga`fitg ä cmhmtfrrf) if oftfa`f, ceisgrvfvfh f l`fijf cehe frhf jg òatmhe (sghga`fitg rgcurse. Sgnuije f trfjmîãe, uh rfbput qug pgrjgssg e cfvfae g kessg

cgrcfje pgae mimhmne jgvmf puxfr f l`fijf g autfr ftí e kmh, ofafiîfije-f seorg suf cfogîf g agvfije ceismne qufites mimhmnes pujgssg. Zgh 6,6 hgtre jg cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te g pgsf pg sf 6,0 qumae. F gspfjf pftf ( pfttf, pftt f, pfafvrf jgrmvfjf je pertunuâs ‑pftf‘), usfjf pgaes hun`fas f pfrtmr je sícuae P[M g pgaes hfrft`fs f pfrtmr je P[MM, grf uhf gspfjf rgtf jg peitf g jems nuhgs mitgnrfjf f uhf hfiepaf jg kgrre qug ceorg f pfrtg supgrmer g fs aftgrfms jf hãe g je fitgorfîe. Fs aïhmifs tâh ?7 cgitèhgtres f 6,67 hgtre g sehfh-sg f uhf hfiepaf jg 34 cgitèhgtres< ceh aïhmif jg =7 cgitèhgtres, e pgse í jg 6,7 qumae. Es nugrrgmres hfrft`fs autfvfh ceh uhf pftf gh cfjf hãe eu ceh uhf pftf g eutrf frhf (afiîf eu hfc`fje). F nuptm (‑gsceijmjf‘) í uhf gspfjf mijmfif jg aïhmif rgtf g gstrgmtf jmskfrîfjf jgitre jg uhf oginfaf eu huagtf, cehe f gspfjf jg gstequg ecmjgitfa. Vufije usfjf per rfbæs mijmfies grf c`fhfjf zfkfr tflmg tflmg` ` (‑fahekfjf jf vmtórmf‘) eu nuptm fnf (‑gsceijmjf je seogrfie‘)2 fe ceicgjgr fujmâicmf sgitfje iuhf fahekfjf, e rfbæ fpemfvf f hãe iuhf jgssfs oginfafs. Cehe oginfaf, tg cehprmhgite tetfa jg 04 cgitèhgtres. Fe sgr sfcfjf jf ofmi`f (ngrfahgitg jg hgtfa), f gspfjf gs pfjf tgh 77 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres res (aïh (aï hmif jg :4) g 044 nrfhfs. nrfhfs.

Gspfjfs Gspfj fs fkrmcfifs If Ækrmcf, f tfleof grf f gspfjf tèpmcf jes tufrgnugs, peve iúhfjg je Sffrf, ogrogrg g huîuahfie. Sgu kerhfte, prevfvgahgitg ermnmiærme jf Gspfi`f jf ípecf jes Faherævmjfs (jmifstmf ogrogrg qug nevgrieu pfrtgs jf Tgièisuaf Moírmcf g je Sffrf ie sícuae PM) í sghga`fitg fe jfs gspfjfs ecmjgitfms. Zg cgrcf jg uh hgtre g pgsf >44 nrfhfs. Humte sghga`fitg, f lfslfrf grf tèpmcf je ftufa Sujãe. Zgh 6,4: hgtre g u qumae.

Gspfj÷gs (gspfjfs jg jems nuhgs nuhgs pfrf jufs hães) hães) E iehg ngiírmce gh pertunuâs pfrf uhf gspfjf kgmtf pfrf sgr usfjfs ce jufs hães í gspfjãe (aeinswerj aeinswerj), ), tfhoíh heitfitg (‑qug heitf, qug seog‘) perqug f hfigmrf trfjmcmeifa jg usæ-af í neapgfije e fjvgrsærme pgae fate. Es fitmquærmes je sícuae PMP pepuafrmzfrfh e iehg ofstfrj swerj swerj (‑gspfjf ofstfrjf‘), ermnmifahgitg usfje pfrf qufaqugr gspfjf qug iãe kessg jfs kerhfs caæssmcfs, iehg pgae qufa í èbg hfms cei`gcmje gh _TNs. Wh iehg hfms gxfte, fpgsfr jg tfhoíh fifcrúimce (usfje só f pfrtmr je kmh je sícuae PMP), í gspfjf jg hãe-g-hgmf (`fij-fij-f-`fak swerj) swerj) per tgr hgjmjfs mitgrhgjmærmfs gitrg f gspfjf caæssmcf g es heitfitgs eu gspfj÷gs hfmergs usfjes hfms tfrjg. Gspfjfs ceh ghpui`fjurf nrfijg e sukmcmgitg pfrf sg usfr ceh fs jufs hães rfrfhgitg kerfh vmstfs if Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf. Zerifrfh-sg uh tmpe rgnuafr jg gspfjf fpgifs ie sícuae PM[, eu sgbf, sgb f, bæ b æ if _gifscgiîf, _gifscgiîf, f pfrtmr jf Nugrrf jes Cgh Fies, qufije sg terifrfh cehuis fs frhfjurfs jg pafcfs ceitrf fs qufms fs gspfjfs trfjmcmeifms grfh migkmcfzgs. Wh tèpmce gspfjãe tgh nufrjf gh cruz, aïhmif jg 07 cgitèhgtres f 6,? hgtre ceh afrnurf jg 7 f ; cgitèhgtres if ofsg, peitf fnuîfjf, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6,? f 6,7 hgtre g pgse jg 044 nrfhfs f 6,0 qumaes. F ghpui`fjurf tgh vmitg f trmitf cgitèhgtres, pfrf sgr hfigbfjf ceh fs jufs hães g f aïhmif tgh uhf pfrtg cgnf (sgh certg) próxmhf ä ghpui`fjurf, c`fhfjf ‑rmcfsse‘, äs vgzgs nrfijg e sukmcmgitg pfrf sgr sgnurfjf ceh f eutrf hãe pfrf uh neapg hfms kertg g prgcmse, prmicmpfahgitg fe sg ouscfr orgc`fs ifs frhfjurfs, cehe if nfrnfitf g fxmafs. Grfh usfjfs gh ofmi`fs prgsfs ä cmiturf, iãe äs cestfs, cehe äs vgzgs sg hestrf ies kmahgs. Gspfjfs gurepgmfs nrfijgs jghfms pfrf sgrgh agvfjfs if cmiturf, qug c`gnfrfh f sgr usfjfs hfms tfrjg, grfh cfrrgnfjfs fe ehore, cehe sg kessg afiîfs eu fafofrjfs. Whf vfrmfitg je gspfjãe í f gspfjf gscecgsf cei`gcmjf gh minaâs cehe hÿr, ‑gspfjf nrfijg‘). Gssg iehg só kem cafyherg (je nfíamce cafmj`gfh` hÿr, usfje, períh, ie sícuae P[MMM2 qufije gssf gspfjf kem gkgtmvfhgitg usfjf, jg 6:44 f 6>44 (prmicmpfahgitg gh nugrrfs gitrg caãs), grf c`fhfjf cafmj`gfh` jä aämh`,, ‑gspfjf aämh` ‑gs pfjf jg jufs jufs hães‘. Fs hfms fitmnfs sãe sgh s ghga`fi ga`fitgs tgs f eutrfs eutrfs ‑‑gspfjfs gspfjfs ofstfrjfs‘, hfs jgpems pfssfrfh f sgr uh peuce hfmergs, ceh nufrjf gh [ (qug fbujf f pretgngr f hãe qufije sgnurf e rmcfsse) g orfîes tgrhmifije gh trgves jg quftre kea`fs. Gstfs òatmhfs tâh jg 6,? f 6,: hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa, ce aïhmif jg 6Heiuhgite f 6,67 hgtreIfcmeifa g pgse jgf?,? f ?,0 qumaes. @æ ie ^faafcg, pgrte jg Stmramin, if Gscócmf, u

gspfjãe qug tgrmf pgrtgicmje fe `gróm ifcmeifa gscecâs ^maamfh ^faafcg g smje usfjf gh oftfa`fs jf Nugrrf jf Mijgpgijâicmf Gscecgsf gh 6?=> g 6?=0, hfs í mhprevævga qug sgbf futâitmcf. Gspgcmfamstfs fcrgjmtfh qug suf aïhmif sgbf je sícuae P[, fmijf qug pessf tgr smje kgmtf ceh krfnhgites jg aïhmifs hfms fitmnfs. Kem ftgstfjf gh jecuhgites pgaf prmhgmrf vgz gh 6747, qufije f ghpui`fjurf, cmite g ofmi`f kerfh rgkgmtes. Zgh 6,;0 hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa (aïhmif jg 6,3? hgtre) g pgsf ?,> qumaes. Sgnuije f agijf, f ofmi`f, e cmite g e kerre je puiè ermnmifms tgrmfh smje kgmtes ceh f pgag jg @un` Crgssmin`fh, uh jes cehfijfitgs minagsgs if oftfa`f jg Stmramin (6?=>). F gspfjf rgfahgitg usfjf pgae pgrseifngh `mstórmce mstórm ce kem prevfvgah prevfvga hgitg gitg hgier hgier g jg tmpe hfms trfjmcmeifa. trfjmcm eifa. F gspfjf usfjf ie kmahg Orfvg`gfrt , qug ceitf f `mstórmf jg ^faafcg, í jmkgrgitg tfite jfs usfjfs if ípecf qufite jf ceisgrvfjf ie heiuhgite. Zgh u rmcfsse kerrfje jg ceure, qug kem usfje gh heitfitgs faghãgs je sícuae P[M, hfs iãe gh gspfjfs je sícuae PMMM, ceh e eobgtmve jg kfcmamtfr fe fter usfr fs tícimcfs jg gsnrmhf ceh heitfitgs (fifcrúimcfs). Hfms kerf jf rgfamjfjg fmijf, ifturfahgitg, sãe fs cgifs jg frrghgsse jf gspfjf. Sgnuije f agijf, es gscecgsgs frrghgssfvfh uhf gspfjf ie miècme jf oftfa`f, hfs iãe pfrf tgitfr ftminmr uh mimhmne g smh pfrf fiuicmfr qug gstfvfh preites pfrf f autf. Hgshe qufije fhomgitf sufs `mstórmfs if Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf rgfa eu kfitæstmcf, e cmighf tgijg f prgkgrmr gssfs gspfjfs, hfms vmstesfs, äs gspfjfs hgiergs jg kfte usfjfs if ípecf, fssmh cehe tfhoíh prgkgrg gxmomr mhpeigitgs frhfjurfs jg pafcfs äs cetfs jg hfa`f qug grfh fs hgaèrgs pretgî÷gs ngrfahgitg jmspeièvgms fitgs je fie 6444. Gxcfamour fpfrgcg gh humtes kmahgs cehe u gspfjãe. Mjgh qufite f Fijòrma, f gspfjf jg Frfneri ghE gh E Sgièr jes Fiíms qug Fiíms qug tgrmf smje kerbfjf ceh es pgjfîes jg Ifrsma, f gspfjf qug certfrf e jgje jg Sfurei (mjgmf qug, cehe f je próprme figa, kem tehfjf jf agijf jg Smnurj/Smgkrmgj g suf gspfjf Nrfh/Ofajuin). F vgrsãe usfjf ie kmahg jg Tgtgr Bfclsei tgh tgh 6,3: hgtre hgtre g pgsf ?,: qumaes. Ie miècme je sícuae P[M, es gspfj÷gs terifrfh-sg fmijf hfmergs, hfs jgmxfrfh jg sgr frhfs jg cfvfagmres ceh frhfjurfs g pfssfrfh f sgr usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg per hgrcgiærmes f pí, sgh frhfjurf, pfrf jgkgijgr hurfa`fs g rehpgr kmagmrfs mimhmnfs jg afiîfs g pmqugs. Grfh vmstfs hfms cehe uhf vfrmgjfjg jg frhf jg `fstg qug preprmfhgitg cehe gspfjf. F pfrtmr jg hgfjes je sícuae P[M, terifrfh-sg eoseagtfs cehe frhfs jg nugrrf, ghoerf ceitmiufssgh f sgr usfjfs ftí e kmifa je sícuae gh jugae g gsnrmhf. Es _TNs c`fhfh sgnuijfRwgm`êijgr cafssg jg ‑ (‑jg heitfitgs ‘, gh minaâs nrgftswerj eu twe-`fijgj swerj, gssf swerj, je faghãe Rwgm`êijgr (‑jg jufs hães‘). If `mstórmf rgfa,

kerfh usfjfs fpgifs jg 6:=4 f 6774. Es hgrcgiærmes faghãgs qug fs usfvf grfh c`fhfjfs Jeppgasûa c`fhfjfs Jeppgasûajigr jigr   (‑jupae seaje‘), perqug nfi`fvfh e jeore jes seajfjes cehui cehuis. s. Nrfijgs Nrfijgs jghfms jghfms pfrf sgrgh agvfjfs agvf jfs iuhf uhf ofmi` ofm i`f, f, gr grfh fh agvfjfs seorg e ehore, cehe uhf afiîf eu fafofrjf. F ghpui`fjurf tmi`f 34 f :7 cgitèhgtres, fmijf hfms aeinf qug f je gspfjãe, perqug e hfigbe gxmnmf qug fs hães kmcfssgh fkfstfjfs uhf jf eutrf. F aïhmif tmi`f 6,? f 6,7 hgtre g e cehprmhgite tetfa mf jg 6,7 f ? hgtres. E rmcfsse grf krgqugitghgitg pretgnmje per uhf nufrjf hgier g äs vgzgs kerrfje ceh ceure. E pgse tetfa vfrmfvf jg jems f quftre qumaes. Whf vfrmfitg jgssf gspfjf grf cfrfctgrmzfjf per uhf aïhmif jg kerhf eijuafjf, qug vmsfvf hgaèrfr f cfpfcmjfjg jg pgigtrfîãe gh frhfjurfs fe rgjuzmr f supgrkècmg jg ceitfte. Grf c`fhfjf gh pertunuâs tfrfscf (jg Zfrfscf e Zfrfsqug, heistre hmteaónmce hgjmgvfa), èbg tfhoíh kafhoírnmf (kafhogrng (kafhogrng   g krficâs g min m inaâs, aâs, Kafhhgisc`wgrt Kafhhgisc`wgrt  gh gh faghãe). Ie sícuae P[MM, kerfh kgmtes gspfj÷gs cgrmheimfms fmijf hfmergs, pfrf sgrg cfrrgnfjfs gh jgskmags, qug c`gnfvfh f ?,7 hgtres jg cehprmhgite tetfa g ;,0 qumaes. Ie Ermgitg, fanuis sforgs c`migsgs g fs cftfifs bfpeigsfs, fssmh cehe sgus smhmafrgs cergfies, grfh ghpui`fjes ceh fs jufs hães, hfs gspfjfs rgtfs jg jufs hães kerfh micehuis. Whf jgafs kem f c`migsf sùfinsèu bm bmfi fi (‑gspfjf jg jufs hães‘), qug ierhfahgitg tmi`f cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6,?3 hgtre g pgsfvf cgrcf jg 6,3 qumae.

Gspfjfs jg gstecfjf Fanuhfs gspfjfs jg uh só nuhg g humtfs gspfjfs jg jems nuhgs sãe kgmtfs tfite pfrf certfr qufite pfrf gstecfr, hfs gspfjfs kgmtfs uimcfhgitg, eu qufsg, pfrf gstecfjf kerfh rfrfs fitgs jf Mjfjg Hejgrif. Kerfh ceicgomjfs prmicmpfahgitg pfrf use cmvma, tmrfije pfrtmje jf fusâicmf jg frhfjurfs pfrf pgrhmtmr e hæxmhe jg fnmamjfjg ceh uhf aïhmif humte gstrgmtf g agvg, ceh cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg ceicgitrfje if hãe je gspfjfc`mh. E gstequg (gstec eu eu   tucl ) í e hfms fitmne prgcurser jgssfs gspfjfs ie Ecmjgitg. Zetfahgitg sgh certg, tmi`f nufrjf gh cruz g aïhmif sukmcmgitghgitg kmif pfrf f peitf fkmfjf fc`fr pfssfngh gitrg fs pafcfs jg uhf frhfjurf e ftrfvís jg uhf cetf jg hfa`f. Kem usfjf per cfvfagmres g jgpems per pg÷gs pfrf ftfcfr nugrrgmres ceh frhfjurf if _gifscgiîf (sícuaes PM[ g P[). E tfhfiè vfrmfvf jg 6,6> hgtre (ceh aïhmif jg =6 cgitèhgtres) g =44 nrfhfs, pfrf uhf hãe f 6,7> hgtre hgtre (ceh ( ceh aïhmif aïhmif jg 6,3? hgtre) g jems qumaes, pfrf pf rf jufs jufs hães. F gspfjf jg cfîf (ùitmin swerj) swerj) kem uhf gspícmg jg `èormje gitrg afiîf g gspfjf. Kem usfjf f pfr pfrtmr tmr je sícuae PM[, pfrf cfîf cfîfrr bfvfams bfvf ams,, sgrvmf sgrvm f prmicmpfahgitg pfrf gstecfr, hfs tfhoíh pejmf certfr ceh f peitf gh kerhf jg peitf jg afiîf ceh cgrcf jg 34 ch jg cehprmhgite, ftrfvgssfjf if ofsg per uhf pgqugif ofrrf trfisvgrsfa cubf kuiîãe grf mhpgjmr qug e fimhfa kurmese ceitmiufssg f cfrrgnfr giqufite grf gstecfje. Zmi`f cgrcf jg 6,30 hgtre g pgsfvf ?,77 qumaes. F vgrjfjgmrf ficgstrfa jfs gspfjfs hejgrifs jg gstecfr í, períh, f gspfjf repgrf (per sgr usfjf ceh reupfs cmvms) gspfièaf, qug surnmu pfrf use cmvma g hgfjes je sícuae P[ g kem usfjf ftí hgfjes je P[M. Jg sgu iehg jgrmveu e krficâs rfpmgr rfpmgr   (rfpmgmrf). If Mtæamf, grf c`fhfjf spfjf jf afte, afte, if Faghfi`f, Sgmtsc`wgrt . Zmi`f cgrcf jg uh hgtre g 6,? qumae. Es minagsgs ceitmiufrfh f usfr vfrmfitgs jgssf gspfjf ftí e kmh je sícuae P[M, cehe uhf tgitftmvf jg cehomifr `fomamjfjg jg certg g pgrkurfîãe giqufite f trfjmîãe rgsmstmu ä ievmjfjg jfs frhfs purfhgitg pgrkurfitgs. Gssfs gspfjfs minagsf min agsfss kerfh c`fh c`fhfjfs fjfs pgaes fitmquærmes fitmquærmes jg swerj-rfpmgr swerj-rfpmgr (‑gspfjf-rfpmgmrf‘). (‑gspfjf-rfpmgmrf‘). F vgrjfjgmrf rfpmgmrf eu vgrjune (minaâs g faghãe rfpmgr, krficâs krficâs   rfpmàrg) rfpmàrg) jmstminumf-sg pgaf nufrjf gh cgste, qug pretgnmf hgaèr f hãe qug f fitmnf nufrjf gh cruz g jmkmcuatfvf tgitftmvfs je fjvgrsærme jg jgsfrhfr e usuærme. Surnmu pfrf jgkgsf pgssefa, sgh use jg gscuje pgsfje eu frhfjurf. E tmpe caæssmce kem usfje jg f 6;:4,gh ngrfahgitg if cehpfi`mf uhf fjfnf fpfrfr ceh e hgsheg tmpe67;4 jg puiè cgste, usfjf ceh f hãejggsqugrjf (g jg c`fhfjf, gh krficâs

minaâs, jg hfmi-nfuc`g minaâs, hfmi-nfuc`g). ). E iehg kem jfje f pestgrmerm, pfrf jmstminum-af jg eutres tmpes jg gspfjfs2 g sgu tghpe, grf fpgifs ‑gspfjf‘, sgije tfhoíh fpgamjfjf gh pertunuâs jg ‑vgrjune‘. Tejmf tgr f aïhmif ceh nuhgs gh tejf f gxtgisãe, só if hgtfjg jf krgitg eu só if peitf. Es gsnrmhmstfs jf gsceaf mtfamfif c`fhfvfh jg kertg kertg   (g mtfamfie) f hgtfjg trfsgmrf jf aïhmif, ngrfahgitg sgh nuhg g usfjf pfrf fpfrfr, giqufite f jmfitgmrf, ngrfahgitg ceh nuhg g hfms krænma, usfjf pfrf ftfcfr, grf f jgoeag (jíoma jgoeag (jíoma eu krfcf). Ie gstmae caæssmce, tmi`f 6,6 f 6,? hgtre jg cehprmhgite ceh aïhmif jg uh hgtre g pgsfvf 6,6 f 6,3 qumae. [fag ietfr qug e use jg rfpmgmrfs pgaes pertunugsgs gh Pec`mqugt Pec`mqugtzfa zfa,, jg Ngrsei Aejm-_mogmre, í fifcrúimce. Ghoerf suostmtuèssgh e gscuje hgjmgvfa pgaf fjfnf jg hãe gsqugrjf, es ifvgnfjergs pertunugsgs g ceiqumstfjergs gspfi`óms je sícuae P[ g miècme je P[M usfvfh gspfjfs cfrfinugbfs e gspfj÷gs, ceh aïhmif afrnf g nufrjf gh cruz, gh S eu gh J (uh gspfjãe jg 6,>3 hgtre í ceisgrvfje gh Tertunfa cehe tgije pgrtgicmje f [fsce jf Nfhf). Hgshe ie fung, fs rfpmgmrfs iãe grfh ierhfahgitg usfjfs gh oftfa`f, hfs if jgkgsf pgssefa g cmvma. Gitrgtfite, kerfh cehuis ifs hães jg ofijgmrfitgs, fvgiturgmres g preprmgtærmes ifs ceaúimfs gurepgmfs jf Wimãe Moírmcf. E omaoe (jg Omaofe, cmjfjg jf Gspfi`f eijg grfh kformcfjes) grf uhf rfpmgmr rfpm gmrff tèpmcf tèpm cf jf Gspfi`f, Gspfi`f, hfs humte humte gxpertfjf gxpertfjf pfrf pfr f f Minaftgrrf. Minaftgrrf. Ceh nnufrjf ufrjf g ceic`fs, grf hfms curtf qug f rfpmgmrf krficgsf – uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa (aïhmif jg 07 cgitèhgtres) g uh qumae. Kem kformcfjf je sícuae P[M fe PMP. Ter veatf jg 6;44, kem pepuafr f ceauormif (jg ‑ceorf‘), c`fhfjf gh krficâs kafhhfrj   eu kafhofrj kafhhfrj kafhofrj   g èbg tfhoíh cei`gcmjf cehe kafhoírnmf-rfpmgmrf (kafhogrng-rfpmgr kafhogrng-rfpmgr), ), ceh aïhmif eijuafjf, supestfhgitg hfms hertèkgrf g jg gstecfjf hfms jeaeresf. Fe sgr usfjf pfrf fpfrfr, jgvmf prejuzmr uhf vmorfîãe micúhejf if gspfjf je epeigitg. Jg 6;34 f cgrcf jg 6>?4, prgjehmifrfh rfpmgmrfs hfms agvgs g gstrgmtfs, hgies rgsmstgitgs hfs hfms fjgqufjfs pfrf hfieorfs ængms sgh e use jf fjfnf jg fpfrfr, ngrfahgitg ceh nufrjf gh cepe (iãe gh cgstf). Í f frhf `mstermcfhgitg fjgqufjf f Cyrfie jg Ogrngrfc, f Buamg, Af Hfupmi, f agngijærmf ftrmz g gspfjfc`mh cubf cfrrgmrf sg gstgijgu jg 6;0; f 6>4>, fes hesqugtgmres jes rehficgs jg Fagxfijrg Juhfs g f ^maamfh Afpert eu Numaagi Aehofrje, mrafijâs qug vmvgu ie Híxmce gitrg 6;:3 g 6;7= g tgrmf mispmrfje e Rerre ermnmifa jf kmcîãe. Ceh 6,6 hgtre, gssf vgrsãe pgsfvf cgrcf jg uh qumae. Fanuis gsnrmhmstfs prgkgrmfh uhf rfpmgmrf aeinf, cehiãe ftí c`gnfvf 6,3> hgtre g 6,? qumae,f hfs f vfitfngh je hfmer facficg hfms prevfvgahgitg f cehpgisfr

jmkmcuajfjg hfmer jg hfigbæ-af. Ie tgftre g ies kmahgs jg cfpf-g-gspfjf, í cehuh usfr uhf ‑rfpmgmrf‘ ce nufrjf nu frjf gh cepe, hfs hfs aïh a ïhmif mif fmijf hfms gstrgmtf gstrgm tf g agvg, a gvg, sgh s ghga`fi ga`fitg tg ä jes gspfjm gspfjmiis g gspfjfs jg gsnrmhf je sícuae PMP, pfrf hfmer ceivgimâicmf jes ftergs, trgmifjes fpgifs (sg tfite) if gsnrmhf gspertmvf hejgrif. Gssf gspfjf kmctècmf í tgcimcfhgitg c`fhfjf ‑rfpmgmrf-gspfjf‘ (rfpmgr-gpgg (rfpmgr-gpgg)) eu ‑hesqugtgmrf‘ (huslgtggr huslgtggr). ). Zgh 6,6 hgtre g pgsf 044 nrfhfs. F ceamhfrjf ( (ceamc`ghfrj ceamc`ghfrj,, gh minaâs g krficâs) kem uhf gspfjf gstrgmtf usfjf ie kmifa je sícuae P[MM g miècme je P[MMM. Zmi`f uhf aïhmif hfms kmif if pfrtg jmfitgmrf (e ‑jgoeag‘) g hfms afrnf if ofsg (e ‑kertg‘), jg kerhf qug kessg hfms agvg g ænma qug uhf rfpmgmrf, hfs tfhoíh kessg cfpfz jg fpfræ-af sgh rmsce jg qugorfr. Kem fofijeifjf jgpems qug gspfjfs hfms pgsfjfs, cehe f rfpmgmrf, cfèrfh tetfahgitg gh jgsuse. Zmi`f 6,6 hgtre g pgsfvf 074 nrfhfs. F gspfjf hmamtfr (gh minaâs spfjreei spfjreei,, gh krficâs ípíg finafmsg) finafmsg) í uhf gspfjf rgtf jg aïhmif gstrgmtf, usfjf per ekmcmfms je gxírcmte g jf hfrmi`f, qug surnmu if Minaftgrrf ies fies 6>04 g kem jgpems usfje gh eutres pfèsgs, cfrfctgrmzfjf per uhf nufrjf gh gstrmoe jgcerfjf ceh trâs f sgtg oeafs gh cfjf nufrjf, sgije per msse cei`gcmjfs gh minaâs tfhoíh cehe kmvg ofaas. ofaas. Ngrfahgitg jg uh só nuhg, eu ceh uh nuhg ie prmhgmre qufrte je ceitrfkme. Zmi`f 04 f =0 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite (;> f 0? jg aïhmif) g pgsfvf 7>4 nrfhfs. E gspfjmh eu kfmh (shfaaswerj shfaaswerj)) surnmu per veatf jg 6;74 g supafiteu f rfpmgmrf ie sícuae P[MMM. Wsfjf ftí 6034 cehe frhf jg jgkgsf pgssefa, terie pessèvga f ænma g gagnfitg gsnrmhf hejgrif. Iuicf grf usfjf pfrf certfr, hfs f aïhmif pessuèf nuhg, pfrf gvmtfr qug e epeigitg f fnfrrfssg. Ceh 6,6 hgtre jg cehprmhgite, pgsfvf >>4 nrfhfs g tmi`f uhf nufrjf gh gstrmoe. Í `mstermcfhgitg fjgqufjf fe Rerre jf Jmsigy, Jmsigy, cubfs fvgiturfs fvgiturfs sg pfssfh gitrg gitrg 604; g 6037. F gspfjf jg jugae (jugaamin swerj) swerj) grf sghga`fitg, hfs fofijeie tetfahgitg e nuhg gh kfver jg uhf aïhmif hfms rgsmstgitg. F hejgrif gspfjf jg gsnrmhf ( (ípíg ípíg gh minaâs g krficâs) í sghga`fitg, gxcgte qug tgh nufrjf gh cepe, f aïhmif iãe tgh certg g f peitf í suostmtuèjf per u oetãe paæstmce paæs tmce eu sgiser. Fs jmhgis÷gs jmhgis÷gs rgnuafhgi rgnuafhgitfrgs tfrgs pfrf fjuates sãe 6,6 6 ,6 hgtre hgtre jg cehprmhgite (=4 cgitèhgtres jg aïhmif), ceh pgse hæxmhe jg >>4 nrfhfs (f hfmermf pgsf 374 f :74 nrfhfs). E gspfjmh jg cgrmhúimf eu gspfjmh jg certg (jrgss swerj, tewi swerj swerj e ceurt swerj) swerj) í uhf vgrsãe rgjuzmjf g jgcerftmvf je gspfjmh, hfms agvg g cúhejf, fpreprmfjf sgr usfjf if cmjfjg g ghkmis ecfsm÷gs secmfms.Fanuis Kem cehu jg cgrcf jg 6>44 ftípfrf e miècme je sícuae PP, pfrf cgrmheimfms. grf

pgîfs jg befa`grmf b efa`grmf kmifh kmifhgit gitgg trfofa`fjfs trfof a`fjfs g krgqugitgh krgqugitghgit gitgg f aïhmif aïhmif grf gr f sgh s gh certg, eu hgshe suostmtuèjf per uhf ofrof jg ofagmf. Gh híjmf, tmi`fh 04 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsfvfh 744 nrfhfs. Ftufahgitg, gspfjmis smhoóamces sãe ceikgrmjes f ekmcmfms hmamtfrgs if suf nrfjufîãe, fssmh cehe eutrfs gspfjfs g hmimfturf, jg qufaqugr kerhfte. If Fcfjghmf Hmamtfr jg Fnua`fs Ignrfs, per gxghpae, ceikgrg-sg e ‑gspfjmh jg Cfxmfs‘, qug í uhf hmimfturf jg ;4 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res je sforg s forg usfje pgae Juqu Juqug. g. E kaergtg ( (kema kema gh minaâs, kagurgt minaâs, kagurgt gh krficâs) í uhf vgrsãe hgier, hfms agvg g hfms kagxèvga jf gspfjf jg gsnrmhf, usfjf cehe frhf jg trgmifhgite jgsjg hgfjes je sícuae P[MMM g qug èbg í f frhf hfms cehuh jf gsnrmhf gspertmvf. Zgh cehprmhgite jg ftí 6,6 hgtre (aïhmif jg =4 cgitèhgtres, ceh oetãe jg paæstmce if peitf) g pgsf, ie hæxmhe, 744 nrfhfs. Gh humtes tgxtes g pertunuâs, ‑kaergtg‘ í tfhoíh uhf trfjuîãe mhpróprmf jg rfpmgr eu eu   rfpmàrg (rfpmgmrf eu vgrjune) uhf frhf jg aïhmif ogh hfms pgsfjf g gkmcfz2 f òimcf sghga`fiîf í (äs vgzgs) e use je hgshe tmpe jg nufrjf gh ‑cepe jg tmngaf‘, ce f c`fhfvfh es pertunugsgs. F Tfrmsgr  (‑pfrmsmgisg‘, (‑pfrmsmgisg‘, gh faghãe) í uh kaergtg ceh peitf fnuîfjf g nufrjf gh jmsce, usfje if gsnrmhf fcfjâhmcf ( Hgisur) Hgisur ) jg gstujfitgs jf Gurepf Cgitrfa g Ermgitfa, fpgsfr jes rmsces jg kgrmhgite g hertg (ngrfahgitg per pgrkurfîãe je puahãe, äs vgzgs je eaè). Jg hgfjes je sícuae PMP fe miècme je sícuae PP, ceisgnumr uhf cmcftrmz ie reste, jg prgkgrâicmf if tâhperf gsqugrjf, äs vgzgs, hfms jgsfstrfjfhgitg, ie qugmxe eu oec`gc`f, grf prftmcfhgitg eormnftórme cehe hfrcf jg vmrmamjfjg g jmstmiîãe igssgs pfèsgs. Gstujfitgs prepesmtfahgitg jgmxfvfh-sg certfr g cesturfr nressgmrfhgitg e certg, pfrf nfrfitmr uhf Sc`hmss vmstesf – jfè e camc`â je frmstecrftf eu ekmcmfa faghãe ceh cmcftrmz ie reste. F Hgisur fmijf í uhf trfjmîãe gh nrâhmes fcfjâhmces faghãgs, ghoerf èbg fs Hgisur fmijf cmcftrmzgs sgbfh trftfjfs jg hfigmrf f sgrgh peuce vmsèvgms. Wsfh-sg tfhoíh f Leroscàêngr , ceh nufrjf gh cgste g f Naeclgiscàêngr , ceh nufrjf g gstrmoe, qug sãe vfrmfitgs vfr mfitgs jf gspfjf gs pfjf jg jugae g tâh nu nuhg certfi cer tfitg. tg. F oginfaf jg gstequg (swerjcfig swerjcfig)) í uhf frhf jg jgkgsf pgssefa jg ournugsgs je sícuae PMP g miècme je PP. F hfjgmrf fofmxe je cfoe jf oginfaf í if rgfamjfjg uhf ofmi`f jg hfjgmrf pfrf uhf aïhmif peitujf, sghga`fitg ä jg u gspfjmh. F oginfaf heitfjf tgh cgrcf jg =? cgitèhgtres g pgsf =44 nrfhfs< jgsheitfjf, rgsuatf iuh gspfjmh jg >7 cgitèhgtres g :74 nrfhfs, hfms uhf ofmi`ff jg :74 nrfhfs ofmi` nrfhfs g >7 cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres qug pejg sgr usfjf ceh cehee perrgtg. perr gtg.

Gspfjfs jg aïhmifs ceh cehpagxfs pagxfs Cgrtfs cuaturfs crmfrfh ‑gspfjfs‘ pgcuamfrgs, qug tâh værmfs aïhmifs ceh e sgh nuh nuhg, g, ngrfah ngrfa hgitg gitg per rfz÷gs hfms smhoóamcfs s mhoóamcfs je qug prætmcfs. præ tmcfs. F gspfjf-nficè (neu eu eu   sùfin neu, ‑nficè jupae‘), uhf jfs 60 frhfs caæssmcfs jfs frtgs hfrcmfms c`migsfs, tgh uhf aïhmif rgtf cehe f jg uhf bmfi, uhf bmfi, ceh jems nuhgs, hfs qug tgrhmif gh nficè. Faíh jmsse, f ghpui`fjurf tgrhmif iuhf fjfnf pgrkurfitg g í pretgnmjf per uhf nufrjf certfitg gh kerhf jg crgscgitg, pfrfagaf fe puiè, qug pejg sgr usfjf tfhoíh pfrf fpfrfr. Í ierhfahgitg usfjf gh pfrgs if frtg hfrcmfa ofnufz`fin ofnufz`fin,, g jufs gspfjfs pejg sgr gicfjgfjfs pgaes rgspgctmves nficès, pfrf hfmer facficg. Tejgh sgr usfjfs pfrf ftfcfr f pgrif je mimhmne, eu jg sgu cfvfae, eu fmijf pfrf trfvfr f frhf je epeigitg ceh uh jes nficès giqufite sg ftfcf ceh e eutre, hfs kfcmahgitg kgrg e próprme usuærme. Gh híjmf, tâh 07 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsfh >44 nrfhfs nrfh fs cfjf uhf. uhf. F gspfjf pí-jg-nfami`f ( bm bm jfe amfi, am fi, ‑nfami` ‑nfami`f-sfor f-sforg-kemcg‘) g-kemcg‘) í uhf uhf fr frh hf usfjf if frtg hfrcmfa xminym hfrcmfa xminymqufi qufi.. Fssghga`f-sg ä gspfjf-nficè, ceh aïhmif g nufrjf sghga`fitg ä jf bm jf bmfi fi,, fcrgscgitfjf jg uh gsperãe ftræs je nficè prmicmpfa. Zg 04 cgitèhgtres. E sforg sea-auf ( (rmyug rmyug jfe) jfe) í uhf frhf kerhfjf per uhf ofrrf qug sgrvg jg ghpui`fjurf, ceh nufrjfs gh hgmf-auf jg cfjf afje g aïhmifs curvfs g certfitgs gh cfjf peitf, aghorfije jufs gspfjfs-nficè gicfjgfjfs g hejmkmcfjfs. E use jgstf jmkècma gspfjf í gismifje cehe uh trgmifhgite gh gqumaèorme, hfs í peuce prætmcf gh cehoftg rgfa. Ie ftfqug kreitfa, e usuærme sgnurf if ofrrf g neapgmf pfrf f krgitg< ie aftgrfa, nmrf e sforg sgnurfije f ofrrf je sforg per uh jes afjes, ceh fhofs fs hães g ie omaftgrfa, sgnurf e sforg g e kfz escmafr, neapgfije neapgfi je gh qufaqugr qufaqugr jes afjes, pfrf krgitg krgitg eu pfrf træs. Zgh 6,3 f 6,: hgt hgtre re jg cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te g pgsf pgs f 6,3 f 6,0 quma qumae. e. E kmctècme ogtag@  eu eu oft”agt` jes lamineis jg Berifjf ifs Gstrgafs (Stfr (Stfr Zrgl ) í uh sforg sea-auf gstmamzfje ie qufa fs nufrjfs sg uigh pfrf kerhfr uhf só aïhmif. Sgnuije f sírmg, í kerbfjf f pfrtmr je hmiírme offleimtf g kem crmfjf pgae `gróm Lfàgss, e Migsqugcèvga, fe hgrnua`fr uh cùhfîe jg sgus cfogaes if afvf jg uh vuacãe g f sgnumr if ænuf jg uh afne, tercgije-e gh sgnumjf pfrf kerhfr f aïhmif, sgije f ermnmifa vgigrfjf cehe uhf gspfjf sfnrfjf. _ípamcfs vgijmjfs ie cehírcme tâh 6,? f 6,3 hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsfh 3 f 7 qumaes (`æ tfhoí ‑hmimftu ‑h mimfturfs‘ rfs‘ jg 6(rmyug hgtreqmfilui g 6,; qumae). qumae) F hgmf-auf bmfi. , amtgrfahgitg ‑gspfjf cíu-tgrrf sea-auf‘), bmfi,

hfc`fjmi`f jupaf ( zmwu zmwu yufiyfin yug, amtgrfahgitg ‑hfc`fjmi`f pfteshfijfrmis-hfcè-kâhgf hgmf-iemtg-hgme-jmf‘) eu sforg c`mkrg jg vgfje (aubmfe jfe)) í uhf frhf tfhoíh usfjf gh pfrgs ie ofnufz`fin jfe ofnufz`fin,, cfjf uhf je pfr kerhfjf per jems crgscgitgs jg fîe seorgpestes, e qug jgmxf quftre peitfs certfitgs. Wh jes crgscgitgs í kerrfje g sgrvg pfrf sgnurfr, giqufite eutre (äs vgzgs hfmer qug e prmhgmre) sgrvg pfrf certfr g cehe nufrjf. If autf, precurf-sg usfr uhf ‑hfc`fjmi`f‘ pfrf trfvfr f frhf je epeigitg giqufite f eutrf e neapgmf. Cfjf uhf jgafs tgh 34 f 37 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 344 nrfhfs. F rejf-gspfjf ( (kgin kgin ùe aui, aui, ‑rejf kene g vgite‘) í uhf vfrmfitg jf hgmf-auf if qufa e crgscgitg pgae qufa sg sgnurf í suostmtuèje per uh cèrcuae kgc`fje je qufa sfgh pgqugies rfmes, jfije-a`g f fpfrâicmf jg uh sea. Í usfjf tfhoíh g pfrgs, cfjf uhf pgsfije 774 nrfhfs, ceh 30 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. F lpminf í usfjf pgae peve hfhogag eu zfijg eu zfijg (paurfa (paurfa fzfijg fzfijg)) qug vmvg if rgnmãe gitrg e Ceine Lmis`fsf, sua je Sujãe g _gpòoamcf Cgitre-Fkrmcfif g per sgus vmzmiès hoflf, ofnmrhm (qug f c`fhfh ibmnf ibmnf), ), husnu (neagye (neagye)) g hfrnm (jfimsce jfimsce). ). Zgh uhf aïhmif jg kerhfte vfrmævga g tertuese, ceh værmfs peitfs g nuhgs g gsper÷gs, qug pejg sgr usfjf pfrf prgijgr g fkfstfr e gscuje je mimhmne giqufite forg cfhmiè f uh neapg jg fzfnfmf, neapgfr ceiterifije e gscuje e cehe frhf jg frrghgsse, hfs í seorgtuje uh ghoaghf jg prgstènme, pejgr g stftus. E tfhfiè vfrmf jg :7 f >4 cgitèhgtres g :44 nrfhfs f 6,67 qumae. Ies GWF, uhf vfrmfitg jf lpminf lpminf kem kem cehgrcmfamzfjf ceh e iehg jg ùinfhuinf g huinf g usfjf pgaf cfîfjerf jg vfhpmres jf sírmg Oukky Oukky.. Whf vgrsãe c`fhfjf @flfrr   í usfjf pgaes Ofstgt (èhgis-kgamies) je _TN Aeomsehgh2 E @flfrr pecfampsg pecfam psg,, jf ^`mtg êak. Whf jfs kmctècmfs frhfs ‑trfjmcmeifms‘ jes laminei, e hgq”agt`, í tfhoíh sghga`fitg ä lpminf hgq”agt`, lpminf   g sufs rípamcfs cehgrcmfms tâh 74 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res g pgsfh pgs fh ?,7 qumaes qumaes..

Frhfs frtmcuafjfs g kagxèvgms

C`mcetgs C`mcetgs (w`mp (w`mp)) preprmfhgitg jmtes, jg ceure eu ofhou, kerfh usfjes pfrf ceijuzmr g jehfr fimhfms eu cehe hgme jg puimîãe g terturf, hfs rfrfhgitg cehe frhf. sbfhoel oel eu amtupf (c`mcetg gh Fineaf) qug kem usfje if Whf gxcgîãe í e sbfh Ækrmcf pfrf puimr gscrfves g iftmves, hfs èbg í fjetfje pgaf peaècmf jf Ækrmcf je Sua pfrf ceitreafr tuhuates, faíh jg sgr usfje pfrf ceijuzmr nfje g cehe jgkgsf ceitrf ceorfs g cãgs. Zrfjmcmeifahgitg kgmte jg ceure jg `mpepótfhe, èbg ngrfahgitg í jg paæstmce. Zgh =4 cgitèhgtres f 6,7 hgtre jg cehprmhgite, ce gspgssurf jg ?7 hmaèhgtres if ofsg f 64 hmaèhgtres if peitf g uhf ghpui`fjurf jg ?; ? ; cgitèh c gitèhgtres gtres.. Whsbfhoel Wh sbfhoel  jg jg 6,3> hgtre hgtre pgsf pgs f :44 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. E gler pfrm (‑rfoe jg frrfmf‘) í uh c`mcetg jg cerjf, gireafje if cmiturf seo e sfrein, usfje cehe frhf if frtg hfrcmfa mijeiísmf pgitb pgitbfl fl smaft sma ft   g pepuafr prmicmpfahgitg gitrg hua`grgs. Whf cerrgitg usfjf jf hgshf hfigmrf í c`fhfjf rfitfm. Whf frhf kagxèvga sghga`fitg fe c`mcetg í f uruhm, uhf aïhmif jg fîe kmif cehe pfpga, kagxèvga cehe c`mcetg g fkmfjf cehe ifvfa`f, usfjf ie lfafrm lfafrm,, frtg hfrcmfa cfrfctgrèstmcf je gstfje jg Lgrfaf, ie sua jf Èijmf. Zgh gh terie jg 6,> hgtre g pgsf hgme qumae. Í jmkècma jg usfr, hfs kæcma jg gsceijgr, pems pejg sgr gireafjf if cmit cm ituurf, jgofmxe jf reu r eupf. pf. E omfi, frhf frtmcuafjf sghga`fitg fe c`mcetg, í usfje gh frtgs hfrcmfms c`migsfs cehe e wusù wusù.. Í uhf cfjgmf kagxèvga jg `fstgs jg hgtfa amnfjfs per fiíms, ceh uh cfoe jg hfjgmrf pfrf ghpui`fr g uh jfrje peituje if gxtrghmjfjg. @æ trâs tmpes2 sfibmgomfi sfibmgomfi   (trâs `fstgs), qmbmgomfi qmbmgomfi   (sgtg `fstgs) g mubmgomfi (ievg mubmgomfi (ievg `fstgs). E cehprmhgite c`gnf f 6,>7 hgtre.

Hfinufms g jgrmvfjes [ærmfs frhfs jgrmvfh je hfinufa, uh mistruhgite fnrèceaf ceh qug sg hfa`fh cgrgfms pfrf jgoua`æ-aes g qug ceismstg gh uh pfu cehprmje g kmie (e hfine, ceh cgrcf jg 6,7 hgtre), qug sgrvg jg cfoe, amnfje per uhf cerrgmf jg ceure (e miîfjeure) f uh eutre, curte g nresse (e pèrtmne, ceh hgme hgtre f u hgtre), qug pgrcutg fs `fstgs eu gspmnfs (jg trmne, frrez, cgvfjf, hmaè gtc.), gspfa`fjfs gspfa `fjfs ie c`ãe c`ãe pfrf pfr f rgtmrfr r gtmrfr-a`gs -a`gs es nrães. E sèh sè hoeae je kfrfó grf g rf uh hfin hfinuufa cruzfje ceh uh cfbfje jg pfster, rgprgsgitfije e pejgr jg prevgr cgrgfms g cfrig. Ie Ecmjgitg, gssg mistruhgite fnrèceaf cgrtfhgitg jgu ermngh ä frhf c`fhfjf tfhoíh jg hfinufa eu hfinufa-j”frhfs (minaâs (minaâs   kafma, kafma, krficâs kaífu j”frhgs, faghãe Lrmgnskagnga faghãe Lrmgnskagnga)). F jmkgrgiîf gstæ gh qug f vgrsãe hmamtfr, humte usfjf per cfhpeigsgs rgogajgs g hgrcgiærmes jf _gifscgiîf, cestuhf tgr e ofstãe hgier crfvgbfje per kfrpfs eu peitfs jg hgtfa g amnfje fe hfmer per uhf cerrgitg jg kgrre, gh vgz jg cerrgmf jg ceure. Kem usfje tfhoíh if Ækrmcf je Iertg, per ærfogs g ogrogrgs. Fssmh cehe f vgrsãe fnrèceaf, gssfs frhfs pgsfh gh terie jg quftre quft re qumaes. qumaes . E c`mcetg-j”frhfs (minaâs herimin stfr, stfr, krficâs, scerpmei, faghãe Lgttgiherngistgri, Lgttgiherngistgr i, ‑gstrgaf jf hfi`ã jg cerrgitg‘), krgqugitghgitg ceikuijmje ceh e hfinufa, í uhf oeaf jg kgrre jg ftí jgz cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre, grmîfjf jg peitfs g amnfjf per uhf cerrgitg jg 34-74 cgitèhgtres f uhf `fstg aeinf (6,0 hgtres if mikfitfrmf, >4 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre if cfvfafrmf), pgsfije trâs e quftre qumaes. Zgrmf smje usfjf if Suèîf g Faghfi`f, if Ofmxf Mjfjg Híjmf g _gifscgiîf. Whf vfrmfitg fpfrgitghgitg fmijf hfms pgrmnesf (tfite pfrf e fave qufite pfrf e usuærme) í c`fhfjf gh krficâs neupmaa neupmaaei ei (‑`mssepe‘, utgisèame gcagsmæstmce jg fspgrnmr ænuf ogitf) g kerhfjf per jufs eu trâs oeafs jg kgrre hgiergs amnfjfs fe hgshe cfoe. Jmz uhf agijf qug kem usfjf pgae rgm Beãe M jf Oeâhmf, qug kmceu cgne fes :4 fies, hfs kfzmf qugstãe jg mr ä nugrrf, ftfcfije pfrf tejes es afjes a fjes (g ( g herrg herrguu gh cehoftg). cehoftg). E c`finxmfeofi c`miâs í uh ofstãe curte (:> cgitèhgtres) amnfje f uh aeine (6,0> hgtre) per uhf cerrgitg aeinf g kem trfjmcmeifahgitg usfje pgae tghpae S`feami if C`mif. If Cergmf, useu-sg e pygeinei, ceh ofstãe aeine jg ?,7 hgtres g curte jg ;? cgitèhgtres, amnfjes per uhf cerrgitg jg 3? cgitèhgtres e uh òimce gae nrfijg g kertg g e hfisfin pygeinei, jg cfvfafrmf, ceh ? hgtres jg cehprmhgite g pèrtmne jg 74 cgitèhgtres. E jmïhgtre jfs `fstgs grf jg : f 7

cgitèhgtres, cgitèhgt res, hfs ifs vgrs÷gs vgr s÷gs hejgrifs jg frtgs hfrcmfms hfrcmfm s í 3 cgitèh cgitèhgtres. gtres. Whf frhf bfpeigsf sghga`fitg í e c`mnmrmlm , uh ofhou eu ofrrf jg kgrre, jg 6,? hgtre, amnfje f uh pgse jg uis = cgitèhgtres per uhf cerrgitg jg cgrcf jg >; cgitèhgtres, pgsfije uh tetfa jg 6,37 qumae. @æ tfhoíh frhfs qug sg pfrgcgh ceh uh hfinufa gh hmimfturf g tfavgz jgrmvgh jgag. F hfms cei`gcmjf í e iuic`flu jg Elmifwf, ceistmtuèje jg jems ofst÷gs jg ?4 f :4 cgitèhgtres cfjf uh, amnfjes per uhf cerjf eu cerrgitg jg quftre eu cmice cgitèhgtres, cube iehg pfrgcg jgrmvfr jg uhf preiòicmf rgnmeifa jg c`finxmfeofi c`finxmfeofi,, hfs sgnuije eutrfs vgrs÷gs sgrmf jgrmvfje jg uh cècfaè jg hfjgmr fjgmrff usfje per vmnmfs ieturies ieturies cehe cehe fvmse fvm se eu jg uh krgme jg cfvfae. cfvfa e. F vgrsãe cergfif c`fhf-sg buaoein . E tfofl-teyel jfs Kmampmifs í sghga`fitg, hfs tg ofst÷gs hfms curtes (64 cgitèhgtres) g cerrgitg hfms aeinf (67 cgitèhgtres). E sfibmgnui sfibm gnui c`miâs, c`fhfje sfisgt sfisgtsulei sulei ie Bfpãe, í kgmte jg trâs ofst÷gs amnfjes jf hgshf hfigmrf.

Cerjfs g cerrgitgs E amuxmin cùm (‑hfrtgae-hgtgere‘) c`miâs í kerhfje per jufs oeafs jg kgrre ceh kafings, amnfjfs per uhf cerjf eu cerrgitg jg jems hgtres, eu uhf só oeaf, jg ftí trâs qumaes, if peitf jg uhf uhf cerjf cer jf eu cerrgit cerr gitgg jg 3,; hgtres. hgtres. If hgshf kfhèamf jg frhfs, giceitrfh-sg tfhoíh e s`gin omfe (‑jfrje jg cerjf‘), gh bfpeiâs be`ye, qug í uh jfrje jg fîe jg 6; f ?4 cgitèhgtres if peitf jg uhf cerjf jg 3 f 7 hgtres, pfrf sgr nmrfje eu frrghgssfje, g e c`miâs kgm neu (‑nficè vefjer‘) eu kgm zùf (‑nfrrf vefjerf‘), uhf nfrrf eu nficè jg foerjfngh prgse f uhf cerrgitg, amnfjf f uhf cerjf, qug í usfje tfite pfrf neapgfr qufite pfrf supgrfr eostæcuaes. E bfpeiâs hfirmlm-nusfrm (‑cerrgitg jg jgz hma pejgrgs‘) eu lusfrm-kuije (‑cerrgitg-pgse‘) bfpeiâs í uhf cerrgitg jg 34 cgitèhgtres f 6,? hgtre ceh pgses jg ;4 f 6?4 nrfhfs gh cfjf peitf, usfjf cehe frhf iãe agtfa, pfrf mheomamzfr e mimhmne. E surubm surubmi i jg Elmifwf í sghga`fitg, kerhfje per uhf cerjf eu cerrgitg agvg jg ? f 3 hgtres ceh pgses ifs peitfs. E bfpeiâs lyelgtsu-sèng í uhf frhf imibf ceistmtuèjf jg uhf kfcf jg jems nuhgs (jg ftí :4 cgitèhgtres), ceh eutrf aïhmif jg kfcf seorgssfmije jg suf aftgrfa gh ïinuae rgte, uimjf f uh figa jg hgtfa jg uis 6; cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre per uhf cerjf eu cerrgitg jg 3 f ; hgtres. Zgh hòatmpafs utmamjfjgs, qug micaugh gskfqugfr, gscfafr eostæcuaes, afîfr g frrficfr f gspfjf je mimhmne eu mheomamzæ-ae. E lusfrmnfhf (‑cerrgitg-kemcg‘) bfpeiâs í uhf pgqugif kemcg (:4 cgitèhgtres, ceh aïhmif jg 67 f 34 cgitèhgtres), cubf ghpui`fjurf sg amnf f u pgse jg kgrre per uhf cerrgitg jg ?,7 f 3,; hgtres. Kem pepuafr je sícuae PMM fe P[MM, gspgcmfahgitg if gsceaf imibf Lelf-ryu g if gsceaf sfhurfm sfhurfm Mss`mi-ryu (gspgcmfamzfjf ie sgu use) g kem usfjf per pgrseifngis `mstórmces pepuafrgs. F tícimcf grf mheomamzfr e epeigitg hfitgije-sg kerf je facficg jg suf gspfjf e afiîf (usfije f cerrgit cerr gitgg cehe uh uh c`mcetg c`mcetg pfrf pf rf prgijgr pr gijgr orfîes g pgrifs pgr ifs eu usfije usfije e pgse pfrf neapgfr f cfogîf g fterjefr), pfrf gitãe sg fprexmhfr g amqumjæ-ae ceh f kemcg. F vmtf í uhf fzfnfmf mijmfif jg 6,7 hgtre, prgsf pgaf gxtrghmjfjg trfsgmrf fe puase je usuærme ceh uhf cerjf jg mnufa cehprmhgite. E usuærme f afiîf ceh fs jufs hães g jgpems f rgcea`g ceh f cerjf, tgi`f eu iãe ftminmje e fave. Kem ermnmifahgitg usfjf pgaes cfvfagmres hfrft`f, f pfrtmr jg 6;>:. Ofijmjes je sícuae PMP tfhoíh usfrfh e sauinsèt , uh pgse ftfje iuhf cerjf qug grf agvfje ie oease, giqufite f cerjf grf fhfrrfjf ie puase je

usuærme. Es mijèngifs jf Tftfnúimf usfvfh f oeaf pgrjmjf, uhf oeaf smhpags jg pgjrf jurf, je tfhfiè jg uh puiè (cgrcf jg hgme qumae) g ftfjf f uhf cerjf, qug grf nmrfjf pfrf ftminmr f cfogîf jg uh mimhmne g, hfms rfrfhgitg, frrghgssfjf cehe uhf oeagfjgmrf. Es kmampmies usfrfh if cfîf g ie cehoftg e memú ( ye-ye), ye-ye), uhf pgjrf jg jems qumaes ftfjf f uhf cerjf jg ; hgtres. Grf afiîfje ceitrf fs pftfs jf prgsf, pfrf prgijâ-afs (cehe ceh uhf oeagfjgmrf) eu if cfogîf jg uh mimhmne. Crmfiîfs kmampmifs cestuhfvfh ormicfr ceh memús jg hfjgmrf g kem uh kmampmie, Tgjre Kaergs, qug e mitrejuzmu ie Ecmjgitg ies fies 6=?4.

Hftrfcfs F hftrfcf ( (oafclbfcl ), if vgrsãe eutrerf usfjf pgaf peaècmf, grf uh pgse jg oafclbfcl ), cùhoe kerrfjf jg ceure, ceh uh cfoe kagxèvga, ngrfahgitg uhf heaf kerrfjf jg ceure g uhf cerrgmf prgsf fe puase je peamcmfa. @æ tfhoíh uhf vgrsãe fc`ftfjf, cei`gcmjf gh minaâs cehe sfp (jg (jg   sfpamin, ‑orete, rgogite‘). Tgsfh 374 f :74 nrfhfs. Ghoerf kessg supestfhgitg iãe-agtfa, kem fofijeifjf pgaf krgquâicmf ceh qug f ceicussãe hftfvf e suspgmte. If vgrsãe mhprevmsfjf per vfagit÷gs g crmhmieses jes fies 6=34, í uh sfqumiè jg pfie eu ceure eu hgshe uhf hgmf jgitre jf qufa sg ceaecf fane pgsfje – frgmf, uh pgjfîe jg kgrre eu cùhoe e uh pgjfîe jg sfoãe –, pfrf sgr nmrfje g ofafiîfje ceitrf f cfogîf jf vètmhf.

Frhfs jg `fstg Frhfs jg `fstg eu frhfs jg kustg ( peagfrhs, peagfrhs, gh minaâs) sãe frhfs orficfs ceh uh kustg eu `fstg aeinf jg hfjgmrf eu jg hgtfa, ceh uh f værmes hgtres jg ceh cehprmhgi prmhgite te g ngrfah ngrfa hgitg gitg ?7 f 3? hmaèhgt ma èhgtres res jg jmïh jm ïhgtre, gtre, pfrf pfr f sgr s gr sgnurfjf sgnurfjf ce fhofs fs hães.

O fst÷gs, oerj÷gs g vfrfpfus vfrfpfus Tfus gstãe gitrg fs frhfs hfms kæcgms jg mhprevmsfr iuhf ormnf g sãe usfjfs ftí per hfcfces. Whf jfs frhfs hfms gxtrferjmiærmfs jg tejfs fs hmteaenmfs í e _uym Ofin Ofin (‑Ofstãe jes Jgsgbes‘) eu Bminu Ofin Ofin (‑Ofstãe jes fres jg eure‘) je supgrhfcfce Sui ûlein. Sgnuije e hmte c`miâs, e ofstãe grf jg kgrre ignre ceh fres jg eure ifs peitfs, pgsfvf 63.744 bm bmii (emte teigafjfs), pejmf huatmpamcfr-sg, autfr sezmiè g hujfr jg tfhfiè sgnuije es jgsgbes je jeie, qug qufije iãe e gstfvf usfije e rgjuzmf fe tfhfiè jg uhf fnua`f g e gsceijmf ftræs jf erga`f. If trfjuîãe bfpeigsf, e hfcfce c`fhf-sg Sei Nelu g suf frhf Iyemoe.. Iyemoe Ofst÷gs sãe frhfs jg jgkgsf pgssefa krgqugitgs gh pagogus, prmicmpfahgitg qufije fs gspfjfs grfh prmvftmvfs jf ieorgzf eu pertæ-afs iãe grf ogh vmste g fhomgitg urofie. Fssmh cehe e oerjãe jes cfhpeigsgs g e cfbfje jes pfstergs, f oginfaf je cfvfa`gmre vmtermfie eu jf Ogaag Ípequg Ípequg sgrvmu tfhoíh ä jgkgsf pgssefa. Ghoerf fes peuces tgi`f sg terifje fpgifs uh fcgssórme gagnfitg, gspgrfvf-sg qug uh ngitaghfi ngitaghfi je je sícuae PMP seuogssg usæ-af pfrf sg jgkgijgr jg vfagit÷gs eu cãgs `mjrókeoes g gspgcmfamstfs gismifvfh f autfr ceh oginfafs g nufrjf-cùvfs. Ceh cgitre jg nrfvmjfjg ie hgme g peite jg mhpfcte mjgfa f uh tgrîe je cehprmhgite, vfrfs eu ofst÷gs jg ofhou eu hfjgmrf jg oef qufamjfjg sãe frhfs jg mhpfcte hejgrfje, hfs ifs hães jg uh cehoftgitg `æoma, pejgh sgr surprggijgitghgitg ængms g vgrsætgms. @æ frtgs hfrcmfms pfrf usæ-aes ce gkmcæcmf, cehe e bene je pfu pertunuâs, e sfvftg sfvftg   g f cfiig j”frhg krficgsf, j”frhg krficgsf, e nftlm g nftlm g e smafhofh smafhofh mijmfies, mijmfies, e oebutsu oebutsu jg jg Elmifwf, e nui sù c`miâs, f gslrmhf jfs Kmampmifs, e oftfmrgfc`t   mrafijâs g e ofrtmtsu ofrtmtsu   ormtïimce (f frtg hfrcmfa je S`graecl @eahgs jg Ceifi Jeyag). E vfrfpfu (qufrtgrstfkk ) usfje if Minaftgrrf tgh 6,0 f ?,> hgtres jg cehprmhgite (?,6 f ?,: hgtres, ies tgxtes je sícuae P[MM) g í jg prgkgrâicmf kgmte jg krgmxe, pgsfije 6 f 6,7 qumae. E iehg minaâs prevfvgahgitg jgcerrg jg sgr prejuzmje f pfrtmr jg hfjgmrf certfjf eu sgrrfjf gh qufrtes, ghoerf f trfjmîãe fssecmg e iehg ä hfigmrf usufa jg sgnuræ-ae, ceh uhf hãe if peitf g eutrf f u qufrte je cehprmhgite (cgrcf jg :7 cgitèhgtres). Gh cgrtfs hfieorfs, pejg tfhoíh sgr sgnurfje ie hgme, ceh fs hães fkfstfjfs cgrcf jg >7 cgitèhgtres. Ie pfssfje, gssf frhf tfhoíh grf c`fhfjf gh minaâs sèrt stfkk , gh ceitrfstg ce e aein stfkk   ofsgfje ie pmqug, jg 3,: f 3,> hgtres. Fs prmhgmrfs jgscrmî÷gs smstghætmcfs jf autf ceh qufrtgrstfvgs qufrtgrstfvgs if if Minaftgrrf sãe je sícuae PM[. Sgu use

kem gismifje per gsnrmhmstfs f pfrtmr je sícuae P[M g ie gxírcmte minaâs jes tghpes vmtermfies. Grf tfhoíh gismifje f gscetgmres ifs prmhgmrfs jícfjfs je sícuae PP. Wh jes sgus uses amtgrærmes hfms kfheses í if agijf jg _eomi @eej, ietfjfhgitg f autf je `gróm iuhf pminugaf ceh sgu kuture fhmne Beãe Tgqugie ( Amttag Amtt ag Beì), Beì), qug jgvmf usfr uh vfrfpfu prepercmeifa f sgus ?,6 hgtres jg faturf. E oe bfpeiâs tgh ierhfahgitg 6,0 hgtre (äs vgzgs ftí ?,>). F vgrsãe cergfif c`fhf-sg bfinoein g tgh 6,0 f ?,? hgtres, ceh 3 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. E ofinlfw eu ofinlfw eu smoft  kmampmie kmampmie tfhoíh tgh 6,0 hgtre. Tfrf e pfu usfje ie ‑bene je pfu‘ pertunuâs, rgcehgijf-sg qug tgi`f ie hèimhe f hgjmjf qug vfm je seae fe ièvga je ifrmz (cgrcf jg 6,7 hgtre) g ngrfahgitg tgh f gxtrghmjfjg uh peuce hfms nressf qug f ofsg, ceh uhf híjmf jg 3 cgitèhgtres, pgsfije cgrcf jg ;44 nrfhfs. Trgkgrg-sg f hfjgmrf je aójãe (Cgatms fustrfams) fustrfams) eu jf cfstfi`gmrf (Cfstfigf (Cfstfigf sftmvf). sftmvf). Í ierhfahgitg sgnurfje ceh uhf hãe pgrte jf ofsg g f eutrf fkfstfjf f uh fitgorfîe jg jmstïicmf. Ce uhf peitf jg hgtfa, terif-sg uh ‑pfu jg peitf‘ eu qufsg uhf afiîf. E aft`m mijmfie í uh ofstãe jg ofhou jg 6,7 f ?,: hgtres g =44 nrfhfs, usfje trfjmcmeifahgitg gh cehoftgs rurfms g èbg gh frtgs hfrcmfms g ie ceitreag jg jmstòromes jmstò romes pgaf peaècmf peaè cmf mi m ijmfif. jmfif. E s`frggr s`frggrfvfjm fvfjm í uh ofstãe jg ofhou jg 6,7 hgtre, usfje ie trgmifhgite oæsmce je lfafrmppfyfttu lfafrmppfyfttu,, frtg hfrcmfa je sua jf Èijmf pfrf smhuafr smhuafr uhf afi af iîf. E be bfpeiâs tgh 6,? hgtre, pejgije sgr usfje ceh uhf eu jufs hães. E uinoein cergfie tgh 6,? f 6,3 hgtre g 3 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. E ofstãe krficâs (oïtei (oïtei krfiîfms) krfiîfms) í uhf vfrf jg 6,? hgtre. E ifoeet  eu eu fsfyf í uhf vfrf jg rftã eu pfahgmrf jg 6,? h hgtre gtre usfjf if frtg hfrcm hfrcmfa fa gnèpcmf g nèpcmf tf`tmo tf`tmo.. Whf cfif ( (stmcl stmcl ) eu oginfaf ecmjgitfa tgh =7 cgitèhgtres. If Cergmf, c`fhfsg bmp bmpfin fin. E `fioe bfpeiâs (hgme-oú) tgh =4 cgitèhgtres. E ‑bene je pfu‘ pertunuâs èbg gismif tfhoíh e use jg uh ofstãe jg 04 cgitèhgtres, hfms fpamcævga f smtufî÷gs urofifs hejgrifs. E glu (‑rghe‘) í uh rghe gstmamzfje usfje cehe frhf gh frtgs hfrcmfms jg Elmifwf, ngrfahgitg jg hfjgmrf agvg. Zgh cgrcf jg 6,; hgtre jg cehprmhgite g pgsf uh qumae. E nui c`miâs hejgrie tgh 6,; hgtre, e c`fin nui ( nui (nui nui aeine) aeine) ?,6 hgtres g e ofin cgrcf ofin cgrcf jg uh hgtre. Zrftfjes jg frtgs hfrcmfms jf grf Hmin rgcehgijfvfh, períh, qug e nui nui jg jg hfjgmrf tmvgssg ?,7 f ?,; hgtres g pgsfssg 6,:7 f 6,>7 qumae, g e nui nui jg jg kgrre tmvgssg ?,3 hgtres g pgsfssg 0,0 f =,: qumaes.

Tfrf es c`migsgs, e vfrfpfu eu nui nui   grf e ‑fvú jfs frhfs‘, perqug jgag jgrmvfh tejfs fs jghfms, g tfhoíh uhf jfs quftre hfms mhpertfitgs. Fs eutrfs sãe f afiîf (qmfin (qmfin), ), ‑rgm jfs frhfs‘, e sforg (jfe (jfe), ), ‑ngigrfa jfs frhfs‘, f gspfjf ( bmfi bm fi), ), ‑cfvfa`gmre jfs frhfs‘. Zfhoíh sg kfaf jfs jgzemte frhfs caæssmcfs jfs frtgs hfrcmfms c`migsfs, qug micaugh, faíh jgssfs quftre, f fafofrjf ( bm), bm ), e hfc`fje jg nugrrf (ku (ku), ), e trmjgitg eu kercfje (c`f (c`f), ), e c`mcetg (omfi (omfi), ), f hfîf-gspfjf (  bmfi bm fi), ), f hfîf-hfrtgae (cùm (cùm), ), f nfrrf ( zùf), zùf), f fafofrjf-trmjgitg (tfin tfin), ), e ofstãe (ofin (ofin), ), f huagtf (nufm (nufm), ), e hfrtgae-hgtgere (amu (amu xmin), xmin), f afiîf jg cfvfafrmf (sùe (sùe), ), f hfc`fjmi`f jes pftes hfijfrmis ( yug) yug) g f gspfjf-nficè (neu neu). ). Whf vfrmfitg je oerjãe í f huagtf, ermnmifahgitg uh ofstãe ceh uh giceste fjfptfje ä fxmaf pfrf fpeme jg pgssefs ceh jmkmcuajfjg pfrf cfhmi`fr. C`fhfje if C`mif jg nufm nufm,, terieu-sg uhf jfs frhfs caæssmcfs jfs frtgs hfrcmfms. F huagtf nrfijg, imu xmi nufm (‑huagtf cerfîãe jg oem‘) eu imu bmfe nufm (‑huagtf nufm (‑huagtf c`mkrg jg oem‘), oem‘ ), tgh 6,? f 6,7 hgtre hgtre g uh giceste jg uh uh jes afjes, a fjes, pgsfije pgs fije cgrcf jg 044 nrfhfs.

Afiîfs E pfsse sgnumitg fpós sg usfr uh pgjfîe jg pfu cehe frhf pfrf neapgfr í fkmfr suf peitf. Afiîfs prmhmtmvfs sãe ftgstfjfs gitrg iesses ficgstrfms jgsjg pgae hgies e @eh @ehee `gmjgaogrngisms `gmjga ogrngisms22 frhfs jftfjfs jg :44.444 f.C. kerf giceitrfjfs ie sètme frqugeaónmce jg Sc`ûimingi, ie Iertg jf Faghfi`f g prevfvgahgitg bæ grfh kgmtfs `æ humte hfms tghpe, pems bæ sg eosgrve c`mhpfizís prgpfrfrgh frhfs sghga`fitgs fkmfije f peitf jg uh nfaè ceh es jgitgs. Igfijgrtfms usfrfh afiîfs ceh peitf jg pgjrf afscfjf jgsjg 344.444 f.C g per veatf jg ?44.444 f.C. f a`gs jgrfh kerhfs hfms cumjfjfs, ceh nuhgs tfa`fjes gh pgjrf. Teitfs jg hfjgmrf gijurgcmjfs pgae kene kerfh tfhoí usfjfs, f pfrtmr jg ?74.444 f.C. F afiîf í, pertfite, f hfms prmhmtmvf jfs frhfs trfofa`fjfs, hfs tfhoíh uhf jfs hfms ogh-sucgjmjfs. Cgrtfhgitg gstmvgrfh prgsgitgs gh hfms nugrrfs g prevfvgahgitg jgcmjmrfh hfms oftfa`fs je qug qufaqugr eutrf frhf orficf. Buite ceh f kfcf jg cehoftg g f ogstf, í uhf jfs jufs òatmhfs frhfs orficfs f tgr u pfpga hmamtfr smnimkmcftmve, pems uhf ofmeigtf cfafjf ceitmiuf f sgr uhf afiîf, hgshe qug suf ofsg sgbf e hfms hejgrie jes kuzms jg fssfate. E pertunuâs afiîf gqumvfag tfite fe minaâs aficg aficg (afiîf (afiîf jg cfvfafrmf) qufite f spgfr   (usfjf prmicmpfahgitg pgaf mikfitfrmf) g sg rgkgrg prmicmpfahgitg f frhfs spgfr hfmergs, usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg pfrf gstecfr g äs vgzgs tfhoíh pfrf certfr, giqufite fs hgiergs, hfms frrghgssævgms, sãe c`fhfjfs fzfnfmfs ( bfvgamis bfvga mis), ), e jfrjes (jfrts (jfrts)) qufije sãe fmijf hfms agvgs. Gxmstgh fmijf fs afiîfs gxtrfaeinfs eu pmqugs, usfjfs fpgifs gh kerhfîãe. Ceh peitf jg hgtfa, afiîfs hfms gafoerfjfs kerfh fs prmicmpfms frhfs jfs cmvmamzfî÷gs jf Mjfjg je Oreizg g jf Fitmnumjfjg Caæssmcf – g jg humtes jes sgus prmicmpfms jgusgs, micaumije Rgus (cube rgaïhpfne grf mhfnmifje cehe afiîf), Ftgif g Frgs (sghprg frhfjes jg afiîf). E `gróm Fqumags usfvf e kfhese Tgamæjf hgaègi, hgaègi, ‑e krgmxe je kmaè jg Tgagu‘, cubf `fstg kerf ceikgccmeifjf ce uh treice jg krgmxe je heitg Tíamei. E use ifs afiîfs kfzmf je krgmxe, ærverg jg hfjgmrf jurf g rgsmstgitg hfs cubf sgmvf í jecg cehe hgafje, uhf ærverg humte gspgcmfa. Sufs imikfs, fs hgaèfjgs, tmi`fh uhf ermngh jmkgrgitg jfs jghfms imikfs (kma`fs jg Ecgfie) g jrèfjgs (kma`fs jes Heitgs)2 buite ceh fs Grèimfs, gafs tgrmfh ifscmje jmrgtfhgitg je sfinug jg Wrfie qug cfmu gh Nfmf (f Zgrrf) fe sgr cfstrfje per Creie. E jgus iórjmce Ejmi pessuèf f afiîf Nuinimr , ceh f preprmgjfjg hænmcf jg fhfms grrfr e fave. E jgus iórjmce jf nugrrf, Zyr, tfhoíh usfvf afiîf, fssm

cehe fs vfaquèrmfs. F hmteaenmf cgatf tfhoíh cmtf afiîfs cíagorgs, cehe f Aòmi, usfjf per værmes eutres `gróms g qug tgrmf ermnmifahgitg pgrtgicmje fe jgus Aun Aun g f Næg Ouan, je `gróm Cucùafmii, qug a`g kem jfjf pgaf nugrrgmrf Scæt`fc`. F afiîf, sgnuije uhf vgrsãe jf agijf, kem kgmtf f pfrtmr jg esse jg uh heistre hfrmiè, e Cemic`gii, g tmi`f sgtg cfogîfs, cfjf uhf ceh sgtg kfrpfs (eu, sgnuije eutrfs vgrs÷gs, 34 kfrpfs). Jgpems jg usfjf f afiîf, grf prgcmse certfr f vètmhf amtgrfahgitg gh pgjfîes pfrf rgcupgræ-af. Faíh jf Gxcfamour, e rgm Frtur tfhoíh pessuèf uhf afiîf ceh iehg próprme, f _einehmfitg (gh minaâs minaâs _èinehyimfj _èinehyimfj eu smhpagshgitg _ei _ei)) g Sãe Berng tgrmf hftfje e jrfnãe ceh uhf afiîf c`fhfjf Fscfaei. Hfs f frhf hfms kfhesf jf hmteaenmf crmstã í f Afiîf je Jgstmie eu Afiîf Sfnrfjf usfjf pgae agnmeiærme rehfie Aeinmius (e Sãe Aeinumiè je keacaerg) fe jfr e neapg jg hmsgrmcórjmf gh Bgsus. [ærmfs cftgjrfms fagnfrfh pessumr gssf rgaèqumf, jf qufa fs vgrs÷gs hfms kfhesfs (ghoerf sgbfh cafrfhgitg afiîfs hgjmgvfms g iãe pmaes rehfies) gstãe gh _ehf g [mgif. Gstf òatmhf kem tehfjf pgaes ifzmstfs fpós f figxfîãe jf Æustrmf g agvfjf pfrf Iurghogrn, sgjg smhoóamcf jg sgu pfrtmje ftí f cmjfjg sgr tehfjf pgafs trepfs jes GWF gh 6=:7, ie hgshe jmf gh qug @mtagr sg sumcmjeu, crmfije f agijf ecuatmstf jg qug e pessumjer jf afiîf ceiqumstfrmf e huije, hfs herrgrmf ie jmf gh qug f pgrjgssg. If Mjfjg je Kgrre, ifs hães jes nrgnes caæssmces g jes rehfies, fs afiîfs jf mikfitfrmf terifrfh-sg fs frhfs hfms tghèvgms jf Fitmnumjfjg. Cehomifije afiîfs, gscujes g seajfjes ogh trgmifjes gh kerhfî÷gs cgrrfjfs g jmscmpamifjfs, fs kfafings nrgnfs g fs agnm÷gs rehfifs kerfh fs hæqumifs jg nugrrf hfms oghsucgjmjfs jg sgu s gu tghpe. tghpe. F pfrtmr je sícuae [MM f.C., fs kfafings jfs cmjfjgs-gstfjes nrgnfs cehe Ftgifs g Gspfrtf grfh kerhfjfs per èpamtfs, seajfjes-cmjfjães qug tmi`fh if hãe gsqugrjf uh gscuje (èpaei (èpaei)) g if jmrgmtf f jery, uhf afiîf jg hfjgmrf jg krgmxe qug pgsfvf uh f jems qumaes, ceh jems f trâs hgtres jg cehprmhgite g cmice cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre, ceh uhf peitf jg kgrre jg vmitg cgitèhgtres iuhf gxtrghmjfjg g uhf peitf jg oreizg jg jgz cgitèhgtres if eutrf. Gstf òatmhf pejmf sgrvmr cehe peitf jg rgsgrvf, pfrf amqumjfr mimhmnes cfèjes eu pfrf sg kmicfr ies pís je mimhmne gh cgrtfs hfieorfs jg cehoftg. Zfhoíh cfrrgnfvfh uh xmpès uh xmpès (naæjme) cehe frhf jg rgsgrvf, cfse f afiîf qugorfssg eu e mimhmne ceisgnumssg c`gnfr humte pgrte. F pfrtmr je sícuae M[ f.C., Kmampg MM jf Hfcgjúimf mitrejuzmu eutre hejgae jg kfafing qug tmi`f cehe iòcage uhf mikfitfrmf pgsfjf qug usfvf fs sfrmssfs , afiîfs aeinfs jg :,7 f 7,7 hgtres, pgsfije 7,7 f ;,7 qumaes, kerhfjfs per jufs pgîfs jg

hfjgmrf jg cerimse uimjfs per uh tuoe jg oreizg g ceh uhf peitf if eutrf gxtrghmjfjg, pfrf sgr crfvfjf ie seae. E seajfje prgcmsfvf jfs jufs hães pfrf usæ-af, hfs uh pgat pgatff (gscuje jg vmhg, gh kerhf jg hgmf-auf), pgijurfje fe pgsceîe, a`g pretgnmf e ehore gsqugrje. Fanuis jes sucgssergs jg Fagxfijrg ie Gnmte g Hfcgjúimf gxpgrmhgitfrfh usfr sfrmssfs fmijf hfms aeinfs, jg ftí > hgtres, hfs fcfofrfh per veatfr fe tfhfiè ermnmifa. F cfvfafrmf hfcgjúimf usfvf f afiîf c`fhfjf xystei, ceh 3,; f :,? hgtres, pfrf gstecfr e mimhmne ceh uhf eu jufs hães2 gssf grf f frhf qug e próprme Fagxfijrg usfvf gh cehoftg. Zmi`f jufs peitfs, pejgije sgr usfjf jg qufaqugr jes afjes. F cfvfafrmf pgsfjf jes pgrsfs (es cftfkrfctærmes cftfkrfctærmes,, pretgnmjes per uhf frhfjurf jg gscfhfs), fssmh cehe, fitgs jgags, es fssèrmes, cmtfs, særhftfs g pfrtfs, usfvfh uhf afiîf c`fhfjf pgaes nrgnes jg leites (amtgrfahgitg ‑rghe‘), hfms pgsfjf qug f xyst f xystei ei,, jg : f 7 hgtres g 3 qumaes, usfjf ceh jufs hães. Kem tfhoíh fjetfjf pgaes cfvfagmres rehfies (qug f c`fhfvfh ceitus ), per sgus sucgssergs omzfitmies, pgaes pfrtfs g, hfms tfrjg, pgaf cfvfafrmf msaïhmcf2 es ærfogs f c`fhfvfh quitfrmyf quitfrmyf g g es turces nûijgr nûijgr eu eu ruh` ruh` ( (‑rehfi ‑rehfif‘). f‘). F _gpòoamcf _ehfif ermnmifahgitg useu f hgshf kerhfîãe gh kfafing jes èpamtfs nrgnes g gtrusces g frhfhgite sghga`fitg. Es seajfjes grfh jmvmjmjes gh cafssgs ceikerhg f rgijf g f qufamjfjg jfs frhfs qug pejmfh pessumr, pems prgcmsfvfh fjqumrmr sgu próprme gqumpfhgite. Es jg prmhgmrf g sgnuijf cafssgs usfvfh cehe frhf prmicmpfa f afiîf jg gstecfr, f `fstf (paurfa `fstfg `fstfg)) qug tmi`f cgrcf jg jems hgtres g grf kgmtf jg krgmxe, ceh cfogîf jg fîe g tfhoíh agvfvf frhfjurf, uh gscuje pgsfje g uh naæjme. Seajfjes jg tgrcgmrf g qufrtf cafssgs ftmrfvfh fzfnfmfs g iãe tmi`fh eutre gqumpfhgite sfave, tfavgz, uh gscuje agvg. Es jg qumitf cafssg, ceh fmijf hgies rgcurses, frrghgssfvfh pgjrfs usfije kuijfs. F pfrtmr jf jgrretf pfrf es nfuagsgs, qug cehoftmfh ceh uimjfjgs hgiergs g hfms ængms, es rehfies hejmkmcfrfh f ernfimzfîãe jg sgu gxírcmte pfrf teriæ-ae hfms kagxèvga, agvfije gh ceitf qug es tgrrgies mrrgnuafrgs jf Mtæamf cgitrfa iãe grfh fjgqufjes pfrf fs kfafings trfjmcmeifms. Tgaf rgkerhf je miècme je sícuae M[ f.C., ftrmouèjf fe jmtfjer Hfrcus Kurmus Cfhmaaus, f trepf pfsseu f sgr ernfimzfjf gh agnm÷gs, cfjf uhf jgafs jmvmjmjf gh cerpes hgiergs2 es `fstftm `fstftm,, ami`f jg krgitg qug grf f prmhgmrf f gikrgitfr e mimhmne, kerhfjf per seajfjes rgaftmvfhgitg peorgs< es prmic es prmicmpgs mpgs,, mitgrhgjmærmes g es trmfrmm trmfrmm,, kerîf jg rgsgrvf jg cmjfjães hfms foeifjes g ogh frhfjes, tejes jmspui`fh jg `fstf. Grf fpemfjes pgaf cfvfafrmf jes íqumtgs íqumtgs,, rmces frhfjes ceh afiîfs< agvgs agvgs,, uhf

mikfitfrmf amngmrf< amngmrf< rerfrmm, rerfrmm, frrghgssfjergs jg fzfnfmfs g pgaes fccgism, qug usfvfh kuijfs. Jurfitg fs Nugrrfs Tòimcfs, f pfrtmr je sícuae MMM f.C., f igcgssmjfjg jg cfjf vgz hfms seajfjes pfrf gikrgitfr es cfrtfnmigsgs eormneu f _gpòoamcf _ehfif f rgjuzmr es rgqumsmtes jg preprmgjfjg g rgijf jes seajfjes g frcfr ceh sg frhfhgite. Fs jmstmiî÷gs gitrg `fstftm `fstftm,, prmicm prmicmpgs pgs   g trmfrmm trmfrmm   pfssfrfh f sgr ofsgfjfs iãe gh rgijf, hfs gh mjfjg g gxpgrmâicmf g fs frhfs prmicmpfms jes agnmeiærmes jfs ami`fs jg krgitg (`fstftm (`fstftm g prmicmpgs) prmicmpgs) pfssfrfh f sgr es pmaes (afiîfs jg frrghgsse) g e naæjme. Es trmfrmm trmfrmm,, gicfrrgnfjes jf jgkgsf g jg hfi hfitgr tgr f erjgh qufije es ftfqugs kfa`fvfh, ceitmiufrfh f usfr f `fstf g f kerhfîãe g kfafing. F pfrtmr jg 64> f.C., e cúisua Nfmus Hfrmus veateu f rgkerhfr e gxírcmte rehfie. Es agnmeiærmes jgmxfrfh jg sgr cmjfjães ceivecfjes per tghpe amhmtfje pfrf sgrgh hgrcgiærmes, qug faíh je seaje rgcgomfh f cmjfjfimf, cfse iãe kessgh rehfies. E gqumpfhgite pfsseu f sgr tetfahgitg kerigcmje pgae Gstfje g `fstftm,, prmicm `fstftm prmicmpgs pgs g g trmfrmm hgrfs jgsmnifî÷gs jfs ami`fs jg oftfa`f, pems tejes es agnmeiærmes pfssfrfh f sgr frhfjes cehe es fitmnes prmic fitmnes prmicmpgs mpgs,, ceh jems pmaes, naæjme, gscuje rgtfinuafr g cetf jg hfa`f. Fe afje jes agnmeiærmes, autfvfh fs trepfs c`fhfjfs c`fhfjfs fuxmamf fuxmamf,, micaumije víamtgs, íqumtgs, gspgcmfamstfs gh hæqumifs jg cgrce gtc., fanuhfs jfs qufms frhfjfs ceh `fstfg `fstfg g g fzfnfmfs. Gssf ernfimzfîãe ceitmiueu f sgr usfjf ie mhpírme jes Císfrgs, Fiteimies g Sgvgres g í f qug ngrfahgitg í rgtrftfjf ie cmighf. F pfrtmr jg Jmecagcmfie, ie kmifa je sícuae MMM, es gxírcmtes mhpgrmfms pfssfrfh f sgr ceistmtuèjes cfjf vgz hfms jg oærofres g fjetfr sufs tætmcfs g ernfimzfîãe. Es pmaes kerfh suostmtuèjes pgae spmcuauh spmcuauh jg jg frrghgssfr, ceh peitf trmfinuafr jg ?4 cgitèhgtres g pgaf aficgf (f afiîf preprmfhgitg jmtf) jg gstecfr g certfr, ceh uhf peitf gh kerhf jg kea`f eu aesfine g oerjfs fkmfjfs jg fîe. Fhoes Fh oes tmi`fh tmi`fh jems hgtres eu peuce hgies. hgies. F mikfitfrmf je Mhpírme Omzfitmie useu ceitrf f cfvfafrmf pgsfjf, f pfrtmr je sícuae P, uhf afiîf c`fhfjf hgifuamei eu hgifuaei, jg ?,> f 3,; hgtres, ce `fstg nressf jg cfrvfaè eu cerimse g uhf aïhmif jg :7 f 74 cgitèhgtres. Tgsfvf trâs f quftre qumaes. Fpós f qugjf je Mhpírme _ehfie, f aficgf aficgf   eu afiîf jg mikfitfrmf (spgfr spgfr)) terieu-sg f frhf pfjrãe jes seajfjes f pí if Gurepf. Grf hfms gceiúhmcf, hfms ræpmjf jg kformcfr g hfms kæcma jg usfr qug f gspfjf, gxmnmf hgies kerîf qug uhf hfîf eu hfc`fje g tmi`f facficg hfmer qug qufaqugr jes jems. E tmpe cfrfctgrèstmce cfrfctgr èstmce jes vml vm lmins mins g ngrhïimces ngrhïimces tmi`f tmi`f cruz cr uzgtf gtf - uhf ofrrf, ofr rf, pfr jg pgqugifs pgqugifs

aïhmifs eu hgmf-auf seo f peitf, pfrf mhpgjmr f frhf jg sg crfvfr tãe kuije ie mimhmne qug iãe pujgssg sgr rgtmrfjf g pfrf fpfrfr if gsnrmhf gitrg afiîfs. E cehprmhgite grf jg ? f ?,7 hgtres g f `fstg ierhfahgitg sg fkmifvf jf ofsg pfrf f peitf. E afiîãe (afizói afizói)) í uhf afiîf curtf (cgrcf jg 6,0 hgtre) jg aïhmif nrfijg. Sgu usuærme hfms kfhese kem Jeh Vumxetg, qug reuoeu uh afiîãe jg uhf gstfafngh eijg kerf hfatrftfje pfrf suostmtumr f afiîf jg cfvfafrmf `grjfjf jes fitgpfssfjes qug kem jgstruèjf ifs sufs prmhgmrfs fvgiturfs. Grf frhf pepuafr, usfjf ftí per cfhpei cfhpeigsgs gsgs pfrf jgkgijgr jgkgijgr su s ufs vmi` vm i`fs fs g èrtfs. F afiîf sgh cruzgtf g ceh peitf fnujf jg kgrre grf c`fhfjf cùîe, tfavgz uhf cerruptgaf jg ‑suèîe‘. Fs trmpuafî÷gs jg ifvmes f vgaf usfvfh e cùîe jg foerjfngh (oefrjmin pmlg), pmlg), cfrfctgrmzfje pgae tfhfiè hgier, pgaf `fstg jg jmïhgtre uimkerhg g per tgr ie ceite (ofsg) uh figa qug jgmxfvf seorgssfmr f hfjgmrf, gh vgz jg peitgmrf, pfrf e hgtfa iãe jfimkmcfr es ceivgsgs. If hfrmi`f je Orfsma je tghpe je Mhpírme, es rgnuafhgites hmamtfrgs prgvmfh e use jg cùîes per uh sgxte jfs trmpuafî÷gs jes ifvmes g uh hfiufa hfms tfrjme gspgcmkmcfvf qug es pertf-cfrtucès (sgrvgitgs jes cfi`÷gs qug trfispertfvfh f huimîãe) sgrmfh frhfjes ceh gags, gh cfse jg foerjfngh. Sfèrfh jg sgrvmîe fpgifs gh 60=?. Nufrjfs ieturies jf Gspfi`f (sgrgies (sgrgies)) usfrfh cùîes jg 6,7 hgtre je sícuae P[MMM fes fies 6=04. F pfrtmr je miècme jf _gifscgiîf, f mikfitfrmf fjeteu es pmqugs (pmlgs), cùîes gxtrfaeines jg trâs f sgms hgtres g quftre f ievg qumaes. Fe ceitrærme jfs afiîfs hgiergs, grfh miòtgms cehe frhfs mijmvmjufms g ie cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe, hfs usfjfs gh kerhfîãe jmscmpamifjf, grfh cfpfzgs jg ofrrfr e fvfiîe jf cfvfafrmf g rgpgtmr e sucgsse jfs sfrmssfs hfcgjúimcfs. Es pmqugs cehomifjes äs fafofrjfs pusgrfh uh kmh ä `gngheimf jes cfvfagmres hgjmgvfms fitgs hgshe qug fs frhfs jg kene pertætgms sg terifssgh cehuis. E pmqug jg sevgaf (minaâs fwa pmlg, pmlg, faghãe fàspmgss, mtfamfie mtfamfie cfijgamgrg cfijgamgrg)) kem uhf afiîf usfjf if Faghfi`f, Suèîf g Oeâhmf jes sícuaes P[ g P[M, ceicgomjf pfrf pgigtrfr frhfjurfs. Grf ceistmtuèjf jg uhf `fstg jg 6,; f 6,0 hgtre, ceh u aeine gspmnãe jg sgîãe qufjrfjf jg uh hgtre eu hfms, heitfje if peitf, aene fcmhf jg uh nufrjf-hãe cmrcuafr. Vufije iãe tmi`fh nufrjf-hãe, grf c`fhfjes pmqugs jg orgc`f (orgfc` pmlgs). pmlgs). Fssmh cehe f fc`f-j”frhfs, kem usfje gh terigmes per cfvfagmres jg frhfjurf. F afiîf aèinuf-jg-oem (ex teinug teinug gh minaâs, afinug jg oeguk   gh krficâs) í uhf afiîf uhf af iîf jg aïhmif aïhmif afrn afr nf, usfjf pfrf gstecfr g certfr. F pfrtfsfif ( pfrtmnmfif pfrtm nmfif   gh mtfamfie, pfrtm pfrtmsfi sfi   gh minaâs, pgrtum pgrtumsfig sfig   g

krficâs) í uhf frhf jg `fstg tgrhmifjf gh peitf, ftrfvgssfjf pgrpgijmcuafrhgitg per uh kgrre gh kerhf jg hgmf auf, ceh nuhg gh jmrgîãe f peitf. Gveauîãe jf aèinuf-jg-oem, kem usfjf pgaf mikfitfrmf ies sícuaes PMMM f P[MM. Gh ípecfs pestgrmergs, kem usfjf per cgrtes ekmcmfms cehe misènimf jg peste. F cfogîf tgh ierhfahgitg 77 cgitèhgtres< gh kerhf rgjuzmjf pgaf hgtfjg (cgrmhei (cgr mheimfa mfa), ), í c`fhfjf c`fhfjf pfrtfsfigt pfr tfsfigtf. f. E vgiæouae jg fssíjme (spgtuh spgtuh)) í uhf afiîf ceh jufs aïhmifs aftgrfms, preaeinfhgite eu fhpamfîãe jfs cruzgtfs jfs afiîfs trfjmcmeifms. If reicf (g minaâs rfisgur, ruilf` eu eu   rfwcei, gh gh   faghãe faghãe   ruilf, cfstga`fie cfstga`fie   reicf), reicf), fs aïhmifs aftgrfms sãe gh curvf ceicâitrmcf g sgrvgh tfhoíh cehe jgsheitfjergs< usfjf jgsjg e sícuae P[, ceitmiueu f sgr vmste cehe frhf cgrmheimfa ies trmouifms je sícuae P[MM. If cersgscf (krficâs cersàqug cersàqug)) fs aïhmifs aftgrfms sg curvfh pfrf træs< ermnmiærmf jf Córsgnf, kem pepuafr ies sícuaes P[M g P[MM. F cersgscf cersg scf pfah pfahfjf (gh krficâs c`fuvg-seurms, ‑hercgne‘), tèpmcf jf Krfiîf, tg aïhmifs gh ïinuae jg :7 nrfus ceh e gsperãe cgitrfa, ceh kerhf jg fsf jg hercgne. E oetf-kerf (minaâs orfijmstecl eu eu kgft`gr kgft`gr stfkk , mtfamfie outtfkuerg outtfkuerg)) kem uhf frhf jg `fstg usfjf je sícuae P[M fe PMP, jg 6,7 hgtre, qug ceitmi`f uhf f trâs peitfs hgtæamcfs kmifs g fnuîfjfs iuhf fogrturf ecf jgitre jf `fstg. W ghpurrãe pfrf f krgitg eu pfrf ofmxe mhpgamf fs peitfs pfrf kerf g gafs sg trfvfvfh cehe fs `fstgs jg uh nufrjf-cùvf. Ceh e kmh je use je pmqug, ie miècme je sícuae P[MMM, es sfrngites g ekmcmfms mikgrmergs ceitmiufrfh f usfr frhfs jg `fstg pfrf cehper fs kmagmrfs jg cehoftg jes oftfa`÷gs. Tfrf kerhfr uh ‑qufjrfje‘ ceitrf f cfvfafrmf, prgcmsfvfh jg frhfs ceh e cehprmhgite jes hesqugtgs g rmkags ceh ofmeigtfs, pfrf hfitgr uhf krgitg ceitèiuf jg peitfs ceitrf f cfvfafrmf mimhmnf. F frhf tfhoíh sgrvmf cehe peite jg rgkgrâicmf vmsufa ie cfhpe jg oftfa`f, pfrf qug f trepf sg ermgitfssg g rgafîãe fes ekmcmfms g cehe ‑rínufs‘, pfrf fuxmamfr es ekmcmfms f hfitgr es èhgis fami`fjes ifs kmagmrfs jg ftmrfjergs. Fs frhfs jg `fstg qug pgrhfigcgrfh gh use je sícuae P[MMM ä prmhgmrf hgtfjg je PMP kerfh pfrf es ekmcmfms e gspeitãe eu hgmf-afiîf (speiteei speiteei   e `fak pmlg), pmlg), afiîf curtf ceh cruzgtf qug rgsuateu jf gveauîãe je pmqug, g pfrf es sfrngites f sfrngitmif (sgrngfit”s `faogrj), `faogrj), uhf fafofrjf jg aïhmif agvg g smhoóamcf, hfs ceh peitf ngrfahgitg kuicmeifa, cehe f je gspeitãe. E cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te jgssfs frhfs grf jg 6,0 f ?,? hgtres. F afiîf jg cfvfafrmf (aficg aficg)) grf uhf gspgcmfamjfjg jf Gurepf hgjmgvfa. Jgsjg f Fitmnumjfjg, cfvfagmres usfrfh værmes tmpes jg afiîfs jf hgshf hfigmrf

qug es pg÷gs, sgnurfije-fs ceh uhf hãe g hfigbfije-fs ceh f kerîf je orfîe, hfs e use je gstrmoe g jf sgaf ceh giceste fate pgrhmtmu qug f cfvfafrmf hgjmgvfa, fe jmrmnmr f afiîf ceh f hãe, fpemfjf if fxmaf eu ceh e ceite (peitgmrf jg hgtfa if ofsg jf `fstg) fpemfje ie rmstg (fof jg kgrre jeorævga je afje gsqugrje je pgmterfa jf frhfjurf, jfè f gxprgssãe ‑afiîf gh rmstg‘, preitf pfrf ftfcfr), f tfcfr), pujgssg usæ-af ceh c eh tejf f kerîf humte humte hfmer hfmer je cfvfae cfvfae.. Gssg tmpe jg afiîf tmi`f tmi`f trâs f quftre hgtres hgtres jg cehprmhgi cehprmhgite te g pgsfvf cgrcf jg trâs qumaes. quma es. F tícimcf mhprgssmeifvf qufije usfjf ies terigmes cei`gcmjes cehe bustfs, prftmcfjes f pfrtmr je sícuae PMM. If nugrrf, uhf cfrnf jg cfvfagmres f teje nfaepg, iuhf kerhfîãe gh ami`f jupaf eu gh cui`f, grf f hfms jgvfstfjerf jfs tætmcfs jg cehoftg jgssg pgrèeje. Kem f afiîf, iãe f gspfjf, f rgspeisævga pgaf naórmf jf cfvfafrmf hgjmgvfa gurepgmf, qug ftí e miècme jf _gifscgiîf rgagneu f mikfitfrmf fe pfpga jg trepf fuxmamfr. Kem tfhoíh f rgspeisævga pgae sucgsse mimcmfa jes cruzfjes crmstães ceitrf es ærfogs, qug iãe usfvfh gssf tícimcf. Buite ceh e gscuje, grf agvfjf pgae gscujgmre, qug sgnumf ftræs je cfvfagmre gh sg próprme cfvfae. Cfvfagmres ceitmiufrfh f usfr afiîfs jurfitg f _gifscgiîf, hfs suf mhpertïicmf jmhmiumu. Ie sícuae P[M, cehgîfrfh f usfr frhfs jg kene g per veatf jg 6;44, f afiîf jg cfvfafrmf grf eoseagtf if Gurepf Ecmjgitfa. Ceitmiueu, períh, f sgr usfjf if Gurepf Ermgitfa g veateu ä hejf ie Ecmjgitg ie sícuae PMP ftí f jgsfstresf Cfrnf jf Ormnfjf Amngmrf gh 607:, if Nugrrf jf Crmhgmf, qufije uhf ormnfjf ormtïimcf frhfjf jg afiîfs kem qufsg tejf jgstruèjf fe cfrrgnfr gstupmjfhgitg ceitrf f frtma`frmf russf, fpemfjf per værmes oftfa`÷gs jg mikfitfrmf. If Æsmf Ermgitfa, værmes tmpes jg afiîfs kerfh tfhoíh usfjfs jf Fitmnumjfjg fe sícuae PMP. If C`mif, f afiîf (qmfin (qmfin)) grf ceismjgrfjf ‑e rgm jfs frhfs‘, perqug sufs tícimcfs g fpamcfî÷gs grfh fs hfms mhpertfitgs ies cfhpes jg oftfa`f, giqufite e vfrfpfu (nui (nui)) grf e ‑fvú jfs frhfs‘ perqug tejfs fs eutrfs jgrmvfh jgag, e sforg (jfe (jfe)) e ‑ngigrfa jfs frhfs‘ pgaf kgrez fnrgssmvmjfjg g f gspfjf ( bmfi) bmfi ) e ‑cfvfa`gmre jfs frhfs‘ pgaf gagnïicmf g sekmstmcfîãe jfs tícimcfs jg cehoftg. F hfms trfjmcmeifa afiîf c`migsf jg mikfitfrmf, f qmfin, í cfrfctgrmzfjf per uhf peitf gh kerhf jg kea`f g uh pgijãe vgrhgaè (ermnmifahgitg jg crmif jg cfvfae) fhfrrfje aene fofmxe, qug tgh fs kuiî÷gs jg jmstrfmr e fjvgrsærme g mhpgjmr qug e sfinug gscerrf pgaf `fstg g jgmxg f frhf gscerrgnfjmf. Zgh jems f trâs hgtres jg cehprmhgite, pgsf jems f trâs qumaes g í kgmtf prgkgrgicmfahgitg jg hfjgmr fjgmrff jg fakgi fa kgigmr gmree ie iertg iertg g jg rftã ie sua.

F sùe eu hfe sùe sùe í uhf afiîf pgsfjf jg 7 f ; hgtres, jg peitf fkmfjf, ngrfahgitg usfjf per cfvfagmres ceitrf eutres cfvfagmres eu cfrres jg nugrrf, äs vgzgs tfhoíh per seajfjes jg mikfitfrmf ceitrf cfvfagmres. F hfe í uhf afiîf ceh peitf jg aftãe jg ?7 cgitèhgtres, äs vgzgs ifs jufs gxtrghmjfjgs, qug tg cgrcf jg ; hgtres qufije qufije usfjf f cfvfae, ;,7 hgtres hgtres qufije qufije usfjf pgaf pga f mik m ikfit fitfrm frmff g >,7 hgtres qufije qufije usfjf per cf cfrres rres jg nugrrf nugrrf ym (ym hfe). hfe). F afiîf bfpeigsf jg gstecfr, c`fhfjf yfrm, gxmstg gh humtes tfhfiès g vgrs÷gs. F mikfitfrmf cestuhfvf usfr frhfs jg jems f trâs hgtres ceh pgse jg jems f trâs qumaes, giqufite es sfhurfms fs prgkgrmfh ceh tfhfiè jg uh f jems hgtres. F frtg jf afiîf sg c`fhf sebutsu sebutsu.. Fs vfrmgjfjgs hfms cei`gcmjfs sãe2 su yfrm eu sunu yfrm, ceh peitf peitf gstrgmtf g rgtf< kulure yfrm, sghga`fitg, hfs ceh peitf kmxf ä `fstg ceh uh sequgtg, gh vgz jg pmie< ehm yfrm, sghga`fitg ä su yfrm, hfs ceh peitf gxtrfaeinf (74 cgitèhgtres, hfms `fstg jg =4 cgitèhgtres eu hfms)< sfsfè yfrm, ceh c eh peitf peitf gh g h kerhf kerhf jg kea`f jg ofhou ofhou hgtres ceh aïhmif jg ?3 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g :,7 jg afrnurf, usfjf ceh uhf ofijgmrf ftfjf ä `fstg, pfrf kmis cgrmheimfms eu jg gsceatf, usfjf tfhoíh f cfvfae< bfinc`fin (‑afiîf aeinf‘), uhf afiîf jg 3 hgtres ceh cfoe jg : f 7

cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre if vgrsãe trfjmcmeifa (3 ifs vgrs÷gs hejgrifs jg frtgs hfrcmfms) ceh aïhmif jg ?7 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 7 jg afrnurf, usfjf pfrf gstecfr< c`finbuin (‑afiîf curtf‘), uhf afiîf jg 6,7 hgtre, gqumvfagitg f uhf bfinc`fin certfjf bfinc`fin certfjf fe hgme< bulbfinc`fin bulb finc`fin (‑afiîf aeinf jg ofhou‘) uhf afiîf jg ;,6 hgtres, ceh uhf `fstg rènmjf jg 6,7: hgtre uimjf f uhf `fstg kagxèvga kerhfjf per uh ofhou eu per værmes pgjfîes ceafjes g cesmjes buites, ceh : cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre g uhf aïhmif jg 64 cgitèhgtres. Grf usfjf pfrf hfitgr e mimhmne ä jmstïicmf< jeinyghec`fin (‑afiîf humte aeinf g nrfijg‘) uhf afiîf jg = hgtres, usfjf per jems eu trâs trâs seajfjes seajfje s eu per uh seajfje humte humte kertg< jfinpf, sghga`fitg ä buheibm yfrm, yfrm, hfs ceh fs aïhmifs aftgrfms cehpagtfhgitg jeorfjfs pfrf f krgitg, kerhfije uh trmjgitg. Agvf Zgh ?,3 hgtres g ?,?7 qumaes, micaumije f aïhmif jg 30 cgitèhgtres. uh pgijãe vgrhgaè, vgrhgaè, cehe fs afiîfs c`migsfs< ifinsgei afiîf ceh 7 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre if ofsg g 3 if peitf, ceh :,7> hgtres jg cehprmhgite g : qumaes, ceh = f 66 rfhmkmcfî÷gs peitujfs qug sfgh jf `fstg, c`gmfs jg nficès g äs vgzgs givgigifjfs, pfrf hfitgr fitgr e mimh m imhmne mne ä jmstïicmf< jm stïicmf< aïhmif jg tepe c` c `fte g jgitgs jg sgrr sgrrf< f< tepbfin, ceh aïhmif igeaobflc`fin, ceh aïhmif gh kerhf jg pæ frrgjeijfjf g certfitg< jfbmc`fin, ceh jufs jufs f quftre quftre peitfs, usfjf pfrf pfr f gstecfr< gs tecfr< sfofrmc`fin sfofrm c`fin, ceh trâs peitfs, usfjf gh kerhfîãe< yfinbmhec`fin, ceh aïhmif aeinf g uhf nrfijg nufrjf jg gspfjf,

usfjf pfrf cfpturfr gspfjfs if jgkgsf. Afiîfs kmampmifs, usfjfs if cfîf, pgscf g cehoftg, sãe c`fhfjfs smoft   g tâ værmes tmpes jg peitf, ceh uh eu jems nuhgs eu kfrpfjfs, ceikerhg f kuiîãe. Ftufahgitg, sãe usfjfs sgh peitf, cehe smhpags vfrfpfus, if frtg hfrcmfa gslrmhf.. gslrmhf E tehofl í uhf afiîf hfafmf g mijeiísmf, ceh aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f jg ofhou. E cehprmhgite vfrmf jg 6,7 f 3,7 hgtres. @æ vgrs÷gs ceh aïhmif jupaf eu omjgitg (jwmsuaf (jwmsuaf)) g trmpaf eu trmjgitg (trmsuaf (trmsuaf). ). Es micfs usfvfh afiîfs c`fhfjfs sucùc c`mqum , ceh cgrcf jg jems hgtres g

Es micfs usfvfh afiîfs c`fhfjfs sucùc c`mqum , ceh cgrcf jg jems hgtres g

peitf jg oreizg.

Frc`fs Frc `fs g fafofrjfs If _gifscgiîf, es seajfjes f pí, rgcrutfjes cehe hgrcgiærmes gitrg cfhpeigsgs g ournugsgs peorgs, veatfrfh f sgr jgcmsmves. Msse ceafoereu pfrf e gikrfqugcmhgite jf ieorgzf kgujfa, f fscgisãe jf ournugsmf g f cgitrfamzfîãe je pejgr ifs hães jg seogrfies cfpfzgs jg kmificmfr nrfijgs gxírcmtes. Ie sg fung, sufs frhfs cfrfctgrèstmcfs grfh es pmqugs g fs fafofrjfs. Wsfjfs g kerhfîãe per pg÷gs g fssecmfjfs ceh es pmqugs (qug a`gs jãe ceogrturf), frc`fs g fafofrjfs sãe gxtrghfhgitg gkmcfzgs ceitrf cfvfagmres, fpgsfr jg miòtgms cehe frhfs mijmvmjufms. Kem uhf fafofrjf, ifs hães jg uh cfhpeiâs suèîe, qug hfte e juqug jg Oernei`f, Cfraes, e Zghgrærme. Fs frhfs jg kustg usfjfs gh kerhfîãe tmi`fh ngrfahgitg uhf `fstg jg 6,0 f ?,6 hgtres, ceh uhf aïhmif jg :4 f >4 cgitèhgtres, rgsuatfije iuhf frhf ce cehprmhgite tetfa jg ? f 3 hgtres g pgse jg jems f quftre qumaes. [grs÷gs hgiergs, ceh cehprmhgite tetfa jg 6,7 f ? hgtres, kerfh usfjfs per nufrjfs g sgitmigafs eu cehe misènimfs jg peste eu nrfjufîãe g sãe hfms hfigbævgms cehe frhf jg jgkgsf pgssefa, jugae g frtgs hfrcmfms. F hfmermf jgssfs frhfs jgrmvf jg mistruhgites fnrèceafs. Fs kemcgs jg cfoe curte eu kemcmi`fs (smclags, (smclags, usfjfs jgsjg f prí-`mstórmf) g fs kemcgs jg cfoe aeine eu nfjfi`fs (scyt`gs (scyt`gs,, usfjfs jgsjg e sícuae PMM) sãe mistruhgites fnrèceafs, hfs kerfh ecfsmeifahgitg usfjfs cehe frhfs g fanuhfs frhfs gspgcmfamzfjfs jgrmvfh jgafs eu tâh jgsgiè sghga`fitg, kmcfije f hgme cfhmiè gitrg fs gspfjfs g fs afiîfs eu frhfs jg `fstg. F kemcg í tfhoíh f frhf smhoóamcf jf Hertg fe ‑cgmkfr vmjfs‘ g jg Sfturie, tfite cehe jgus rehfie jf fnrmcuaturf qufite (iuhf grrúigf mitgrprgtfîãe tfrjmf) cehe ‑jgus je tghpe‘, ceikuijmije-sg igstg cfse ceh f `frpg (if vgrjfjg, uhf gspfjf curvf) usfjf pgae Creie nrgne ermnmifa pfrf cfstrfr sgu pfm Wrfie. F kfacg (kfax kfax,, ‑kemcg‘ gh aftmh) kem uhf frhf usfjf pgaes jæcmes g træcmes ceitrf es rehfies. Wsfjf ceh fs jufs hães, tmi`f uh cfoe jg =4 cgitèhgtres g uhf aïhmif curvf fprexmhfjfhgitg je hgshe cehprmhgite. Es træcmes usfvf tfhoíh f reikfmf ( (rehp`fmf rehp`fmf), ), qug grf sghga`fitg, hfs tmi`f f aïhmif rgtf eu só amngmrfhgitg curvf, e qug f terifvf fjgqufjf tfhoíh pfrf gstecfr. F kemcg jg nugrrf (wfr scyt`g) scyt`g) í fjfptfjf f pfrtmr jf kemcg fnrèceaf jg cfoe aeine. F aïhmif í vmrfjf pfrf kmcfr fami`fjf g iãe pgrpgijmcuafr ä `fstg g suf frtmcuafîãe ceh gstf í rgkerîfjf ceh uh tuoe jg hgtfa eu pfrfkuses. Kem usfjf prmicmpfahgitg gh rgveatfs cfhpeigsfs, je sícuae P[M fe PMP. Zgh uh cfoe jg 6,7 f 6,0 hgtre g uhf aïhmif jg 74 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre, pgsfije trâs e

quftre qumaes. E keucmiè (minaâs g krficâs kfuc`frj kfuc`frj), ), usfje if Gurepf je sícuae PM fe PM[2 í uhf aïhmif curvf, jg nuhg cúicfve, prgsf ä peitf jg uhf `fstg jg jems hgtres. Trevfvgahgitg jgrmvf jg uhf kemcg jg nugrrf. Äs vgzgs tgh uhf peitf jg afiîf amnfjf fe jerse jf aïhmif, kerhfije uhf gspícmg jg kercfje, ce uhf peitf rgtf pgrkurfitg g eutrf curvf g certfitg. Igstg cfse, c`fhf-sg keucmiè-kercfje ( (kfuc`frj-kerl kfuc`frj-kerl )).. E pejãe jg nugrrf (minaâs omaa omaa,, mtfamfie reiceig, krficâs krficâs   sgrpg jg nugrrg, faghãe   @mppg) faghãe @mppg) í kuijfhgitfahgitg uhf aïhmif jg pejãe (minaâs omaaèel , mtfamfie reiceaf, krficâs krficâs sgrpg sgrpg), ), kemcmi`f jg nuhg cúicfve usfjf if vmijmhf g pejf jg ærvergs, if peitf jg uhf `fstg jg 6,0 f ?,> hgtres, usfje f pfrtmr jg 6644. Fcrgscmje jg uhf peitf jg afiîf if pfrtg supgrmer, cehe kem rgnrf f pfrtmr jg 6:44, pfssf f sgr uhf omsfrhf ( (numsfrhg numsfrhg)) g nfi`f jupaf kuiîãe2 gstecfr ce f peitf cehe sg kessg afiîf eu fnfrrfr cehoftgitgs heitfjes ceh e nficè ‑jgsheitfjer‘. Wh pejãe eu omsfrhf ceh uh gsperãe aftgrfa í c`fhfje pejãeomsfrhf (omaa-numsfrhg omaa-numsfrhg). ). Gh Tertunfa, ‑omsfrhf‘ í èbg uhf gxprgssãe pgberftmvf pfrf pgssef eu cemsf jgsfbgmtfjf, hfaceikerhfjf, jgsprepercmeifjf eu jg tfhfiè tfhfiè fcmhf fc mhf je ierhfa ierhfa.. E omsfnuje (hmamtfry kerl ) grf uh kercfje jg nugrrf jgrmvfje je kercfje fnrèceaf, ceh jems jgitgs aeines (ftí =4 cgitèhgtres) g pfrfagaes – uh ‑trmjgitg‘ jg jems jgitgs. F frc`f preprmfhgitg jmtf (minaâs nafmvg, nafmvg, krficâs krficâs nafmvg j”frhgs eu eu ceutgfu ceutgfu jg oràc`g, oràc`g, faghãe Lusg faghãe Lusg eu eu   Orgsc`hgssgr, mtfamfie mtfamfie kfacmeig, kfacmeig, cfstga`fie cfstga`fie   frc`f) frc`f) í uhf frhf jg `fstg qug ceismstg gh uhf aïhmif jg uh só nuhg if peitf jg uhf `fstg, qug sgrvg sgr vg pfr pfrff fcutmafr fcutma fr g gstecf g stecfr, r, g surnmu if if Suèîf ie sícuae PM[, PM[, gspfa`fije-sg pgaf Gurepf ftí e sícuae P[MM. Kem usfjf gh cehoftg pgaes peaeigsgs if rgveatf ceitrf f pfrtma`f jg sgu pfès per russes g prussmfies g 6>=:. Í sghga`fitg ä ifnmiftf ifnmiftf   bfpeigsf, hfs gh vgz jg tgr uh gspmnãe mitrejuzmje ie cfoe, cehe iuhf gspfjf eu ifnmiftf ifnmiftf,, f aïhmif í kmxfjf ä `fstg ceh uhf ceikmnurfîãe jg gmxe g sequgtg, cehe f cfogîf jg uh hfc`fje. Zmi`f jg 6,: hgtre f ?,7 hgtres jg cehprmhgite. Äs vgzgs, fs aïhmifs tâh uh nficè ie afje epeste fe nuhg, qug sgrvg pfrf fnfrrfr g jgsheitfr cfvfagmres, cehe if omsfrhf, terifije-sg uhf frc`fomsfrhf (minaâs g krficâs nafmvg-numsfrhg, faghãe faghãe   Nafkg), Nafkg), ngrfahgitg hfms aeinf. Igssg cfse, f aïhmif tgh :7 f 77 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, sehfije-sg ä `fstg jg 6,0 f ?,7 hgtres jg cehprmhgite, rgsuatfije iuhf frhf jg ?,3 f 3 hgtres. E iehg gh pertunuâs g cfstga`fie vgh je cerpe jes ‑Frc`gmres jg

Oernei`f‘ (je krficâs frc`grs frc`grs,, ‑frqugmres‘) qug kem mitrejuzmje if Gspfi`f per Kmampg M, e Ogae, rgm jg ermngh oernei`gsf, gh 674:. Ermnmifahgitg, `fvmfh smje frqugmres, hfs cehe ie kmh je sícuae P[M e frce g kagc`f gstfvf eoseagte g gssg cerpe pfsseu f usfr prmicmpfahgitg f nafmvg nafmvg,, gstf pfsseu f sgr c`fhfjf jg ‑frc`f‘, cehe frhf jes ‑frc`gmres‘. ‑fr c`gmres‘. Eutres Eutres cerpes cer pes jg gamtg gam tg tfhoíh tfhoíh usfrfh usfrfh gssfs frhfs. F nufrjf je Mhpgrfjer jf Æustrmf-@uinrmf ceitmiueu f usæ-afs cgrmheimfahgitg ftí e kmh jf heifrqumf gh 6=60. Hfms tfrjg, e tgrhe ‑frc`f‘ pfsseu f sgr s gr mjgit m jgitmkmcfje mkmcfje tfhoíh tfhoíh ceh eutres eutres tmpes jg frhfs jg `fstg usfjes per gssg cerpe. Ies sícuaes P[MMM g PMP, e qug sg c`fhfvf jg frc`f gh pertunuâs grf uhf frhf jg `fstg cehpestf per uhf `fstg aeinf rghftfjf per uhf pgîf peitmfnujf jg kgrre, ftrfvgssfjf per uh hfc`fje jupae, jg jems nuhgs, ermnmifahgitg usfjf tfite pfrf gstecfr, cehe uhf afiîf, qufite pfrf certfr, cehe uh hfc`fje. Grf usfjf cgrmheimfahgitg pgaes ‑Frc`gmres je Tfîe‘ jes rgms pertunugsgs jf cfsf jg Orfnfiîf. Ftufahgitg, es Kuzmagmres Ifvfms je Orfsma usfh gssfs frc`fs cehe pfrtg jg sgu uimkerhg `mstórmce, fpgsfr jg fs frhfs jg `fstg `mstermcfhgitg usfjfs pgaf Ormnfjf jg Hfrmi`f tgrgh smje f sfrngitmif g e gspeitãe. F gspfjf jg `fstg (sugce svêrjstfv svêrjstfv)) í uhf aïhmif jg gspfjf jg jems nuhgs if peitf jg uhf `fstg. F russf seviy seviyf f í uhf aïhmif curvf if peitf jg uhf `fstg, usfjf pgaf cfvfafr c fvfafrmf mf ftí f tí hgfjes hgfjes je sícuae P[MM P[MM.. E hfrtgae-j”frhfs (crewomaa crewomaa,, ogc jg ceuromi) ceuromi) í uh hfrtgae jg nugrrf ce `fstg aeinf, peitf jg afiîf g gsperãe aeine g curve. F cfogîf ceituijgitg je hfrtgae í ierhfahgitg usfjf fpgifs cehe ceitrfpgse pfrf e gsperãe jg 0 eu = cgitèhgtres, e ‑omce jg cerve‘. F peitf jg hgtfa tgh cgrcf jg ?4 cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf g fcfof iuhf peitf jg afiîf jg 63 cgitèhgtres g e cehprmhgite tetfa jf frhf vfrmf jg 6,>7 f ?,: hgtres, pgsfije jg jems f quftre qumaes. E hfrtgae jg Aucgrif ( Aucgrig Aucgrig `fhhgr), `fhhgr), vfrmfitg usfjf if Suèîf je sícuae P[ fe P[MM, suostmtum f cfogîf ceituijgitg per trâs eu quftre jgitgs peitujes, gkmcmgitgs pfrf rehpgr frh f rhfjurfs. fjurfs. E kurf-hfa`f eu afiîf jg certg (hfma-pmgrcgr hfma-pmgrcgr   eu `gwmin spgfr), spgfr), c`fhfjf pgaes vmlmins ftngmr, grf uhf frhf jg `fstg usfjf pgae hgies jgsjg e sícuae PMMM, ceistmtuèje jg uhf aïhmif cehe jg hfc`fje if peitf jg uhf `fstg, hfs curtf g afrnf, ceh uhf peitf fnuîfjf. Amtgrfrmfhgitg kfhese pgaf Sfnf jg Imfa, Imfa, if qufa e `gróm msafijâs Nuiifr @æhuijfrsei tmi`f uh ftngmr qug ‑cfitfvf‘ qufije grf ghpui`fje, kgamz pgae sfinug qug mf jgrrfhfr. F fc`f-j”frhfs ( peaafxg peaa fxg   eu peagfxg eu peagfxg)) í uhf fc`f eu hfc`fje jg nugrrf ce `fstg aeinf. Cehe fs fc`fs jg cfvfagmres, tâh uhf peitf jg afiîf jmfitgmrf g u

nficè eu gsperãe ftræs jf aïhmif jg hfc`fje, if peitf jg uhf `fstg jg 6,? f ?,: hgtres jg cehprmhgite. Tgsf ? f 3 qumaes. Fssghga`f-sg ä fafofrjf (vgr fjmfitg), hfs f aïhmif jg hfc`fje í ogh hgier, e qug ceicgitrf e mhpfcte iuhf supgrkècmg hgier g e terif hfms gkmcfz ceitrf frhfjurfs, giqufite f fafofrjf í hfms kuicmeifa ceitrf faves sgh frhfjurfs g pftfs jg cfvfaes. Kem usfje g terigmes per cfvfagmres jg frhfjurf. F hfîf-j”frhfs í uhf cfogîf jg hfîf prgsf ä peitf jg uhf `fstg aeinf. Whf vfrmfitg minagsf je sícuae P[M í c`fhfjf èay wftgr sprmilagr  (‑`mssepe‘, (‑`mssepe‘, utgisèame gcagsmæstmce jg fspgrnmr ænuf ogitf). Zmi`f uhf cfogîf jg fîe ceh sgms kafings, cfjf uhf ceh trâs gsper÷gs, hfms uh gsperãe nresse jg sgîãe qufjrfjf if peitf g tmi` tm i`ff uh ceh cehprm prmh hgite tetfa jg 6,= 6 ,= hgtre. F ogrjmc`g (ofrjmc`g ( ofrjmc`g,, je russe ogrjms` ogrjms`,, gh mtfamfie ogrjmcf ogrjmcf)) í sghga`fitg ä frc`f, hfs f aïhmif í prgsf ä `fstg per jems peites, cehe gh fanuhfs vgrs÷gs je fitmne hfc`fje jg nugrrf jmifhfrquâs (jfig (jfig fxg fxg eu spfrt` spfrt`), ), je qufa í uhf gveauîãe. Kem usfje if _òssmf g Gurepf Ermgitfa, ies sícuae P[M g P[MM, hfms ietfjfhgitg pgaes strgatsy strgatsy   jg Tgjre, e Nrfijg. Whf frhf sghga`fitg usfjf if Gscócmf í cei`gcmjf cei`gcmjf cehe cehe `fstg jg Bgjjfrt Bgjjfr t ((Bgjjfrt Bgjjfrt stfkk ). ). Jgrmvfje je ogrjmc`g, e cutgae jg fssíjme (krficâs veung veung,, minaâs veuang veuang   e eag cagfvgr, cagfvgr, ‑cutgae jg `fstg‘, faghãe oeung oeung,, cfstga`fie nubf cfstga`fie nubf)) í je sícuae PM[. Fssghga`f-sg ä frc`f if fpfrâicmf g kuiîãe, hfs f aïhmif í amnfjf ä `fstg g jems peites ies jems tgrîes mikgrmergs g iãe per uh sequgtg g tgh aïhmif hfms afrnf. Í pfrf fcutmafr (cehe hfc`fje eu cutgae), hfms qug pfrf certfr (cehe gspfjf eu frc`f). Gqumpfjf ceh uh eu hfms gsper÷gs pfrf fnfrrfr e cfvfagmre í c`fhfje cutgae-omsfrhf (veuang-numsfrhg veuang-numsfrhg). ). Ceh uh nficè if peitf supgrmer, veatfje pfrf træs, í tèpmce jf Gscócmf g sg c`fhf fc`f Aec`fogr ( Aec`fogr Aec`fogr fxg). fxg). E cutgae suèîe (Swmss veuang) veuang) fcrgscgiteu fe cutgae-omsfrhf uh gsperãe if gxtrghmjfjg, e qug kgz jgaf uhf fafofrjf prmhmtmvf. F fafofrjf (minaâs `faogrj, krficâs `faagofrjg, `faagofrjg,   mtfamfie g cfstga`fie fafofrjf) í f vgrsãe fpgrkgmîefjf jf hgshf frhf qug teheu kerhf jgpems jg 6:442 uhf `fstg aeinf rghftfjf per uhf pgîf peitmfnujf jg kgrre, ftrfvgssfjf per uhf aïhmif jg hfc`fje ceh u nficè eu gsperãe if suf trfsgmrf. Zgh, pertfite, trmpaf kuiîãe2 gstecfr ceh f peitf cehe afiîf, certfr ceh f aïhmif cehe hfc`fje eu jgrruofr cfvfagmres ceh e nficè eu gsperãe. Grfh rgkerîfjfs ceh fiíms jg hgtfa fe aeine jf `fstg, terifije-fs hfms gkmcfzgs pfrf oaequgfr gspfjfs g eutrfs frhfs. E iehg vgh je faghãe @fahofrtg faghãe @fahofrtg,, @gahofrtg eu @faofrtg, @faofrt g, pfafvrf pfafvrf kerhfjf pgae faghãe @fah, faghãe @fah, ‑`fstg‘ g Ofrtg, ‑fc`f‘, eu sgbf, ‑fc`f jg `fstg‘. Gh faghãe, gssf pfafvrf èbg ‑`fstg‘ g sg rgkgrg äs frhfs jg cehoftg usfjfs jg 6:>4 f 6734 g fs vgrs÷gs cgrmheimfms g

erifhgitfjfs erifhgit fjfs pestgrmergs pestgrmer gs sãe s ãe c`fhfjfs c`fhfjfs @gaagofrjg @gaagofrjg.. F fafofrjf hestreu sgr f hfms òtma g vgrsætma jfs frhfs jg `fstg. Cfrfctgrèstmcf jes gxírcmtes hgrcgiærmes suèîes ie sícuae PM[ g miècme je sícuae P[ g fmijf í usfjf cgrmheimfahgitg pgaf Nufrjf Suèîf je [ftmcfie. Hfms tfrjg, es suèîes fcrgscgitfrfh e pmqug pfrf rgpgamr ceh hfms gkmcmâicmf e ftfqug jg cfvfagmres g rehpgr kerhfî÷gs jg mikfitfrmf mimhmnfs, giqufite f fafofrjf, e gspfjãe g f ofsgafrjf grfh usfjfs ie cerpe-f-cerpe. Es Afijsligc`t Afijsligc`tss faghãgs, qug mhmtfrfh fs tætmcfs suèîfs, tfhoíh usfrfh fafofrjf g pmqug, hfs suf frhf kfvermtf ie cerpe-f-cerpe grf f Lftzofang Lftzofangrr. Jgmxeu jg sgr usfjf cehe frhf prætmcf ie miècme je sícuae P[MM P[MMM, M, qufije qufije es frcfouzgs g hesqugtgs hesqugtgs jg pgjgrigmrf sg terifrfh cehuis. cehuis. E jgrruofjer eu jgsheitfjer (gh minaâs hficftc`gr hficftc`gr,, gh krficâs jísfrîeiigur)) grf uhf `fstg ceh jems jgitgs jg kercfje sghmcmrcuafrgs prgses jísfrîeiigur pgafs peitfs ceh uhf heaf pfrf kerhfr uh figa qug afîfvf uhf pgssef pgae treice. Kem usfje prmicmpfahgitg pfrf jgrruofr e cfvfagmre jg heje qug pujgssg sgr prgse pfrf sgr trecfje per uh rgsnftg. F ng eu fc`f-fjfnf ( (jfnngr-fxg jfnngr-fxg eu eu le le)) í f hfms fitmnf frhf jg `fstg c`migsf. Kerhfjf per uhf aïhmif jg fjfnf èrmzeitfa gicfmxfjf if peitf jg uhf `fstg (ngrfahgitg (ngrfahgi tg uhf uhf afiîf), a fiîf), kem usfjf jf jmifst jm ifstmf mf S` S`fin fin (6;44 – 64:; f.C.) ä jm jmifst ifstmf mf @fi (?4; f.C-??4 j.C.). Ngrfahgitg giceitrfh-sg fpgifs fs cfogîfs, jg oreizg eu kgrre eu cgrmheimfms jg bfjg. Suf ceistruîãe pgrhmtmf kmitfr ceh f peitf jg afiîf, pfrf gitãe gitãe puxfr puxfr g jgcfpmtfr e mimhmne mimhmne qug qug sg jgsvmfvf. jgsvmf vf. F bm eu fafofrjf c`migsf, ermnmifahgitg cehomifîãe je ng ng ceh ceh uhf peitf jg afiîf iuhf só pgîf jg hgtfa, kem usfjf f pfrtmr jf jmifstmf S`fin g fmijf í prftmcfjf ifs frtgs hfrcmfms. Ie kmh je pgrèeje jes _gmies Cehoftgitgs (:43??? f.C.), e oreizg kem suostmtuèje pgae kgrre. Suf mhpertïicmf ftminmu e fung ie pgrèeje jes Zrâs _gmies (??4-?;7 j.C.) pfrf jgpems jgcamifr. F pfrtmr jf jmifstmf Zfin (;60-=4> j.C.), terieu-sg cgrmheimfa. F kerhf fitmnf cehomifvf uhf aïhmif curvf aftgrfa ceh uhf peitf jg afiîf, aghorfije f omsfrhf ecmjgitfa, hfs f kerhf èbg hfms cehuh í f bm bmjfe jfe (‑fafofrjf-sforg‘), uhf afiîf ceh uhf aïhmif jg nuhg cúicfve prgsf fe afje per jems peites qug sg fprexmhf gh kuiîãe ä fafofrjf (certfr pftfs jg cfvfae ceh f aïhmif, eu usæ-af ceh f peitf jg afiîf), ceh uh pgijãe vgrhgaè jg crmif jg cfvfae fhfrrfje ä ofsg jf aïhmif, pfrf foservgr sfinug g ænuf. Fanuhfs tâh jufs aïhmifs curvfs mnufms, uhf jg cfjf afje. Zgh ? f 3 hgtres jg cehprmhgite cehprmhgite g pgsf pgs f ?,7 f 3 qumaes. F tfin eu fafofrjf-trmjgitg (trmjgit-`faogrj trmjgit-`faogrj)) í uhf afiîf ceh peitf jg fîe jg 74 cgitèhgtres, ftrfvgssfjf per uh crgscgitg certfitg if ofsg, sghga`fitg fe

vgiæouae jg fssíjme (rfisgur (rfisgur)) ecmjgitfa. Zgh ?,0 f 3 hgtres g pgsf ?,7 f ?,0 qumaes. Wsfje f pfrtmr jf jmifstmf Hmin (63;0-6;::) í èbg uhf jfs frhfs caæssmcfs jfs frtgs hfrcmfms. hfrcmfms. E c`f eu kercfje í eutrf jfs frhfs caæssmcfs jfs frtgs hfrcmfms c`migsfs. Tejg jgitgs (sfi (sfi c`f, ‑kercfje trmpae‘), jgitgs curvfjes (c`f tgr nfitrâs nfi, , ‑kercfje jg `fstg‘) eu jems jgitgsjems curvfjes pfrf kerfpfrf (ùejgitre (ùe c`f, c`f, ‑kercfje jg kene‘). kene‘). Ceh ?,0 f 3 hgtres hgtres jg cehprmhgit cehprmhgite, e, pgsf pgs f ?,7 f ?,0 qumaes. F c`fi, yugyfc`fi (‑pæ auf crgscgitg‘) eu ‑pæ jg heing ‘ (heil”s spfjg) spfjg) í uhf `fstg qug tgh jg uh afje uhf aïhmif jg pæ c`ftf jg oerjf ceivgxf g je eutre uhf aïhmif gh kerhf jg crgscgitg jg nuhg cúicfve, prgsf ä `fstg pgae hgme. Í uhf frhf fssecmfjf fes heings S`feami jgsjg e sícuae P[M. Zgh ? hgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 6,7 qumae. F afbftfin usfjf per frtgs hfrcmfms jf Mijeiísmf Mijeiísmf í smhmafr, s mhmafr, hfs hfs trecf f pæ per eutre eutre crgscgitg. cr gscgitg. E pejfe (‑sforg smhpags‘) c`miâs, c`fhfje gh minaâs èrsg-cuttgr èrsg-cuttgr   (‑certfcfvfae‘) kem usfje ermnmifahgitg jurfitg f jmifstmf Sein (=;4-6?>= j.C.) pfrf certfr pftfs jg cfvfaes, ceh `fstg jg 6,? f 6,0 hgtre. @ebg í uhf frhf pfrf gxmomî÷gs jg frtgs hfrcmfms ceh uh cfoe jg =4 cgitèhgtres, uhf aïhmif jg sforg je hgshe cehprmhgite iuhf gxtrghmjfjg g uh ceitrfpgse if eutrf, pgsfije fe teje gh terie jg jems qumaes. F vgrsãe bfpeigsf sg c`fhf omsgite. Whf frhf cergfif sghga`fitg í c`fhfjf weaje g í ceistmtuèjf jg uh cfoe jg 6,= hgtre (jmïhgtre ginressfije jg ? cgitèhgtres if ofsg pfrf : f 7 if peitf) g uhf aïhmif jg 04 cgitèhgtres, pgsfije 6,7 f 3 qumaes. Whf vgrsãe rgjuzmjf, c`fhfjf `yupje, tgh cfoe jg =4 cgitèhgtres, aïhmif jg >4 cgitèhgtres g pgse jg 6,0 qumae. Whf vgrsãe fnmnfitfjf í f nufijfe jg ?,: hgtres, ceh uhf pgsfjf aïhmif jg sforg iuhf gxtrghmjfjg g if eutrf uhf cfogîf jg hfîf. Sgnuije f agijf, tgrmf smje crmfjf g usfjf ie sícuae MMM pgae ngigrfa Nufi ]u (jf qufa tmrf sgu iehg), cubf frhf agijærmf tmi`f e iehg jg qmin aein yfi yug jfe jfe (‑sforg hgmf-auf je jrfnãe vgrjg‘) g pgsfvf :0 qumaes. Iãe `æ prevfs, períh, jg suf gxmstâicmf fitgs je sícuae [MM, qufije grf usfjf iuh tgstg cgrmheimfa jg cfijmjftes f ekmcmfms, qug jgvmfh hfieorfr uhf frhf jg pgse prepesmtfahgitg gxfngrfje, jg :0 f >? qumaes, ceikerhg f nrfjufîãe. F vgrsãe èbg usfjf gh jgheistrfî÷gs jg frtgs hfrcmfms í hgier g humte hfms agvg, ceh cgrcf jg 6,0 hgtre g jems f quftre qumaes. Whf jfs hfms gkmcfzgs frhfs je nâigre í f bfpeigsf ifnmiftf. Frhf vgrsætma g ogh ofaficgfjf, kem usfjf ie Bfpãe jgsjg ?44 j.C., ermnmifahgitg ceh aïhmif jg oreizg, òtma tfite gh autfs cerpe-f-cerpe qufite pfrf certfr pftfs jg cfvfaes.

Sgu use grf gismifje iãe só fes se`gm se`gm   (heings nugrrgmres) g sfhurfms, cehe tfhoíh äs hua`grgs jg suf kfhèamf f pfrtmr jes 60 fies, cehe kerhf jg futejgkgsf. Ie Bfpãe trfjmcmeifa, suf prætmcf, e ifnmiftfbutsu ifnmiftfbutsu,, grf f òimcf frtg hfrcmfa fogrtf f hua`grgs. Zgh aïhmif jg 34 f ;4 cgitèhgtres, cfoe jg 6,? f ?,: hgtres f trâs qumaes. F vgrsãe cergfif, cehprætmcf cfoe jghejgrif 6,7 hgtrejeg aïhmif gjgpgsf;3jems cgitèhgtres, c`fhf-sg `ygepje . If ifnmiftfbutsu, usf-sg usf-sg   frhfs ceh cfoe jg hfjgmrf g aïhmif kgmtf ceh jufs tmrfs jg ofhou, pgsfije >44 nrfhfs. If hmteaenmf bfpeigsf, f F Fhg-ie-iuèle hg-ie-iuèle   (‑afiîf cgagstmfa crfvgbfjf jg emfs‘), ngrfahgitg rgprgsgitfjf cehe uhf ifnmiftf, sgrvmu pfrf ifjf hgies qug crmfr e huije2 Mzfifnm g Mzfifhm, e cfsfa crmfjer, f useu pfrf fnmtfr e hfr g jgag tmrfr f prmhgmrf gxtgisãe jg tgrrf. F ifnfhflm eu ifnfhflm-ifes`m í sghga`fitg ä ifnmiftf ifnmiftf,, hfs tgh uhf aïhmif sghga`fitg ä jf cftfif (;7 f >7 cgitèhgtres, ceh peitf certfitg), heitfjf gh uhf `fstg curtf (4,=4 f 6,?4 hgtre). Kerfh usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg jurfitg e pgrèeje Lfhflurf (6607-6333) g e miècme je pgrèeje Hurehfs`m (633>-67>4). Tgsfvf gh terie jg 6,0 qumae. F vgrsãe hfmer, f eifnfhflm , c`gnfvf f ?,: hgtres jg cehprmhgi cehprmhgite te tetfa g pgse pg se jg ?,> qumaes. E Bfpãe je pgrèeje Gje useu pfrf cfpturfr suspgmtes uhf frhf c`fhfjf sejgnfrfhmm, sghga`fitg fe jgsheitfjer ecmjgitfa, hfs vmsfije prgijgr e sejgnfrfh suspgmte pgae orfîe. Zmi`f tfhoíh kfrpfs if `fstg g ies jgitgs, pfrf gvmtfr qug e fave tgitfssg sgnuræ-ae ceh f hãe. Zfhoíh sg usfvfh e tsuluoe, ceh cfogîf gh Z, pfrf ghpurrfr, puxfr eu kfzgr trepgîfr e fave g f sfsuhft sfsuhftf f, ceh jems jgitgs jgit gs jg kercfje, ceh f qufa pejmf-sg pejm f-sg ghpurrfr ghpurrfr e suspgmte ceit ceitrf rf uhf pfrgjg. pfr gjg. F luwf í uhf gixfjf bfpeigsf usfjf cehe frhf gh frtgs hfrcmfms jg Elmifwf. Zgh cehprmhgite jg 6,? f 6,7 hgtre g aïhmif jg 67 cgitèhgtres g pgsf jg 6,3 f 6,; qumae. E fromr  í í uhf frhf mijeiísmf sghga`fitg ä ifnmiftf ifnmiftf,, ceh cgrcf jg 6,7 hgtre, qug tgh uhf aïhmif curvf iuhf gxtrghmjfjg g uhf peitf fnuîfjf if eutrf, usfjf if frtg hfrcmfa pgitb hfrcmfa pgitbfl fl smaft sma ft . Zgh uh suace rfse fe aeine jf `fstg ie pafie jf aïhmif, pfrf fbujfr e usuærme f sgitmr gxftfhgitg eijg gstæ e nuhg fe usfr hfieorfs mmiitrmcfjfs. trmcfjfs . E infw tfmafijâs í sghga`fitg fe nufi jfe. jfe. Kem trfjmcmeifahgitg usfje per nugrrgmres pfrf autfr je fate jg uh gagkfitg g cehomif uh cfoe aeine g kertg g uhf aïhmif curvf ceh uh nficè trfsgmre, usfje pfrf gspmcfîfr e fimhfa. @ebg í usfje if frtg hfrcmfa lrfom lrfoein. lrfoein. F vgrsãe jg cfoe curte í c`fhfjf infw sei (‑infw sei (‑infw curte‘) eu jffo srm. srm.

E tgpeztepmaam grf uhf frhf jg `fstg fstgcf, fprexmhfjfhgitg je tfhfiè jg uh èhgh, qug tmi`f if peitf uhf aïhmif jg hfjgmrf afrnf gh kerhf jg peitf jg afiîf, jg 34 f :4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 6? f 67 jg afrnurf, nufrigcmjf jg afscfs jg eosmjmfif (vmjre vuacïimce) g usfjf pfrf gstecfr g certfr. E hofje í uhf frtg jgheitfjf `fstg trfjmcmeifa je peve [gijf,jgjfkerhf Ækrmcfsghga`fitg je Sua, qugf sg pfrgcg f uhf ofmeigtf iuhf `fstg g í usfjf uhf ofmeigtf ecmjgitfa, tfite pfrf certfr qufite pfrf pgrkurfr. E cfoe pejg sgr jg hfjgmrf eu c`mkrg jg órmx. Fanuis hofjes hofjes,, gspgcmfahgitg uinmjfs per kgmtmcgmres, grfh c`fhfjes ts`mrev`f ts`mrev`f   g ceismjgrfjes hænmces. Wh pertfjer gspgcmfa eosgrvfvf f oftfa`f buite ceh es c`gkgs g orfijmf f frhf if jmrgîãe je mimhmne mimh mne cehe cehe pfrf pfr f ftfcæ-ae. ftfcæ- ae. Zgh cgrcf jg 6,63 hgtre hgtre g pgsf >=4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs.

Ofmeigtfs Ofmeigtfs (ofyeigts ofyeigts)) sãe gspfjfs curtfs, fjfnfs, pui`fms eu gstmagtgs qug pejgh sgr kmxfjfs if peitf jg uh hesqugtg eu kuzma pfrf teriæ-ae òtma cehe afiîf eu frhftfhoíh jg `fstg sgr (jg usfjfs 6,? f 6,0 hgtre, pgsfije 3,7 f 7,3 qumaes) pejgh cehe frhfs mijgpgijgitgs. Kerfhg humtfs fjetfjfsvgzgs g hgfjes je sícuae P[MM per Bgfi Hfrtmigt, mispgter-ngrfa je gxírcmte jg Auès PM[, g rfpmjfhgitg sg gspfa`frfh pgaf Gurepf, pgrhmtmije qug es hesqugtgmres sg jgkgijgssgh cfse e mimhmne cruzfssg f ami`f jg kene fitgs qug tmvgssgh tghpe jg rgcfrrgnfr. Fs prmhgmrfs ofmeigtfs tmi`fh 34 f :7 cgitèhgtres (qug sg sehfvfh fe 6,7 hgtre je hesqugtg, crmfije uhf afiîf jg 6,0 f ? hgtres). C`fhfjfs ofmeigtfs jg puiè ( paun paun ofyeigts), ofyeigts ), gicfmxfvfh f ghpui`fjurf cmaèijrmcf jgitre je cfie jf frhf, mhpgjmije qug gaf ftmrfssg. Jfè f gxprgssãe ‑ofmeigtf cfafjf‘2 ceaecfr f ofmeigt ofm eigtff ‑cfafvf‘ ‑cfa fvf‘ f frhf jg kene. kene. Gh 6;>6, surnmrfh if Krfiîf fs ofmeigtfs jg favfje (seclgt ofyeigts), ofyeigts), qug sg kmxfh fe cfie ceh uhf ofijf jg hgtfa (favfje) sgh eostrumr e jmspfre, g sg ngigrfamzfrfh if Gurepf ies fies 6>44. Ngrfahgitg grfh kerhfjfs per u gspmnãe jg hgtfa, peituje hfs sgh nuhgs, ceh 37 f 74 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, hfms jgz cgitèhgtres je favfje, pgsfije 344 f 744 nrfhfs, qug sg sehfvfh fes :,0 qumaes jg uh hesqugtg. Zmi`fh f jgsvfitfngh jg iãe tgrgh use mijgpgijgitg g sgrvmrgh fpgifs pfrf gstecfr g iãe pfrf certfr, e qug amhmtfvf sg use gh cehoftg cehoftg cerpe-f-cer cerpe- f-cerpe. pe. Ie sícuae PMP, gspfjfs g kfcfs ceh uh figa jg hgtfa if nufrjf, pfrf sg gicfmxfrgh fe cfie, cehgîfrfh f sgr prgkgrmjfs per suf vgrsftmamjfjg, hfs fs ofmeigtfs jg favfje ceitmiufrfh f sgr usfjfs gh humtes pfèsgs ftí f MM Nugrrf Huijmfa g if C`mif ftí es fies 6=>4. Ie sícuae PMP, f tgijâicmf kem precurfr e hfmer facficg pessèvga, crmfije-sg ofmeigtfs aeinfs. Mimcmfahgitg, grfh fcepafjfs fes kuzms Oflgr (6,6; hgtre, :,6 qumaes) pfrf mnufaæ-aes fes hesqugtgs, hfms aeines, qufije fs trepfs gitrfvf gh kerhfîãe pfrf rgpgamr f cfvfafrmf. F gspfjf-ofmeigtf (swerj (swerj ofyeigt ), ), usfjf pgaes ormtïimces jf grf ifpeagúimcf g jgpems fjetfjf per eutres gxírcmtes, grf u sforg jg mikfitfrmf ceh aïhmif rgtf jg 70 cgitèhgtres. Ie sícuae PP, ofmeigtfs sghga`fitgs kerfh usfjfs ftí f MM Nugrrf Huijmfa pgaes bfpeigsgs, cubf vgrsãe hfms usfjf (Zmpe 34) tmi`f aïhmif jg :4 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 76,: g ;04 nrfhfs. Zfhoíh kem cehuh f ofmeigtf ceh f kerhf jf mftfnã turcf, ce aïhmif curvfjf gh S, cehprmhgite jg >4 cgitèhgtres g ;44 nrfhfs. Zfhoí

gxmstmu e gspfjmh-ofmeigtf (gh krficâs, ípíg-ofåeigttg ípíg-ofåeigttg), ), qug sehfvf 7? cgitèhgtres jg aïhmif jg gspfjmh f uh kuzma jg 6,3 hgtre g :,: qumaes (cfrrgnfje). Jgpems jf M Nugrrf Huijmfa, fs cfrnfs ceh ofmeigtfs – qug sg rgvgafrfh u jgsfstrg fitg fs tgcieaenmfs hmamtfrgs – jgmxfrfh jg sgr uhf tætmcf pfjrãeg jf mikfitfrmf g fsievfs gspfjfs-ofmeigtfs g gspmn÷gs, qug jgsgqumamorfvfh es kuzms grfh jgsfbgmtfjfs gh gspfîes kgc`fjes (cehe trmic`gmrfs), cehgîfrfh f sgr suostmtuèjfs per kfcfs hfms curtfs g vgrsætgms, hfms fjgqufjfs ä autf cerpe-fcerpe. F kfcf-ofmeigtf fmijf usfjf pgaes gxírcmtes hejgries tgh aïhmif jg 67 f ?7 cgitèhgtres, gspgssf g rgsmstgitg, gscurgcmjf pfrf gvmtfr rgkagxes ä iemtg g krgqugitghgitg ceh ceitrfkme sgrrma`fje, jg kerhf f pejgr sgr usfjf cehe sgrrf. E hejgae H=, je gxírcmte jes GWF, tgh aïhmif jg 60 cgitèhgtres, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 34 cgitèhgtres g pgsf ::7 nrfhfs, sgije ngrfahgitg usfjf ceh e kuzma H6;, jg uh hgtre g quftre qumaes, eu ceh f cfrfomif H:, jg 0: cgitèhgtres g 3,6 qumaes. F kfcf-ofmeigtf Mhoga MF?, je gxírcmte orfsmagmre, tgh fs hgshfs jmhgis÷gs g pgsf 304 nrfhfs, sgije usfjf ceh e kuzma Mhoga MF?, jg 6 hgtre g :,? qumaes.

Frhfs jg frrghgsse

Frhfs Frh fs j jgg frrgh frrghgsse gsse smhpags Frhfs jg frrghgsse smh Frhfs sm hpags sãe fqugafs ftmrfjfs ceh f hãe, hãe, sgh igcgssm igcgssmjfjg jfjg jg uh hgcfimshe frrghgssfjer. Fs hfms smhpags sãe hgres pfus g pgjrfs giceitrfjes gicei trfjes fe fcfse.

Tgjrfs g pgses F Maè Maèfjf fjf   ftgstf tfite e frrghgsse jg pgjrfs gh cehoftg qufite g cehpgtmî÷gs gitrg es nugrrgmres nrgnes, gh cfhpe eu je fate jg terrgs g hurfa`fs. Jes aèomes jf sfce ípecfjgcaæssmcf, faíh jg uhf afiîf g uh pgjrfs. jmzmf-sg qug iãe cfrrgnfvfh eutrf frhf Ghoerf frrghgsses jg pgses g pgjrfs iãe tgi`fh smje usfjes ies benes nrgnes nrgn es je pgrèeje pg rèeje caæssmce, caæss mce, gxmstmrfh if if Gscócmf Gscócm f jgsjg f Fitmnu Fitmnumjfjg mjfjg g terifrfhterifrfhsg cehuis if Gurepf jf _gifscgiîf, qufije seajfjes cehpgtmfh ftmrfije oeafs jg cfi`ãe. Ies @mnàfij Nfhgs Nfhgs jf Gscócmf, `æ jufs hejfamjfjgs2 Orfghfr Steig,, ceh oeafs jg =-6? qumaes pfrf èhgis g ;-0 qumaes pfrf hua`grgs, sg Steig cerrmjf eu nmre g Epgi Steig, Steig, ceh oeafs jg >,?;-64 qumaes pfrf èhgis g 3,;-7,: pfrf hua`grgs, qug pgrhmtg frrghgsse amvrg. Jgstf òatmhf prætmcf surnmu e frrghgsse jg pgse je ftagtmshe eaèhpmce, qug usf oeafs jg oreizg, kgrre kuijmje eu cùhoe jg >,?; qumaes pfrf es èhgis g : qumaes pfrf fs hua`grgs. Es rgcerjgs sãe jg cgrcf jg ?3 hgtres ies jems cfses. E jmsce (jmscus jmscus)) í uh frtgkfte pgsfje qug jgsjg es tghpes èhírmces í frrghgssfje per gspertg (sgu use í jgscrmte if Maèfjf, ies benes cehgherftmves je kuigrfa jg Tætrecae). Es fitmnes nrgnes es kfzmfh jg oreizg eu kgrre kuijmje, pgsfije 6,3 f ;,; qumaes g tgije 6> f 3? cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. @ebg í ngrfahgitg jg hfjgmrf, ceh oerjf g iòcage jg hgtfa. F vgrsãe hfscuamif pgsf jems qumaes g tgh jmïhgtre jg ?? cgitèhgtres, f kghmimif pgsf uh qumae g tgh 60 cgitèhgtres. Iãe sg sfog sg fanuh jmf kem usfje cehe frhf, ghoerf sgbf cfpfz jg hftfr uhf pgssef. Trevfvgahgitg, ermnmif-sg jg jmsces jg oreizg usfjes g vgijmjes cehe aminetgs jg hgtfa, qug grfh ekgrgcmjes cehe prâhmes f qugh es ftmrfssg hfms aeing. If Ceaúhomf, usf-sg uh jmsce jg 3?4 nrfhfs g 66,> cgitèhgtres c`fhfje tgbe ie gspertg ifcmeifa jg hgshe iehg, qug ceismstg gh afiîæ-ae ceitrf uh fave cmrcuafr c`fhfje oecèi oecèi,, f 60 hgtres. E gspertg kem ermnmifahgitg prftmcfje pgaes mijèngifs huèscfs, qug usfvfh uh jmsce jg eure je hgshe tfhfiè c`fhfje gpnufnescuf, qug pgsfvf ;04 nrfhfs. nrfhfs.

Ofst÷gs jg frrghgsse E ofstãe jg frrghgsse (t`rewmin stmcl ) kem usfje if cfîf pgaes foerèngigs fustrfamfies, mijèngifs jfs Fhírmcfs, gurepgus prí-`mstórmces g peves jf Hgsepetïhmf Gnmte (`æ hurfms gnèpcmes rgtrftfije sgujg use:4iff cfîf fes pftes). Ngrfahgitg í guh pgjfîe jg hfjgmrf agvghgitg curve =4 cgitèhgtres, pgsfje g fc`ftfje, ceh supgrkècmgs curvfs. E ofstãe fe sgr frrghgssfje nmrf rfpmjfhgitg ftí ftminmr e fave, jfije f mhprgssãe jg uh jmsce. Tgsfh ?44 f ;44 nrfhfs nrfh fs g e facficg fac ficg í jg 64 f ?4 hgtres. hgtres. Fanuis peves kfzgh ofst÷gs jg frrghgsse hfms curtes (cgrcf jg 34 cgitèhgtres) g rgtes, ceh uh pgse (ngrfahgitg uhf pgjrf) if peitf. E tymijunu, mwmsf eu lieolgrrmg if Ækrmcf je Sua, ruinu ie Vuâimf, í uh ofstãe jg frrghgsse jg hfjgmrf jurf eu c`mkrg qug sgrvg cehe hfîf g oginfaf, usfje if Ækrmcf hgrmjmeifa g ermgitfa. Zgh 37 cgitèhgtres f 6,? hgtre (gh híjmf >4 cgitèhgtres) g uhf oeaf eu puiè pgsfje jg oginfaf if peitf. Tgsf jg ?74 f ;74 nrfhfs. E ouhgrfinug (oeehgrfin oeehgrfin)) í uh ofstãe jg frrghgsse agvg, heajfje iuhf kerhf finuaesf jg kerhf f kfzgr uh vee curve g rgterifr fe usuærme jgpems jg frrghgssfje. Agvg jghfms pfrf jgrruofr f cfîf, sgrvmf, gitrgtfite, pfrf gspfitfr fvgs g kfzâ-afs cfmr gh rgjgs. Ouhgrfinugs kgmtes per iftmves fustrfamfies jg hfjgmrf jurf pgsfvfh :4 f 04 nrfhfs g tmi`fh 34 f :7 cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf. Hejgaes hejgries pejgh sgr kgmtes jg ofasf, hfjgmrf, paæstmce eu hftgrmfms cehpestes g tgr jufs, trâs eu quftre ‑fsfs‘, pgsfije jg >4 f 664 nrfhfs, hfs c`gnfrfh f sgr kgmtes jg :,0 cgitèhgtres f ?,; hgtres (g pgse jg 6,47 qumae). E facficg í ngrfahgit ngrfahgitgg jg ?4 f :4 hgtres. hgtres. Äs vgzgs, hfîfs, hfc`fjes, hfrtgaes g hfrrgtfs jg jems f trâs qumaes kerf tfhoíh frrghgssfjes gh cehoftg eu per gspertg, hgshe sgh tgr smje pafigbfjes pfrf msse, ierhfahgitg iãe ftminmije hfms jg 64 f 67 hgtres. E frrghgsse jg hfrrg frrgtfs tfs (sagjng`fhhgrs (sagjng`fhhgrs), ), prftmcfje pr ftmcfje ceh c ehee gspertg gsper tg if Gurepf, Gurepf, kem suostmtu suostmtuèje èje ies @mnàfij Nfhgs jf Nfhgs jf Gscócmf pgae frrghgsse jg uh ‑hfrtgae‘ kerhfje per uhf oeaf jg hgtfa rgjeijf (jg >,3 f 64 qumaes pfrf èhgis g 7,: f >,3 qumaes pfrf hua`grgs) if peitf jg uhf `fstg jg hfjgmrf jg 6,? hgtre. Msse jgu ermngh fe frrghgsse jg hfrtgae jes Benes Eaèhpmces, ie qufa sg frrghgssf uhf oeaf jg kgrre (>,?; qumaes g 66-63 cgitèhgtres pfrf èhgis g : qumaes g =,7-66 cgitèhgtres pfrf hua`grgs) uimjf f uhf ghpui`fjurf per uh cfoe jg fîe jg 6,? hgtre. Es rrgcerjgs gcerjgs sãe jg 0> hgtres hgtres pfrf èhgis ehgis g >= pfrf pf rf hua`grgs. hua`grgs.

Oeagfjgmrfs F oeagfjgmrf (oeafs oeafs)) í uh fpgrkgmîefhgite jf pgjrf jg frrghgssfr, kerhfjf per jems eu hfms pgses (ngrfahgitg oeafs jg pgjrf jurf g jgisf) ftfjes f uhf cerjf. Kem usfjf pgaes qug mijèngifs jfs Fhírmcfs jgsjgperf hfpuc`gs, prí-`mstórmf, hfms ietfjfhgitg pgaes micfs, f c`fhfvfh amwm g amwm g tfhoíh c`frrufs g pftfn÷gs, qug fs usfrfh ceitrf f cfvfafrmf jes gspfi`óms. F fvgstruzgmrf e i`fijuzgmrf (c`fhfjf cùhí   e tæaflnæp”i tæaflnæp”i pgaes pgaes tgùgac`gs jf Tftfnúimf) tg jufs oeafs g í usfjf pfrf cfîfr ghfs ghfrfi`fije-sg ie sgu pgsceîe. Ceh trâs pgses, í c`fhfjf trâs-hfrmfs eu petrgmrf ( yfc`mle yfc`mle pfrf es tgùgac`gs), usfjf pfrf prgijgr-sg ifs pgrifs jg fimhfms hfmergs, cehe teures g cfvfaes. Nfòcès trfjmcmeifahgitg agvfvfh uhf i`fijuzgmrf ä cmiturf g uhf petrgmrf ä ofijeagmrf. Ngrfahgitg sãe frhfjfs ceh cerjfs jg 6,7 f ? hgtres g fs oeafs sãe jg pgses jmkgrgitgs, pfrf sg sgpfrfrgh ie vee. E facficg í jg 34 hgtres. Es miumts eu gsqumhós usfvfh uhf vfrmgjfjg c`fhfjf lfauhmltui e lmauhmtutmt, ceh quftre f emte ‑oeafs‘ (igssg cfse, ngrfahgitg pgjfîes jg esse), pfrf fpfi`fr fvgs ie vee2 grf sgnurfjf ie cgitre, nmrfjf èrmzeitfahgitg seorg f cfogîf g afiîfjf ceitrf uhf rgvefjf jg pæssfres. Es hferms usfrfh uhf frhf sghga`fitg, c`fhfjf pef eu pem.

C`flrfs, C`flr fs, fjfnfs g sùrmlg sù rmlgis is E c`flrf, c`flrfh eu c`famlfr   í uhf frhf mijmfif ceistmtuèjf jg uh fre pafie jg hgtfa ceh nuhg gxtgrmer fkmfje. Tejg tgr jg 6? f 34 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre, pgsfije 74 f eu :44ienrfhfs. e tfhfiè, esigcgssmjfjg. usuærmes es agvfh ie orfîe, ie jg pgsceîe turofitg,Ceikerhg ftmrfije-es gh cfse jg Tejgh sgr jg fîe eu jg aftãe g äs vgzgs sãe jgcerfjes pfrf fjerie pgssefa, tgije smje cei`gcmjes ies òatmhes sícuaes cehe frhfs tèpmcfs jes sml`s. Es hgiergs sãe nmrfjes ie jgje mijmcfjer pfrf sgrgh frrghgssfjes eu usfjes cehe sequgmrfs, giqufite es hfmergs sãe ftmrfjes cehe jmsces eaèhpmces eu krmsoggs krmsoggs.. Gh ngrfa sãe afiîfjes gh pesmîãe vgrtmcfa pfrf gvmtfr ftminmr famfjes qug gstgbf fe afje g e facficg prætmce í jg :4 f 74 hgtres, äs vgzgs ftí 644 (hfs iãe rgterifh cehe ouhgrfinugs). E Sùjfrs`fif c`flrf c`flrf í f frhf hænmcf je jgus `miju [msìu, uh c`flrf c`flrf ceh ceh oerjf sgrrma`fjf jg 640 peitfs usfje per gag g sgus fvftfrgs pfrf jgcfpmtfr es mimhmnes jf erjgh. Cflgrf í uhf vgrsãe je c`flrf c`flrf usfjf usfjf gh frtgs hfrcmfms jf Mijeiísmf, fre qug gh vgz jg sgr uh pafie í cmaèijrmce (cehe uhf resqumi`f), sgije, pertfite, ceituijgitg. Í usfje gh pfrgs, pfrf frrghgsse eu cehe sequgmrf. Tui`fms, gstmagtgs, fjfnfs g kfcfs jg frrghgsse pejgh sgr qufmsqugr frhfs jg aïhmif iãe humte pgsfjfs g ogh gqumamorfjfs. Kfcfs nrfijgs sãe sgnurfjfs ceh f hãe cehe uh hfrtgae, grnumjfs pfrf træs jf cfogîf, ofmxfjfs cehe iu hevmhgite jg certfr uh nfaè g afrnfjfs qufije gstãe fami`fjfs ceh e fave. Kfcfs pgqugifs (ftí 644 nrfhfs) sãe sgnurfjfs ceh e peagnfr g uh eu jems jgjes g ftmrfjfs iuh neapg orusce< g sg iãe sãe jg jems nuhgs, pejgh sgr tfhoíh sgnurfjfs pgaf aïhmif (ceh e ceitrfkme fpemfje if pfahf). E facficg í jg 7 f > hgtres hgtres pfrf pfr f kfcfs pgqugifs g 0 f 67 hgtres pfrf pfr f fs nrfijgs. nrfijgs. Kfcfs kgmtfs gspgcmfahgitg pfrf prætmcf jg frrghgsse (micausmvg gspgtæcuaes jg cmrce) tgijgh f sgr smhítrmcfs g tâh peitf fnuîfjf g aïhmif rgaftmvfhgitg gspgssf g pgsfjf kerbfjf iuhf só pgîf ceh e cfoe jg hgtfa (äs vgzgs rgvgstmje). [frmfh jg hmimkfcfs jg 66,7 cgitèhgtres (aïhmif jg >,7) g ?> nrfhfs f kfcfs jg :4 cgitèhgtres g :74 nrfhfs. E tmpe ngrfahgitg usfje gh fprgsgitfî÷gs jg cmrce tgh ?4 cgitèhgtres (64 jg aïhmif) g 674 f ?44 nrfhfs. F kgm jfe (‑kfcf vefjerf‘) í uhf pgqugif kfcf jg frrghgsse c`migsf, ceh 67 f ?7 cgitèhgtres (= f 67 jg aïhmif) g 74 f 674 nrfhfs. If kerhf èbg usfjf g frtgs hfrcmfms, tgh uh figa ie pehe ie qufa sg fhfrrf uh pgijãe vgrhgaè pfrf teriæ-af hfms gspgtfcuafr gh g h vee.

E kgm omfe ( jfrje vefjer ) í uh pgqugie jfrje jg hgtfa c`miâs, qug sg

sgnurf if pfahf jf hãe pfrf frrghgssfr. If kerhf èbg usfjf gh frtgs hfrcmfms, tgh f kerhf fc`ftfjf jg uhf peitf jg afiîf g agvf uh pgijãe vgrhgaè pfrf teriæ-ae hfms gspgtfcuafr gh vee. Zgh 67 cgitèhgtres g pgsf 34 nrfhfs. E bm bmi i qmfi omfe (‑jfrje hegjf jeurfjf‘) í uhf hegjf c`migsf (ngrfahgitg ceh uhfkmfjf kuref qufjrfje ie cgitre), jg ?7 f 3> hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre, 7 f 67 nrfhfs, nrfh fs, fkmfj ifs oerjfs. Sùrmlgi (‑gspfjf jg gsceijgr if hãe‘, gh bfpeiâs) sãe pgqugies jfrjes e aïhmifs jg kgrre frrghgssfjes ceh f hãe eu usfjfs gh cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe, ngrfahgitg pfrf pgrturofr e mimhmne jg hfigmrf f kfcmamtfr f kunf eu uh neapg ce uhf frhf hfms gkmcfz. Faíh jg kæcgms jg gsceijgr, ceikuijmfh-sg (fe hgies ifs kerhfs hfms prmhmtmvfs) ceh prgnes (oe-sùrmlgi (oe-sùrmlgi)) g frrugafs (s`flgi (s`flgi)) usfjfs if ceistruîãe cmvma, e qug es terifvf misuspgmtes. @æ humtes tmpes, usfjes per jmkgrgitgs gsceafs g rgnm÷gs (eu mhprevmsfjes if igcgssmjfjg)2 oe-sùrmlgi, uh pgqugie jfrje jg hgtfa jg 6? f ?6 cgitmhgtres g jg 37 f7 674 nrfhfs, jg sgîãe rgjeijf, f>h gtres g værmes værm es kerhftes2 kerh ftes2 qufjrfjf eu ecteneifa, ceh facficg jg lunm-nftf (crfve) lunm-nftf (crfve) `frm-nftf ( `frm-nftf (fnu fnua`f) a`f) lfilyute (pui`fa lfilyute (pui`fa jg pgijurfr cfogîfs jgcfpmtfjfs) hgsu-nftf (nrfhpe hgsu-nftf (nrfhpe jg cfogae) luifm-nftf ( luifm-nftf (luifm luifm,, uhf kgrrfhgitf jg favgifrmf) ryeofrm-nftf (fc`ftfje, ryeofrm-nftf (fc`ftfje, ceh jufs peitfs) tfite-nftf (kfcf) tfite-nftf (kfcf) (afiîf) èle-nftf (afiîf) èle-nftf hftsunf-nftf (fnua`f hftsunf-nftf (fnua`f jg pmi`gmre) ignms`m ryu sùrmlgi (kenugtg sùrmlgi (kenugtg eu aæpms ginressfje ie hgme, :> f >: nrfhfs) s`flgi, uhf pgqugif aïhmif c`ftf rgjeijf jg nuhg certfitg eu ceh værmfs peitfs, ngrfahgitg jg :4 f >7 nrfhfs, ceh ? f 3 hmaèhgtres jg gspgssurf gspgss urf g 0 f 6? cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres jg afrnu afr nurf. rf. `fingtsu s`flgi (hgmf-auf) s`flgi (hgmf-auf) `ms`m nftf sùrmlgi (a sùrmlgi (aesfin esfine) e)

sfipe sùrmlgi (trmïinuae) sgiofi sùrmlgi (qufjrfje) sùrmlgi (qufjrfje) e-s`giofi (nrfijg), ceh 66,7 cgitèhgtres g >7 nrfhfs, frrgh frrg hgsse f 0 hgtres hgtres eu cehoftg cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe cerpe-f -cerpe le-s`giofi (pgqugie), (pgqugie),   ceh 0 cgitèhgtres g :4 nrfhfs, frrgh frrg hgsse f > hgtres hgtres bubm s`flgi (cruz) s`flgi (cruz) tsuhg s`flgi (nfrrf) s`flgi (nfrrf) hfibm hfi bm s`flgi (suæstmcf) s`flgi (suæstmcf) tftfhm bubm s`flgi (cruz s`flgi (cruz jeorævga) reluès`m sùrmlgi (`gxæneie), jg 0 cgitèhgtres g 77 nrfhfs `fllflu sùrmlgi (ectóneie) jg 0 cgitèhgtres g 74 nrfhfs, frrghgsse f 64 hgtres `mrf-sùrmlgi, s`flgi ceh værmfs peitfs, gh kerhf jg gstrgaf impe s`flgi (gstrgaf s`flgi (gstrgaf jg ? peitfs) s`filflu s`flgi (gstrgaf jg 3 peitfs), jg >,7 cgitèhgtres g ?7 nrfhfs, hfms usfje gh cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe qug g frrghgsse s`mlflu s`flgi s`flgi (gstrgaf jg : peitfs), jg 64 cgitèhgtres g ;4 nrfhfs, nrfh fs, frrgh frrg hgssf f 64 hgtres le s`mlflug :4 s`flgi (gstrgaf pgqugif jg : peitfs), jg = cgitèhgtres nrfhfs, frrghgssf f 0 hgtres nelflu s`flgi (gstrgaf s`flgi (gstrgaf jg 7 peitfs) rellflu s`flgi s`flgi (gstrgaf jg ; peitfs), jg 66 cgitèhgtres g ;4 nrfhfs, nrfh fs, frrgh frrg hgssf f 6? hgtres s`mc`m è s`flgi (gstrgaf s`flgi (gstrgaf jg > peitfs) `fppe s`flgi (gstrgaf s`flgi (gstrgaf jg 0 peitfs) ceh 63,7 cgitèhgtres g >4 nrfhfs, frrghgssf f 64 hgtres ceh 6?,7 cgitèhgtres g 667 nrfhfs, frrghgssf f 67 hgtres

ceh 64,7 cgitèhgtres g ;4 nrfhfs, frrghgssf f 6? hgtres ceh 0 cgitèhgtres g 74 nrfhfs, frrghgssf f ; hgtres ceh ; cgitèhgtres g 64 nrfhfs, frrghgssf f 3 hgtres< cestuhf-sg usfr 64 f 67 pgîfs jg uhf vgz, pfrf cècfr e mimhmne. luè s`flgi (gstrgaf s`flgi (gstrgaf jg = peitfs) bmppe bm ppe s`flgi s`flgi (gstrgaf (gstrgaf jg 64 peitfs) bu yei pe sùrmlgi sùrml gi (gstrgaf (gstrgaf jg 6: peitfs) mhprevms evmsfjes fjes (eobgtes fjgqufjes pfrf sgrgh ftmrfjes) sùrmlgi mhpr lenfm (nrfhpe lenfm (nrfhpe jg cfogae, cfoga e, nufrjfje nufrjfje if sfyf sfyf jf jf gspfjf) wfrm-lenfm (nrfhpe qug sg jmvmjg pfrf usfr cehe `fs`ms, nufrjfje if sfyf sfyf)) uhfofrm (aïhmif peitujf, usfjf pfrf sfinrmfs gh cfvfaes, nufrjfjf if sfyf sfyf)) lezulf (kfqumi`f lezulf (kfqumi`f utmamtærmf, nufrjfjf if sfyf sfyf jf jf gspfjf) `fs`m (pfuzmiè `fs`m (pfuzmiè jg cehgr) omfe (prgne) omfe (prgne) tgppfi (c`fpf tgppfi (c`fpf jg cezmi`f) hflmoms`m (gstrgpg, usfje pfrf jmkmcuatfr f pfssfngh jg trepfs g cfvfaes) tgtsuoms`m (gstrgpg jg kgrre) E pflu í uh pgqugie jfrje sghga`fitg f uh oe-sùrmlgi oe-sùrmlgi,, usfje if Mijeiísmf. If kerhf trfjmcmeifa, tmi`f 7 f >,7 cgitèhgtres g grf fnuîfje ifs jufs peitfs. If kerhf èbg usfjf ie pgitb ie pgitbfl fl smaft sma ft , tgh 64 f 67 cgitèhgtres g só uhf peitf. Kuhf sùrmlgi sùrm lgi í uhf frhf kmctècmf jg hfinæs, fimhgs g _TNs – uh s`flgi nmnfitg, ngrfahgitg værmfs aïhmifs jeorævgms ceh givgrnfjurf tetfa jg hfms jg uh hgtre. Nafmvg í uhf frhf kmctècmf hænmcf, usfjf pgae `gróm Ceawyi je kmahg Lruaa kmahg Lruaa,, uhf gstrgaf jg hgtfa jg cmice peitfs curvfs ceh cgrcf jg 3? cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre.

Hfc`fjmi`fs ), pgsfije gh terie jg ;44 nrfhfs g ceh cgrcf jg ;4 Hfc`fjmi`fs (`ftc`gt ), cgitèhgtres, usfjfs tfite pfrf neapgfr qufite pfrf frrghgssfr, kerfh tfhoí humte Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf, cehí jg e iehg jghgtres. krfiqumsqug (krficmscf ( krficmscf), ), per sgrgh usfjfs usfjfs if pgaes krfices. E facficg 64 f 67 If Fhírmcf je Iertg, usfrfh-sg hfc`fjmi`fs sghga`fitgs ceh e iehg mijèngif jg tehf`fwl, ghoerf kessgh hfc`fjes jg kgrre jg ceaeies orfices (gvgitufahgi (gvgitu fahgitg tg cepmfjes cepmfj es g fjqumrmjes per mijèn m ijèngifs) gifs) g iãe mivgiî÷gs mivgiî÷gs iftmvfs. iftmvfs. E ùraoft   eu w`mraoft   grf grf uhf hfc`fjmi`f kerbfjf iuhf só pgîf jg kgrre jg cgrcf jg ; hmaèhgtres jg gspgssurf, ceh aïhmif jg hfc`fje g peitfs fnuîfjfs ftræs, fcmhf g if ofsg, fuhgitfije fs c`ficgs jg cfusfr kgrmhgites qufije frrghgssfje. Kerfh usfjes if Gurepf jg 6374 f 6774. Zmi`f cgrcf jg 37 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res g pgsfvf pg sfvf 744 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Wh tmpe jg hfc`fjmi`f jg kgrre jg aïhmif vfzfjf, c`fhfje izfppf zfp, fppezfp, eu lfsuyu, í cfrfctgrèstmce je Ceine.

Jfrjes, fzfnfmfs fzfnfmfs g pmaes pm aes F fzfnfmf, fscuif eu vgiæouae ( bfvgami bfvga mi)) í uhf afiîf jg frrghgsse. Wh tèpmce cfîfjer eu nugrrgmre trmofa cfrrgnf trâs eu quftre fzfnfmfs jg 6,0 f ?,7 hgtres g 6 frgsgr 6,7vfije qumae,ffrrghgssfije-fs ie fave (ceh uh facficg jg, tfavgz, jgz hgtres) g rgsgrvfije òatmhf òatmhf pfrf pfr f amqumjæ-a a mqumjæ-ae e cehe frhf frh f pgrku pgr kurfitg. rfitg. Afiîfs jg frrghgsse ceh peitf jg oreizg kerfh usfjfs ie Gnmte g Hgsepetïhmf jgsjg e miècme jf cmvmamzfîãe g tfhoíh pgaes nrgnes èhírmces, ceh cgrcf jg 6 f 6,? hgtre jg cehprmhgite g uhf peitf jg 0 f 6? cgitèhgtres. If Maèfjf, f afiîf í f frhf prmicmpfa jes nugrrgmres fqugus, qug jgsprgzfh e frce g kagc`f jg Tærms g jg eutres tremfies cehe uh rgcurse jg cevfrjgs. Jems gstmaes jg cehoftg sãe hgicmeifjes, uh qug usf uhf afiîf jg gstecfr g eutre g qug sg usfh jufs afiîfs jg frrghgsse. [fag ietfr, períh, e futer vmvgu humtes sícuaes jgpems jes fceitgcmhgites g pfrgcg jgscei`gcgr fs vgrjfjgmrfs tætmcfs jg cehoftg cehoftg jf ípecf jg Zremf. remf . Ter gxghpae, gxghpae, ie ípmce ípm ce es nugrrgm nugrrgmres res usfh fs omnfs cehe ‑tæxm‘ pfrf sgrgh agvfjes ä cgif jf oftfa`f g cehoftgh f pí. Hfs f Mjfjg je Oreizg fs usfvf cehe paftfkerhfs hóvgms jg cehoftg, jfs qufms nugrrgmres ftmrfvfh afiîfs eu jmspfrfvfh kagc`fs giqufite sgus furmnfs es ceijuzmfh gitrg fs ami`fs mimhmnfs g seajfjes f pí es gsceatfvfh cerrgije g ftmrfije sufs próprmfs afiîfs jg frrghgsse, cehe tfhoíh kfzmfh es gnèpcmes, ofomaúimes, mijmfies g pgrsfs. F pfrtmr jfs Nugrrfs Tòimcfs (?;:-6:; f.C.), fs agnm÷gs rehfifs suostmtuèrf nrfjufahgitg fs `fstfs, afiîfs jg gstecfr, pgae pmae ( pmauh pma uh), ), uhf afiîf jg frrgh frrg hgsse mivgitfjf mivgitfjf pga pgaes es sfh s fhiimtfs, peve mtæamce m tæamce qug es reh r ehfies fies gikrgitfrfh gikrgitfrfh iifs fs Nugrrfs Sfhimtfs (3:3-34: f.C.). Zmi`f cgrcf jg jems hgtres, micaumije uhf `fstg jg hfjgmrf jg 6,: hgtre g ?? f ?0 hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre uimjf per u pmie eu sequgtg f uhf `fstg jg kgrre jg ;4 cgitèhgtres, ceh > hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre jmïhgt re g peitf peitf pmrfhmjfa pm rfhmjfa kfrpfjf. Fssmh cehe cehe ifs `fstfs g ifs afiîfs a fiîfs nrgn nrgnfs, fs, e ceitee (ofsg) ceit (ofs g) tmi`f peitf, peitf, qug pejmf sgr s gr usfjf pfrf pf rf crfvfr c rfvfr f frh fr hf ie c`ãe eu cehe cehe peitf jg rgsgrvf cfse f prmicmpfa sg qugorfssg. Buite ceh e pgse jf frhf (uhf jfs hfms pgsfjfs pgsf jfs afiîfs a fiîfs jg frrghgsse fr rghgsse usfjfs gh cehoftg), cehoftg), f peitf peitf jg kgrr kgrree kmif g aeinf pessmomamtfvf pgigtrfr gscujes g ftminmr e mimhmne per træs jgag, eu pgae hgies sg cr crfvfr fvfr ie gscuje jg hfigmrf hfigmrf f teriæ-a teriæ-aee mi m iòt òtma. ma. F tætmcf usufa grf ftmrfr e pmae agvg (cgrcf jg jems qumaes) f uhf jmstïicmf jg qumizg f vmitg hgtres je mimhmne, e pmae pgsfje (cgrcf jg quftre qumaes) f emte e jgz hgtres g e naæjme qufije sg c`gnfvf fe cehoftg cerpe-f-cerpe.

Ecfsmeifahgitg, e pmae grf tfhoíh usfje pfrf gstecfr, prmicmpfahgitg pfrf jgtgr

uhf cfvfafrmf mimhmnf. @æ qugh jmnf qug f peitf grf kgmtf jg kgrre hfcme pfrf gitertfr eu qugorfr qufije grrfvf e fave jg heje qug e mimhmne iãe pujgssg ftmrfr e pmae jg veatf, hfs gssf mitgrprgtfîãe í rgbgmtfjf pgaes gspgcmfamstfs ftufms. kfaærmcf F kmif , sghga`fitg fe pmae, grfg usfjf pgaesjgmogres. peitf jg kgrre g fnuîfjf jg =4 cgitèhgtres uhf `fstg tgmxe jgZmi`f mnufa uhf cehprmhgite. Es mogres krgqugitghgitg gireafvfh g fcgijmfh hftgrmfa cehoustèvga if peitf jg kgrre, trfiskerh trfiskerhfije-f fije-f gh frh fr hf micgijmær micgijmærmf. mf. E sfuimei, c`fhfje seam seamkgrr kgrruh uh pgaes rehfies, grf tfhoíh usfje pgaes mogres. Gqumvfamf fe pmae pgsfje gh use g pgse, hfs grf uhf afiîf jg frrghgsse tejf jg kgrre, kgrr e, jg 6,7 f 6,0 hgtre hgtre jg cehprmhgi cehprmhgite. te. Es nugrrg nugrrgmres mres krfices, krfices, ngrhïimces ngrhïimces g finae-s finae-sfx÷gs fx÷gs usfrfh e finei, sghga`fitg fe pmae pma e rehfie rehfie je qufa prevfvgahgi prevf vgahgitg tg grf jgrmvf jg rmvfje, je, jurfitg jurfitg f Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf. Gitrg es rehfies, es pmaes kerfh suostmtuèjes pgae spmcua spmcuauh uh jg frrghgssfr, ceh cgrcf jg jems jem s hgtres, hgtres, peitf peitf trmfin trm finuafr uafr jg ?4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres res g pgaf aficgf (afiîf jg gstecfr) jg gstecfr g certfr, ceh uhf peitf gh kerhf jg kea`f eu aesfine g oerjfs fkmfjfs jg fîe f pfrtmr je tghpe jg Jmecagcmfie (?0:-347 j.C.). Fanuhfs agnm÷gs agvfvfh ie ece je gscuje cmice pauhoft pauhoftfg fg (‑cùhofjfs‘) eu hfrtmeofrouam hfrtmeofrouam (‑kfrpfs (‑kfrpfs jg Hfrtg‘), jfrjes ceh afstre jg cùhoe g râhmngs jg pgifs eu ceure (gstfomamzfjergs, cehe jg kagc`fs), ceh cehprmhgite jg 74 f >4 cgitèhgtres g pgse jg ?44 f 344 nrfhfs. Zmi`fh facficg supgrmer äs afiîfs jg frrghgsse – :4 f 74 hgtres – g ceitmiufrfh f sgr usfjfs pgaes omzfitmies if Mjfjg Híjmf. Fs afiîfs jg frrghgsse kerfh fofijeifjfs if Ofmxf Mjfjg Híjmf, gxcgte gitrg es nfagsgs g mrafijgsgs, qug fs usfrfh pfrf rgsmstmr fes minagsgs ftí e sícuae P[M, g es moírmces, qug fs usfrfh ftí e sícuae PM[. F afiîf jg frrghgsse cgatf í e bfvgami preprmfhgitg jmte, pfafvrf minagsf qug jgrmvf je krficâs bfvga bfvgaet et , jg ermngh nfuagsf. Zmi`f 6 f 6,7 hgtre jg cehprmhgite. Jf afiîf jg frrghgsse ogrogrg c`fhfjf zfnfyf` c`fhfjf zfnfyf`,, fjetfjf pgaes ærfogs cehe fz-zfnfyf`   (gh minaâs, fssgnfm fz-zfnfyf` fssgnfm)) vgh e iehg pertunuâs jg fzfnfmf eu zfnfmf. Ceh peitf jg kgrre, qug pejg sgr uh smhpags gspmnãe eu tgr kfrpfs eu oerjfs certfitgs, vgme f sgr usfjf jg Ifvfrrf ä Ækrmcf je Sua. Fjetfjf pgaes fahenævfrgs, trepf jg mikfitfrmf amngmrf je rgmie jg Frfnãe qug kem ftmvf gh teje e Hgjmtfrrïige ies sícuaes PMMM g PM[, grf c`fhfjf fzceif fzceif,, pfafvrf jg ermngh ofscf. E iehg cerrgspeijgitg gh pertunuâs grf fscuhf,

fscuif eu fscui`f. Vufije usfjf pfrf f cfîf if Gurepf, f afiîf agvg jg

frrg hgsse grf c`fhfjf frrgh c`fhfjf vgiæouae. Zmpmcfhgitg, f fzfnfmf tgh 6,7 f 6,> hgtre jg cehprmhgite tetfa, ceh peitf jg 34 cgitèhgtres. Es ærfogs g fahenævfrgs cfrrgnfvfh jufs fzfnfmfs g uhf gspfjf curtf g usfvfh gssfs frhfs jg kerhf sghga`fitg fes rehfies. E aghomin í uhf afiîf hfafmf jg frrghgsse aïhmif tgh f kerhf eijuafjf jf fjfnf crms. Äshfafmf vgzgsg ímijeiísmf, c`fhfjf cubf gqumvecfjfhgitg tehofl , qug if vgrjfjg í e iehg jf afiîf jg gstecfr, ceh aïhmif gh kerhf jg kea`f jg ofhou. E cehprmhgite vfrmf jg :4 cgitèhgtres f jems hgtres. E jfrje eaèhpmce ( bfvgami bfvga mi)) í uhf fzfnfmf aeinf g humte agvg, kgmtf jg fauhèime, kmorf jg vmjre eu kmorf jg cfroeie. F vgrsãe hfscuamif tgh ?,> hgtres jg cehprmhgite g pgsf 044 nrfhfs, ceh cfogîf jg ?7 f 33 cgitèhgtres g jmïhgtre jg ?7 f 34 hmaèhgtres. F kghmimif tgh ;44 nrfhfs g hgjg ?,3 hgtres. Es rgcerjgs rgcer jgs jg afiîfhgit afiîfhgitee sãe jf erjgh erjg h jg =4 g >4 hgtres, rgspgctmvfhgi r gspgctmvfhgitg. tg. Gxírcmtes bfpeigsgs rgnuafrgs iãe usfvfh afiîfs jg frrghgsse, hfs imibfs usfvfh f yfrm-ifng, uhf fzfnfmf ceh cgrcf jg 6,>7 hgtre g e uc`m-ig, uh jfrje jg ;4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres. res. Frp÷gs (`frpeeis `frpeeis)) sãe afiîfs jg frrghgsse ceh peitfs kfrpfjfs, ngrfahgitg jg 6,7 f 3 hgtres jg cehprmhgite, usfjfs if pgscf g if cfîf jg hfhèkgres hfrmiès, ecfsmeifahgitg usfjfs cehe frhfs. Wh frpãe jg hfjgmrf pgsf cgrcf jg 6,7 qumae g uh jg hgtfa, cgrcf jg 3 qumaes. E facficg í jg cgrcf jg 64 hgtres.

Frhfs jg frrghgsse cehpagxfs Frhfs qug usfh fanuh tmpe jg hgcfimshe frrghgssfjer.

Afiîf-jfrjes F pfrtmr jg 67.444 f.C., í ftgstfje pgaf frqugeaenmf e use je afiîf-jfrjes e prepuaser (minaâs spgfr t`rewgr eu eu   ftafta, ftafta, cfstga`fie gstóamcf gstóamcf,, krficâs repuasgur repuasgur), ), uhf uhfusfje fafvficf fa fvficf cubefstgcfs use fuhgit fuhgrf gitffc`fhfje e facficgftafta jg jfrjes g fzfnfmfs. E prepuaser pgaes . Zmi`f cgrcf jg ;4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g ? f 3,7 cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf (hfms afrnes if peitf, eijg sg gicfmxf e prebítma) g afiîfvf jfrjes jg 6,? f ?,> hgtres jg cehprmhgite g = f 6; hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre (04 f 744 nrfhfs) c`fhfjes tafcec`tam   eu taftzeitgctam tafcec`tam taftzeitgctam   (hmifcfc`faam hmifcfc`faam   qufije tmi`fh peitf gh trmjgitg, pfrf cfîfr fvgs fquæt f quætmcfs mcfs)) qug ftminmfh ftminmfh kfcmahgitg kfcmahgitg jmstïicmfs jg 74 f >4 hgtres. Es foerèngigs jf Fustræamf usfvfh uh prepuaser c`fhfje weehgrf, ceh ;4 f =4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, ceh e qufa afiîfvfh jfrjes jg 6,0 f 3 hgtres f ftí 634 hgtres.

Fhgite Fs kfafings nrgnfs je pgrèeje caæssmce usfvfh fpgifs afiîfs jg gstecfr. Hfs es hfcgjúimes usfrfh cehe trepfs fuxmamfrgs es pgat es pgatfstfs fstfs,, uhf mikfitfrmf agvg frhfjf ceh uh pgatf uh pgat (gscuje vmhg, gh kerhf g trâs fzfnfmfs jg 6,7 f ? fhgtres jg jg cehprmhgite g 67 fjg?4crgscgitg) hmaèhgtres jg fleitmes jmïhgtre,, cube facficg g prgcmsãe grfh hgaèrfjes per uhf tmrf jg ceure c`fhfjf fhgite (nrgne filyag, aftmh g minaâs fhgituh minaâs fhgituh), ), qug grf gireafjf if `fstg g jgsgireafjf ie frrghgsse, cehuimcfije ä frhf uhf retfîãe qug f gstfomamzfvf. Kgmtfs jg hfjgmrf jg sfounugmre g peitf jg oreizg, gssfs fzfnfmfs grfh tfhoíh usfjfs pgaf cfvfafrmf, buite ceh f afiîf xyste xysteii. Gxpgrmâicmfs hejgrifs jg pgsqumsfjergs je Hgsf Stftg Ceaagng giceitrfrfh qug uh fleitmes fleitmes nrgne nrgne jg 6,0 hgtre g 6= hmaè maèh hgtres jg jmïhgtre, jmïhgtre, ceh c eh pgse jg :74 nrfhfs, nrfhfs, pejg sgr ftmrfje per uh afiîfjer hejgrie gh híjmf f ?4 hgtres ceh fs hães g f 36 hgtres ceh u fhgite jg :0 kgmtejgceh tmrfs jg ceure ;4 cgitèhgtres. E fcays grfcgitèhgtres, uhf fzfnfmf frrghgsse usfjfjgpgaes esces g fjetfjf pgaes rehfies je sícuae M[ f.C. fe M f.C., ceh uhf peitf fnuîfjf jg kgrre g uhf cfvma`f cfvma `f pfrf prgijgr pr gijgr e fhgite. fhgite. Zmi` Zmi`ff cgrcf cgr cf jg 6,0 hgtre. hgtre. Fs trepfs fuxmamfrgs rehfifs, c`fhfjfs jg agvgs g rerfrmm rerfrmm (ceikerhg f pesmîãe ifs ami`fs jg cehoftg) ie sícuae M[ f.C g vgamtgs vgamtgs   f pfrtmr jfs Nugrrfs Tòimcfs, grfh frhfjfs ceh fzfnfmfs jg 6,6 hgtre jg cehprmhgite g peitf jg hgtfa jg 63 cgitèhgtres, c`fhfjfs vgrutf ( (smin sminuafr uafr vgrutuh vgrutuh)) eu `fstfg vgamtfrgs, faíh jg gscuje g naæjme, pgsfije cgrcf jg uh qumae. Grfh frrghgssfjfs ceh f cerrgmf jg ceure qug es rehfies c`fhfvfh jg fhgituh fhgituh.. Gh tghpes hgjmgvfms g hejgries, tfhoíh sg usf uh fhgite eu cerjf ceh e qug sg c`fhf jg kagc`f suèîf (swmss frrew, yerls`mrg frrew, nmpsy frrew), frrew), u jfrje agvg eu kagc`f jg cfif jg =4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, ; hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre g cgrcf jg 34 nrfhfs, qug iãe tgh gitfa`g if rfogmrf, hfs if `fstg, f cgrcf jg uh tgrîe je cehprmhgite (hgjmije jg træs), ie qufa sg gireaf f cerjf g sg ftmrf, pfrf cfîfr cegaès eu eutres pgqugies fimhfms, ceh facficg jg :4 f 74 hgtres.

Kuijfs F kuijf eu kuijèouae (minaâs samin samin,, krficâs kreijg kreijg,, faghãe Scàgujgr Scàgujgr)) ceismstg gh uhf ofafjgmrf (rgcgptæcuae) if qufa sg faebf uhf pgjrf, oeaf jg frnmaf eu uhf pgaeure jg cùhoe, f jufs cerjfs eu cerrgmfs, qufmsqug tg í if peitf puasgmrf, eijg euimjf usuærme prgijg f cerjf g f eutrfuhf uhfjfs peitf seatf jgpems qug f kuijf í nmrfjf (ngrfahgitg gh ïinuae jg ;4 nrfus), mhpuasmeifije e prebítma ceh f jmrgîãe g vgaecmjfjg fjgqufjfs. Afiîfje ce `fomamjfjg, e prebgtma ftming 644 qumaúhgtres per èrf g pejg facfiîfr hfms jg :44 hgtres, ghoerf e facficg hmamtfr prætmce sgbf cgrcf jg ?44 hgtres, sghga`fitg f uhf uhf ka kagc`f. gc`f. Gssf frhf pfrgcg tgr smje usfjf gh teje e huije, gxcgte f Fustræamf, jgsjg e Tfageaètmce Supgrmer (:4.444 – 64.444 f.C.), mimcmfahgitg if cfîf. Hfms tfrjg, terieu-sg pfrtmcuafrhgitg cfrfctgrèstmcf jg pfstergs, qug fs usfvfh pfrf gspfitfr aeoes eutrfs fhgfîfs f sgus rgofiès. use hfms ifNeamfs, hmteaenmf í, sghg jòvmjf, ifs hães je gitãe pfsterEJfvm pfrf kfhese jgrretfrjfe kuijf nmnfitg ie Trmhgmre Amvre jg Sfhuga. Sfhuga. E use jg kuijfs if nugrrf í hgicmeifje gh eutrfs pfrtgs je Fitm Fitmne ne Zgstfhgite,, if Maè Zgstfhgite Maèfjf fjf   g per værmes `mstermfjergs caæssmces. Grfh usfjfs per trepfs fuxmamfrgs, es kuijmouaærmes kuijmouaærmes,, kerhfjfs pgaes cmjfjães hfms peorgs jfs cmjfjgs-gstfjes, qug iãe tmi`fh rgcurses pfrf fjqumrmr eutrfs frhfs, g hgshe per gscrfves, gscrf ves, qufije c`fh c`fhfjes fjes f fuxmam fuxmamfr fr sgus fhes. Gh _eh _ehf, f, es fuxma fuxmamfr mfrgs gs qug usfvfh kuijfs grfh c`fhfjes fccgism fccgism.. Es peves hfms kfheses per suf `fomamjfjg ceh f kuijf grfh es fcfriïimes jf Nrícmf fitmnf g es ofagfrgs, jfs ma`fs jg hgshe iehg if ftufa Gspfi`f. Sgnuije es futergs fitmnes, f kuijf grf hfms pgrmn pgrm nesf qug e frce pfrf uh nugrr nugrrgmre gmre qug usfssg usfssg fpgifs frhfjurf frhfjurf jg ceure. If Mjfjg Híjmf, f kuijf jgmxeu jg sgr usfjf cehe frhf jg nugrrf if hfmer pfrtg jf Gurepf, gxcgte if Tgièisuaf Moírmcf, eijg es crmstães f usfvfh ceitrf es heures. Es mijèngifs jfs Fhírmcfs tfhoíh usfrfh kuijfs ceitrf es mivfsergs gurepgus – es micfs, gh pfrtmcuafr, usfvfh kuijfs (ùfrfcfs (ùfrfcfs)) jg ftí ?,? hgtres jg cehprmhgite, cfpfzgs jg afiîfr pgjrfs jg :44 nrfhfs g hftfr uh cfvfae, e qugorfr uhf gspfjf gh jufs, facfiîfije ftí >4 hgtres. Ierhfahgitg, e cehprmhgite jf kuijf vfrmf jg ;4 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre. Vufije sg usfh pgjrfs, gafs pejgh vfrmfr jg 74 f 744 nrfhfs g sgr gskírmcfs, fc`ftfjfs, gampsemjgs eu gh kerhf jg fhâijef (omcúimcfs). Ftí f Mjfjg je Oreizg, prgkgrmfh-sg pgjrfs fprexmhfjfhgitg gskírmcfs jg ?44 f 344 nrfhfs g >

f 0 cgitèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. Ie use hmamtfr jf Mjfjg Caæssmcf, prgkgrmfh-sg

pgjrfs rgjeijfs jg 7 cgitèhgtres g 644 nrfhfs eu, hgaèr fmijf, pgaeures omcúimces jg cùhoe, ceh 37 hmaèhgtres jg cehprmhgite, ?4 jg afrnurf g cgrcf jg 34 nrfhfs, qug prepercmeifvfh hfmer facficg g grfh hfms jmkècgms jg vgr g vee. E facficg c`gnfvf f 604 hgtres ceh pgaeures jg cùhoe g =4 ceh pgjrfs. E kustèofae (stfkk samin í uhf prgsf qug ä peitf jg uhf vfrf jge mhpuase ftí jems hgtres, sgnurfjf pgafsamin) ofsg) ceh fs kuijf jufs hães, fafvficf g fhpamf jfje fe prebítma. Sgrvg pfrf afiîfr prebítgms hfms pgsfjes f jmstïicmf sghga`fitg ä facfiîfjf pgaf kuijf smhpags ceh prebítgms agvgs, eu afiîfr pgjrfs g pgaeures je hgshe tfhfiè f jmstïicmfs 74% hfmergs. Ie miècme jf grf jf póaverf, kerf usfjes pfrf afiîfr nrfifjfs g oehofs micgijmærmfs. E lgstres eu lgstresp`gijeig í uhf kuijf jg ceure usfjf pfrf afiîfr u jfrje pgsfje f 04-644 hgtres. Sgnuije es `mstermfjergs rehfies Zmte Aèvme g Teaèome, kem usfjf pgaes hfcgjúimes je rgm Tgrsgu if Zgrcgmrf Nugrrf Hfcgjúimf (6>6-6;0 f.C.).

Rfrfoftfifs F zfrfoftfif (oaewnui oaewnui   eu oaewpmpg oaewpmpg)) í uh tuoe usfje pfrf mhpgamr u pgqugie jfrje ceh e sepre, ierhfahgitg usfje pfrf f cfîf jg fimhfms pgqugies. Ærfogs g mrfimfies, gxghpae, f usfvfh if cfîfpfrf fesfoftgr pæssfres g je ærfog g pgrsf zfoftfif pgrsf zfoftfif vgh vgh e per iehg pertunuâs. Tejg sgrvmr fimhfms hfmergs eu pgssefs sg e jfrje, ierhfahgitg pgqugie g qufsg miekgismve, ker givgigifje, cehe kfzgh cgrtes mijèngifs jf Fhfzúimf g Numfifs (usfije e curfrg). @ebg, e use jf zfrfoftfif tfhoíh í prftmcfje cehe gspertg. E facficg í jg cgrcf jg ?7 hgtres ceh uh tuoe jg ;4 cgitèhgtres g cfamorg jg 64 hmaèhgtres, :7 hgtres ceh uh jg =4 cgitèhgtres, ;? hgtres ceh uhf zfrfoftfif jg 6,? hgtre g >; hgtres ceh uhf jg 6,0 hgtre. Ceh cfamorgs jg 63-67 hmaèhgtres, í pessèvga ftminmr jmstïicmfs ?7% hfmergs. Fs zfrfoftfifs fmijf usfjfs per mijèngifs jfs Fhírmcfs g peves je Sujgstg Fsmætmce sãe ngrfahgitg jg tfqufrfs ofhous g pejgh jg 6,7 f ?,> hgtres. Jmspfrfh jfrjeskgmtfs jg hfjgmrf jg 67 eu f 77 cgitèhgtres, qugtgr usfh pgifs e kea`fngh cehe râhmngs. F vgrsãe hfafmf g mijeiísmf sg c`fhf suhpm suhpmtfi tfi g tg 6,0 hgtre. F zfrfoftfif bfpeigsf sg c`fhf kulmyf. E hejgae usfje gh cehpgtmî÷gs í u tuoe smhpags gh oecfa jg 6,? hgtre, cfamorg jg 63 hmaèhgtres g jmspfrf ceigs jg pfpga jg ?4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres res g 4,0 nrfhf. nrfhf. F zfrfoftfif jg cehpgtmîãe ecmjgitfa tgh uh oecfa gh kerhf jg smie, cehprmhgite jg 6,? hgtre g cfamorg jg 64 hmaèhgtres. Gh cehpgtmî÷gs, ngrfahgit ngrfah gitgg sg usfh jfrjes jg paæstmce pa æstmce ceaerm c eaermjes jes jg ?,7 cgitèhgtres cgitèhgtres g ? nrfhfs nrfhfs e oeafs jg tmitf jg 6 cgitèhgtre g hgmf nrfhf. If cfîf, usfh-sg jfrjes hgtæamces kmies g aeines jg 64 cgitèhgtres g = f 63 nrfhfs, eu jfrjes hfms curtes g nresses, jg hgshe pgse g : cgitèhgtres. @æ tfhoíh zfrfoftfifs ceh cfamorg jg 6> hmaèhgtres, fjgqufjfs pfrf jmspfrfr ofafs jg pfmit jg pfmitofaa ofaa gh gh cehpgtmî÷gs.

Frces, Frc es, kagc`fs g oej oejequgs equgs E frce (oew (oew)) í uhf pgîf aeinf, jg hftgrmfa gaæstmce – hfjgmrf, c`mkrg, esse, paæstmces eu kmorf jg vmjre – usfje pfrf gstmcfr uhf cerjf qug afiîf uh prebítma, ngrfahgitg kagc`f (frrew). F frtg jg sãe usæ-aes sg c`fhf e frqugmrmshe uhf (frc`gry) (frc`gry ) g(frrew sgus). prftmcfitgs frqugmres (hfmsfrqugmrmf rfrfhgitg, kagc`gmres eu krgc`gmres). F krgc`gmres). Frc`gmre rc`gmre,, gh pertunuâs, iãe í usuærme jg frce g smh jg frc`f, uhf frhf jg `fstg. E use jg frces ceh kagc`fs jg peitf jg pgjrf afscfjf, prgsfs ä vfrgtf per tgij÷gs g ceh râhmngs jg pgifs, í ftgstfje if Ækrmcf je Sua jgsjg ;:.444 f.C. g if Gurepf g Ermgitg Híjme jgsjg =.444 f.C. Ifs Fhírmcfs, pfrgcgh tgr c`gnfje if rgnmãe ærtmcf gh ?744 f.C., f rgnm÷gs tghpgrfjfs g trepmcfms f pfrtmr jg ?444 f.C. Frces kerfh fhpafhgitg usfjes if cfîf g if nugrrf ie Gnmte g Hgsepetïhmf g gh eutrfs cmvmamzfî÷gs fsmætmcfs g fkrmcfifs, ceheifstfhoíh gitrg caæssmcfs es cgatfsjfg ngrhïimces. Zmvgrfh hgies mhpertïicmf, períh, cmvmamzfî÷gs Fitmnumjfjg ecmjgitfa. Ceh gxcgîãe jes crgtgisgs, qug ceitmiufrfh f trfjmîãe jg frqugmrmf jf Nrícmf hmcâimcf jf Mjfjg je Oreizg, es nrgnes caæssmces vfaermzfvfh e cehoftg seamjærme jfs kfafings, ceh afiîf g naæjme, g ceismjgrfvfh e frce uhf frhf ‑cevfrjg‘ fssecmfjf f fsmætmces, micausmvg e vmaãe tremfie Tærms. Es gxírcmtes hfcgjúimes, seo e cehfije jg Fagxfijrg, usfvfh e frce, hfs iãe es rehfies, qug só es usfvfh gh trepfs fuxmamfrgs kerhfjfs per oærofres. Fpgsfr jg sgu ofmxe prgstènme gitrg es hertfms qug es fjerfvfh, frces mikfaèvgms grfh f frhf jg Fpeae g Ærtghms (famfjes jes tremfies), cubfs kagc`fs hertfms iuicf grrfvfh e fave g jg Gres, e jgus je fher, qug usfvf kagc`fs ce peitf jg eure pfrf prevecfr e fher. @írfcags tfhoíh tmi`f e frce, fe afje jf cafvf, cehe suf frhf prmicmpfa g sufs sgtfs kerfh ghogomjfs ie sfinug vgigiese jf @mjrf, e qug fs terieu foseautfhgitg agtfms. F Maèfjf terieu kfhese e frce jg Ejmssgu, qug igiùh jes prgtgijgitgs jg Tgiíaepg ceisgnumu gicerjefr. F hfmermf jes jgusgs g `gróms `mijus tfhoíh usfvf frces g kagc`fs, ietfjfhgitg [msìu, qug tmi`f e frce S`frfinf S`frfinf g g S`mvf qug usfvf e Tmiflf e Tmiflf,, qug tmi`f ?,; hgtres jg cehprmhgite. E `gróm Frbuif usfvf e frce Nfijmvf Nfijmvf,, qug pgrtgicgrf fes jgusgs Orf`hf, Trfbfpftm, Mijrf, Sehf g [fruif. Frbuif g Lrmsìf grfh es òimces qug pejmfh vgrnfr Nfijmvf ie huije jes hertfms g e seh jg suf cerjf grf cehe cehe e jg uh trevãe.

Gitrg es meruofs, e frce í f frhf jg Exóssm, ermxæ jfs hftfs. Tfrf es

iórjmces, í f frhf jg Waagr, jgus jf bustmîf. F fssecmfîãe jes gakes fe frce í tfhoíh trfjmcmeifa2 if Minaftgrrf, peitfs jg kagc`f jg pgjrf (jg ermngh prí`mstórmcf) kerfh c`fhfjfs ‑kagc`fs jg gakes‘ (gak-frrew (gak-frrewss eu pmxm pmxmgg frrews) frrews) g usfjes cehe fhuagtes fhuagtes ceitrf ceitrf kgmtmîfrmfs. kgmtmîfrm fs. If Mjfjg Híjmf gurepgmf, e frce kem usfje vmste cehe frhf fuxmamfrGssf g jgvmsãe ofmxeí prgstènme, vmste sgr ofrfte g ngrfahgitg per cfhpeigsgs. rgkagtmjf ie pfpga je hfmer frqugmre jf agijf hgjmgvfa2 _eomi @eej, u ofijeagmre g rgogajg jg ermngh cfhpeigsf je sícuae PMM, ghoerf fs vgrs÷gs pestgrmergs jf agijf e kmzgssgh uh ieorg rgignfje. Hgshe fssmh, frqugmres frhfjes jg frces aeines, rgcrutfjes gitrg es ygehgi es ygehgi (cfhpeigsgs (cfhpeigsgs amvrgs, cafssg ä qufa pgrtgicmf e _eomi @eej ermnmifa) jf Minaftgrrf, hestrfrfh-sg humte gkmcfzgs ceitrf f cfvfafr cf vfafrmf mf hgjmgvfa gjmgvf a jurfitg f Nugrrf Nugrrf jes Cgh Fies. Fies. If Æsmf, e frce kem, pgae ceitrærme, uhf frhf jg prgstènme, gh cubf kformcfîãe sg mivgstmf tfite tghpe g gskerîe qufite iuhf gspfjf jg oef qufamjfjg. If Èijmf, C`mif, Bfpãe g Cergmf, kem Kgz uhfpfrtg frtg hfrcmfa humte vfaermzfjf, ie fspgcte hmamtfr qufite fiefrqugmrmf gspmrmtufa. je trgmifhgite hmamtfr iftfite Cergmf ftí f ceiqumstf bfpeigsf gh 60=: g if C`mif ftí e kmh jf heifrqumf gh 6=4:, g suf prætmcf gspertmvf ceitmiuf pepuafr igssgs pfèsgs. Es gxírcmtes huîuahfies usfrfh frces aeines jg mikfitfrmf gh nrfijg gscfaf. E use hfms jgvfstfjer kem ifs hães jes gxírcmtes jg iúhfjgs jfs gstgpgs jf Æsmf Cgitrfa, ùies, hfnmfrgs, heinóms, tærtfres g turces. Sgus cfvfagmresfrqugmres ftgrrermzfrfh fs cmvmamzfî÷gs jf Guræsmf, g humtfs vgzgs fs jgstruèrfh. Kuijfje pgaes turces, e Mhpírme Etehfie kem f òatmhf petâicmf f usfr cfvfagmres frhfjes jg frce g hgshe jgpems qug es foeamu, gh 60?;, f frqugmrmf ceitmiueu f sgr gicerfbfjf pgaes suat÷gs cehe gspertg ftí e kmh jf heifrqumf. Ifs Fhírmcfs, e òimce peve f jehmifr f frqugmrmf heitfjf kerfh es cehfic`gs, jg 6044 f 60>0. Frces g kagc`fs kerfh tfhoíh fhpafhgitg usfjes per peves trmofms fhgrèijmes, fsmætmces g fkrmcfies if cfîf g if nugrrf f mivfsergs g äs vgzgs fmijf e sãe èbg. Wh jes hfmer hfmergs gs preoaghfs pr eoaghfs jf frqu fr qugmr gmrmf mf hmam mamtfr tfr í qug, giqufi giqufite te fprgijgr e tmre fe frce pfrf cfîf g gspertg í rgaftmvfhgitg kæcma, agvf fies kerhfr uh frqugmre pfrf f nugrrf – eu, sgnuije jmtes fitmnes, ftí ngrfî÷gs2 f `fomamjfjg grf pfssfjf jg pfm pfrf kmaè g jmzmf-sg qug e trgmifhgite jg uh frqugmre cehgîfvf pgae fvú. Í prgcmse puxfr f cerjf ceh uhf trfîãe humte hfmer je qug f usfjf if cfîf, pfrf facfiîfr jmstïicmfs supgrmergs f ?44 hgtres g kfzâ-ae ceh uhf fatf cfjâicmf, 64

kagc`fs per hmiute ceh frces aeines g ftí ?4 eu 34 ceh frces heinóms jg

cfvfafrmf, jg trfîãe hgier, ierhfahgitg usfije uh figa ie peagnfr pfrf puxfr f cerjf sgh sg kgrmr. Ie cfse jes frqugmres heitfjes, í prgcmse fmijf jehmifr f frtg jg jmspfrfr jmspfr fr kagc`fs giqufit giqufitee sg heitf eitf g ceijuz ceijuz e cfvfae. cfvfa e. F peitfrmf, if nugrrf, ghoerf iãe jgmxg jg sgr trgmifjf, í hgies mhpertfitg. Ghoerf hfms `fbf epertuimjfjgs tmreoftfa`f jmrgte,í fpeitfije pfrf e eu fave, hfigmrf cehuh jg usfrjgeusfr frce egh gh tmre mijmrgte, sgbf,f fpeitfije pfrf e fate, buite ceh jgzgifs eu cgitgifs jg eutres frqugmres, pfrf kfzgr cèvgr kagc`fs fes hma`frgs per hmiute seorg f mikfitfrmf eu f cfvfafrmf je mimhmne. E pfrïhgtre hfms mhpertfitg je frce í f qufitmjfjg jg gigrnmf qug prepercmeif ä kagc`f, hgjmjf pgaf trfîãe igcgssærmf pfrf givgrnæ-ae g rgtgsfr f cerjf ftí fcehejfr f sgtf (cgrcf jg :4% je cehprmhgite je frce ies frces rgtes, hfs ftí ;>% ies frces rgkagxes) eu, per ceivgiîãe, iuhf gxtgisãe jg >6 cgitèhgtres. Vufite hfmer f trfîãe, hfmer e facficg g f vgaecmjfjg jf kagc`f g hfms f trfbgtórmf, hfs tfhoíh hmrfr. F trfîãe fjgqufjf cfîfr rgtf pæssfres (fatf prgcmsãe, peucf hfms kerîf,jmkècma facficg jg peuces hgtres) í ; fpfrf 6? qumaes, pfrf tmre fe fave (hæxmhf prgcmsãe gitrg :4 g >4 hgtres, peucf kerîf) í jg 6? f ?4 qumaes, pfrf cfîf nressf (kerîf rfzeævga, facficg jg ftí ?7 hgtres), ?4 f 34 qumaes g pfrf f nugrrf (prgcmsãe amhmtfjf, kerîf hæxmhf, facficg supgrmer f ?44 hgtres), 34 f >4 qumaes. Sg e frce ker humte gspgsse, tgijgræ f rfc`fr qufije givgrnfje. Sg ker humte jganfje, fcuhuafræ peucf gigrnmf. Frces hfms aeines g afrnes pgrhmtgh fcuhuafr hfms gigrnmf (f tgisãe sg huatmpamcf per uh veauhg hfmer) g sãe hfms kæcgms jg hmrfr, hfs sãe micúhejes jg trfispertfr g hfigbfr. Whf tgisãe hejgrfjf í sukmcmgitg pfrf f cfîf g e tmre fe fave, hfs uh frtgsãe jg frces jg nugrrf ngrfahgitg precurf uhf cehomifîãe jg kerhfte g hftgrmfa qug prepercmeig e hæxmhe jg trfîãe ceh hgier cehprmhgite, uimije gafstmcmjfjg g rgsmstâicmf g fe hgshe tghpe hfmer jurfomamjfjg ie fhomgitg gh qug sgrãe usfjes. Fanuis hftgrmfms (prmicmpfahgitg ceafs, c`mkrg g ceure cru) sãe gstrfnfjes pgaf uhmjfjg g f hfjgmrf tfite pejg rfc`fr gh fhomgitg humte sgce qufite givgrnfr g fhomgitg òhmje. If kfatf jes hftgrmfms mjgfms, e eobgtmve í ouscfr f hgaèr seauîãe pfrf e hftgrmfa jmspeièvga. Hfitgr e frce ceh cerjf e jgkerhf, kfzgije-e pgrjgr suf trfîãe. Tfrf ceisgrvæ-aes, es frces ngrfahgitg jgvgh sgr nufrjfjes sgh cerjf g jgmtfjes, pfrf sgrgh gicerjefjes fpgifs ie hehgite jg usfr. Gh fanuis cfses jgvgh sgr eagfjes, pfrf pretgnâ-aes jf uhmjfjg.

Sgnuije e kerhfte qug tehfh qufije jgsgicerjefjes, es frces pejgh sgr2

Frce jgcurve (jgcurvg oew) oew) – hgshe jgsgicerjefje, sufs peitfs sg curvfh pfrf træs, if jmrgîãe je frqugmre. Msse hfitíh ofmxf f tgisãe jf cerjf g pgrhmtg qug e frce sgbf nufrjfje frhfje, sghprg preite pfrf e use, hfs tfhoíh smnimkmcf qug f trfîãe í ofmxf. Kem usfje per peves qug cfrgcmfh jg hfjgmrf kertg g gaæstmcf. Frce rgte (strfmn`t oew) oew) – jgsgicerjefje, kmcf prftmcfhgitg rgte. Vufije heitfje, só fs peitfs jf cerjf kmcfh gh ceitfte ceh e frce, e qug jmhmium e rmsce jg grres g terif e frce hfms gstævga. Frce smhítrmce (syhhgtrmcfa oew) oew) curvf-sg fprexmhfjfhgitg gh frce jg cèrcuae. Msse micaum f hfmermf jes frces jg hfjgmrf jg oef qufamjfjg g f hfmermf jes frces usfjes per peves trmofms, ogh cehe pgaes gurepgus gurepgus ecmjgit ecm jgitfms fms jf Mjfjg Híjmf g _gi _gifscgiîf. fscgiîf. Frce fssmhítrmce (fsyhhgtrmcfa oew) oew) – tgh e amhoe mikgrmer hfms curte qugäs e supgrmer, ghpui`fjurf E kmcfamhoe ogh fofmxeg jganfje je cgitre, vgzgs f jg uhheje tgrîequg je fcehprhgite. mikgrmer peuce sg givgrnf, jg hfigmrf qug f hfmer pfrtg jf tgisãe sg fcuhuaf ie supgrmer. Í uhf kerhf fjgqufjf pfrf frces hfms aeines qug f gstfturf je usuærme (prmicmpfahgitg sg usfjes if pesmîãe fbega`fjf), g tfhoíh í f kerhf ifturfa jg uh frce prmhmtmve jg nfaè eu ofhou, hfms kmie iuhf peitf qug if eutrf. Í f kerhf jes frces aeines minagsgs g jes yuhm jes yuhm bfpeigsgs. bfpeigsgs. Frce rgcurve (rgcurvg oew) oew) – í uh frce cubfs peitfs sg curvfh pfrf f krgitg qufije jgsgicerjefje. Gxmng hftgrmfa hfms rènmje g gaæstmce g prepercmeif ?7% hfms trfîãe qufije gstmcfje if hgshf gxtgisãe. Frce rgcurve sgh ceitfte (iei-ceitfct rgcurvg oew) oew) – jgsgicerjefje, kerhf uhf curvf sufvg g smhpags pfrf krgitg, cehe uh pfrâitgsg. Gh use, e ïinuae jfs peitfs jf cerjf ceh e frce í hgier qug ie frce rgte, hfs sgh ceitfte. Frce rgvgrtmje (sgtofcl amhos oew) oew) – jgsgicerjefje, kerhf uh [ sufvmzfje pfrf f krgitg. Tgrhmtg hfmer trfîãe qufije peuce gstmcfje, hfs gaf fuhgitf humte rfpmjfhgitg qufije sg gstgijg hfms f cerjf. Frce Fr ce jgkagxe jgkag xe ( (jgkagx jgkagx oew) oew) – jgsgicerjefje, kerhf uhf curvf jupaf (uh ^ sufvmzfje). Fs pfrtgs jf cerjf próxmhfs jf peitf kmcfh gh

ceitfte ceh e frce, e qug jmhmium f gstfomamjfjg g fuhgitf e rmsce

jg grres, gxmnmije hfms pgrècmf. Í e frce eaèhpmce hejgrie g tfhoíh humtes frces ermgitfms. Whf vfrmfitg cehuh tgh curvf trmpaf, e c`fhfje ‑frce jg Cupmje‘, cube kerhfte ermnmifahgitg jgtgrhmifje pgae use jg c`mkrgs jg èogx pgaes cmtfs kem jgpems hfit fitmje mje ceh c eh eutres eutres hftgrm hftgrmfms fms per rfz÷gs r fz÷gs jg trfjmîãe trfjm îãe eu gstítmcf. Frce rgkagxe (rgkagx oew) oew) – jgsgicerjefje, sg curvf teje pfrf f krgitg g kerhf uh C jg peitfs epestfs fe frqugmre, äs vgzgs ceh fs peitfs c`gnfije f sg cruzfr. Vufije gicerjefje, pfrtg jf cerjf kmcf gh ceitfte ceh e frce. Gxmng hftgrmfms cehpósmtes gxtrghfhgitg kagxèvgms g jg fatf qufamjfjg, ogh cehe humte trgmifhgite g pgrècmf pfrf e use. Kem usfje per cmvmamzfî÷gs fitmnfs je Ermgitg Híjme g Hgjmtgrrïige, per iúhfjgs jf Æsmf Cgitrfa g per c`migsgs, mijmfies g cergfies. Tfrf frces ceh trfîãe jg ?3 qumaes f >6 cgitèhgtres, jmspfrfije uhf kagc`f ceivgicmeifa ceivgi cmeifa jg 3? nrfhfs, nrfhfs, ftmin f tmingh gh-sg -sg fs sgnu s gnumitgs mitgs jmstïicmfs g vgaecmjfjgs2 vgaecm jfjgs2

Facficg Fa cficg g vgaecm vg aecmj jfjg fjg ceh jmkgrgi mkgrg itgs tg s tmp t mpes es jg frces2 Zmpe frce jgcurve frce smhítrmce frce fssmhítrmce frce rgcurve sgh cfercietfrtgevgrtmje frce jgkagxe frce rgkagxe

vg aecmjfjg jf kag kagc`f c`f (lh/`) 677 6;7 674

gigrnmf jf kag kagc`f c`f (smhítrmce8644) 0> 644 06 64>> 64

facficg (hgtres)

66>;47 604 ?44

643 6?6 6::

6; 6;4 6747 6>7 9?44

6:4 6:7 634

Keitg2 ‑Z`g ‑Z`g ccfusgs fusgs ek t`g ffrrew rrew spg spggj‘, gj‘, Zm Zmh h Oflgr, mi mi Trmh Trmhmtmvg mtmvg Z Zgcì gcìeaen eaenyy ??,, ern. Jfvmj ^gstcett (jfjes ermnmifms ceivgrtmjes pfrf e smstghf hítrmce)

rces smhpag sm hpagss Wh frce smhpags (sgak oew) oew) í kgmte jg uhf pgîf òimcf, gvgitufahgitg ce fcríscmhe jg jgtfa`gs cehe gicfmxgs jg kagc`fs g ghpui`fjurf. If Gurepf ceitmigitfa, prgkgrmu-sg e tgmxee (Zfxus (krgmxe Zfxus ( Krfxmius sp .) eu, eijg gstfvf jmspeièvga, cehe if Minaftgrrf, sp.) Krfxmius gxcgasmer gxcga gssf smer), ),hfjgmrf e eahe ( Gahus iãe Gahus sp.) sp.) e oerje (  Fcgr Fcgr sp.) sp.) eu f fcæcmf (  Fcfcmf Fcfcmf sp s p.). Ie sujegstg jf Fhírm Fhírmcf cf je Iertg, jg afrfibgmrf-jf-vmrnèimf afrfibgmrf-jf-vmrnèi mf ( Hfcaurf Hfca urf pehmkgrf) pehmkgrf) g cèupe ( Tepuaus Tepuaus sp.). sp.). Ifs kaergstfs je agstg jf Fhírmcf je Iertg, jg ienugmrf-pgcã (Cfryf (Cfryf sp.), sp.), krgmxe orfice ( Krfxmius Krfxmius fhgrmcfius) fhgrmcfius) eu cfrvfaè orfice (Vugrcus (Vugrcus faof). faof). If C`mif, jg fhergmrf ( Herus Herus faof) faof) eu ofhou g ie Bfpãe g sua jf Æsmf, ngrfahgitg jg ofhou. Ie Orfsma, es tupms prgkgrmfh f pfahgmrf oecfmòvf eu hfcfòof, tfhoí c`fhfjf cece-jg-gspmiè eu cece-ofoese (  Fcrecehmf Fcrecehmf tetfm). tetfm ). Es peves je Pmin usfh e mpâ eu pfu-j”frce (Zfogoumf (Zfogoumf sp.) sp.) g e pfu-kgrre (Ceiifrus (Ceiifrus suogresus), suogresus), es ‑nfvm÷gs‘ je Tfræ (tmhomrfs) f fregmrf vgrhga`f (Sc`mius (Sc`mius heaag heaag), es peves je Fate Fhfzeifs f pupui`f usfh (Ofctrms (Ofctrms nfsmpfgs nfsmpfgs) ) g eutres mijèngifs jf),Fhfzúimf f pfahgmrf tucuh (  Fstrecfryuh Fstrecfryuh vuanfrg vuanf rg). ). F hfjgmrf jgvg givga`gcgr pgae hgies jufs sghfifs fitgs jg sgr usfjf g fanuis frtgsães prgkgrgh givga`gcâ-af per fies. F tícimcf í smhpags g hgshe peves prmhmtmves pejgh crmfr uh frce utmamzævga ceh peucfs èrfs jg trfofaè. Wh frtgsãe hejgrie, ceh ekmcmif g hæqumifs hetermzfjfs, pejg kfzgr uh frce g jgz eu vmitg hmiutes. Frces jg ormiqugje (tey oews) oews) sãe kgmtes pgaes èijmes orfsmagmres pfrf sufs crmfiîfs es usfrgh cehe ormiqugjes g cehgîfrgh f fprgijgr f ftmrfr g pfrf sgrgh vgijmjes f turmstfs cehe frtgsfifte. Ngrfahgitg tâh ;4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgi ceh prmhgite te g trfîãe jg ftí : qumaes. Wh frce curte (sèrtoew sèrtoew), ), ceh hgies jg 6,? hgtre (tmpmcfhgitg =4 cgitèhgtres), í e hfms fjgqufje pfrf f cfîf jg fvgs g fimhfms jg pgqugie pertg, pems igstg cfse f pessmomamjfjg jg jmspfrfr ceh rfpmjgz í hfms mhpertfitg je qug facficg, vgaecmjfjg eu jfie gagvfje. F trfîãe iãe pfssf jg > eu 0 qumaes. E pgse vfrmf jg ?44 f 744 nrfhfs g e facficg jg 644 hgtres. Wh frce híjme (rgnuafr oew) oew) je tmpe hfms usfje per peves prí-`mstórmces g peves trmofms hejgries tgh jg 6,? f 6,0 hgtre (tmpmcfhgitg 6,: f 6,> hgtre jg cehprmhgite) g trfîãe jg ?4 f ?7 qumaes. Í gkmcmgitg if cfîf, qufije sg ftmrf f jmstïicmf rgaftmvfhgitg curtf g f prgcmsãe í hfms mhpertfitg qug f kerîf g if nugrrma`f, gh tmres jg tecfmf. If nugrrf fogrtf jg cmvmamzfî÷gs fitmnfs g

hgjmgvfms, gh qug facficg g petâicmf sãe hfms jgcmsmves, gssgs frces grf

hgies gkmcfzgs qug fs kuijfs g sgrvmfh fpgifs pfrf kustmnfr es mimhmnes. E pgse jf frhf vfrmf vfrm f jg 744 nrfhfs nrfhfs f uh quma qumae. e. E facf facficg icg í jg ftí 674 hgtres. E frce hebfvg ( Hebfvg Hebfv g oew), oew), jes mijèngifs jfs rgnm÷gs jgsírtmcfs je ftufa gstfje jg Igvfjf g sujgstg jf Cfamkórimf, ies GWF, grf uh frce jgcurve jg hfjgmr fjgmrf jg sfanu saeine fanugmr gmre, e, jg 6,7)htgh gtre.cehprmhgite hfmer qug f faturf je usuærme, 6,0 Wh ffrce ( (aeinoew aeinoew) hgtre eu hfms, ceh trfîãe jg 34 qumaes eu hfms. Frces jg jems f trâs hgtres kerfh usfjes per mijèngifs pfrf cfîfr fvgs jg vee fate (äs vgzgs sgnurfjes ce hães g pís, cehe rgtrftf uh qufjre jg Bgfi-Ofptmstg Jgorgt), hfs kerfh es frqugmres minagsgs qug e terifrfh hfms cei`gcmjes. E pgse vfrmf jg uh f jems qumaes g e facficg í supgrmer f ?44 hgtres. E frce aeine minaâs ( Ginams` Ginams ` aeinoew) aeinoew) í fssmhítrmce g tgh uhf sgîãe trfisvgrsfa gh kerhf jg J, giqufite f hfmermf jes frces smhpags tâh sgîãe rgtfinuafr. Kgmte jg hfjgmrf jg tgmxe, tgh 6,= f ?,6 hgtres jg cehprmhgite g trfîãe jg jg :4 334 f 04hgtres qumaes.g jg Jmspfrfvfh jg >; cgitèhgtres g 7: jmstïicmfs =; nrfhfskagc`fs f ?74 hgtres. @girmqug [MMM iãenrfhfs pgrhmtmff trgmifhgite f hgies jg ?44 hgtres g, sgnuije rgaftes jf ípecf, uh frqugmre fcgrtfvf uh èhgh ‑pfrtg jfs vgzgs‘ f 6;7 hgtres. E frce jg _eomi @eej sgrmf prevfvgahgitg jgssg tmpe. Cehe f hfmermf jes frces jg nugrrf, grf ngrfahgitg usfje gh hfssf g gh tmre mijmrgte, ie gxtrghe je facficg, sgh peitfrmf, hfs prevecfije uhf cùvf jg kagc`fs cfpfz jg hftfr nugrrgmres ceh cetf jg hfa`f. Kem usfje jg 6644 f 6;:4 g hfms mitgisfhgitg jg 6?74 f 6:74. Hfrceu f Nugrrf jes Cgh Fies, f pfrtmr jf oftfa`f jg Crgcy (63:;) g tgvg sgu fung if oftfa`f jg Fnmiceurt (6:67), qug jgcmjmu f kfver jes minagsgs. Jgpems jmsse, fs frhfs jg kene nrfjufahgitg es terifrfh eoseagtes. E òatmhe cehoftg hmamtfr ie qufa kerf usfjes if Gurepf Gurepf kem f Nugrrf Nugrrf Cmvma minagsf minagsf,, gh 6;:?. E frce aeine nfaâs (^gas` aeinoew) aeinoew) grf sghga`fitg fe minaâs, hfs kgmte jg eahe.

rces jgsheitævgms E frce jgsheitævga ( (tflg-jewi tflg-jewi oew) oew) í kgmte jg jems amhoes jg hfjgmrf eu jg eutre hftgrmfa qug sg gicfmxfh iuhf ghpui`fjurf, jg heje qug e frce pejg sgr jgsheitfje pfrf sgr Es nufrjfje cehkerfh hfmeres cehejmjfjg, e kfcmahgitg gsceijmje. prmhgmresg ftrfispertfje usfr gssgs frces imibfs. @ebg sãe cehuis if frqugmrmf gspertmvf, ghoerf fanuis cfîfjergs es rgbgmtgh jgvmje fe ruèje qug kfzgh fe sgrgh heitfjes.

rces rgkerîfjes E frce rgkerîfje (cfoag-ofclgj oew, rgmikercgj oew) oew) tgh uh cfoe ie jerse (pfrtg jmfitgmrf) jg tgij÷gs eu kmorf vgngtfa eu smitítmcf, fpgrtfje pfrf fuhgitfr f(gsqumhós) trfîãe g usfrfh cehpgisfr miumts cfoesfjgqufamjfjg tgij÷gs jgmikgrmer fimhfmsje pfrfhftgrmfa rgkerîfrje sgusfrce. frcesEs kgmtes jg ofroftfif jg ofagmf, c`mkrg, nfa`fjf jg vgfje eu pgjfîes jg hfjgmrf trfzmjes pgae hfr. Fhfrrfh e kgmxg jg tgij÷gs ceh iós jg hgmf-veatf f værmes peites jes amhoes je frce g es tercgh g fpgrtfh ceh uh pmie jg hfjgmrf.

rces afhmifjes Es frces afhmifjes (afhmiftgj oews) oews) sãe kgmtes ceh aïhmifs ceafjfs jg ofhou eu hfjgmrf. Kerfh usfjes pgaes ærfogs g per peves je iertg jf Guræsmf (micausmvg E frce afp÷gs) bfpeiâsg (gxtrghe yuhm) jeermgitg. yuhm) tmpe jfmlyu (‑frce nrfijg‘) í uh frce afhmifje aeine g fssmhítrmce kgmte ceh værmfs aïhmifs jg ofhou g uh peuce jg hfjgmrf ceafjfs ceh ceaf jg ceure jg vgfje g ceogrtfs ceh afcf. Gssg hftgrmfa iãe supertf tfitf tgisãe qufite e cehpósmte jg tgij÷gs, hfjgmrf g c`mkrg jg eutres frces fsmætmces, hfs cehpgisf msse ceh uh tfhfiè fmijf hfmer qug e je frce aeine minaâs. Vufije usfje if prætmcf je lyujú, e yuhm e yuhm tgh tgh trfîãe jg 60 ln f ?4 ln pfrf èhgis g 6: ln f 6; ln pfrf hua`grgs. Sgu tfhfiè í nrfjufje ceikerhg f gstfturf je frqugmre2 sfisui-tsuhfrm, pfrf frqugmres jg hgies jg 6,7 hgtre. Zgh ?,6? hgtres sfisui-tsuhfrm, g afiîf a fiîf kagc`f jg 07 cgit cg itèhgt èhgtres< res< ifhmsui,, pfrf gstfturf jg 6,74 f 6,;7 hgtre. Zgh ?,?6 hgtres g afiîf ifhmsui kagc`fs jg 07 f =4 cgitèhgt cgitèhgtres< res< imsui-ieom,, pfrf gstfturf jg 6,;7 f 6,04 hgtre. Zgh ?,?> hgtres g afiîf imsui-ieom kagc`fs jg =4 cgitèhgtres f uh hgtre< yeisui-ieom,, pfrf gstfturf jg 6,04 f 6,=7 hgtre. Zgh ?,33 hgtres g yeisui-ieom afiîf kagc`fs jg 6 f 6,47 hgtre< hgtre< relusui-ieom,, pfrf gstfturf jg 6,=7 f ?,47 hgtres. Zgh ?,3= hgtres g relusui-ieom afiîf kagc`fs jg 6,47 f 6,64 hgtre< hgtre< `fssui-ieom,, pfrf gstfturf supgrmer f ?,47 hgtres. Zgh ?,:7 hgtres g `fssui-ieom afiîf kagc`fs jg hfms jg 6,64 hgtre. E tfhoíh bfpeiâs `filyu (‑hgme-frce‘) í uh frce curte jg =7 cgitèhgtres g trfîãe jg 67 qumaes, sukmcmgitghgitg pgqugie pfrf sgr usfje gh uh pfafiqumh, e hgshe pfrf sgr gsceijmje seo uh qumheie. Es c`migsgs usfrfh frces afhmifjes je Tgrèeje jfs Trmhfvgrfs g Euteies ä jmifstmf @fi (>>4 f.C.–??4 j.C.), kgmtes ceh aïhmifs aïhmifs jg ofhou ofhou eu jg fhergm fhergmrf rf jg 6,? f 6,7 hgtre. hgtre.

rces cehpósmtes jg peitfs kagxèvg kagxèvgms ms Es frces cehpósmtes (cehpesmtg oews – iãe ceikuijmr ceh cehpeuij ceh cehpeuij oews, oews, ‑frces cehpestes‘) sãe kgmtes jg jems eu hfms tmpes jg hftgrmfms ceafjes buites, ngrfahgitg c`mkrgeu ifkmorfs kfcg eu ofrrmnfie(fjerse pfrtg (veatfje veatfjf pfrf frqugmre), ie iòcage g tgij÷gs vgngtfms pfrfekerf), uimjeshfjgmrf ceh ceaf jg pgmxg eu jg ceure g giveavmjes ceh cfscf jg ærverg, ceure eu pgag jg tuofrãe pfrf prgsgrvæ-aes jf uhmjfjg. Es hfms fitmnes tmi`fh peitfs kagxèvgms (werlmin (werlmin emits), emits ), qug sg curvfvfh buite ceh e rgstfitg je frce. F kformcfîãe jg frces cehpósmtes í ogh hfms custesf g jgherfjf je qug f jg frces smhpags, jgvmje ä igcgssmjfjg jg ceafr es hftgrmfms g jgmxæ-aes sgcfr. Ie hèimhe, 3 eu : jmfs, hfms tmpmcfhgitg uhf sghfif – eu hgsgs, pfrf uh rgsuatfje pgrkgmte ceh tícimcfs trfjmcmeifms. E rgsuatfje, períh, í uh frce qug supertf hfms tgisãe qug uh frce smhpags jg hfjgmrf jf hgaèr qufamjfjg g tfhfiè. E facficg í jg cehp 344 phgtres. Es frces ceh ósmtes jg kagxes kerfh mivgitfjes mivgitfjes pgaes gnèpcmes ftí ?.044 ?. 044 f.C., tfavgz fitgs. Grfh kgmtes jg c`mkrg g hfjgmrf, ceh ceure g kmorfs vgngtfms ie jerse. Es frces cehpósmtes rgkagxes kerfh mivgitfjes pgaes fssèrmes per veatf jg 6.;44 f.C. g humte usfjes if Fitmnumjfjg per nugrrgmres f cfvfae cehe es cmtfs, qug prgcmsfvfh usfr frces hfms curtes je qug nugrrgmres f pí sgh prgbuèze jf petâicmf g tfhoíh kerfh fjetfjes pgaes pgrsfs fqughâimjfs g pgaes hfcgjúimes. Ceh 6,67 f 6,?7 hgtre, uh frce cehpósmte prepercmeifvf uhf trfîãe gqumvfagitg f jg uh frce smhpags aeine. Afiîfvfh kagc`fs jg 74 f ;4 cgitèhgtres g tmi`fh iòcage jg hfjgmrf. Kerfh usfjes ftí e sícuae M f.C.

rces cehpósmtes jg peitfs rènmjfs Es frces cehpósmtes jg peitfs rènmjfs (stftmc cehpesmtg oew) oew) tgh fs peitfs supgrmer g mikgrmer g ngrfahgitg tfhoíh f ghpui`fjurf rènmjfs (stftmc (stftmc), ), gijurgcmjfs rmpfs jg nfa`fjf ejgïinuae vgfje.jfGssfs sgî÷gs rènmjfs iãegstæ sg curvfh ceh ceh e rgstfitg jeesse frceeu g hujfh cerjf qufije e frce mitgmrfhgitg trfcmeifje, pgrhmtmije-a`g fcuhuafr ?7% hfms gigrnmf pfrf f hgshf kerîf jg trfîãe. trfî ãe. E facficg fac ficg í jg 374 hgtres eu hfms. hfms. Gssfs peitfs rènmjfs sg c`fhfh smyf` smyf` gh gh ærfog, lfsfi lfsfi   gh turce g szfrv szfrv   g `òinfre. Kerfh mivgitfjes per iúhfjgs jf Æsmf Cgitrfa per veatf je sícuae M[ f.C. Gitrg es sícuaes MMM g MM f.C., surnmrfh if rgnmãe je afne Ofmlfa fs ghpui`fjurfs rènmjfs, qug aene sg gspfa`frfh jf Cergmf ä Crmhgmf. Gssgs frces c`gnfrfh fe Ermgitg Híjme ceh es pfrtfs gh ?:> f.C., ä C`mif ceh es xmeini ie sícuae M f.C. g ä Gurepf ceh es fafies g ùies ies sícuae MMM g M[ j.C. Kerf fjetfjes rehfies je pgaes tghpe ngrhïimces je Mhpírme gqug per sgus sucgssergseomzfitmies Ermgitg, pgaes hfs gsqugcmjes ceiqumstfrfh Mhpírme ie je Ecmjgitg. Fjetfrfh-ie fpgifs ifs ogstfs, jgpems jg trfvfrgh ceitfte ceh es frces cehpósmtes ærfogs ifs Cruzfjfs. E frce pfrtf tmi`f 6,? hgtre. Grf tãe rgkagxe qug sufs gxtrghmjfjgs sg cruzfvfh ie sgitmje ceitrærme qufije amvrg jf cerjf. E frce fcfofje grf ceogrte jg cfscf jg ærverg, ceure kmie eu pgag jg tuofrãe pfrf pretgnâ-ae jf uhmjfjg. E frce mije-pgrsf í uhf uhf gveauîãe gvea uîãe je frce pfrtf, usfje if Èijmf Èijmf g Mrã jf Mjfjg Híjmf ftí cgrcf cgr cf jg 60?4, ceh 6,7 hgtre. hgtre. E frce `òinfre eu hfnmfr grf uh frce rgkagxe jg 6,7 hgtre. E frce heinea, kgmte jg c`mkrg jg oòkfae, tgij÷gs, ofhou g hfjgmrf g cfscf jg oítuaf (Ogtuaf (Ogtuaf sp.) sp.) kem uh jes hfms petgitgs g gkmcfzgs jf `mstórmf. Zgh 6,70 hgtre g trfîãe jg :4 f >7 qumaes. Whf gstgaf heinea cehgherf e kgmte jg u frqugmre c`fhfje Gsuinng, seormiè jg Ngin`ms L`fi, qug, gh 6??;, fcgrteu u fave f 73; h. h. E frce etehfie grf hgier, hfs tfhoíh gxtrghfhgitg petgitg. Ceh 6,47 f 6,6 hgtre, tmi`f trfîãe jg ?7 f ;4 qumaes, ceh gxtgisãe jg >6 f >: cgitèhgtres. Zmi`fh mi`fh iòcage iòcage jg hfjgmrf jg oerje, oer je, kfcg jg c`mkrg jg oòkfae g jerse jer se jg tgijãe tgijãe jg oem, ceogrte ceh cfscf jg oítuaf, ceure eu vgrimz. Es frqugmres turces ceisgnumfh afiîfr kagc`fs ‑vefjerfs‘ uatrfagvgs f ftí 074 hgtres jg jmstïicmf (rgcerjg (rgc erjg jg Zezlepfrfi Zezlepfrfi Mslgi Mslgijgr jgr g Oursfam Sùbf Sùbf ie miècme je sícuae síc uae P[M). P[M). Kerf

usfjes if mikfit mikfitfrmf frmf ftí e sícuae sí cuae P[M P[M g if cfvfafrm cfvfa frmff ftí e miècme je PMP. PMP. Es frces c`migsgs jfs jmifstmfs ]ufi g Hmin sg ofsgfrfh ies frces turces,

fssmh cehe es frces cergfies. E frce c`miâs jf jmifstmf @fi tmi`f 6,3 hgtre g jmspfrfvf uhf kagc`f jg >3,7 cgitèhgtres. E frce cergfie (`wfa `wfa)) tgh 6,? f 6,3 hgtre jg cehprmhgite g trfîãe jg 67 f 34 qumaes. Zgh iòcage jg ofho rgkerîfje ceh tgij÷gs, ghpui`fjurf jg cfrvfaè g kfcg jg c`mkrg jg oòkfae. Fs smyf`s sãe smyf`s sãeofhou. jg fhergmrf fcæcmf-ofstfrjf _eomimf psgujefcfcm f) gtgij÷gs ghgijfjfs gh [ ie F ceafeu í kgmtf jg ogxmnf jg( _eomimf pgmxg g fpsgujefcfcmf ceogrturf jes í jg cfscf jg oítuaf ghogomjf per uh fie gh ænuf je hfr. E facficg c`gnf f 374 hgtres. E frce hficù tmi`f 6,> hgtre, afiîfvf kagc`fs nrfijgs ceh vgaecmjfjg hejgrfjf g kem fjetfje if C`mif jf jmifstmf Vmin, jg ermngh hficù. E frce tmogtfie í sghga`fitg, ceh 6,> hgtre, tgh preprmgjfjgs tfhoíh pfrgcmjfs. Kgmte jg c`mkrg jg oòkfae eu mfqug, tgij÷gs, hfjgmrf jg tfhfrgmrf ignrf ie hmeae g hfjgmrf jg fhergmrf ifs erga`fs, kem usfje pgae gxírcmte je Zmogtg ftí f ecupfîãe c`migsf c`migsf jg 6=7=. Es c`migsgstrfîãe tmi`fhjgtfhoíh uh frce cehpeste jg cgrcf jg jes 6,>0 frqugmres hgtre cehg f gxtrferjmiærmf =4 qumaes, usfje pfrf tgstfr f kerîf gxfhgs gxfh gs hmam mamtfrgs. tfrgs. E frce eaèhpmce usfje ifs prmicmpfms cehpgtmî÷gs hejgrifs jg frqugmrmf í u frce rgcurve cubes òimces fcgssórmes pgrhmtmjes sãe uhf ghpui`fjurf grneiúhmcf g uh fpeme pfrf f kagc`f. Sãe jgsheitævgms g kgmtes jg jems amhoes jg afhmifjes jg kmorf jg vmjre, hfjgmrf eu kmorf jg cfroeie, heitfjes iu cerpe (ghpui`fjurf) jg fauhèime eu hfniísme. Zgh 6,;7 hgtre. Ie ‑gstmae amvrg‘, pgrhmtg-sg tfhoíh e use jg hmrf g gstfomamzfjer, qug terifh hfms prgcmse e tmre f aeinf jmstïicmf. Tgsf jg >74 nrfhfs f 6,?7 qumae.

rces jupaes E frce jupae (jeuoag oew) oew) í cehpeste per jems frces seorgpestes g uimjes, sgije e hgier fitgrmer g prgse fe pestgrmer ie cgitre pgaf ghpui`fjurf g ftfje äs peitfs perKrfil cfoes. pgae cfcmqug (e pfifwf`pslgl) ‑Omn Kerfh Zùijgr‘mivgitfjes Aermin ie Hfmig, GWF, perpgieoscet veatf jg 6=44. Hgshe kgmte jg hftgrmfms smhpags, e frce jupae fhpamf gh cgrcf jg ;4% f trfîãe je frce pfrf uh hgshe cehprmhgite, fprevgmtf hgaèr f kerîf je frqugmre g pgrhmtg fbustfr f trfîãe ä igcgssmjfjg je frqugmre, fitgcmpfije fanuhfs jfs vfitfngis jes frces cehpestes hejgries. Whf pgîf jg 6,0 hgtre, usfjf só ce e frce pestgrmer, gqumvfag gqumvfa g f uh frce smhpags s mhpags ceh trfîãe trfîãe jg ?7 qumaes< qumaes < usfjf usfjf ceh c ehee frce jupae, ftmin f tmingg :4 qumaes. qumaes .

rces cehpestes E frce ceh (cehpeuij ce hpeste ( cehpeuij oew – oew – iãe ceikuijmr ceh cehp cehpesmtg esmtg oew, oew, ‑frce cehpósmte‘), mivgitfje ies GWF gh 6=;;, í kgmte jg hftgrmfms hejgries (kmorf jg vmjrepfrf g nrfkmtg) g jetfje peamfs qug pgrhmtgh fcuhuafr ;4% f ?44% hfms gigrnmf f hgshf trfîãe.jgCestuhf micaumr gxcâitrmces qug pgrhmtgh trfvfr fs peamfs g hfitgr f cerjf trfcmeifjf sgh gskerîe fjmcmeifa. F prejuîãe jfs pgîfs gxmng mistfafî÷gs mijustrmfms, hfs e frce pejg sgr heitfje f pfrtmr jfs pgîfs g ?4 f ;4 hmiutes, sg fs kgrrfhgitfs fjgqufjfs gstmvgrgh jmspeièvgms. Tejg micaumr fcgssórmes, tfms cehe ghpui`fjurf grneiúhmcf, hmrf, auigtf, gstfomamzfjer (pfrf tmre ræpmje) g fofkfjer jg vmorfîãe (pfrf rgjuzmr e seh g gvmtfr gspfitfr f cfîf). Äs vgzgs í jeorævga, pfrf sgr nufrjfje g trfispertfje ceh hfmer cehejmjfjg. Wh frce cehpeste tgh tmpmcfhgitg trfîãe jg 6? f 67 qumaes g cehprmhgite jg 6,6 f 6,> hgtre. Sgu use iãe í pgrhmtmje ifs cehpgtmî÷gs eaèhpmcfs, hfs sãe fjhmtmjes ifs pfrfeamhpèfjfs. Tgsfh cgrcf jg jems qumaes.

Kagc`fs Kagc `fs E cehprmhgite jfs kagc`fs eu sgtfs (frrews (frrews)) ngrfahgitg í f fhpamtujg jg gxtgisãe je frce hfms jems f trâs cgitèhgtres, e qug pfrf f hfmermf jes frces smhpags g afhmifjes smnimkmcf jesmnimkmcf cehprmhgite g pfrf es frces cehpósmtes hfms kagxèvgms, ftí37%-:7% >4%, e qug kagc`fsjejgfrce 34-:4 cgitèhgtres pfrf frces curtes, >4 f 04 cgitèhgtres pfrf f hfmermf jfs kagc`fs jg nugrrf g 07 cgitèhgtres f 6,6 hgtre pfrf kagc`fs bfpeigsfs. Hfs es peves trmofms jfs sgavfs jf Fhírmcf je Sua (micausmvg Orfsma) g Sua jf Æsmf prgkgrmrfh kagc`fs uh peuce hfms aeinfs qug e próprme frce, gh híjmf 6,> hgtre, äs vgzgs hfms jg jems hgtres. F rfzãe tfavgz sgbf qug e cehprmhgite hfmer jæ ä kagc`f hfmer miírcmf g kfcmamtf ftrfvgssfr kea`fngis pfrf cfîfr fvgs g fimhfms froerèceafs eu ftrfvgssfr f ænuf jg rmes pfrf fcgrtfr pgmxgs. Msse terif, períh, peuce prætmce e use jg fabfvfs, jg heje qug f hfmermf jes èijmes jf sgavfiuh agvfcfiuje). fs kagc`fs hãe (sfave qufije sãe givgigifjfs, sgije gitãe agvfjfs Fs if fabfvfs, cfrcfsgs eu kærgtrfs (qumvgrs), (qumvgrs ), ceh e sgh tfh tfhpf, pf, sãe usfjes per tejes es jghfms jghfms peves g cei` c ei`gcmjes gcmjes pgae hgies hgies jgsjg 3.344 f.C. Tejg-sg agvfr 6? kagc`fs iuh iuhf fa fabfvf bfvf jg ehore eu ?4 iu iuh hf jg cmiturf. cmiturf. Frqugmres jg mikfitfrmf cestuhfh pafitfr fs kagc`fs ie c`ãe g cea`â-afs uhf f uhf giqufite jmspfrfh, pfrf fuhgitfr f cfjâicmf jg tmre. F prgpfrfîãe jghfijf fanuh tghpe, qug pejg sgr fprevgmtfjf pgae mimhmne pfrf jmspgrsæ-aes. Tfrf fs kagc`fs, prgkgrg-sg hfjgmrfs agvgs g kagxèvgms. Gurepgus prí-`mstórmces kfzmfh kagc`fs ceh hfjgmrf jg vmourie eu ievgagmre ([mouriuh ([mouriuh afitfif), afitfif), hfs if Mjfjg Híjmf fs kagc`fs grfh hfms krgqugitghgitg jg cèupe ( Tepuaus Tepuaus trghuaf), trghuaf), kfzgije-sg tfhoíhfvgaafif). jg kfmf).( Kfnus Kfnus syavftm syav ftmcf cf), ), krgmxe ( Krfxmius Krfxmius finustmkea finustm mf)) g fvgagmrf (Ceryaus (Ceryaus fvgaafif Fs bfpeigsfs sãe kgmtfs jg uhf gspícmg jgkeamf ofho cei`gcmjf cehe yfjflg cehe yfjflg (Tsgujesfsf bfpeimcf) bfpeim cf).. Es tupms prgkgrmfh hfjgmrf jg Oecfmòvf (  Fcrecehmf Fcrecehmf helfyfyof helfyfyof), ), hfs f hfmermf jfs kagc`fs kgmtfs per mijèngi mijèngifs fs orfsmagmres sãe jg tfqufrf. Ie Pminu, prgkgrgh-sg kagc`fs kgmtfs jg uoæ, frftfzgmre eu cfif-jg-kagc`f (Nyigrmuh (Nyigrmuh sfnmttftuh). sfnmttftuh). Ftufahgitg, sãe kgmtfs jg cgjre, kmorf jg cfroeie eu tuoes tuoes eces jg fauh fa uhèime. èime. E jmïhgtre jf `fstg vfrmf jg 3 hmaèhgtres ifs kagc`fs ‑vefjerfs‘ jg kmorf jg cfroeie jg hfmer facficg f 63 hmaèhgtres ifs kagc`fs jg nugrrf jg hfjgmrf hfms pgsfjfs, sgije e pfjrãe cgrcf jg 0 hmaèhgtres pfrf kagc`fs jg cfîf, 0-= pfrf fs bfpeigsfs g =,7 pfrf fs kagc`fs jg nugrrf ecmjgitfms.

Kagc`fs ngrfahgitg sãe ghpgifjfs ceh trâs râhmngs, tmrfjfs jfs peitfs jfs fsfs jg fvgs nrfijgs g prgsfs ceh ami`f g ceaf, gxcgte fs pfrf ftmrfr gh pgmxgs,

qug iãe sãe ghpgifjfs. @ebg sg usf pgifs jg pgru, hfs es gurepgus hgjmgvfms prgkgrmfh jg nfise eu cmsig, es ermgitfms jg ænumf, nfvmãe, nfrîf eu kfmsãe g es èijmes orfsmagmres jg hutuh, frfrf, nfrîf, `frpmf eu nfvmãe. Bfpeigsgs prgkgrmf pgifs jg fvgs jg rfpmif g usfvfh fatgrifjfhgitg kagc`fs kgmtfs ceh pgifs qug sg curvfh pfrf f gsqugrjf, c`fhfjfs `fyf, `fyf , qug nmrfh gh sgitmje èrærme g pfrf f jmrgmtf, c`fhfjfs eteyf,, qug eteyf nmrfh gh sgitmje fitm-èrærme. E pgse jfs kagc`fs jgvg sgr prepercmeifa ä trfîãe je frce. Tfrf kagc`fs jg tmre fe fave, f trfîãe jgvg vfrmfr jg =44 f 6.:44 vgzgs e pgse jf kagc`f. Tfrf kagc`fs pgigtrfitgs, jg cehoftg, e pfjrãe í trfîãe jg >44 vgzgs e pgse jf kagc`f. Vufije e eobgtmve í e hæxmhe jg facficg, hgshe ä custf jf jurfomamjfjg je frce g je rmsce jg rehpmhgite jf cerjf, f trfîãe c`gnf f :.344 vgzgs e pgse jf kagc`f. Kagc`fs pgsfjfs gh rgafîãe ä trfîãe je frce (;4 f 6?4 nrfhfs pfrf uh frce jg nugrrf híjme), prevecfh hfms jfie, hfs sãe hfms agitfs g tâh hgier facficg. Sãe usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg ceitrf faves ceh frhfjurfs. Kagc`fs híjmfs (34 f ;4 nrfhfs) sãe hfms gkmcmgitgs if hfmermf jfs smtufî÷gs. Kagc`fs agvgs (67 f 34 nrfhfs), usfjfs prmicmpfahgitg gh tmre fe fave, vefh hfms aeing g ræpmje g ceh hfms prgcmsãe, prevecfije hgies jfie. Kagc`fs vefjerfs eu kamn`t frrews frrews (hgies jg 67 nrfhfs) sãe pgqugifs g tãe fgrejmiïhmcfs qufite pessèvgms, kgmtfs pfrf sgrgh afiîfjfs hfmer jmstïicmf pessèvga, sgh prgecupfîãe prgcmsãe jfie. Sãeä cehuis if Zurqumf g ies pfèsgs ærfogs, eijgceh e tmre fe frceeuä jmstïicmf í uh gspertg pepuafr. Ierhfahgitg, só tgh use gspertmve, hfs pejgrmf sgr usfjf pfrf smifamzfîãe eu pfrf givmfr hgisfngis. Fs `fstgs sãe agvgs g aeinfs, fs cfogîfs humte pgqugifs g fs ‑pgifs‘ pejgh sgr kea`fs jg ifvfa`f. E rgcerjg jg jmstïicmf ceh frces hfiufms ceivgicmeifms ceivgi cmeifms í jg 074 hgtres. hgtres. @æ uhf nrfijg vfrmgjfjg jg kagc`fs sgnuije e tmpe jg peitf, micaumije2 Jg pgjrf afscfjf (kamit-`gfjgj kamit-`gfjgj), ), prmhmtmvfs, ceh peitfs jg sèagx eu eutrf pgjrf jurf, usfjfs jgsjg e pfageaètmce. Cgrcf jg ;4 nrfhfs.

Jg hfjgmrf eu ofhou ( (weej/ofhoee weej/ofhoee), ), ceh peitf gijurgcmjf ie kene g fnuîfjf, e tmpe hfms cehuh gitrg es fhgrèijmes. Gssfs kagc`fs sfgh

kfcmahgitg jf cfrig je fimhfa (perce je hfte, tftò, pfcf, fitf, bfcfrí gtc., ie cfse jes èijmes orfsmagmres), jgmxfije-e sfinrfr ftí f hertg. F pfrtmr jg 34 nrfhfs, c`gnfije f hfms jg 644 ifs nrfijgs kagc`fs usfjfs per èijmes orfsmagmres.

Jg peitf jg esse, kgrrãe jg frrfmf g gspmiès jg pafitfs, pfrf foftg jg fvgs g gvgitufahgi gvgitufahgitg tg jg pgmxgs. Mijèngifs Mijèngifs orfsmagm orfsm agmres res èbg äs vgzgs fs suostmtugh per pgjfîes jg hgtfa, tmrfjes jg aftfs g eutres vfsma`fhgs jes orfices. _ehoujf (oauit `gfj), `gfj), kagc`f sgh peitf, eu ceh peitf gskírmcf (jg cequmiè, per gxghpae) eu kerhf jg pmãe (jg pgjrf eu hfjgmrf), pfrf jgrruofr krutfs eu cfîfr pæssfres pæss fres g fimhfms fimhfms pgqugies pgqugies sgh gstrfnfr f pgag pga g eu hfic`fr fs pgifs jg sfinug. Igssg cfse, f prgsf fterjefjf cfm g f kagc`f iãe kmcf trfvfjf if cepf jfs ærvergs g í kfcmahgitg rgcea`mjf. Äs vgzgs tgh râhmngs pfrtmcuafrhgitg nrfijgs (c`fhfje kau-kau kau-kau), ), qug prejuzgh humte frrfste, jg hfigmrf f gstfomamzfr f kagc`f hfs rgjuzmr e facficg, e qug qug f terif terif hfms kæcma jg giceitrfr. giceitrfr. ?4 f hfms jg 644 nrfhfs. Jg eosmjmfif (eosmjmfi-`gfjgj eosmjmfi-`gfjgj), ), humte certfitg, hfs krænma, qugorfijesg ceitrf qufaqugr qufaqugr pr pretgîãe. etgîãe. Cgrcf jg j g ;4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Sgrrma`fjf (sgrrftg sgrrftg), ), ceh peitf sgrrma`fjf, qug sg prgijg ä cfîf g í jmkècma jg frrficfr. Sãe usfjfs per cfîfjergs trmofms pfrf cfîfr fimhfms híjmes g frmsces, cehe hfcfces g nftes sgavfngis. F pfrtmr jg ?4 nrfhfs. Zrmjgitg (trmjgit ), ), sgh pgifs, ceh trâs eu hfms peitfs, usfjf prmicmpfahgitg if pgscf. Fs usfjfs pgaes èijmes cfxmifuæs je Orfsma, c`fhfjfs txfrfs, sãe cmtfjfs pgae Hfcuifè pgae Hfcuifèhf hf jg jg Hærme jg Fijrfjg if hãe jg uhf mcfhmfof. Givgigifjf ( pemsei pemsei `gfj)2 `gfj)2 qufaqugr kagc`f qug prevequg jfie per certg eu pgrkurfîãe pejg sgr givgigifjf, hfs kagc`fs gspgcmfahgitg kgmtfs pfrf gssg kmh tâh peitfs aeinfs g kmifs ceh rfiùrfs, pfrf e vgigie pgigtrfr hgaèr. 74 f 644 nrfhfs Teitf afrnf (orefj `gfj, ie Bfpãe Bfpãe yfifnm-of, ‑kea`f jg sfanugmre‘), ceh peitf ceh kerhf jg kea`f, trmïinuae eu aesfine, peitujf g ceh jems

nuhgs hfs sgh kfrpfs. nrfhfs qufije gafoerfjfs usfjfs gh gfrces jg nugrrf. certfitgs, Fs bfpeigsfs pejmfh sgr;4cumjfjesfhgitg humte frtèstmcfs. :4 nrfhfs.

Teitf gstrgmtf (spgfr `gfj, `gfj, ie Bfpãe tenfrm-yf tenfrm-yf,, ‑peitf fnuîfjf‘) micehuh ie Ecmjgitg, hfs f kagc`f pfjrãe ie Bfpãe jes sfhurfms, ceh peitf sghga`fitg ä jg uhf afiîf, certfitg, hfs tfhoíh usfjf pfrf pgrkurfr pgrku rfr frhfjurfs. frhfjurfs. :4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Gstmagtg (oejlmi pemit ), ), kagc`f jg `fstg pgsfjf g peitf jg hgtfa g sgh kfrpfs (eu qufsg) jg uis ; cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite. Kerfh usfjfs per frqugmres fitmnes g hgjmgvfms pfrf pgrkurfr frhfjurfs jg pafcfs. Cgrcf jg >7 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Fnua`f (iggjag pemit ) peitf hfms kmif g aeinf (64 cgitèhgtres) qug e gstmagtg, gstmag tg, tfhoíh tfhoíh pfrf pgrku pgr kurfr rfr frhfjurfs, frhfjurfs, ceh pgse jg ;4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Kfrpfjf (ofrogj pemit , ie Bfpãe Bfpãe wftflusm, ‑rfsnf-cfrig‘), f kerhf trfjmcmeifa jg ‑peitf jg kagc`f‘ ceh peitf trmfinuafr eu gh kea`f, jg oreizg eu kgrre, jg cgrcf jg 7 ch jg cehprmhgite g kfrpfs veatfjfs pfrf træs. f hfms if nugrrf g if cfîf f fimhfms nrfijgs, sg ifGrf cfrig cehusfjf fs kfrpfs jg kerhf f fnrfvfr fmijf hfms eprgijgijekgrmhgite qufije rgtmrfjf. Cgrcf jg ;4 nrfhfs qufije usfjf iuh frce aeine eu gqumvfagitg. Fs bfpeigsfs tmi`f peitf jg ?,7 f 67 ch g äs vgzgs nuhg sgrrma`fje. Ogh trfofa`fjfs, grfh hfms prgcmsfs qug fs kagc`fs gurepgmfs hgjmgvfms. hgjmgvfms . :4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. ), uhf kagc`f kfrpfjf ceh fsfs curvfs Cfujf jg fijermi`f (swfaaewtfma swfaaewtfma), g afrnfs, jg heje f fuhgitfr f supgrkècmg jg certg g ftminmr jmstïicmfs hfmer fmergs gs (h ( hfms jg 604 hgtres). ;4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Omkurcfjf (crgscgit pemit eu eu   èrsg nfaamin `gfj, `gfj, ie Bfpãe lfrmhftf lfrmhftf,, ‑omkurcfjf‘) kagc`fs ceh peitfs gh kerhf jg kerquma`f eu auf crgscgitg, veatfjfs pfrf f krgitg, ceh nuhg fkmfje. Tejmfh sgrvmr pfrf certfr fsfs jg fvgs eu tgij÷gs jfs pftfs jg fimhfms (eu pgssefs) g mhpgjmr suf kunf. Zfhoíh tgrmfh smje usfjfs pfrf jgcfpmtfr fvgstruzgs g certfr cerjfs jg ifvmes g hæqumifs jg nugrrf. :4 nrfhfs. Cmizga (c`msga `gfj) `gfj) aïhmif fnuîfjf gh omsga, pfrf certfr g pgigtrfr frhfjurfs jg ceure. ;4 nrfhfs. Micgijmærmf (micgijmfry micgijmfry)) ceh uhf ouc`f jg hftgrmfa mikafhævga gireafjf if `fstg g fcgsf (if Mjfjg Híjmf, ngrfahgitg trfpes ghogomjes

gh Äs fvgzgs nfmeaf jg frfhg eu kures aftgrfms pfrfóage). prgijgr ouc`f. ouc`ceh f. ;4uhf nrfhfs. nrfhpgqugif fs.

Tmretícimcf ( pyretgcìmc) pyretgcìmc ) usfjf per imibfs g cfrrgnfjf ceh póaverf g gkgmtes pmretícimces, pfrf jmstrfmr e mimhmne ceh f auz g e ruèje, prmicmpfahgitg qufije afiîfjfs gh sfavfs ä iemtg. Zfhoíh pejg tgr gkgmtes micgijmærmes. micgijmærmes . ;4 nrfh nrfhfs. fs. Fsseomfjerf (ùhhmin ùhhmin,, w`mstamin w`mstamin,, turimp-`gfj turimp-`gfj,, ie Bfpãe lfourm-yf lfourm-yf,, ‑kagc`f fsseomfjerf‘), kagc`f jg cfogîf ouaoesf ceh kures qug fsseomfh qufije vef. Ie Bfpãe g gitrg es heinóms, grf cestuhg cehgîfr uhf oftfa`f jmspfrfije gssfs kagc`fs seorg f cfogîf jes mimhmnes cehe kerhf jg nugrrf psmceaónmcf, hfs gafs tfhoíh pejmfh sgr usfjfs pfrf smifamzfîãe. Äs vgzgs, es frqugmres gic`mfh f peitf jf kagc`f ceh póaverff g f fcgijmfh póaver fcg ijmfh,, crmfije cr mfije uhf uhf kagc`f micgi m icgijmær jmærmf. mf. :4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Jg tmre fe fave ( (tfrng tfrngtt pemit ), ), usfjf gh frqugmrmf gspertmvf, tgh peitf pgqugif g hgtæamcf gh kerhf jg enmvf, qug í hfms fgrejmiïhmcf g iãe pgigtrf kuije, pfrf kfcmamtfr suf rgtmrfjf g cfusfr hgies jfie fe fave. Cgrcf jg ?4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Jg cfhpe cfhpe (kmgaj pemit ), ), usfjf hejgrifhgitg pfrf cfîfr, tgh peitf hfms fnuîfjf qug f jg tmre fe fave, pems vmsf kgrmr g hftfr f prgsf. Cgrcf jg 34 nrfhfs. Teitf bujú ( buje pemit   eu nrfss cftc`gr) cftc`gr) í uhf kagc`f rehoujf ceh uhf frhfîãe jg frfhg gh terie jf peitf, jg cgrcf jg 3 ch jg jmïhgtre (ftí ;,7 ch gh fanuis hejgaes) pfrf iãe sg gitgrrfr kfcmahgitg ie hfte qufije grrf. ?4 nrfhfs. Teitf afrnf hejgrif (hejgri orefj`gfj) orefj`gfj) tgh trâs eu quftre kfrpfs hgtæamcfs g fgrejmiïhmcfs, e qug a`g jæ hfms prgcmsãe qug äs kagc`fs kfrpfjfs trfjmcmeifms g í mnufahgitg jmkècma jg frrficfr jf cfrig. 34 nrfhfs. Teitf afrnf gxpfismvf (gxpfijmin orefj`gfj) orefj`gfj) í uhf kagc`f hejgrif jg cfîf cfî f ceh aïhmifs aïhmifs qug sg forgh for gh ceh e mhpfcte. Í hfms hfms òt òtma ma pfrf cfîfr pgmxgs, pems fs kfrpfs gxpfismvfs terifh f kagc`f humte jmkècma jg rghevgr jf cfrig. cf rig. :4 nrfhfs. nrfhfs.

Oejequgs E oejequg ( pgaagt pgaa gt oew) oew) í usfje per mijèngifs jf Fhírmcf je Sua (micausmvg Orfsma) g tfhoíh if C`mif, Èijmf g Sujgstg Fsmætmce. Í uh frce qug gh vgz jg kagc`fs, afiîfh pgaetfs jg frnmaf cezmjf (tfhoíh c`fhfjfs oejequgs), pgjrfs, cequmiès eu iós jg pmiè, pfrf jgrruofr pæssfres sgh gstrfnfr fs pgifs e cfpturæ-aes cehe hfscetgs. Ie sua jf Æsmf, cestuhf sgr kgmte jg ofhou. Ngrfahgitg iãe tâh hfms jg =4 cgitèhgtres g f kerîf jg trfîãe iãe pfssf jg 64 f 6? qumaes. Fs pgaetfs eu oejequgs jg frnmaf cezmjf cestuhfh tgr cgrcf jg 64 nrfhfs. E oejequg c`miâs í kgmte jg hfjgmrf rgvgstmjf ceh tgij÷gs jg fimhfms g jgcerfje ceh pgag jg ceorf g peitfs gscuapmjfs ceh f kerhf jg cfogîf jg hfcfce. Zgh jufs cerjfs kgmtfs jg sgjf g tmrfs jg ofhou, qug sustgitfh u ofafjgmrf qug pejg sgr uh cepmiè jg ofhou ceogrte ceh pgag jg tuofrãe eu uhf oeasmi`f. í trfcmeifje ceh uhf hãejgsgnurfije f ghpui`fjurf cgitre g E fs frce cerjfs tercmjfs aftgrfahgitg kerhf qug f pgaetf iãefofmxe ftmibfjef ghpui`fjurf qufije afiîfjf. E peagnfr g mijmcfjer jf eutrf hãe sgnurfh f pgaetf ceitrf f ofafjgmrf g f fprexmhfh je eaè je frqugmre. E tmre í kgmte hmrfije fcmhf je fate jf ghpui`fjurf, fami`fjf ceh e cepe. E oejequg mijèngif usfje ie Orfsma kuicmeif jg hfigmrf sghga`fitg, hfs usf uhff ofafjgmr uh ofa fjgmrff jg cerjf ceh kerh kerhff jg @. E oejequg tfmafijâs í kgmte jg jems frces jg ofhou prgses afje f afje pgafs peitfs g hfitmjes sgpfrfjes per ofrrfs aftgrfms. F pgaetf í jmspfrfjf gitrg es frces.

gstmaminug (saminsèt ), tfhoíh ), c`fhfjejg ftmrfjgmrf (pertunuâs eu E kmsnf (pertunuâs gurepgu) í uhf kerquma`f hfjgmrf eu jg hgtfa,orfsmagmre) gh cubfs gxtrghmjfjgs sg prgijg uhf tmrf gaæstmcf (ngrfahgitg jg oerrfc`f), pfrf ftmrfr pgjrmi`fs, cùhoe nresse jg cfîf eu reafhgites jg fîe jg ; f 63 hmaèhgtres. Surnmu ies GWF gh 60;4, peuce jgpems jg mivgitfjf f oerrfc`f vuacfimzfjf (60::). Wh hejgae vgijmje cehgrcmfahgitg ies GWF gh 6=:0 grf cfpfz jg afiîfr kagc`fs ceh trfîãe jg ?4 qumaes. quma es. E facficg fa cficg í jg uis uis ?7 hgtres.

Ogstfs F ogstf (‑oístf‘, frhf, ceh preiòicmf jmkgrgitg jg ‑oâstf‘, mrrfcmeifa) e ofagstrf, c`fhfjf gh minaâs cressoew cressoew,, krficâs frofaàtg frofaàtg,, cfstga`fie ofaagstf ofaagstf,, mtfamfie ofagstrf ofagstrf,, faghãe F faghãe Frhorust rhorust , í uhf frhf pertætma qug ceismstg jg uh frce jg hfjgmrf, c`mkrg eu fîe (c`fhfje gh minaâs prej minaâs prej   gh ngrfa g aft`g qufije jg fîe, iãe oew oew), ), heitfje iuhf `fstg (tmaagr (tmaagr   eu stecl ), ), cubfs gxtrghmjfjgs sãe amnfjfs per uhf cerjf prgsf f uhf trfvf eu aminugtf c`fhfjf iez (iut (iut   eu cftc` cftc`). ). If peitf supgrmer jf `fstg, buite fe frce, `æ uh gstrmoe eu frneaãe (stmrrup (stmrrup)) e pgae hgies uh afîe (aeep (aeep), ), ie qufa e ogstgmre p÷g e pí giqufite frhf e frce. Fe sg fcmeifr e nftmaè (qug ifs ogstfs hgjmgvfms í uhf fafvficf jg hgtfa nrfijg, iãe uh nftmaè jg pmsteaf) frrghgssf kagc`fs (frrews (frrews), ), vmretgs (oeats (oeats,, kagc`fs curtfs) eu pgaeures ( pgaagts pgaa gts,, ofafs jg hgtfa rgjeijfs). Fs ogstfs hfms petgitgs prgcmsfh jg hgcfimshes cehpagxes pfrf sgr frhfjfs, cehe f nfrruc`f e frhftestg (crfigqumi). (crfigqumi ). Faeine, tícimcff jg tícimcf jhfmer g usfrjgsvfitfngh f ogstf og stf c`fhf-sg c`fhf-sg ogstgrmf. ogstgrmf Gh rgafîãe fe frce jf ogstf grf. f cfjâicmf jg tmre2 uh frqugmre ogh trgmifje jmspfrfvf 6? kagc`fs per hmiute, giqufite u ogstgmre ceisgnumf ; ceh fs ogstfs hfms smhpags eu 6 eu ? ceh fs hfms cehpagxfs g petgitgs. Ter eutre afje, ogstfs cehuimcfvfh hfms gigrnmf fe prebítma, pejmfh pgrkurfr frhfjurfs g sgu use pejmf sgr fprgijmje ceh uhf sghfif jg trgmifhgite, fe pfsse qug f kerhfîãe jg uh oeh frqugmre hmamtfr agvf fies. Faíh jmsse, pejmfh sgr usfjes per uh cfvfagmre sgh nrfijg jmkmcuajfjg, fe pfsse qug f frqugmrmf heitfjf í uhf frtg qug igiùh peve gurepgu c`gneu f jehmifr. Fs prmhgmrfs ogstfs jg fssíjme (frhfs frtma`frmf,ogstfs iãe pertætgms frhfs orficfs) surnmrfh if C`mif, ie sícuae [M f.C., hfs fsjgprmhgmrfs sãe je sícuae M[ f.C. Es nrgnes tmi`fh ogstfs jg fssíjme, c`fhfjfs nfstrfkgtfs, jgsjg e sícuae MMM f.C. g ogstfs pertætgms (frcuofaamstfs (frcuofaamstfs,, hfiuofaamstfs hfiuofaamstfs   e c`gmreofaamstfs)) sãe c`gmreofaamstfs sã e hgicmei hgicmeifs fs pgaes pga es rehfies rehfies f pfrtmr p frtmr je sícuae MM j.C. Fe hgies if cfîf, e use jg ogstfs ceitmiueu if Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf, hfs e prmhgmre use hmamtfr ftgstfje if Gurepf sg jgu if oftfa`f jg @fstmins, gh 64;;. Ie sícuae PMM, fe fjetfrgh es frces cehpósmtes jg ermngh ærfog, fs ogstfs terifrfh-sg hfms gkmcfzgs g aene pfssfrfh f sgr hfms cehuis qug es frces if hfmermf jes gxírcmtes gurepgus. Ceh gaf, uh pgãe ceh uhf sghfif jg prætmcf pejmf hftfr gh sgnuijes uh cfvfagmre jg frhfjurf ceh fies jg trgmifhgite, u

sírme jgsfkme ä erjgh hgjmgvfa. Ie Sgnuije Ceicèame jg Aftrãe (663=), e Tfpf Miecâicme MM premomu sgu use ceitrf crmstães, hfs gssf jgtgrhmifîãe kem agtrf

hertf. Ogstfs kerfh usfjfs tfite per cfvfagmres qufite per gxírcmtes jg hgrcgiærmes g cfhpeigsgs rgogajgs. Micausmvg e agngijærme Numa`grhg Zgaa, qug gh 634>, per sg rgcusfr f cuhprmhgitfr e c`fpíu jg Ngssagr, ofmame (nevgrifjer) jf Æustrmf ie cfitãe jg Wrm, kem ceijgifje f fcgrtfr uhf hfîã pestf if cfogîf je kmaè f 6?4 pfsses g fcgrteu. Ceikerhg f agijf, gag tmi`f if hãe jems vmretgs g Ngssagr pgrnuiteu per quâ. Zgaa rgspeijgu qug sg per fcfse e prmhgmre hftfssg e kmaè, e sgnuije sgnu ije hftfrmf hftfrmf e ofmam ofm ame. e. Zgaa kem prgse, prg se, hfs ceisgnumu ceisgnumu kun kunmr g hftfr Ngssagr ce e sgnuije vmretg, formije cfhmiè ä mijgpgijâicmf jg Wrm g jf Suèîf, cehe ceikgjgrfîãe jg cfit÷gs nevgrifjes per cfhpeigsgs g ournugsgs amvrgs. If vmjf rgfa, es gxírcmtes hgrcgiærmes jf _gifscgiîf, micausmvg suèîes, terifrfh eoseagtf f cfvfafrmf hgjmgvfa ceh fbujf je pmqug, jf fafofrjf g jfs ogstfs. Gstfs ceivmvgrfh ftí hgfjes je sícuae P[MM ceh fs prmhgmrfs frhfs jg kene, qug tmi`fh hgies prgcmsãe g grfh hfms agitfs jg cfrrgnfr g hgshe jgpems ceitmiufrfh sgr usfjfs ies je gxírcmtes E gxírcmte c`miâs e useu cehe gqumpfhgite frgnuafr ftí e kmh sícuae fsmætmces. PMP. Gxírcmtes hejgries ceitmiufh f usfr ogstfs gh epgrfî÷gs gspgcmfms, tmrfije prevgmte jg sgrgh hfms smagicmesfs je qug qufaqugr frhf jg kene g sgrg cfpfzgs jg foftgr uh tgrrermstf eu mimhmne qug cfrrgnug gxpaesmves sgh prevecfr jgteifîãe. If MM Nugrrf Huijmfa, ogstfs kerfh usfjfs pgaf ESS (prgcurserf jf CMF) pfrf fssfssmiftes gh tgrrmtórme mimhmne. Ie Orfsma, e Cgitre jg Mistruîãe jg Nugrrf if Sgavf (CMNS) gismif e use jf ogstf pfrf gamhmifr smagicmesfhgitg oftgjergs g sgitmigafs je mimhmne. Sãe tfhoíh usfjfs per kerîfs gspgcmfms jf Nrícmf, Zurqumf, Sírvmf, Gspfi`f g C`mif gh pagie sícuae PPM. Tgae tmpejgjgkagc`fs prebítma, fs ogstfs sg cafssmkmcfh trâs tmpes2 Ogstfs (frrew cressoews cressoews) ) kerfhghprevfvgahgitg fs prmhgmrfs f sgrgh crmfjfs g ceitmiufrfh f sgr usfjfs per peves trmofms ftí e sícuae PP. Jmspfrfh kagc`fs jg ;4 f =4 cgitèhgtres g ?4 f 34 nrfhfs, uh peuce hfms jganfjfs g agvgs qug fs usfjfs ies frces g sgh gicfmxg. Sãe peuce prgcmsfs, perqug kagc`fs tgijgh f gitertfr g tercgr qufije ftmrfjfs per træs ceh nrfijg vgaecmjfjg, g e cfrætgr hgcïimce jf frhf jmkmcuatf fe usuærme cehpgisfr gssfs jmkmcuajfjgs fgrejmiïhmcfs. Sãe hfms òtgms gh tmre mijmrgte, ä jmstïicmf, ceh f jgsvfitfngh jg uhf cfjâicmf jg kene hgier qug f jg uh frce. Ogstfs jg vmretgs (oeat cressoews) cressoews) usfh prebítgms jg ?7 f 37 cgitèhgtres g 34 f 6?4 nrfhfs ceh eu sgh râhmngs, g prevfvgahgitg cehgîfrfh f sgr usfjfs

ie sícuae M[ j.C. Ekgrgcgh f hgaèr prgcmsãe, pems uh vmretg pgrjg fpgifs ?4 cgitèhgt cgit èhgtres res jg fatmtu fa tmtujg jg ies prm prmh hgmres gmr es :4 hgtres jg vee.

Ogstfs jg oejequgs (steigoews steigoews)) afiîfh pgjrmi`fs eu oeami`fs jg frnmaf (oejequgs) jg uhf oeasmi`f ie hgme jg uhf cerjf jupaf, cehe uh oejequg jg hãe. Surnmrfh ie sícuae PM[ pfrf cfîf jg fvgs g fimhfms pgqugies, ceh trfîãe jg ?4 qumaes g facficg jg cgrcf jg ?4 hgtres. Ogstfs jg pgaeures ( prejjs) prejjs) afiîfh oeami`fs jg cùhoe (pgaeures) pgae hgshe hgcfimshe jfs ogstfs jg oejequgs, hfs ceh hfmer petâicmf, usfije uhf fafvficf (aftc` (aftc`)) pfrf frhfr. Surnmrfh f pfrtmr jg 6;44 if Faghfi`f g kerf pepuafrgs if Gurepf gitrg 6>;4 g 6064, pgrhfigcgije gh use gh pfrtgs jfs Fhírmc Fh írmcfs fs ie sícuae PMP g miècme miècm e je PP. Tgae tmpe jg frce, cafssmkmcfh-sg gh2 Ogstfs jg frces smhpags, kgmtes jg hfjgmrf cehe es frces jg hãe je hgshe tmpe, hfs ceh frces iãe hfmergs je qug 6,? hgtre g trfîãe jg ?4 f 34 qumaes. Wsfjes per gurepgus if Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf, vmrfh-sg supgrfjes qufije es cruzfjes gitrfrfh gh ceitfte ceh es frces cehpósmtes ærfogs g es fjetfrfh g sufs ( hfsfjgqufjes. (h iãe ies frces jg hãe). Cei f sgr cfîf, pfrf pfr fjgf qufa ogstfs sãe hfms Tgsfh jg uhCeitmiu f tmiufrfh jemsfrfh qumaes g usfjes tâh ftíif6,: hgtre cehprmhgite. Ogstfs jg frces afhmifjes grfh fs hfms cehuis if C`mif `mstórmcf, kgmtfs ceh aïhmifs jg hfjgmrf eu ofhou ceafjfs uhfs äs eutrfs. Grfh mitgrhgjmærmes gitrg es smhpags g es cehpestes, supertfije trfîãe jg ftí 74 qumaes, ngrfahgitg ceh 04 f =4 cgitèhgtres. Tgsfh jg uh f ?,7 qumaes. Fs ogstfs c`migsfs grfh hfms curtfs qug fs ecmjgitfms g tmi`fh 77 f 04 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite. Ogstfs jg frces cehpósmtes grfh usfjfs ie Ermgitg jgsjg f Fitmnumjfjg, kerfh tfhoíh usfjfs pgaes rehfies g veatfrfh f sgr fjetfjfs pgaes gurepgus f pfrtmr je sícuae PMM. Grfh tfhoíh c`fhfjfs if Gurepffrces jg ‑cgrvgmrfs‘, sgrgh kgmtfs (gh pfrtg) jg c`mkrg jg cgrve. Msse pessmomamteu hgiergs, jgper ;4 f >7 cgitèhgtres ceh ?4 f 34 cgitèhgtres jg gxtgisãe, hfs qug supertfvfh trfîãe jg hfms jg 644 qumaes. Tgsfvfh jg 6,7 f 3,7 qumaes g tmi`fh cgrcf jg uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite. Ogstfs jg frces jg fîe eu frofagstfs (frofagsts, cfstga`fie cfstga`fie   frofagstfs, mtfamfie   frofagstfs) mtfamfie frofagstfs) cehgîfrfh f sgr usfjes gh pfèsgs crmstães jf Gurepf ie sícuae PM[, hfs í pessèvga qug tgi`fh smje usfjfs jgsjg e sícuae PM if Gspfi`f msaïhmcf. Wh frce jg fîe (aft`g (aft`g)) jg >7 cgitèhgtres supertf uhf trfîãe jg :74 qumaes ceh 34 cgitèhgtres jg gxtgisãe. Fs hfmergs ftminmfh trfîãe jg ?.?:3 qumaes g tmi`fh facficg jg =44 hgtres, hfs prgcmsfvfh jg hfimvgafs g jg

reajfifs eu crghfa`gmrfs pfrf sgr frhfjfs. E fpgrkgmîefhgite jf prejuîãe je fîe terieu gssfs frhfs rgaftmvfhgitg cehuis ies sícuaes P[ g P[M. Tgsfvfh ftí

64 qumaes g tmi`fh cgrcf jg uh hgtre jg cehprmhgite. F ogstf cehpestf (cehpeuij cressoew) cressoew) kem mivgitfjf ies fies 6=;4. Wsf frce cehpeste, prevmje jg peamfs qug rgjuzgh e gskerîe pfrf puxæ-af g pgrhmtg qug f cerjf jg ogstfs rgaftmvfhgitg petgitgs sgbf puxfjf ceh fs hães sg igcgssmjfjg jg hgcfimshes (ghoerf uh pgqugie frhftestg pessf sgr gicfmxfje pfrf kfcmamtfr e precgsse, rgjuzmije e gskerîe gh =4%). F `fstg tgh f kerhf jg uhf cerei`f jg gspminfrjf (ies hejgaes hfmergs) eu jg pmsteaf (ies hgiergs) g e nftmaè í cehe e jg uhf frhf jg kene. [frmfî÷gs2 Ogstf-pmsteaf ( pmstea pmst ea cressoew) cressoew) – tgh trfîãe jg ?7 f 37 qumaes, cerpe jg paæstmce eu fauhèime, cehprmhgite tetfa jg 74 cgitèhgtres, frce jg fîe eu kmorf jg vmjre jg :4 cgitèhgtres g pgsf :44 f ;44 nrfhfs, jmspfrfije vmretgs f 6;7-6>7 lh/`, ceh facficg jg 34 hgtres. Wsfjf pfrf cfîf hmòjf g tmre fe fave. Ogstf jg cfîf ( (ùitmin ùitmin cressoew) cressoew) – tgh trfîãe jg 74 f >4 qumaes, cerpe jg fauhèime, frce jg fîe eu kmorf jg vmjre g jmspfrf vmretgs f ??4 lh/`. Zgh 04 f =4 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g frce jg >4 cgitèhgtres Tgsf ?,7 f 3,7 qumaes. Wsfjf pfrf cfîf nressf. Ogstf jg cehfije ( (cehhfije cehhfije cressoew) cressoew) – tgh cerpe jg jurfauhèime, auigtf jg peitfrmf g cerjf jg cfoe jg fîe. F trfîãe í rgnuaævga jg >4 f 6:4 qumaes, sgije e gskerîe rgjuzmje gh 74% pgafs peamfs. E cehprmhgite í jg 00 cgitèhgtres g e frce jg ;: cgitèhgtres. Es vmretgs sãe jmspfrfjes f ftí 334 lh/`, e facficg í jg :44 f 744 hgtres g e pgse í jg 3,0 qumaes. Wsfjf per cehfijes g kerîfs gspgcmfms hmamtfrgs, micausmvg micau smvg gxírcmte orfsmagmre. orfsmagmr e. humte curtfs (:4 f 74 cgitèhgtres) qug Ofagstrmies sãeje ogstfs jg frces jg fîe usfvfh vmretgs humte pgqugies (f pfrtmr jg 7 cgitèhgtres), usfjfs if Mtæamf jf _gifscgiîf. Ceh fcríscmhe jg uhf cerei`f, terifh-sg ogstfs-pmsteafs ( pmstea pmst ea cressoews). cressoews ). Ogstãe eu ofamstf (ofaamstf ofaamstf)) í uhf ogstf humte nrfijg, ceh cgrcf jg trâs hgtres jg cehprmhgite, usfjf if jgkgsf jg hurfa`fs, qug í cafssmkmcfjf cehe pgîf jg frtma`frmf eu hæqumif jg nugrrf, iãe cehe frhf orficf. Tgae tmpe jg hgcfimshe pfrf frhæ-afs, es tmpes sãe2 F ogstf smhpags iãe tgh gstrmoe g í frhfjf puxfije-sg f cerjf je frce ce

fs hães es jems pís pmsfh pfrf kmrhfr frhf Aecloew ie c`ãe. E tmpejufs usfje if giqufite Gscfijmiævmf jg =44 f 6;44ieí frce cei`gcmje cehe fSlçig Aecloew g tgh cehprmhgite jg 06 cgitèhgtres, ceh frce smhpags jg hfjgmrf jg =?

cgitèhgtres. F trfîãe je frce grf jg ?7 qumaes g e facficg jg 74 hgtres. Ce gssf tícimcf, usfjf if Gurepf if Fatf Mjfjg Híjmf, uh ogstgmre pejg jmspfrfr cmice tmres per hmiute. Tgsfvfh uh qumae g hgme. F ogstf gstrmogmrf jg uh pí (eig-keet stmrrup cressoew) cressoew) í frhfjf puxfijesg f cerjf je frce ceh fs jufs hães, giqufite e pí kmrhf f peitf jf frhf ie c`ãe ceh fbujf je gstrmoe, tícimcf usfjf if Gurepf jgsjg e sícuae PM. Ceh gaf, uh ogstgmre pejg jmspfrfr sgtg vmretgs per hmiute, hfs f trfîãe je frce í amhmtfjf f cgrcf jg 77 qumaes. Tgsfvfh cgrcf jg uh qumae. Facficg jg 6?4 hgtres. F ogstf gstrmogmrf jg jems pís ( (twe-keet twe-keet stmrrup cressoew) cressoew) tmi`f gstrmoe pfrf jems pís, e qug pgrhmtg uhf trfîãe hfmer (uis >7 qumaes), hfs gxmng hfms tghpe g gskerîe pfrf frhfr (ie hæxmhe cmice vmretgs per hmiute). Gssfs ogstfs pgsfvf ftí jems qumaes. Facficg jg 674 hgtres. F ogstf jg nficè ( (ogat-fij-cafw ogat-fij-cafw cressoew cressoew)) í frhfjf ceh uh nficè (cafw (cafw)) prgse cmitegiqufite je ogstgmre, kmrhfceh e gstrmoe e pí g sgnurf f `fstgEjf frhf ceh fsfehães puxfqug f cerjf f nfkfceh prgsf tfhoíh fe cmite. híteje kem usfje if Gurepf f pfrtmr je sícuae PMM, hfs grf cei`gcmje if C`mif jgsjg humte fitgs g ceitmiueu f sgr usfje ftí humte tghpe jgpems. Tgrhmtg trfîãe jg >7 qumaes g cmice vmretgs per hmiute. F ogstf pgsf ftí ?,7 qumaes. Facficg jg 674 hgtres. F ogstf jg cfvfagmre ( (cafw cafw ofajrmc cressoew cressoew)) í frhfjf ceh nficè prgse fe oeajrmí (ofajrmc (ofajrmc)) je cfvfagmre, pgae qufa sg prgijg f cerjf giqufite sg ghpurrf e gstrmoe ceh e pí, híteje usfje if Gurepf f pfrtmr je sícuae PMMM. Tgrhmtg trfîãe jg :7 qumaes g cmice vmretgs per hmiute. F ogstf pgsf ftí 6,7 qumaes. Facficg jg 644 hgtres. F ogstf jg peaí (ogat-fij-puaagy cressoew) cressoew) frhfvf-sg ceh uhf reajfif e peaí iuhf cerrgmf eu cerrgitg qug sg prgijmf iuhf peitf fe cmite je ogstgmre g if eutrf f uh pmie if ofsg jf `fstg. E nficè jf reajfif puxfvf f cerjf jf ogstf ceh hfms gkmcmâicmf, pgrhmtmije cgrcf jg 644 qumaes jg trfîãe, hfs e frrfibe í jgamcfje, ceh e rmsce jg f peaí trfvfr, gscerrgnfr eu sg girgjfr if frhf. Iãe pgrhmtg hfms jg quftre vmretgs per hmiute. F ogstf pgsf ftí 3 qumaes. Facficg jg 6;4 hgtres. F ogstf jg ofaficmh ( (^ ^mppg cressoew) cressoew) usf uhf uhf fafvficf fa fvficf jg hfjgmrf prgsf pr gsf ie gstrmoe, ceh uh nficè if peitf, qug ghpurrf f cerjf pfrf f iez ceh fbujf jg uhf fafvficf hgier. Tfrf msse, e ogstgmre ierhfahgitg prgcmsf sg fbega`fr pfrf

jgmtfr f ogstf ie c`ãe, f hgies qug f trfîãe sgbf ofmxf (hgies jg 34 qumaes). Tgrhmtg jems vmretgs per hmiute g trfîãe jg 77 qumaes. F ogstf, usfjf jgsjg e

sícuae PMMM, pgsf uh f jems qumaes g e ofaficmh, uh qumae. Facficg jg 6?4 hgtres. F ogstf jg fafvficf (neft”s keet cressoew) cressoew) usf uhf fafvficf jg hgtfa ce nficè qug sg prgijg iuh pmie ftræs je nftmaè qug puxf f cerjf ceh fbujf jg uhf fafvficf hgier. F ogstf prgcmsf sgr jgmtfjf ie c`ãe. Wsfjf jgsjg e sícuae PMMM, pgrhmtg jems vmretgs per hmiute g trfîãe jg 644 f 6;4 qumaes. Tgsf 6,7 f ?,7 qumaes g f fafvficf 6,7 qumae. Facficg jg ?44 hgtres. F ogstf jg nfkf (nfkkag cressoew) cressoew) usf uh hgcfimshe sghga`fitg, hfs f fafvficf eu nfkf nfkf í kgmtf jg hfigmrf hfigmrf f pejgr sgr gh g hpurrfjf ceh f ogstf fpemfjf fpemf jf if cexf g e ogstgmre jg pí. Wsfjf jgsjg e sícuae PM[, pgrhmtg trâs vmretgs per hmiute g trfîãe jg 644 f 6;4 qumaes. Tgsf 3 f : qumaes, micaumije f nfkf. Facficg jg ?44 hgtres. F ogstf jg rescf (scrgw-fij-`fijag cressoew) cressoew) tgh uhf rescf jg pfrfkuse mitgnrfjf ä `fstg, hevmjf per hfimvgaf, qug hevg f iez pfrf krgitg g pfrf træs. E ogstgmre kfzgr fvfiîfr f rescf ftíkemprgijgr iez if cerjf je frce g jgpems mivgrtgr eprgcmsf hevmhgite. Gssg hgcfimshe usfje fprmicmpfahgitg ceh ofagstrmies, qug pejmfh sgr frhfjes gh vmitg sgnuijes. Ceh uhf ogstf ierhfa, agvfrmf pgae hgies uh hmiute. Gssg hgcfimshe surnmu ie sícuae P[ g pgrhmtg trfîãe jg 6;4 qumaes. Facficg Facf icg jg ?44 hgtres. hgtres. F ogstf jg nfrruc`f (crfigqumi cressoew) cressoew) grf frhfjf ceh fbujf jg u gqumpfhgite c`fhfje nfrruc`f eu frhftestg (crfigqumi, (crfigqumi, rfcl eu eu   crmc)2 crmc)2 u pmi`ãe eu rejf jg giceitre jg kgrre, hevmhgitfje per uhf hfimvgaf, cubes jgitgs pestes gh ceitfte ceh es jgitgs jg uhf tmrf jg kgrre, eu crghfa`gmrf, puxfvf f iez g rgtgsfvfh f cerjf. @fvmf jems tmpes2 ‑gspfièa‘, ceh hfimvgaf pgrpgijmcuafr fe frce g ‑faghãe‘, cehoeasf hfimvgaf pfrfagaf. f ogstf, ogstgmre rgcea`mf e frhftestg f uhf jg ceure ie Frhfjf cmite. Ie Orfsma,e ‑nfrruc`f‘ jgpems vgme f sgr uhf frhf jg kene jg cfrrgnfr ceh f oecf, fe pfsse qug ‑frhftestg‘ (‑frhf-ræpmje‘, gh mtfamfie), nfièu gh cfstga`fie e sgitmje jg eobgte eob gte nrfijg, micúheje g miòtma miòtma.. Wsfj Wsfjee f pfrtmr pfr tmr je j e síc sícuae uae PM[, pgrh pgr hmtm mtmff trfîãe trfî ãe jg 6;4 f :74 qumaes, hfs iãe pgrhmtmf hfms jg jems eu trâs tmres per hmiute. F ogstf pgsfvf ftí : qumaes g e frhftestg 6,7 f 3 qumaes. Gssfs ogstfs grfh usfjfs g fssíjmes, ies qufms es ogstgmres pejmf sg pretgngr per træs jg pfvgsgs (gscujes nrfijgs trfispertfjes per eutres seajfjes) g hurfa`fs. Facficg jg ftí :44 hgtres. F og stf jg terie terie ( (wmijafss wmijafss cressoew) cressoew) frhfvf-sg per hgme jg jufs hfimvgafs

ies afjes mikgrmergs jf `fstg, fcmeifije jems smstghfs pfrfagaes jg reajfifs qug uites puxfvfh f cerjf je frce per jems nficès ftí prgijâ-af if iez. E sgu tmre,

cgrtgmre g jg hfms facficg, grf per eutre afje e hfms agite2 pgrhmtmf trfîãe jg ?44 f ?.444 qumaes, hfs prgcmsfvf jg cgrcf jg uh hmiute pfrf frhfr. F ogstf cehpagtf ceh sgu hgcfimshe pgsfvf jg 7 f 64 qumaes. Cehe fs ogstfs jg nfrruc`f, nfrruc` f, grf gr f usfjf gh fssíjmes. E facficg jfs hfmergs c`gnfvf c`gnfvf f =44 hgtres. hgtres. F ogstf jg rgpgtmîãe ( (rgpgftmin rgpgftmin cressoew eu cressoew eu cù-le-iu cù-le-iu,, gh hfijfrmh zùng hfijfrmh zùng iu eu eu amfi amfi iu, cergfie cergfie   suienuin) suienuin) í uhf frhf c`migsf usfjf jgsjg e sícuae M[ f.C. Rùng (eu Cù-le) Amfin, gstrftgnmstf je sícuae MMM j.C., fpgrkgmîeeu e sg prebgte, jfè f frhf tgr e sgu iehg. F vgrsãe per gag crmfjf jmspfrfvf jems eu trâs vmretgs jg cfjf vgz, hfs vgrs÷gs pestgrmergs jmspfrfvfh jgz vmretgs (krgqugitghgitg givgigifjes) gh 67 sgnuijes, qug grfh nufrjfjes iuhf cïhfrf seorg f pfrtg jmfitgmrf jf `fstg g jmspfrfjes ceh e fcmeifhgite jg uhf fafvficf. F trfîãe, períh, grf jg fpgifs 67 qumaes, ofmxf pfrf uhf ogstf, rgjuzmije e facficg òtma f >4 hgtres. Grf ngrfahgitg usfjf gh fssíjmes, ftræs jg fanuhf ceogrturf. [grs÷gs hfms smhpags, ceh frce rgte, grfh usfjfs per pfrtmcuafrgs jgkgsf jehmcèame. KemPMP, mitrejuzmje ifif Cergmf rgm Sgbein (6:60–6:74)pfrf g usfje ftíje e kmh je sícuae micausmvg nugrrfpgae smie-bfpeigsf jg 60=:-=7. Iuhf vgrsãe jehístmcf, e frce tmi`f :7 cgitèhgtres jg afrnurf, e cehprmhgite jf `fstg grf 7; cgitèhgtres (;? ceh e preaeinfhgite jf cïhfrf) g e pgse grf jg 6,7 qumae, jmspfrfije vmretgs jg 60 cgitèhgtres jg cehprmhgite g 0 hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre. Iuhf vgrsãe hmamtfr, e cehprmhgite grf 6,47 hgtre g e pgse jg 7 qumaes. Es vmretgs tmi`fh 34 f :4 cgitèhgtres, ceh jmïhgtre jg 0 f 64 hmaèhgtres. F ogstf futehætmcf (sgak-ceclmin cressoew) cressoew) í uh hejgae usfje hejgrifhgitg gh ogstfs-pmsteaf jg pgqugif trfîãe (37 qumaes). E usuærme fpgrtf uh oetãe gcehprmhmje. gaf sg frhf E f sm hgshfjurf cehjems uh hgcfimshe piguhætmce qugnæs usfofstf næs cfroúimce precgsse sgnuijes g uh cmamijre jg pfrf 74 jmspfres ä tghpgrfturf jg ?4²C (jgz f -6?²C).

[mretgs [mretgs sãe es prebítgms frrghgssfjes pgaf hfmermf jfs ogstfs, if kerhf jg jfrjes eu kagc`fs kagc`fs curtfs. Tgae tfhfi` tfhfiè, e, cafssm ca fssmkmcfh kmcfh-sg -sg gh gh22

[mretg (oeat ) – curte (?7 f :7 cgitèhgtres), 0 f 63 hmaèhgtres jg jmïhgtre (rfrfhgitg 6=), ngrfahgitg ceh pgqugifs râhmngs jg ceure eu hfjgmrf ie ceite (trfsgmrf), pgse jg 34 f 04 nrfhfs qufije usfjes if nugrrf, ?4 f 34 nrfhfs if cfîf. [mretãe – sghga`fitg, hfs hfms cehprmje (74 f ;4 cgitèhgtres). Vufjrgaf (qufrrga qufrrga)) – jfrje pgsfje jg sgîãe qufjrfjf g peitf pmrfhmjfa, usfje ifs ofamstfs g ifs hfmergs ogstfs jg hãe pfrf pgrkurfr frhfjurfs. Grfh ghpgifjes jg kerhf f nmrfr rfpmjfhgitg, pfrf hfmer gstfomamjfjg gstfoma mjfjg gh vee. Tgsfvfh 674 nrfhfs. nrfhfs. Fs peitfs vfrmfh tfite qufite fs jfs kagc`fs, sgije fs sgnumitgs fs hfms cehuis2 _ehoujf (oauit ) – sgh peitf, pfrf fvgs g pgqugies fimhfms qufije iãe sg qugr gstrfnfr fs pgifs eu f pgag. Cerefjf (crewi `gfj) `gfj) – ceh aïhmifs fnuîfjfs qug kerhfh uhf ceref sgrrma`fjf, usfjf if cfîf. Teitf afrnf (orefj `gfj) `gfj) – ceh peitf ceh kerhf jg kea`f g ghpgifjfs jg kerhf f nmrfr gh vee. Kfrpfjf ( (ofrogj ofrogj pemit ) – ceh kfrpfs qug sg prgijgh jgitre je cerpe jf vètmh vè tmhf. f. Gstmagtg (oejlmi pemit ) – pfrf pgrkurfr frhfjurfs, usfjfs ifs ogstfs hfms petgitgs. Teitf fogrtf (sprgfj pemit ) – ceh værmfs peitfs jg hgtfa rehoujfs, pfrf gvmtfr qug e vmretg kessg jgkagtmje per uhf frhfjurf jg pafcfs. Jeijfmig (jeijfmig jeijfmig)) – vmretg pgsfje (cgrcf jg 04 nrfhfs), ceh `fstg kusmkerhg jg 6= hmaèhgtres ie hfmer jmïhgtre g peitf jg gstmagtg, pfrf pgrkurfr pgrku rfr frhfjurfs. frhfjurfs. Hgme-jeijfmig (jghm-jeijfmig jghm-jeijfmig)) – vmretg uh peuce hgies pgsfje, ceh

`fstg kusmkerhg kusmkerhg if hgtfjg hgtfjg trfsgmrf trfsgm rf g hfms kmif g cmaèijrmcf cma èijrmcf if jmfit jm fitgmr gmrf. f.

[gigies Gxghpaes jg vgigies fpamcfjes gh sgtfs, vmretgs g jfrjes2 Curfrg – gxtrfèje jg cgrtes cmpós jf Fhfzúimf g Numfifs (Strycìes (Strycìes texmkgr,, Strycìes numfigisms texmkgr numfigisms eu Cèijrejgijrei tehgitesuh) tehgitesuh) í e hfms gkmcfz jes vgigies usfjes gh peitfs jg kagc`fs. Trevecf miceiiscmâicmf g pfrfamsmf mice pfrfam smf ftí f vètmhf vètmhf pfrfr jg rgspmrfr. rgspmr fr. Tgîei`f jg vèoerf – gxtrfèje jf vèoerf ([mpgrf ([mpgrf ogrus) ogrus) jf Gurepf, Æsmf Cgitrfa g Heinóamf. Heinóamf. Cfjf sgrpgitg pejg kerigcgr 6; hma mamnrfh mnrfhfs, fs, eu : jesgs jg vgigie. E vgigie prevecf mic`fîe g nfinrgif, qug hftf agitfhgitg f vètmhf, eu pgae hgies f fagmbf. Tgîei`f jg ifbf – jf ifbf ( Ifbf Ifbf ifbf), ifbf), sgrpgitg je sua jf Æsmf, hftírmf-prmhf jg kagc`fs givgigifjfs if Èijmf fitmnf. [gigie pfrfa msfitg, hfs pfrfamsfitg, hfs hgies gkmcfz qug e curfrg. curfrg . Zmlynuywf – suce jf cfscf je bgqumtmoæ (Cfrmimfif (Cfrmimfif sp.),usfje sp.),usfje pgaes mijèngifs Wru-Gu-^fu-^fu, jg _eijúimf, pfrf fuhgitfr f `gherrfnmf ies fimhfms cfîfjes. cfîfj es. Fcúimte – grvf (  Fceimt Fceimtuh uh sp.) sp.) qug crgscg if Guræsmf g Fhírmcf je Iertg g kem e vgigie hfms utmamzfje gh kagc`fs if Fitmnumjfjg g Mjfjg Híjmf gurepímfs g if C`mif. Jufs f quftre nrfhfs jg rfmz prevecfh givgigifhgite sgvgre< jgz nrfhfs hftfh, ceh gspfshes g pfrfamsmf. @gaíoere eu resf-jg-iftfa – grvf ( @gaagoerus @gaagoer us sp.) sp.) qug crgscg if Gurepf Ecmjgitfa, Oæacãs, Zurqumf g Cæucfse g kem e vgigie hfms usfje gh vmretgs jg ogstfs. Gh Tertunfa, kem cei`gcmje cehe grvf-ogstgmrf. Trevecf fskmxmf fskmxmf g pfrfjf cfrjèfcf. Kunu – vgigie iguretóxmce je pgmxg kunu ( Kunu Kunu ruorm ruormpgs pgs), ), uhf gspícmg bfpeigsf jg ofmfcu, tfhoíh hftf per pfrfamsmf g fskmxmf. Cfitærmjf – cfitærmjf (Cfit`frms (Cfit`frms sp.) sp.) í uh ogseure vgigiese, cube pó pejg sgr sg r usfje pfrf pf rf givgigifr givgigifr frhfs. Gh jesgs pgqugifs, pgqugifs, í usfje cehe fkrejmsèfce, fkrej msèfce, pems prevecf grgîãe. Cmfigte – usfje ies vmretgs jfs ogstfs usfjfs pgafs kerîfs gspgcmfms mijmfifs ie sícuae PP. Hftf gh peuces hmiutes, per sukecfîãe.

Omoamenrfkmf ^GSZCEZZ, J. (ern.), Trmhmtmvg (ern.), Trmhmtmvg Zgcìeaeny ?, ?, ern., Gj. Nmoos Shmt`, ?446. HW__F], _., SFIJS, F., LGCL, F. g E”_EF_L, J. F., Gkkm cfcy Gkkmcfcy e , Hgsf t`g Filyag miS.Micrgfsmin t`g^. Jmstficg ek t`gI.Ficmgit Nrggl Bfvgami Z`rew Z`rew, Stftg Ceaagng, Nrfij Buictmei, Buictmei, Ceaerfje. ]FIN, B., Z`g Hfrtmfa Frtmst”s Numjg te Ficmgit C`migsg ^gfpeis, ^gfpeis, ]HFF Tuoamcftmei Cgitgr Mic, ?44?. _HF_MF _HF_ MF maaustrfjf maaus trfjf ceh c eh >4 kmnurfs kmnur fs,, Gj. Jfvmj Cerfzzm, Cerfzzm, Amsoef, 6007. OAWZGFW, OAWZGF W, _. g SMA[F, F. H., H., Jmccmeifr Jmccmeifrme me jf aminuf ami nuf pertunugzf pert unugzf,, Ekkmcmif jg S. Z. Kgrrgmrf, 6>0=. G[FINGAMSZF, I. Z`g gicycaepgjmf ek t`g swerj, swerj, Nrggiweej Tuoams`min Nreup, Nreu p, 6==7. 6 ==7. _EJ_MNWGS, B. I., JG[GRFS, Z. C., Tertunfa C., Tertunfa22 e pmeigmre pmeigm re jf naeofamzfîãe2 naeofa mzfîãe2 f @grfiîf jfs jgsceogrtfs jgsc eogrtfs,, [. Ievf Kfhfamcãe, Cgitre Ftaïitmce, ?44=. F_HF2 F_H F2 Z`g Fssecmftmei Fssecmftm ei ker _gifmss _gifmssficg ficg Hfrtmfa Frts `ttp2//www.t`gfrhf.ern/. `ttp2//www.t`gfrhf.ern/. H]F_HEW_].CEH2 F _gseurcg ker @mstermc Frhs fij Frheurs Ceaagcters `ttp2//www.hyfrheury.ceh/èhg.`tha.. `ttp2//www.hyfrheury.ceh/èhg.`tha

Z@G_MEI Frhs Mitgriftmeifa2 @mstermcfa swerjs, wgfpeis, frher & weraj fitmqugs `ttp2//t`grmeifrhs.ceh/mijgx.s`tha

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