ARM Lecture 1

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Introduction to ARM: Basic Concepts Lecture - 1

Over 90% of the relevant literature in many technical fields, such as biotechnology, astronomy, computers and software, and environmental sciences, has been produced since 1985. Traditional programmatic approaches to education simply cannot keep up………... J B Quinn (2001)

Pace of Knowledge Creation 1700 To 1950: Man’s Knowledge Doubled = 250 Years  1950 To 1965: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 15  Years  1965 To 1975: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 10  Years  1975 To 1980: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 5  Years 

Operational Knowledge Imagine, your boss is planning to visit Paris…  You have been assigned to prepare a Guide for him…  What will you do?  Develop a research plan 

 You may consider questions like: Is it worth to research?  What is purpose of your research?  What would your research questions?  From whom you will collect information?  From how many persons, you will collect colle ct information? 

How will you collect the information?  How will you analyze information?  How will you report the findings?  What could be the kinds and sources of o f biases?  How will you prove to then boss that the information contained the Guide is relevant and reliable? 

 Are you SURE that you are not going to reinvent the  wheel?

 What is research? Research is one of the ways to find answers to  your questions  Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of  matter.  The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of  methods and systems for the advancement of  human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. 

Research is defines as a systematic, self critical enquiry.  Enquiry is aimed at understanding a thing or phenomenon or solving a problem 

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Research is an art of scientific investigation.

 Why Study Research? 

Research provides you with the knowledge and skills needed for the fast-paced decision-making environment

 When Should Research be Undertaken? Is sufficient time available? Yes Is information inadequate?

 NO

Do not undertake Business Research

Yes High importance of decision? Yes Research benefits greater than costs?

Undertake Business Research

 What is Good Research? 

Following the standards of the scientific method

Purpose clearly defined  Research process detailed  Research design thoroughly planned  Limitations frankly revealed  High ethical standards applied  Consistent style of citation  High ethical standards applied 

 Adequate analysis for decision-m decision-maker’s aker’s needs  Findings presented unambiguously   Conclusions justified  Researcher’s experience reflected  Bibliography  

Golden rules Use of Project Management tools and techniques  Use MindManager software to develop and refine your model for research  Knowledge Management  Remain open to all possible sources  Be creative / innovative 

Modules in a Business Research Proposal Executive Summary   Problem Statement  Research Objectives  Literature Review   Importance of the Study   Research Design  Data Analysis  Nature and Form of Results 

• Qualifications of  Researcher  • Budget • Schedule • Facilities and Special Resources • Project Management • Bibliography • Appendices

 What is Research Design?  A plan for selecting the sources and types of   A plan information used to answer research questions  A   A framework  framework for for specifying the relationships among the study  variables  variables  A  blueprint  blueprint that outlines each procedure from the hypothesis to the analysis 

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Taxonomy  of Research

Types of Research 

Classification # 1   

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Descriptive Research Explanatory research Predictive research

Classification # 2 Basic   Applied 

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Classification # 3  

Qualitative Quantitative

C#1

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research describes a single event or characteristic or relates a few events or variables through statistical analysis  It is necessary for good explanatory research 

C#1

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research answers why and how of  the phenomenon through hypotheses and theories  Uses theory   Much of the research published in journals is explanatory  

C#1

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Predictive Research

Predictive research constructs and uses models to forecast the occurrence of an event or events

C#2

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Basic Research

Basic Research aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by   verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attempting to discover more about a certain concept (non-specificity) Mostly performed by academics

Example: How does motivation affect employee performance?

C#2

 Applied Research

 Applied Research focuses on a real-life problem or situation with a view  to helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity) 

 Applied research is designed to solve practical solve  practical problems of the modern  world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition . Example: Should a corporation adopt a paperless office environment?

C#3

Qualitative and Quantitative  Approaches

Quantitative

Qualitative

Objective

Subjective

Research questions: How many? Research questions: What? Why? How When? Where? Strength of association? "Hard" science

"Soft" science

Literature review must be done early in Literature review may be done as study study progresses or afterwards Test theory

Develops theory

One reality: focus is concise and narrow narrow Multiple realities: focus is complex and and broad Fact Fa cts s are valu luee-fr free ee and unbi bia ase sed d

Fac acts ts are val alu ue-l -lad ade en an and d bia iase sed d

Reduction, co control, pr precision

Discovery, de description, un understanding, shared interpretation

Measurable

Interpretive

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Report statistical analysis. Basic element of analysis is numbers

Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation. Basic element of analysis is words/ideas. w ords/ideas.

Researcher is separate

Researcher is part of process

Subjects

Participants

Context free

Context dependent

Hypothesis

Research questions

Reasoning is deductive

Reasoning is inductive

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Desc De scri ribe bes s mea meani ning ng,, dis disco cove very ry

Uses instruments

Uses communications and observation

Strives for generalization Generalizations leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding

Strives for uniqueness Patterns and theories developed for  understanding

Highly controlled setting: experimental setting (outcome oriented)

Flexible approach: natural setting (process oriented)

Sample size: n

Sample size not a concern; seeks “informal rich” sample; carefully selected participants

"Counts the beans"

Provides information as to "which beans are worth counting"

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Objectives of Research

Objectives of Research The OBJECTIVES of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study   Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. For example, if the problem identified is low morale of employees, the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons for this low morale, in order to find solutions. 

Specific objectives should systematica systematically lly address the various aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’  They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.  The first specific objective usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem. 

Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing  your objectives …e.g. to find out, to ascertain, to measure, to explore,…  Wording of objectives determine types of  research design  There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity  or incompleteness 

 Why should research objectives  be developed? Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);  Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and  Organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases. 

Rule 100% of Scope

Descriptive Research Examples

Aims

Socioeconomic characteristics of a community 

To describe what is prevalent regarding:

 Attitudes of customers towards quality  of products  Attitudes of workers towards management Problems faced by expatriates Extent of occupational mobility among  business graduates Consumers’ likes and dislikes with regard to a product Effects of living in a house with domestic violence Strategies put in place by a company to increase productivity of workers

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a group of people  a community   a phenomenon  a situation  a program  an outcome

Correlational Research Examples

Aims

Impact of a program

To establish or explore or ascertain:

Relationship stressful working environment and performance of  employees

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a relationship  an association  A interdeondence

Impact of technology technology on employment employment Impact of pre-entry training on extent of   work related problems Impact of an advertising campaign on sale of a product Impact of incentives on productivity of  employees Effectiveness of a career counseling program on retention of employees

Explanatory Research Examples

Aims

 Why does stressful work environment result in high turnover of employees?

To explain:

How does technology create employment / unemployment?

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why a relationship, association or interdependence exists  why a particular event occurs

 Why do some people have a positive attitude towards an issue while others do not?  Why does a particular intervention work  for some people and not for others?  Why do some people prefer intangible  benefits over tangible benefits while others do not  Why do some people adopt a program  while others do not

Scientific Knowledge 

Scientific knowledge is the knowledge gained systematically through a cycle of processes:             

Observations Perceptions Language Thoughts Concepts Classification Definition Constructs Principles Hypotheses Laws Theory   Verification

 Validity  

It ensures that in a research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question

Reliability  

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy 

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Errors using inadequate data are much less than those using no data at all. – Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

 Validity and Precision

 Validity and Precision

 Validity and Precision

 Validity and Precision

 What is wrong with this statement?  A study conducted by Akram (2006) shows that GDP growth rate of  Pakistan for the year 2006-07 is expected to fall between -8 % to +8%

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Data, Information and Knowledge

Data Data... data is raw. symbols  Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables.  It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself).  It can exist in any form, usable or not.  It does not have meaning of itself.   Data is unprocessed facts and figures without any added  interpretation or analysis. "The price of crude c rude oil is $80 per  barrel."  

Information Information is data that has been given meaning  by way of relational connection.  This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have to be.  Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation. 

Information is data that has been interpreted so that it has meaning for the user.  data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when" questions  "The price of crude oil has risen from $70 to $80 per barrel" gives meaning to the data and so is is said to be information to someone who tracks oil prices. 

Knowledge Knowledge is a combination of information, experience and insight that may benefit the individual or the organisation.  "When crude oil prices go up by $10 per barrel, it's likely that petrol prices will rise by 2p per litre" is knowledge.  application of data and information; answers "how" questions  Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information, such that it's intent is to be useful. 

Quiz 

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The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining It is raining. If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

Data represents a fact or statement of event  without relation to other things.

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Ex: It is raining.

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Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause and effect. 

Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining.

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Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and generally provides a high level of  predictability as to what is described or what will happen next. 

Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely  to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

 Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of  fundamental principles embodied within the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge knowledg e being what it is.  Wisdom is essentially systemic. 

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Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients, changes, and raining.

 Yet, there is still a question regarding when is a pattern knowledge and when is it noise.  Consider the following: 

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It is quite likely this sequence represents 100% novelty, which means it's equivalent to noise.  There is no foundation for you to connect with the pattern, yet to me the statements are quite meaningful as I understand the translation with reveals they are in fact Newton's 3 laws of motion.  Is something knowledge if you can't understand it? 

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Chaim Zins has authored an article “Conceptual   Approaches for Defining Data, Information, and   Knowledge” available on Website

(http://www.success.co.il/is/zins_definitions_di k.pdf) contains 130 definitions of data of  data,, information,, and knowledge formulated by  information 45 scholars, and maps the major conceptual approaches for defining these three key  concepts.

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Concept, Construct, Hypothesis and Theory 

The Building Blocks of Theory  Concepts  Constructs  Definitions  Variables  Propositions and Hypotheses  Theories  Models 

Concepts  A concept is a basic building block bl ock of thought and communication which helps in organizing an observation or an experiential knowledge  A mental image that summarizes a set of similar observations, feelings, or ideas.  All theories, ideas, are based on concepts  A   A concept  concept is is a bundle of meanings or characteristicss associated with certain events, characteristic objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors 

Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage  E.g. flexibility, originality,…  The success of research hinges on:  how clearly we conceptualize  how well others understand the concepts we use 

Definition  A definition is a statement whose truth is asserted but not considered liable to empirical challenge  A definition can be descriptive or operational or mathematical 

Empirical  Empirical denotes information gained by means  Empirical denotes of observation, experience, or experiment.

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Operational Definition  An operational definition is stated in terms of  criteria for measurement so that it is unambiguous and precise, which is mostly used one in research

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Proposition  A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship  A proposition  between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of  abstraction than concepts Example: Smoking is injurious to health

 What is a Construct?  A construct is  A construct  is an image or idea specifically  invented for a given research and/or theory building purpose.  Higher-level concepts are called constructs.  Constructs express the ideas behind a set of  particulars. 

Example: Creativity is a construct generally  recognized to consist of flexibility, originality, elaboration, and other concepts.  Since constructs are not directly observable, researchers use indicators or variables as a way  of measuring or classifying most of the particulars of the construct. 

 Variable  A phenomenon which is subject to change

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Theory   A theory is a well-established principle that has  been developed to explain some aspect of the natural word.  A theory is a set of asserted universal proposition communicated in a set of universal sentences (by  universal researchers) which are derived by  observation and empirical evidence capable of  agreement and corroboration (validation)  E.g. Maslows Theory  

The Value of a Theory  Narrows the range of facts we need to study   Suggests which research approaches will yield the greatest meaning  Suggests a data classification system  Summarizes what is known about an object of  study   Predicts further facts that should be found 

"It is the theory that decides  what can be observed." 

 Albert Einstein

Qualities of a Good Theory  “A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately describe a large class of  observations.   And it must make definite predictions about the result of future observations” 

Source: Stephen Hawking, A Hawking,  A Brief History of  Time,, 1988 Time

Theories must be:  Objective   Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)  Falsifiable / disprovable Good theories must understand, explain and predict

Hypothesis  A tentative theory that has not yet been tested.  Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned  with the relationships between variables 

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Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production If basic needs are not met, then motivation level among the employees will be low 

The Role of the Hypothesis Guides the direction of the study   Identifies facts that are relevant  Suggests which form of research design is appropriate  Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result 

 What is a Good Hypothesis?  A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:

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Must be adequate for its purpose Must be testable Must be better than its rivals

The Abstraction Ladder Theory

Abstract Level

Propositions Levels of  Abstraction

Concepts / Constructs

Observations of Objects, Events and Occurrences (Reality)

Empirical Level

Conceptual framework   A conceptual framework is  A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought.  Conceptual frameworks act like maps that give coherence to empirical inquiry.  Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a type of intermediate theory that have the potential to connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem definition, purpose, literature review, methodology, data collection and analysis). 

Model  A model is a pattern, plan, representation or description  A model designed to show the main object or workings of an object, system, or concept.  A statistical model is a set of mathematical equations which describe the behavior of an object of study in terms of   variables and their associate associated d probability distributions.  If the model has only one equation it is called a singleequation model, whereas if it has more than one equation, it is known as a multiple-equation model. 

Deduction / Induction 

Inference: 

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from a general principle or law to individual instances (deduction):  (General) If something is red, it is a Tomato.  Your car is red  (Particular) Your car is also a Tomato from several instances to a law (induction)  (Specific) My apple is red  Your apple is red  (General) All apples are red

Deductive Reasoning Theory

Hypotheses

Observation

Using deductive reasoning, one starts with a given theory as the basis for which we develop hypotheses and then confirm these with specific data acquired using observation or experimentation (Is our theory valid or not?)

Confirmation

Inductive Reasoning Observation

Pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

Using inductive reasoning, one starts with a specific observation as the basis for which we develop a general pattern and tentative hypothesis as the foundation of a theory

Conclusion  When people say they do they are omitting to mention essential background theory or assumptions they are making.

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"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding" - Donald Campbell

"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger

Just Imagine  A sudden crash brings us running to the kitchen. The accused is crouched in front of us, eyes wide and fearful. Her hands are red and sticky. A knife lies on the floor. So does a jam jar and its spilled contents. The accused was about to lick her tiny  fingers

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Conclusion  When people say they do they are omitting to mention essential background theory or assumptions they are making.

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Research Process Formulating a research problem  Conceptualizing a research design  Constructing an instrument for data collection  Selecting a sample  Writing a research proposal  Collecting data  Processing data  Writing a research report 

Tips for Novice Scholars        

Non-refereed contributions Conference Proceedings Match quality of contribution and rating of o f the journal Be prepared to revise and revise and revise and revise… Be prepared to resubmit Second author Use master’s thesis or dissertation Don’t get discouraged!

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Course Outline

Course Outline Lecture 1: Introduction and overview of the course and its requirements.  Part I: Theoretical Framework 

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Lecture 2: Scientific Method and Overview of  Research in Management Lecture 3: Reviewing Literature and formulating research problem Lecture 4: Identification of variables and constructing hypotheses Lecture 5: Workshop on Theoretical Framework 

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 Part II: Research Design   

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Lecture 6: 6: Lecture 7: Lecture 8:

Research de design an and sa sample de design Questionnaire Design Workshop on Research Design

 Part III – Data Analysis Lecture 9:  Analysis  Lec ectu turre 10 10::  Lecture 11: 

Hypothesis Testing: Uni- and Bi- variate Hyp ypo oth thes esis is Te Test stin ing: g: Mu Mullti tiv var aria iate te Ana nallys ysiis Workshop on Data Analysis

 Part IV – Report Writing

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Lecture 12 12: Lecture 13: Lecture 14: Lecture 15:

Writing yo your do document Common Mistakes in Grammar and Punctuation Referencing Style Workshop on Report Writing

Texts  Velde, M. V. D., Jansen, P. & Anderson, P. (2008). Management (2008).  Management Research Methods. Methods. New  Delhi: Blackwell Publishing Limited.  Krishnaswamy, K. N. (2006). Management  (2006). Management   Research Methodology: Principles, Methods and  Techniques. New Delhi: Pearson Education.  Fink, A. (1998). Conducting Research Literature  Reviews.. London: Sage Publications.  Reviews  Brace, I. (2005). Questionnaire Design. Design. London: Kogan Page. 

Manser, M. H. (2007). Guide to Good Writing. Writing. New  Delhi: Vinod Vasishtha.  Bailey, S. (2006). Academic (2006). Academic Writing: A Handbook  for International Students. Students . London: Routledge.  O’Shea, R. P. (2002). Writing for psychology (4th ed). Victoria: Thomson.  Dees, R. (1997). Writing the Modern research  Paper . Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 

Journals European Journal of Research Methods  Journal of Interdisciplin Interdisciplinary ary and Multidisciplin Multidisciplinary  ary  Research  Journal of Research Methods and Methodological Issues  Journal of Unconventional Theories and Research  Journal of Research Abstracts  Internatio International nal Journal of Social Research Methodology  

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Thank you for your kind attention Go forth and research…. ….but be careful out there.