Design processes
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Design processes What Architects & Industrial Designers can teach each other about managing the design process Edited by: Wim Poelman and David Keyson
Edited by: Wim Poelman and David Keyson Communication and Layout: Matty Cruijsberg Graphic design: Janita Han © 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-58603-945-5 Published by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press
Publisher IOS Press BV Nieuwe Hemweg 6b 1013 BG Amsterdam The Netherlands tel: +31-20-688 3355 fax: +31-20-687 0019 email:
[email protected] www.iospress.nl www.dupress.nl LEGAL NOTICE The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the following information. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS
Contents
Preface Prof. dr. C.J.P.M. de Bont ________________________________ 3 1
Introduction Dr. ir. W.A. Poelman ____________________________________ 4
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Design Processes Between academic and practice views Dr. ir. H.H. Achten ______________________________________14
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Visualization Sketching is Alive and Well in this Digital Age Prof. G. Goldschmidt ___________________________________ 28
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Project Management Project and risk Management in architecture and industrial design Prof. dr. ir. J.W.F. Wamelink and dr. J.L. Heintz _______________ 44
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Social Complexity Social complexity in design collaboration Prof. dr. P.G. Badke-Schaub ______________________________ 60
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Decision Making A decision-based design approach ________________________ 68 Dr. ir. P.P.J. van Loon, ir. R. Binnekamp and ir. J. Burger
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Technology Diffusion and Design The metabolism of knowledge Dr. ir. W.A. Poelman ____________________________________ 90
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Closing speech Prof. dr. ir. A.C.J.M. Eekhout _____________________________ 108
Appendixes:
Preface
1
Chairman’s impressions Prof. dr. ir. T.M. de Jong _________________________________112
2
Program ____________________________________________120
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Preface
This book is a result of cooperation between the Faculties Industrial Design Engineering and Architecture of Delft University of Technology. It presents the content of a series of SDSHUVSUHVHQWHGDWWKH¿UVWMRLQWFRQIHUHQFHRQ'HVLJQ3URFHVVHV This conference was organized in a special timeframe. On the 13th of may the Faculty of Architecture burned down. A few weeks later important part of the staff of Architecture had moved in in the Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering which might have a greater impact on the cooperation than the conference itself. Directly discussions between scientists from both faculties started about possibilities for cooperation. Nevertheless this conference and this book mark an important moment in the 40 year history after Industrial Design Engineering sprouted from the Faculty of Architecture. Also on behalf of the dean of the Faculty of Architecture, professor Wytze Patijn, I thank the reviewers professor Arthur O. Eger and professor Jos Lichtenberg for the effort WKH\GLGIRULPSURYLQJWKHVFLHQWL¿FTXDOLW\RIWKHVHSDSHUV,DOVRWKDQNSURIHVVRU:LP Poelman and professor David Keyson for editing this book.
Professor Cees de Bont Dean of the Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering
Introduction 3
IDE+A
Introduction Design Processes - Wim Poelman and David Keyson (Eds.) IOS Press, 2008 © 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
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Introduction
Background This conference has been organized in the context of the cooperation between the faculties Industrial Design Engineering and Architecture of Delft University of Technology. In the second half of the sixties, Professor Joost van den Grinten took the initiative to start an interfaculty for “Technische en Industriële Vormgeving” as a spin-off of the faculty for Architecture, and in cooperation with the faculty for Mechanical Engineering, among others. Some years later the faculty became independent and the name was changed into the faculty of “Industrieel Ontwerpen” or Industrial Design Engineering. As years went by both faculties developed relatively independently which has had drawbacks DVZHOODVEHQH¿WV2IFRXUVHPRUHLQWHQVLYHFRRSHUDWLRQZRXOGSUREDEO\KDYHOHGWR PRUHHI¿FLHQF\DQGDEHWWHUÀRZRINQRZOHGJH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGVRPHQHZ¿HOGVRI knowledge develop themselves more easily in greenhouse-like organizations. However, after nearly forty years the two organizations still have a lot in common with the main communality being their focus and vision on society and the role for leading edge design research. Perhaps more important than what they have in common with each other, is the design research work which is ‘complementary’ between the two faculties. The research subjects within the portfolios of the two faculties differ as does the approach of the design related research in general. Human factors, methodology and sustainability are examples of research subjects for which the approach of the WZRIDFXOWLHVGLIIHUVVLJQL¿FDQWO\,QWKHVHGLIIHUHQFHVOLHVWKHJUHDWHVWRSSRUWXQLW\IRU cooperation. A team, consisting of the two deans and several professors of both faculties started discussing the possibilities of cooperation, a discussion of which the results were presented at a symposium in December 2005. 7KLVSXEOLFDWLRQLVWKHUHVXOWRIWKH¿UVWMRLQWFRQIHUHQFHKHOGRQWKHth of June 2008 with the title “Design Processes”. This title was selected by an organizing committee consisting of Wim Poelman, David Keyson, Petra Badke Schaub, Teake the Jong and Hannah Ottens. The committee was of the opinion that the most striking difference between the disciplines was the attitude against and the practice of methodology in the design process. It was decided that a preliminary investigation would be organized to provide specialist with data from practice preparing their papers.
Preliminary Investigation Four student assistants were invited to carry out the preliminary research, two from each faculty. Names: Gijs Kappen, Melissa van ter Meij, Maarten Heijmerink and Matty Cruijsberg. 1H[W VL[ VXEMHFWV ZHUH GH¿QHG IRU LQYLWLQJ VSHFLDOLVW IRU SUHSDULQJ D SDSHU 7KHVH subjects were: design processes in general (invited specialist professor Henri Achten), visualization as a design tool (invited specialist professor Petra Badke Schaub), project management (invited specialist professor Joost Wamelink), social complexity in
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collaboration (invited specialist professor Petra Badke Schaub), decision making (invited specialist professor Peter Paul van Loon) and technology diffusion (invited specialist SURIHVVRU :LP 3RHOPDQ $ TXHVWLRQQDLUH ZDV VHW XS GLYLGHG LQ FKDSWHUV IRU HDFK VXEMHFW7KHVSHFLDOLVWVZHUHUHTXHVWHGWRDGGWKHUHRZQSRLQWV Eight projects were selected, four Industrial Design cases and four Architecture cases. Interviews were arranged with the involved companies/designers/architects. The interviews were carried out by two students, one of each faculty. 7KHLQWHUYLHZUHSRUWVZHUHSUHVHQWHG¿UVWWRWKHLQWHUYLHZHHVIRUFRPPHQWVDQGWKHQ passed to the specialists. Papers prepared by the specialists were presented to peers, one of the University of Twente (professor Arthur Eger) and one from the University of Eindhoven (professor Jos Lichtenberg). The chairman of the conference professor Teake de Jong of the faculty for Architecture was asked to comment the overall results of the conference. His comments are recorded in chapter “Chairmens Impression“. The general impression is that specialists were not able to base their paper fully on WKHUHVXOWRIWKHSUHOLPLQDU\UHVHDUFK7ZRIDFWVFRXOGEHWKHUHDVRQ7KH¿UVWLVWKDW PDQ\ TXHVWLRQV FRXOG QRW EH DQVZHUHG REMHFWLYHO\ VR QR DQDO\VLV FRXOG EH PDGH The second is that a lot of interesting information came out of the interviews apart IURPWKHTXHVWLRQVWKDWLQVSLUHGWKHVSHFLDOLVWVWRHODERUDWHRQWKDWVSHFL¿FLVVXHIURP their own point of view. One other aspect might have played a role. For the specialists the conference was a great opportunity to present their own vision. The cases were deployed rather for underpinning their own opinion than for analysis in order to come to new insights. One of the valuable results of the preliminary research turned out to be the propositions for which the interviewers explicitly asked. They are presented in this introduction. In the Chairmen’s Impressions chapter he will comment these pro-propositions extensively.
The cases The cases provide several examples of the various characters of design processes. Not all information, resulting from the preliminary research is free for publication, but WKHSURSRVLWLRQVE\WKHGHVLJQHUVDUFKLWHFWVDQGWKHVSHFL¿FFRPPHQWVLQWKHSDSHUV provide valuable information. The Westraven building by CePeZed is a project for the government organization “Rijkswaterstaat” and based on existing building which is stripped completely until only DFRQFUHWHVNHOHWRQZDVOHIWRYHU7KLVVNHOHWRQIRUPHGWKHEDVLVIRUDPRGHUQRI¿FH building in which many new technologies were applied. Eye catching in the project are WKUHHVTXDUHVEHKLQGZKLFKÀRRUVDUHEURNHQDZD\WRFUHDWHKLJKRSHQVSDFHVDQGWR get rid of the boring repetition in the façade. Remarkable are furthermore the textile screens in the façade which care for sun shading a well as for wind shielding and sound decrease. ,QWHUHVWLQJ DUH DOVR WKH ODUJH VSDFHV RQ WKH JURXQG ÀRRU LQ ZKLFK DQ LQWHUPHGLDWH FOLPDWHLVFUHDWHG3DUWVRIWKHZDOOVDUHUHDOL]HGE\(7)(LQÀDWDEOHSLOORZV
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Introduction - W.A. Poelman
Figure 1: Fasade detail
Propositions: o Every advisor has solutions. o The architect has to take all ideas to a higher level. o The architect introduces problems, the advisor provides solutions. o Copies are compliments.
The A230 chair by Ahrend is a representative example of an advanced industrial design engineering product. As e result RI PXFK H[SHULHQFH ZLWK WKH GHVLJQ RI RI¿FH FKDLUV WKH Ahrend team is able to develop a product which is optimized in every aspect such as ergonomics, form, produce ability, sustainability, etcetera. Here comes to the fore an important difference with architecture: “development deepness”. In architecture development costs are mostly written of on one product, while a chair is produced in ten thousands. Figure 2: A230 chair
Proposition: o &OLHQWVKDYHTXHVWLRQV o Decision making mostly means: ‘how large is the demand’. o The sales agency is our antenna. o The purchasing agency is an interesting source. o :HZULWHRXUSURJUDPRIUHTXLUHPHQWVRXUVHOYHV o ,QDQRI¿FHPHHWLQJPD\EHPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQZRUN o Styling is 10% of our work.
The ‘image-and-sound’ (in Dutch, beeld en geluid) building by Neutelings-Riedijk is a useful example how art and architecture can be integrated. The relation between DUFKLWHFWXUH DQG DUW VHHPV WR EH TXLWH GLIIHUHQW WKDQ WKH UHODWLRQ LQGXVWULDO GHVLJQ engineering and art. As the artist houses more or less in very architect, most industrial design engineers do not feel like an artist at all. The artistic industrial designer forms even an apart group within the discipline organized in different professional organizations. The chair of Ahrend will never be regarded as art, but the knotted chair of Gijs Wanders LVSUHVHQWHGLQIDPRXVDUWPXVHXPV6SHFL¿FDERXWWKH,PDJHDQGVRXQGEXLOGLQJLV Introduction - W.A. Poelman
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the cooperation with Jaap Drupsteen, a graphical and media designer. In addition to WHFKQRORJ\ERUURZHGIURPWKH¿HOGRIJUDSKLFDUWVTXDOLW\VWDQGDUGVZHUHWUDQVIHUUHG to the glass facade to realise this remarkable building.
Figure 3: The ‘image-and-sound’ building
Propositions: o The scale of a project is not relevant for the way of communicating. o Steps are similar to those taught at TUDelft + geographical centered communication. o 'LIIHUHQWPRFNXSVWRVLPXODWHGLIIHUHQWUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV o All knowledge in architecture is common knowledge. Also the BeerTender by MMID will never be regarded as art, but it is an excellent example of industrial design engineering where the link to marketing is crucial. This project is about a new way of packing, distributing and drinking beer for the home market. Acceptance by the user of this concept is dependant of marketing communication but to a large extent of design. The look of the business to business image of the beer container would not work, not the ergonomics.
Figure 4: The beer container
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Introduction - W.A. Poelman
Propositions: o Beertender is produced in very large series. o My own style isn’t important in this project. o Style is work method f-d-p (Functionality & technology, Design (look & feel), Production & assembly) o I cannot recall decisions that explicitly. o But there have been moments like that during the project. Time, Money and Quality.
The 1-2-3 House by Martini is an extremely interesting project in the context of the relation between architecture and industrial design engineering. You could say that an architectural product is developed and produced as an industrial designed product. From the interview is learned that there are many constraints introducing this kind of approach in housing industry. Up scaling is necessary to earn back money invested in the manufacturing process, but the market structure is not suitable to apply marketing strategies from industry. The housing market is highly bureaucratic.
Figure 5: Turning the tunnel
The Carver of Spark Design & Engineering and carver Europe is based upon the invention of a hydraulic canting mechanism, which enables stability of narrow vehicles. The application of the system leads to both a striking driving experience and a striking visual appearance. In fact, a new archetype of a vehicle is created which resembles a cross between a motorcycle and a small car. The success of the design is a result of the collaboration between the engineering company (Carver Europe) and the design company (Spark Engineering). The design problem is comparable with that of the Beertender, introducing new product concepts linked to new human behaviour and new visual appearance. The difference is that Carver does not have a marketing power like the beer companies. Introduction by immense marketing campaigns is not possible, so Carver is dependent on a slow introduction via innovators, trendsetters and trend followers.
Introduction - W.A. Poelman
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Figure 6: The Carver
Propositions: Robert Barnhorn, Spark: o We see that most women chose the managing side of this profession. o Investors knew that extra time would be a good investment to there product. o The one who pays makes the last decision. o Architecture knows heroes, industrial design the name of the bureau. Frank Vermeulens Carver: o A car consists over more than 1200 components. o Small steps have to restrict high risks. o $UFKLWHFWXUHLVDVSHFL¿HGGLUHFWLRQLQSURGXFWGHVLJQLQJ o Media like to attach a name of an architect to a building. o A mass product has a lifecycle of one year, but a building has a lifecycle of 50-100 years.
The Industrial Design Engineering Building, designed by Fons Verheyen – The building in which this conference is taking place – is an example of a project in which cooperation between architects and industrial designers might be expected. Like the CePeZed building, this building is based on an existing building being the central workshops of WKH78'HOIWDQGVRPHRI¿FHEXLOGLQJV 7KLV NLQG RI GHVLJQ ZKLFK LV HVSHFLDOO\ LPSRUWDQW LQ DUFKLWHFWXUH FRXOG EH VSHFL¿HG as Supply Driven Design (SDD), which proceeds from existing artefacts. Although we cannot go into depth about this relatively new, sustainable type of design activity, we can conclude that more creativity is needed to design something within the limitations of an existing artefact than is needed to design something completely new. In this regard, industrial designers could learn from architects, who do this on a regular basis. Propositions: o Small series, big scale difference. o 7KH¿UVWELJGHFLVLRQZDVWRGHFLGHWRGRVXFKDELJUHQRYDWLRQSURMHFWWKHQ GHFLGLQJ XSRQ WKH ¿QDO DPRXQW RI VTXDUH PHWHUV DQG ZKHUH WR SODFH ZKLFK function. o The whole idea, to create one big space in which everybody would be able to enjoy what others are doing, was one big risk.
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Introduction - W.A. Poelman
Figure 7: Interior sketch
7KHLQÀDWDEOHFDUHEHGRI,QGHV is the last project to discuss. The bed was not designed as a synchronous product but as a diachronic script, in which not a special delivery service, but the homecare nurse herself delivers and installs the bed. The physical product was simply a way to enable that script. Because traditional care beds did not ¿WLQWRWKDWVFULSW WRRKHDY\WRRELJ LWZDVQHFHVVDU\WRGHVLJQDFRPSOHWHO\QHZ product. Script based design represents a growing trend in the discipline of industrial design HQJLQHHULQJDQG¿WVLQWKHVXEWLWOHRIWKLVERRN³OLIHLVDWKHDWUH´6WDUWLQJSRLQWLV ¿UVW write the script and then the products necessary to realise the script. In architecture this might be more common. The use of a building should be described before it is possible to design a proper building.
Figure 8: ,QÀDWDEOHFDUHEHG
Propositions: o Not much attention was given to aesthetics. o Users played an important role, from the start they were consulted and later they were involved when prototypes had to be tested. o The people involved in the engineering phase are already looking over the shoulder during the concept development stage. Introduction - W.A. Poelman
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From the short description of these cases it will be clear that the diversity is so large DQGWKH³Q´WKDWVPDOOWKDWTXDQWLWDWLYHFRQFOXVLRQVDUHLPSRVVLEOHWRGHULYHEXWDOVR TXDOLWDWLYHFRQFOXVLRQVDUHQRWHDV\WRIRUPXODWHEHFDXVHRIWKHGLYHUVLW\RIFRQWH[WV Nevertheless, a lot is learned from the cases in combination with the analysis and UHÀHFWLRQVRIWKHVSHFLDOLVWV5HÀHFWLRQVRIWKHFKDLUPDQSURIHVVRU7DHNHGH-RQJZLOO follow in Chapter “Chainman’s impressions.
The subtitle The subtitle of the conference behind this book reads: “life is a theater. Architects care for the scenery; Industrial designers care for the props; People care for the drama”. 7KLVVXEWLWOHZDVFKRVHQLQWKH¿UVWSODFHWRH[SUHVVWKHOLQNEHWZHHQWKHIDFXOWLHVRI architecture and industrial design engineering. However, the message goes further than that. Most people will agree with the proposition that architects and industrial design engineers should not write the script for human existence. The function of scenery and props designers is to serve the scriptwriter and the actors with objects supporting the play. Imagine a situation in which the behavior of a performer has to change because of the scenery or props. For example, when the actor has to appear on the scene from the ceiling, or is only able to speak after putting of a mask, without discussing it before with the scriptwriter and actors, this would lead to an unacceptable situation. But in real life, this happens all the time. Human behavior is for a large part enshrined by architects and designers and not anymore by people themselves and spiritual fathers who acted as scriptwriters for life and still do in religious communities like the 0XVOLPFRPPXQLW\ZKHUH¿YHWLPHVSUD\LQJDGD\ZLWKWKHIDFHWR0HNNDLVSDUWRI the script. Nowadays, the script of life is for a large part written by architects and designers. Urban planning decides how we spread our activities geographical. The design of modern residential districts determines for a large part how we communicate with each other. 7KHGHVLJQRIVKRSSLQJFHQWHUVGHWHUPLQHVKRZZHDFTXLUHRXUIRRGVWXIIV'HVLJQHUV of means for transport decide how we move ourselves and kitchen designers decide how we cook. All this has to do with the mechanisms of technology diffusion on which Wim Poelman will elaborate in his paper later. The main subject of this conference however is “Design Processes” and the main issues of the conference were:
o the contemporary interrelationship of Industrial Design and Architecture o a confrontation of contemporary design practice in both domains with academic theory and education
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Introduction - W.A. Poelman
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IDE+A
Design Processes Design Processes - Wim Poelman and David Keyson (Eds.) IOS Press, 2008 © 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
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Design processes between academic and practice views
Dr. ir. H.H. Achten Assistant Professor, Architectural Modeling Eindhoven University of Technology Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning Design Systems Group
Abstract In order to speak about the commonalities and differences between industrial and DUFKLWHFWXUDOGHVLJQZHQHHGDFRPPRQIUDPHZRUNWKDWPD\FDSWXUHERWKGHVLJQ¿HOGV Practice-based descriptions have a long tradition, and are close to everyday reality of WKH¿HOGVEXWWKH\DUHWRRVSHFL¿F7KHVFLHQWL¿FVWXG\RIGHVLJQ±GHVLJQUHVHDUFK± is a more recent development, which aims accurately to provide this framework. We discuss the current understanding of design, its limitations, and some observations related to the cases of the IDE+A Conference. Keywords: design theory, design method, design research.
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Do we understand design processes?
Before we begin the general argument in this paper, we must consider an important premise that underlies the motivation of the text. At the IDE+A Conference, architects DQGLQGXVWULDOGHVLJQHUVDUHLQYLWHGWRDGGUHVVVSHFL¿FSUREOHPVLQGHVLJQ7KHLVVXH then is this: can an architect or industrial designer discuss aspects of design in his or KHU¿HOGLQVXFKDZD\WKDWLWPDNHVVHQVHWRWKHRWKHU"7KHDUFKLWHFW¶VFRQFHUQVDIWHU all, are about bricks, steel, glass, and wood; how to organise the spatial composition of a building or urban environment, how to make structures and installations work together, etc. The industrial designer’s concerns are about plastics, textiles, and various kinds of metals; how to create effective and ergonomic solutions for people; how to set XSSURGXFWLRQLQWKHPRVWHI¿FLHQWDQGFRVWHIIHFWLYHZD\HWF7KHUHLVDJDSWKHUHIRUH EHWZHHQWKHGHVLJQ¿HOGVLQWHUPVRIGRPDLQNQRZOHGJH WKHIDFWVDQGSULQFLSOHVWKDW DUHVSHFL¿FWRDUFKLWHFWXUHDQGWRLQGXVWULDOGHVLJQUHVSHFWLYHO\ Both architects and product designers (or designers from any other discipline, for that PDWWHU PDLQO\ZRUNRQDSURMHFWEDVLV±PHDQLQJWKDWDSURMHFWLVDFTXLUHGDVLQJOH designer is assigned or a team is put together, and work on the project continues until its completion (or until its early cancellation). Such projects tend to take a long time, varying from a few months to several years. Throughout this time projects are subject to all kinds of change: in the team, in the norms and laws to which the design must FRPSO\LQWKHXVHU¶VWDVWHLQPDWHULDOVDQGSURGXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHVDQGVRRQ7KXV each project has its own confusing history of contingencies which must be solved for the project to be completed successfully. There is a twofold assumption, therefore, when we talk about design processes: that we can bridge the differences between the design domains, and that we can abstract enough from everyday practice within each design domain to talk about the general aspects of design. If either of these assumptions fails (or we choose not to believe in them) then there is no basis for comparison other than the anecdotal level. Believing
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in these assumptions, however, does not mean that all our problems are easily solved. Design processes have developed over a very long period of time (one could even claim thousands of years). There is a very close connection between the praxis of design, its body of knowledge, and design methods. For practitioners it is often very hard to separate these views. The conception of the design process as something that can be GLVFXVVHGDXWRQRPRXVO\LVYHU\PXFKDPRGHUQPHWKRGRORJLFDOVFLHQWL¿FLGHDDQGD FRPSDUDWLYHO\\RXQJRQHKDYLQJJDLQHGFXUUHQF\DERXW¿IW\\HDUVDJR(YHQWKRXJK tremendous progress has been made in the understanding of design, there is still a lot left to be understood properly. The perspective that we take in this text, therefore, is academic rather than practicebased, since the academic view provides a transferable set of theoretical concepts by ZKLFKZHFDQGLVFXVVGHVLJQLQYDULRXVGRPDLQV,QWKH¿UVW VHFWLRQ ZH ZLOORXWOLQH WKHVFLHQWL¿FFRQFHSWVGHDOLQJZLWKGHVLJQSURFHVVHV±ERWKLQWKHDUHDVRIWKHRU\DQG methods – and sketch the current orthodox view of what design processes are. This view is certainly not unchallenged, and a number of the most notable problems will be GHVFULEHG7RFRQFOXGHZHZLOOEULHÀ\UHYLHZWKHGHVLJQFDVHVSUHVHQWHGIRUWKH,'($ Conference. Since the notions established in this paper are the result of research on design in all kinds of domains, here we refrain from talking about architects or industrial designers, but use the more generic term ‘designer.’
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Design process, theory and method
In the description of the design process, two perspectives can be utilised: that of design theory and of design method. Each has a very distinct view of design processes, but it is fair to claim that there is a very strong interdependency between the two. &URVV GH¿QHVGHVLJQPHWKRGRORJ\DVµWKHVWXG\RIWKHSULQFLSOHVSUDFWLFHVDQG procedures of design in a rather broad and general sense. Its central concern is how designing both is and might be conducted. This concern therefore includes the study of how designers work and think; the establishment of appropriate structures for the GHVLJQSURFHVV WKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGDSSOLFDWLRQRIQHZGHVLJQPHWKRGVWHFKQLTXHV DQGSURFHGXUHV DQGUHÀHFWLRQRQWKHQDWXUHDQGH[WHQWRIGHVLJQNQRZOHGJHDQGLWV application to design problems’. &URVV¶ GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ KRZ GHVLJQLQJ LV DQG PLJKW EH FRQGXFWHG GH¿QHV WKH difference between design processes (how designing is) and design methods (how designing might be conducted). In order to describe these aspects, it is necessary to have a theoretical framework for design – this is design theory. It is important to notice that designers and researchers, when talking about design theory, often mean different things. Professional design theory has been around at least since Vitruvius (approximately 1st Century BC; see Vitruvius 1960). Professional design theory is instrumental theory in the sense that very often it instructs or describes how to get things done. Its main subject is the motivation and starting points for design, DQGWKHV\VWHPDWLFGHVFULSWLRQRIVW\OHV,WWHQGVWREHUHÀHFWLYHEDVHGRQSHUVRQDO experience, and is very much object-oriented – urban environments, buildings, details, and so on. Professional design theory, however, is not the view that we take when we talk about design theory.
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Design processes - H.H. Achten
2.1
The role of design theory
7KHRUHWLFDOUHÀHFWLRQRQGHVLJQLVQHFHVVDU\WRWUDQVIHUNQRZOHGJHDERXWWKHGRPDLQWR others, for example in an educational setting. Theory helps to distinguish between what is fundamental to the discipline and what is not; which aspects and concepts matter to design, and which aspects and concepts are incidental. This helps the designer maintain an overview of the discipline and guards against ad-hoc actions. A strong theoretical EDVLVFDQLQFUHDVHHI¿FLHQF\EHFDXVHWKHGHVLJQHUKDVDFOHDUYLHZRIZKDWWKHJRDOV are, and understands the means by which to achieve them. A too-rigid understanding RIGHVLJQKRZHYHUPD\SURYHWREHVWLÀLQJ LWLVLPSRUWDQWWKHUHIRUHWRDFKLHYHDJRRG balance. In more recent applications, design theory has also been instrumental in the development of new tools for design – in particular in the development and application of computer WRROV,QUHFHQW\HDUVWKH¿HOGRIDUFKLWHFWXUDOGHVLJQKDVH[SHULPHQWHGDJUHDWGHDO ZLWKWKHVHWHFKQRORJLHV7KHPRVWQRWDEOHLQÀXHQFHFRPHVIURPWKH,QWHUQHWZKLFK enables new group processes such as collaborative design and twenty-four-hour design teams. Also the more direct use of the form and shape generating capacity of computers LQGHVLJQLVLQÀXHQFLQJWKHGHVLJQSURFHVV 'HVLJQWKHRU\WRFRQFOXGHDLPVWRDQVZHUWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQVDERXWGHVLJQLQJ :KDWLVGHVLJQLQJ",VWKHDFWLYLW\FDOOHGGHVLJQLQJGLIIHUHQWIURPRWKHU human activities (for example, cooking, sport, arguing, etc.) If so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¿HOGV VXFKDVDUWLQGXVWU\ RUIDUPLQJ " :KDWLVWKHUROHRIGHVLJQWKHRU\":KDWDUHWKHYDULRXVDSSURDFKHVWR WKHVWXG\RIGHVLJQ",VGHVLJQWKHRU\GLIIHUHQWIURPRWKHUDUHDVRI HQTXLU\VXFKDVKLVWRU\SK\VLFVRUODZ"+RZGRHVWKHRU\LQÀXHQFH GHVLJQHUV"
2.2
The role of design methods
Design methods concern the actual or desired order of the design decisions that are WDNHQ LQ D GHVLJQ SURFHVV 7KH HYHU\GD\ XVH RI WKH WHUP µGHVLJQ PHWKRG¶ LV TXLWH informal and can mean anything from a habitual working method to highly structured and controlled processes. Another recurring notion is the ‘personal design method’, which is not communicated with others – it is even claimed to be incommunicable. For a better understanding (and appreciation) of design methods, however, we must clearly GH¿QHH[DFWO\ZKDWDGHVLJQPHWKRGLV,QRXUYLHZVRPHWKLQJLVDGHVLJQPHWKRGLI and only if: ,WFOHDUO\GH¿QHVDJRDOLQWKHGHVLJQSURFHVV ,WLGHQWL¿HVVWHSVWRWDNHDQGWKHRUGHULQZKLFKWRWDNHWKHP 3. It is applicable to more than one case. Design processes - H.H. Achten
17
4. Other people can also apply it. 5. It has criteria to determine when a step has been concluded. Each aspect of this list has to be present in order for something to be called a design method. There are a number of reasons to develop and use design methods. Design methods are KHOSIXOLQFDVHVZKHQQRWXVLQJDPHWKRGPHDQVLWZLOOWDNHWRRORQJWR¿QGDVROXWLRQ RU ZKHQ WKH FRVW RI QRW ¿QGLQJ D JRRG RU µVDWLV¿FLQJ¶ VROXWLRQ LV KLJK 7KLV W\SLFDOO\ occurs in complex design projects, or when the design(er) (team) takes on a problem ZLWKZKLFKLWGRHVQRWKDYHPXFKSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFH$OVRLQSURMHFWVWKDWUHTXLUH PRUHWKDQDQDYHUDJHMXVWL¿FDWLRQRIVWHSVRUVROXWLRQVGHVLJQPHWKRGVFDQEHXVHGWR structure the process. Finally, because of the explicitness of design methods, they also help in coordinating large design teams or multiple experts involved in projects. There is a sometimes tenuous relationship between design methods and practice. Most of the designers of the IDE+A Conference cases, when asked whether they followed a method, replied either that they did not, or that when they did, it closely followed what they were taught at university. They also noted that practice will most often lead away from the ‘ideal process’, so there is a perceived lack of applicability. When confronted with new or changed design methods, designers often feel restricted in their freedom (this is probably a stronger sentiment in architecture than in industrial design). 7KLV VKRXOG QRW EH YHU\ VXUSULVLQJ ± JHWWLQJ WR XQGHUVWDQG D QHZ PHWKRG UHTXLUHV time and effort, which distracts from the job at hand. This is a situation that a skilled designer wants to avoid. This mechanism can also explain why designers often dislike talking about their method. Thinking about the design process in terms of method is a rationalising activity. Design problems, however, as we will see in the next section, FDQQRWEHIXOO\XQGHUVWRRGLQUDWLRQDOWHUPV&RQVHTXHQWO\DWVRPHSRLQWDGHVLJQHU has to state where things are explicitly explainable and where they are not. This again may cause uncertainty or confer a sense of uneasiness. The mark of a skilled designer LVWKDWKHRUVKHKDVLQWHUQDOLVHGGHVLJQVNLOOVVRWKDWWKH\GRQRWUHTXLUHH[SOLFLWPHQWDO effort. Conscious thinking about the act of designing disrupts this because it challenges the hidden skills to become expressed. Again, this is experienced as an intrusive activity. Finally, in the domain of architecture in particular there is a heightened status for star designers. Connected with this status is a tendency to keep the processes or methods shrouded as some kind of mystery or art. Most design methods have been developed for single designers. In some cases, design teams are considered to be one designer consisting of multiple persons. This may perhaps work for very well-contained design methods that have a limited scope EUDLQVWRUPLQJ FUHDWLYLW\ WHFKQLTXHV RU SUREOHP GHFRPSRVLWLRQ EXW LW EUHDNV GRZQ at higher level goals because of group dynamics and mixed expertise. As much of everyday design takes place in teams or in communication structures with outside SDUWLHVWKLVLVDUHDOGH¿FLHQF\LQWKHDUHDRIGHVLJQPHWKRGV To conclude, if we want to describe design processes, we need a theoretical framework for design. It is basically a descriptive activity with design(ing) as its subject. Based on theoretical considerations, a design theory may lead to a design method, but this is not necessarily so. Design methods, on the other hand, may be the subject of design theory. Design methods are prescriptive and solution-oriented. A design method always LPSOLHV WKHRUHWLFDO SULQFLSOHV EHFDXVH LW LGHQWL¿HV LPSRUWDQW VWHSV DQG LVVXHV LQ WKH design process.
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Design processes - H.H. Achten
3
The orthodox view of design processes
7KHUHODWLYHO\\RXQJVFLHQWL¿FVWXG\RIGHVLJQSURFHVVHVKDVJRQHWKURXJKDQXPEHU of distinct periods (see Cross (1984) and Jones (1980) for good accounts of this development). Three research approaches have emerged as dominant in the current view of design processes: rational problem solving, about the structuring of design problems; information processing, about the thought processes of designers; and protocol analysis, about the research methods to study designers. Obviously, there are many other ways to research and investigate design (see for example Oxman et al. (1995), Achten et al. (2001), and Achten et al. (2005) for an overview), but the three mentioned above constitute what we might call the ‘orthodox view’ of design and the study of design.
3.1
The nature of design problems
In the theoretical research on design, a distinction is commonly made between four classes of problems with an increasing degree of complexity and unpredictability: tame problems, well-structured problems, ill-structured problems, and wicked problems (Lawson (1990), Simon (1973)). The general consensus is that design problems are ZLFNHGSUREOHPV7KHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIZLFNHGSUREOHPVKDYHEHHQGH¿QHGE\5LWWHO and Webber (1973): 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
8. 9.
10.
7KHUHLVQRGH¿QLWLYHIRUPXODWLRQRIDZLFNHGSUREOHP Wicked problems have no stopping rule. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem. Every solution to a wicked problem is a ‘one-shot operation’; because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt FRXQWVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated in the plan. (YHU\ZLFNHGSUREOHPLVHVVHQWLDOO\XQLTXH Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem’s resolution. The planner has no right to be wrong.
7KHFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHIDFWWKDWGHVLJQSUREOHPVDUHZLFNHGSUREOHPVLVWKDWDOLPLWHG degree of rationality can be applied to solve them. Creating a solution will always depend to some degree on a creative insight. The phase where solutions are created is the challenging part where a designer seemingly ‘jumps’ from a problem setting to a solution. A match or mapping is made between two distinct things – a problem and a solution. This is not trivial: just why exactly a given solution matches a problem is still unanswered. Both problems and solutions are complex and they have almost no common elements in their structure. In most cases, problems and solutions are HYHQGHVFULEHGLQGLIIHUHQWZD\V SUREOHPVDVVHWVRIUHTXLUHPHQWVZLVKHVGHPDQGV Design processes - H.H. Achten
19
or other verbal statements; and solutions as conglomerations of ordered elements of urban/city environments, buildings, or objects.
3.2
Structure of the design process
Given the characteristics of design problems, it follows that creating a solution is not D RQHVWHS DIIDLU QRU D PDWWHU RI DSSO\LQJ RQH WHFKQLTXH WR VROYH WKHP 'HVLJQLQJ therefore, is a lengthy process in time, during which the designer iterates and revises the design many times. Designing is as much about understanding the problem as it is about creating a solution, in particular in the early phase of design. Therefore, not only does the designer utilise information and knowledge that is provided at the outset (brief, site, client, etc.) but he or she also generates a lot of knowledge throughout the design process. 5RR]HQEXUJDQG(HNHOV GH¿QHWKH%DVLF'HVLJQ&\FOH %'& DVDFROOHFWLRQRI activities and documents that are created and performed in design. The BDC consists of the following (terms in italics denote activities): 1. Function statement: a statement about what is needed in the design problem. Analysis: analysis of the function statement or current state of the 2. design. 3. Criteria: a set of criteria to which the design has to conform. 4. Synthesis: the creation of a (preliminary) design or solution to a subproblem. 5. Provisional design: the external representation, by means of sketch, drawing, text, or model, of the (preliminary) design. 6. Simulation: the derivation of the expected behaviour or performance of the (preliminary) design. 7. Expected properties: a prediction of the future behaviour or performance of the (preliminary) design. 8. Evaluation: a judgement of how well the (preliminary) design performs, based on the criteria formulated earlier, and the expected properties. 9. Value of the design: a value setting of the performance, based on the evaluation and goals set by the designer. 10. Decision: the decision to continue with the design (either through the creation of a new proposal in Synthesis, or restating the problem LQ$QDO\VLV RUGHFLGLQJWKDWWKHGHVLJQLV¿QLVKHGZKLFKOHDGVWRWKH next document: $SSURYHGGHVLJQ WKH¿QDOLVHGGHVLJQ Roozenburg and Eekels note that the actual order of activities and documents in a concrete design project is unpredictable, so they do not claim that this order is indicative for a design project. Rather, they claim that in any given design project, each activity and each document has to be performed or created at least once, but most likely many times over. The BDC may be considered to be the ‘private’ design cycle for a designer or design team. Throughout the whole design process, additional structuring is created as well – in architecture this is usually a phased process consisting of sketch design, preliminary GHVLJQ¿QDOGHVLJQDQGH[HFXWLRQGHVLJQ(DFKSKDVHLVFRQFOXGHGZLWKGRFXPHQWV that describe the design solution with increasing precision. The purpose of the phased
20
Design processes - H.H. Achten
structure is to create secure, consistent descriptions of the design which can form the basis for the next steps in the design process. In that way, the designer avoids unnecessary backtracking.
3.3
Forms of knowledge in design
Designing is knowledge intensive. Much of design is a matter of applying knowledge of previous solutions that inform the basic direction in which the current design solution has to move. Previous solutions can be referred to as precedents (prominent examples), types (generalised knowledge of classes of buildings or products), and analogies (used as metaphors rather than literal examples). The design process itself starts out with many facts, arising from the brief and from clients’ desires, from the site where a project is to be realised, from particular technologies that will be used (for example the 123 House case in the IDE+A Conference), budget, and so on. Throughout the design process, additional knowledge is generated about the design itself, and the designer searches also for information based on the needs at that point in the design. &RQVWUDLQWV DUH D VSHFL¿F W\SH RI NQRZOHGJH DQG LQIRUPDWLRQ WKDW LV XVHG LQ GHVLJQ Constraints put limits or boundaries on the design or the context of design. Client goals, norms and laws, local regulations, welfare, and so on have to be met in order for a design to be approved.
3.4
Forms of reasoning in the design process
In order to create (preliminary) design solutions, knowledge and information must be processed. This involves several forms of reasoning. Reasoning by example is a major WHFKQLTXHXVHGE\GHVLJQHUV:KHWKHUWKHSUHYLRXVVROXWLRQLVDSUHFHGHQWW\SHRU analogy, the designer takes some element of the example and, based on the perceived structure of the solution, generates a new solution that is suited to the current design problem. A way of reasoning in design that is a bit more explorative or imaginative is through ‘what-if’ reasoning or by means of scenarios. In these cases, the designer takes the current design and tries to imagine how it will perform. In this way, designers can also use previously experienced episodes with other buildings or urban environments and aim to duplicate them in the current design. Given the characteristics of wicked problems, it is not possible to determine objectively ZKHWKHU D GHVLJQ FRPSOHWHO\ IXO¿OV DOO WKH UHTXLUHPHQWV LW KDV WR PHHW 2EYLRXVO\ designers try to meet the constraints set out in the brief, and those that are imposed by the context of the project. However, this does not mean they have to prove that their design is perfect or the only one possible. Rather, designers try to meet the constraints as much as possible, and aim to reach at least a minimum threshold of performance or TXDOLW\LQGHVLJQ6LPRQ FDOOVWKLVµVDWLV¿FLQJ¶ Analytical modes of reasoning are used particularly in the analysis phase of a project, or ZKHQWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIGHVLJQGHFLVLRQVKDYHWREHGHULYHG7KLVLVDOVRZKHUHORJLF plays a role in the design process. Finally, the least well understood form of reasoning is what is generally called ‘visual reasoning’. Designers use external representations such as drawings and sketches a lot, and a considerable amount of generation and Design processes - H.H. Achten
21
judgement is done visually on the basis of such sketches and drawings. All designers of the IDE+A cases strongly indicate that they consider sketching to be a vital skill.
3.5
Psychological view of designers
The reasoning and memory abilities of people is limited. Memory is generally conceived of as consisting of two main functional parts: long-term memory (LTM) and short-term memory (STM) – see Akin (1986) for a good introduction. LTM is where experiences DUHVWRUHGDWOHQJWK7KHUHFDOOIURP/70LVUHODWLYHO\VORZEXWPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWO\LWLV not directly accessible for conscious processing. In STM memories are accessed from LTM and once there can become the subject of thought processes. STM works relatively fast, but it has a limited capacity to hold information. In general, this is thought of as roughly seven coherent pieces of information, called chunks. How big the chunks can be, or how they are organised, remains unclear. It seems evident, however, that more experienced or skilled designers utilise better or more compressed pieces of information when they are reasoning.
3.6
External representations in the design process
Limited reasoning and memory capacity is an additional factor that structures design processes. One role of representations such as drawings and models is to form an external memory which can store information about the design by similarity. The GHVLJQHUQHHGVRQO\WRJODQFHDWWKHVNHWFKRUPRGHOWRTXLFNO\DFWLYDWHWKHLPSOLFLWO\ stored information. External representations, in particular those that complete a phase of the design process VNHWFKGHVLJQSUHOLPLQDU\GHVLJQ¿QDOGHVLJQDQGSURGXFWLRQGHVLJQ DOVRKDYHD legal status, and they are also used to communicate between parties in the design process. A large part of the activity in the design process, therefore, is reserved for the production of accurate and precise drawings and documents.
3.7
Creativity in design processes
Creativity plays an important role in design – it is the mechanism with which a designer is able to come up with a novel solution to a problem. Creativity does not work in isolation; it needs to be embedded in a work context that provides information and the right setting to generate an idea. A common distinction which is made in terms of design solutions are the following three classes of designs (Brown and Chandrasekaran, 1985): 1. Routine design: the creation of a solution that falls completely within the range of previous solutions. The solution is adapted to current needs but does not introduce anything novel. Redesign may also be considered to be routine design. 2. Innovative design: the creation of a solution which has at least one additional feature that has not been seen before in this kind of design solution. Most of the design conforms to existing examples, but one part is pushing the limits. All the architecture design cases in the IDE+A Conference demonstrate this kind of design. 3. Creative design: the creation of a solution that has a highly different structure compared to existing solutions. A creative design does not have a lot of similarities with existing designs.
22
Design processes - H.H. Achten
7KHGLVWLQFWLRQFRPHVIURPWKHGRPDLQRIDUWL¿FLDOLQWHOOLJHQFH)URPWKDWSHUVSHFWLYH the delineation between the classes is fairly straightforward. A routine design simply is an instance of an already known type or class; an innovative design adds something new but does not change the structure of the type or class; and in creative design an altogether new structure for a type or class is created. The delineation becomes less clear, however, when we try to apply it from a designer’s perspective. In particular the distinction between innovative and creative design becomes hard to make. Especially if we insist on completely new structures, then most of architectural design simply is not creative – a conclusion with which many will disagree. The difference in ‘innovative’ and ‘creative’, therefore, is more a matter of the degree to which a design is pushing existing limits by means of innovations.
3.8
Design, designers, the design process
Based on the above, we can now summarise the orthodox view as follows. The designer can be conceived of as an information processor (STM, LTM, and cognitive structures) who tries to solve wicked problems. An important design activity is the subdivision and reformulation of the wicked problem into sub-problems in order to make them well-structured. The designer has procedural knowledge in the form of KHXULVWLFVDQGGHVLJQPHWKRGV'HVLJQLQJUHTXLUHVGHFODUDWLYHNQRZOHGJHRIWKHGRPDLQ (architecture, industrial design, machine engineering, etc.) as well as knowledge of previous solutions (cases, precedents, and types). Because of the limitations of STM and LTM, the designer cannot have an overview of the whole problem (even not when a problem is well-structured, which in design does QRWUHDOO\RFFXU &RQVHTXHQWO\WKHGHVLJQSURFHVVLVVHTXHQWLDOLQWLPHDQGLWHUDWLYH External representations such as drawings and models help to maintain an overview DQGXQGHUVWDQGWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIGHVLJQGHFLVLRQV Through the use of phases the designer prevents the possibility that, late in the process, a small change will necessitate a redesign of the whole project (this does not always work). Throughout the design process the designer explores both the solution and the problem. One might claim that only at the end of the design process is the design problem understood. A design problem does not have one single correct solution. Furthermore, it is not possible to determine the degree of correctness. The GHVLJQHUWKHUHIRUHVWULYHVIRUµVDWLV¿FLQJ¶UDWKHUWKDQSHUIHFWVROXWLRQV
4
Challenges to the orthodox view of design processes
The view of design processes sketched above is rather concise, but in broad outlines provides the contours of our current understanding of design processes. As can be seen, there is a strong interdependency between theoretical and methodological notions. Despite the relatively short period of time that design has been an area for VFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKWKHDFFRXQWVHHPVWREHVXUSULVLQJO\FRKHUHQW2EYLRXVO\WKLVYLHZ is not the ultimate description of what design is about. Many things are still unknown and there are many challenges to the orthodox view of design processes. The foundation of the orthodox view of design processes is rational problem solving 536 DVGH¿QHGE\6LPRQ 6LPRQ¶VZRUNZDVVHPLQDOLQVHWWLQJXSDJHQHUDO Design processes - H.H. Achten
23
IUDPHZRUNWRWDONDERXWGHVLJQDVDVFLHQWL¿FVXEMHFWDWDOO,QUHFHQW\HDUVDGLIIHUHQW YLHZRIGHVLJQKDVEHHQSXWIRUZDUGE\6FK|Q FDOOHGUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLFH 53 Table 1 below sets out the differences between the two approaches. 5DWLRQDO3UREOHP6ROYLQJ 'HVLJQLVDIRUPRISUREOHPVROYLQJ
5HIOHFWLYH3UDFWLFH 'HVLJQLVDUHIOHFWLYHGLDORJXH EHWZHHQ WKHGHVLJQHUDQGWKHGHVLJQ
$GHVLJQFDQEHGHFRPSRVHGLQWRVXE $GHVLJQHULWHUDWLYHO\QDPHV WKHPRVW LPSRUWDQWLVVXHVDWWKHVWDUWRIDQ SUREOHPV HDFKRIZKLFKFDQEH VROYHGDQGWKHVROXWLRQVWRHDFKVXE DFWLYLW\IUDPHV WKHVHLVVXHVLQD SUREOHPFDQODWHUEHLQWHJUDWHG LQWR FRQWH[WPRYHV E\FUHDWLQJDVROXWLRQ DQRYHUDOOVROXWLRQ DQGHYDOXDWHV WKHRXWFRPHZLWKUHVSHFW WR WKH IUDPH 7KHTXDOLW\RIDVROXWLRQLV $GHVLJQHUUHIOHFWVLQDFWLRQDERXW PHDVXUDEOH DFWLRQDQGDERXWZRUN
7DEOH 5DWLRQDO3UREOHP6ROYLQJYHUVXV5HÀHFWLYH3UDFWLFH Since rational problem solving has the longer research tradition, it is clear that its WKHRUHWLFDOIRXQGDWLRQVDUHTXLWHVWURQJ$SUREOHPZLWK536KRZHYHULVWKDWGHVLJQHUV LQSDUWLFXODUDUFKLWHFWV GRQRWUHFRJQLVHWKHPVHOYHVLQWKH536IUDPHZRUN5HÀHFWLYH practice, as noted by several researchers (see Dorst (1997), Valkenburg (2000), Reymen (2001)), has a weak theoretical foundation, but strongly appeals to designers. Unless a designer has a very systematic approach to design, the naming-framing-movingevaluating cycle seems much closer to what designers do. In earlier work (see Achten (2003)), where we investigated the normative stance of three well-known architects through their published works (Peter Eisenman, UN Studio, and Greg Lynn) in order to derive their design methods, we have found some evidence for this. This concerns in particular the decomposition of the problem, which resembles naming-framing more than decomposition. This is so because there is a strong focus on concept formation. An additional aspect that RPS ignores is the social aspects of design. Designers do not operate in isolation, and most of the time they work in teams. The social aspects of group dynamics such as leadership, dominance, negotiation, and team building are not dealt with (see for example Foley and Macmillan (2005), Valkenburg (2000), Baird et al. (2000), Ball and Ormerod (2000)). Lastly, the idea that the motivation for design, or particular design decisions, is not purely rational or can be stated completely objectively is a problem. Part of the way designers in teams persuade each other is by means of storytelling. Another way to investigate verbal exchanges in design teams is to look at convergence in the use of words, to see whether a more or less consistent group dynamic is developing (Lloyd (2000), Turner and Turner (2003), Dong (2005)). Although RPS pays due attention to the psychological structure of designers, there is no real differentiation between possible types of designers. In recent work, Lawson and Dorst (2005) have investigated the notion of the level of expertise at which designers PD\ EH FODVVL¿HG 7KH\ GLVWLQJXLVK EHWZHHQ VHYHQ OHYHOV QDwYH QRYLFH DGYDQFHG beginner, competent, expert, master, and visionary. Different cognitive structures, sets of competences, and ways of organising the design process are associated with each. Most of the work summarised here (except for Schön’s work) has begun in the past decade and is still in development. This is only a brief sketch of additional or alternative
24
Design processes - H.H. Achten
WDNHVRQWKHVWXG\RIGHVLJQSURFHVVHV WKH¿HOGLVYHU\ULFKDQGGLYHUVHDQGFDQQRWEH done justice in this section alone.
5
The IDE+A design cases
The IDE+A design cases include four from architecture, and four from industrial design. From the description of each, it is clear that the complexity of the design team plays an important role in the design process. Given the above outline of the current understanding of design processes, we can immediately see that this aspect is found wanting, as team design is not covered much by current research. Nevertheless, we can make a number of observations about the cases. 1. Most of the designers who were interviewed were able to identify the authorship of the key ideas in a project without a problem. One might expect that due to the size of teams and the complexity of the task, this may be more problematic. 2. In the architectural cases, innovation is much more focused on a single aspect whereas in the industrial design cases, innovation is often spread out over a number of key components. ,QDUFKLWHFWXUDOGHVLJQSURMHFWDFTXLVLWLRQWKURXJKZLQQLQJDFRQWHVW is a common phenomenon. However, this also means that the design process structure is different from the classical client-meets-architect model. The competition design leads to a proposal by which the architect hopes to win the competition, but it is not the same as the ¿QLVKHGGHVLJQIRUWKHUHDOFRQVWUXFWLRQZRUN6LQFHLWLVD FRPSHWLWLRQWKHRI¿FHZLOODOVRQRWLQYHVWWRRPXFKHIIRUWDVWKHUHLV a real risk of not getting the job. So in this type of process, there LVDWZRVWDJHGHVLJQSURFHVV FRPSHWLWLRQDQG¿QDOGHVLJQ ZLWK different concerns. 4. Because of their length, the structuring of the design process in the cases is based on the main documents or phases rather than the more detailed design process for the single designer. The ‘ideal design process’ is seen as a point of reference, rather than an attainable goal. 5. Practice is very demanding and problem-oriented. This means that if something does not yield immediate results, designers are not eager WRZRUNZLWKLW,QWKLVUHVSHFWZHVHHWKDWVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKRIWHQ fails to provide productive frameworks for designers. Findings are GLI¿FXOWWRWUDQVODWHWRDSUDFWLFDOVHWWLQJZKLFKFUHDWHVDFRQVLGHUDEOH threshold for their application. 7KH VFLHQWL¿F VWXG\ RI GHVLJQ KDV SURYLGHG XV ZLWK D IUDPHZRUN WKDW DOORZV XV WR GLVFXVV GHVLJQ LQ YDULRXV ¿HOGV VXFK DV DUFKLWHFWXUH DQG LQGXVWULDO GHVLJQ EXW DOVR engineering, chemistry, information technology, and so forth. Since design theory in this VHQVHLVTXLWHDEVWUDFWDQGGLVWDQWIURPSUDFWLFHLQRUGHUWRJDLQDJRRGXQGHUVWDQGLQJ what design is, it is necessary to reference to practice as much as possible.
6
Conclusion
'R ZH XQGHUVWDQG GHVLJQ SURFHVVHV" 7KH PRGHUQ PHWKRGRORJLFDOVFLHQWL¿F YLHZ RQ GHVLJQ UHVXOWLQJ IURP VRPH ¿IW\ \HDUV RI UHVHDUFK KDV JLYHQ XV WUHPHQGRXV LQVLJKWV Design processes - H.H. Achten
25
in the nature of design, designers, and design products. It has also revealed however, that there is a lot more left to be understood than we currently know. Partly this will always be the case: the study what design is, will never yield what it is to be a designer. $PHWKRGRORJLFDOUHÀHFWLRQRQWKHGHVLJQSURFHVVGRHVQRWJLYHWKHLPPHGLDWHVROXWLRQ for the design problem at hand, but it helps in creating the basic skills for the designer. Finally, from the view of professional and academic responsibility, we need to understand what we are doing in a systematic, objective, and rigorous way – in order to engage in the creative, unexpected, and joyful way of designing.
References Achten, H.H. (2003), ‘New Design Methods for Computer Aided Architectural Design Methodology Teaching’; International Journal of Architectural Computing 1(1), pp. 72-91. Achten, H.H., Dorst, K., Stappers, P.J. and de Vries, B. (2005), ‘Design Research in the Netherlands 2005 – Proceedings of the Symposium held on 19-20 May 2005 Eindhoven University of Technology’; Eindhoven: Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning. Achten, H.H., Hennessey, J. and de Vries, B. (2001), ‘Design Research in the Netherlands 2000’, Eindhoven, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning. Akin, O. (1986), ‘Psychology of Architectural Design’, London, Pion. Baird, F., Moore, C.J. and Jagodzinski, A.P. (2000), ‘An Ethnographic Study of Engineering Design Teams at Rolls-Royce Aerospace’; Design Studies 21(4), pp. 333-355. Ball, L.J. and Ormerod, Th.C. (2000), ‘Applying Ethnography in the Analysis and Support of Expertise in Engineering Design’; Design Studies 21(4), pp.403-421. Brown, D. C. and Chandrasekaran, B. (1985), ‘Expert Systems for a Class of Mechanical Design Activity’, in Knowledge Engineering in ComputerAided Design, ed. by Gero, J.S., Amsterdam, North-Holland, pp. 259-282. Cross, N. (1984), ‘Developments in Design Methodology’; Chichester, Wiley. Dong, A. (2005), ‘The Latent Semantic Approach to Studying Design Team Communication’; Design Studies 26(5), pp. 445-461. Dorst, C.H. (1997), ‘Describing Design: A Comparison of Paradigms’; PhD thesis, Delft: Delft University of Technology. Foley, J. and Macmillan, S. (2005), ‘Patterns of Interaction in Construction Team Meetings’; CoDesign 1(1), pp. 19-37. Jones, J.C. (1980), ‘Design Methods: Seeds of Human Futures’; London: Wiley Interscience. /DZVRQ% µ+RZ'HVLJQHUV7KLQN 7KH'HVLJQ3URFHVV'HP\VWL¿HG¶ London: Butterworth Architecture. /DZVRQ%5DQG'RUVW. µ$FTXLULQJ'HVLJQ([SHUWLVH¶,Q Computational and Cognitive Models of Creative Design VI., ed. by Gero, J.S. and Maher, M.L., Key Centre University of Sydney, Sydney, pp. 211-230. Lloyd, P. (2000), ‘Storytelling and the Development of Discourse in the Engineering Design Process’; Design Studies 21(4), pp. 357-373. Oxman, R.M., Bax, M.F.Th. and Achten, H.H. (1995), ‘Design Research in the Netherlands: A Symposium Convened By the Design Methods Group Information Technology for Architecture, January 1995’; Eindhoven, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning.
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Design processes - H.H. Achten
Reymen, I. (2001), ‘Improving Design Processes Through Structured 5HÀHFWLRQ±$'RPDLQ,QGHSHQGHQW$SSURDFK¶ 3K'WKHVLV Eindhoven: Institute for Programming Research and Algorithms. Rittel, W.J. and Webber, M.M. (1973), ‘Planning Problems are Wicked Problems”, In Cross, N. (1984), “Developments in Design Methodology’; Chichester, Wiley, pp. 135-144. Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1995), ‘Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods’, Chichester, Wiley. 6FK|Q'$ µ7KH5HÀHFWLYH3UDFWLWLRQHU±+RZ3URIHVVLRQDOV7KLQNLQ Action’; London, Basic Books. Simon, H. (1973). ‘The Structure of Ill-Structured Problems’, In Cross, N. (1984), “Developments in Design Methodology’; Chichester, Wiley, pp. 145-166. 6LPRQ+ µ7KH6FLHQFHVRIWKH$UWL¿FLDO¶ &DPEULGJH0DVVDFKXVHWWV MIT Press. First Edition 1969. Turner, S. and Turner, P. (2003), ‘Telling Tales: Understanding the Role of Narrative in the Design of Taxonomic Software’; Design Studies 23(6), pp. 537-547. 9DONHQEXUJ5 µ7KH5HÀHFWLYH3UDFWLFHLQ3URGXFW'HVLJQ7HDPV¶3K' thesis, Delft, Industrial Design Engineering. Vitruvius (1960), ‘Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture’, translated by Morris Hickey Morgan, New York, Dover.
Design processes - H.H. Achten
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IDE+A
Visualization Design Processes - Wim Poelman and David Keyson (Eds.) IOS Press, 2008 © 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
3
Sketching is Alive and Well in this Digital Age
Prof. G. Goldschmidt Professor, The Mary Hill Swope Chair in Architecture & Town Planning Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
Abstract The different modes of visualisation found in the Delft Interviews are explored with UHVSHFWWRWKHLUSDUWLFXODUDGYDQWDJHVDWVSHFL¿FSKDVHVRIWKHGHVLJQSURFHVVDQGDVD means of communicating with various project stakeholders. Two main conclusions arise IURPWKLVH[SORUDWLRQ)LUVWWKDWZLWKIHZH[FHSWLRQVWKHUHDUHQRVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHV between architects and industrial designers in the way they produce and use visuals. Second, despite the proliferation of potent digital visualisation means and their willing adaptation by design practitioners, freehand sketching continues to be practised by almost all designers throughout the design process. The extraordinary cognitive advantages of sketching are outlined and it is argued that because of those advantages sketching will continue to reign in design until other means of visualisation will be capable of emulating its supremacy. Keywords: DI (Delft Interviews); digital; design; model; sketch; visualisation
Introduction In a world such as the one we live in it is only natural for young students, who were born into the digital age, to ask their designer-interviewees: ‘In this digital age is theUHVWLOODXVHIRUVNHWFKLQJ"¶)URPWKHZD\WKHTXHVWLRQLVSKUDVHGLWDSSHDUVWKDWWKH expected answer is ‘no’, but the courteous students ‘allow’ the designers, practicing DUFKLWHFWVDQGLQGXVWULDOGHVLJQHUVDOHVVGHFLVLYHUHSO\E\DGGLQJDIROORZXSTXHVWLRQ µ«DQGLQZKDWSKDVHVZRXOGWKDWEH"¶ Sketching is a mode of visualisation, alongside other modes. All designers in the survey talk about means of visualisation they used in the particular project on which the interview focuses but they all generalise to other cases as well. Visualisation, in the evidence SURYLGHGE\WKHLQWHUYLHZVVHUYHVDQXPEHURILPSRUWDQWSXUSRVHV ¿UVWDQGIRUHPRVW as communication in its roles of information and image recording and description, demonstration and sharing, explanation and convincing. Apart from freehand sketches (including annotations), visuals include primarily other manual drawings on paper, digital two- and three-dimensional drawings, and physical models. Digital drawings can be divided into two distinct types: precise measured drawings, and three-dimensional images and renderings. Sometimes animation and movies are also added to the arsenal of visuals. When and for what purpose is each of these modes of visualisation used, DQGZK\"7KHVHDUHWKHTXHVWLRQVZHDUHRXWWRH[SORUHLQWKLVSDSHUZLWKDQHPSKDVLVRQVNHWFKHVZKLFKDUHWKHPRVWIUHTXHQWO\PHQWLRQHGYLVXDOLVDWLRQPRGDOLW\LQWKH Delft Interviews (DI), and which, perhaps surprisingly for the interviewers, are still in IUHTXHQWXVHLQERWKDUFKLWHFWXUDODQGLQGXVWULDOGHVLJQSUDFWLFH
29
1
Why visualise?
7KHTXHVWLRQµZK\YLVXDOLVH¶LVDOPRVWUKHWRULFDODVZHDOOJUHZXSWREHOLHYHWKDWµD SLFWXUHLVZRUWKDWKRXVDQGZRUGV¶7KHGHVLJQRISK\VLFDODUWHIDFWVUHTXLUHVWKDWGHVLgners and those for whom the artefacts are designed consider many elements and their properties, as well as the relationships between them (and in the case of architecture, also between them and their surroundings). Function and form must be understood, HYDOXDWHGDQGRSWLPLVHGIRUDVXFFHVVIXOUHVXOW$QDGHTXDWHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHVH complex parameters is not possible without visualisation, especially the representation of shapes and forms. It is possible for individuals to entertain internal representation XVLQJ PHQWDO LPDJHU\ DQG WKHUH DUH UHSRUWV WKDW GHVLJQHUV FDQ JR TXLWH VRPH ZD\ using mental imagery only (Athavankar 1997, Athavankar & Mukherjee 2003, Bilda et al. 2006), but imaging has its limitations and in any event it is applicable only to the private musings of individual designers; others are unable to share what is locked inside an individual’s mind. Fish (2004) argues that the capacity for mental imagery developed in humans in prehistoric times for survival purposes as an aid in tasks like hunting; evolution has not caught up with newer human activities, such as design as we know it WRGD\DQGWKHUHIRUHYLVXDOLVDWLRQLVXVHGDVDQH[WHQVLRQRILPDJHU\RULWVDPSOL¿FDWLRQ (Fish & Scrivener 1990). Imaging may, though, have to do with preconceived ideas that designers bring with WKHPDWWKHRXWVHWRIWKHGHVLJQ0DQ\±WKRXJKQRWDOO±RIWKH',GHVLJQHUVFRQ¿UPHG that preconceived ideas and images existed when they started work on their projects: Pesman (DI.1-Westraven Utrecht) said the image was directly in his head (p. 7); Meertens (DI.5-Beertender) said, ‘the design comes to you’ (p. 39); and Spark (DI.8-Carver small car) stated explicitly, ‘the designer always starts with an image of what it has to look like, this image comes to mind from the beginning’ (p.69). But in practically all cases, more than one person was involved in the project right from the beginning. The team members, whether located in one place or dispersed geographically, had to communicate during meetings and between meetings. This they did using visualisations, which were prepared ahead of time and shown in meetings or sent around, but also produced them in situ, as part and parcel of an ongoing discussion. Participants in design teams range from a small number of in-house designers to collaborations with partners and consultants from elsewhere, in addition to client representatives. Visualisations help make sure that everyone concerned shares the same mental models of the product’s looks and functioning, materials, manufacturing process or a particular detail thereof that is being discussed. One might say that without visualisations, it is inconceivable that a shared mental model could be achieved in a design team (Goldschmidt 2007). This is the foremost reason for visualising in the design process. We have mentioned that one of the parties taking part in design meetings is the client. Clients vary greatly in the extent to which they wish, or are able, to get involved in the design process. But in any event they must approve the design, or select from amongst alternatives. Designers must therefore make an effort to convince the client of the virtues of their proposals, sometimes to the point of justifying budget increases. To do so they must show the client the designed entity in the most complete and attractive manner possible, and in a mode the client, who is not necessarily technically adept, can easily understand and appreciate. Digital devices such as graphically potent programs (3D) are often used for this purpose, and so are models. This is the second reason for visualisation in the design process.
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Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
The third, and the least interesting reason for our purposes here, is visualisation for the purpose of construction or manufacturing. The visualisations made for this purpose are technical in nature and today they are almost exclusively produced digitally (2D). 6RPHWLPHVWKHSURGXFWLRQRIWKHVHGRFXPHQWVLVRXWVRXUFHGIUHTXHQWO\WRµGRWFRP¶ companies. We shall not discuss these visualisations any further in this paper.
2
The digital age
What do we actually mean, in the design context, when we say that ours is a ‘digital DJH¶",QWHUPVRIYLVXDOLVDWLRQLWPHDQVSULPDULO\WKDWZKDWKDVSUHYLRXVO\EHHQGRQH manually, can now be done digitally in most cases, and more manipulations than were SUHYLRXVO\SRVVLEOHDUHQRZDFKLHYDEOHTXLWHHDVLO\ HJSKRWRPRQWDJHVYLUWXDOZDONV through buildings that do not exist yet, and so on). There are also new possibilities such as digital prototyping which hardly existed a decade ago, mainly useful to industrial designers. Many more new applications are undoubtedly due to make their appearance in the foreseeable future. There are many advantages to digital drafting and modelling, such as speed, accuracy, ease of revision, and ease of sharing with others regardless of where they are stationed. But that is not the whole story, of course: sophisticated algorithms permit the expansion of the world of manufactured and built forms, which are less restricted than was hitherto the case. For example, the free form of the roof of the stadium designed by Frei Otto for the 1972 Olympic games in Munich was a painstaking design effort, realised after countless models were built to approximate the curvatures of the membranes, which did not conform to mathematically expressible shapes. Nowadays digital means can not only easily save the considerable labour invested in building actual models, but also calculate the structure regardless of its irregular geometry and WKXVPDNHLWFRQVWUXFWLEOH)UDQN*HKU\LVRQHRIWKHEHWWHUNQRZQEHQH¿FLDULHVRIWKH ability of digital means to cope with completely free forms in architecture. ,IGLJLWDOYLVXDOLVDWLRQVDUHVRXELTXLWRXVO\EHQH¿FLDOZK\KDYHDOPRVWDOO',GHVLJQHUV UHSOLHGLQWKHDI¿UPDWLYHWRWKHTXHVWLRQDERXWWKHUHOHYDQFHRIVNHWFKLQJLQWKLVGD\ DQGDJH"7KHDQVZHUKDVWRGRZLWKWKHH[WUDRUGLQDU\DGYDQWDJHVRIVNHWFKLQJDVD visualisation mode throughout the design process, and especially in its early, preliminary phase. For experienced sketchers, which include almost every designer (architect 0LFKLHO5LHGLHNZKRWHVWL¿HVWKDWKHµGRHVQRWXVHVNHWFKHVWKDWPXFK KHVD\VKHFDQ¶W draw’ is an atypical exception (DI.3_Media Museum Hilversum, p. 22)), the production RIDUDSLGIUHHKDQGVNHWFKLVDIDVWÀH[LEOHDQGHIIRUWOHVVPHDQVRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQWKDW FDQEHH[HFXWHGDQ\ZKHUHDQGUHTXLUHVQRSUHSDUDWLRQQRHTXLSPHQWDQGQRVNLOOV WKDWQHHGWREHXSGDWHGSHULRGLFDOO\,WLVWKHUHIRUHXVHGYHU\IUHTXHQWO\LQWKHSURFHVV of generating ideas, testing them and discussing them, in a group or even in private deliberations with oneself. To date, no digital means are available that come close to emuODWLQJIUHHKDQGVNHWFKLQJLQWHUPVRIÀH[LELOLW\DQGHDVHDVZHOODVVSHHGDQGFRJQLWLYH economy, with the possible exception of academic prototypes that were developed with unusual insights (e.g., Do 2002; Shapir et al., 2007). Likewise, both industrial designers and architects continue to produce physical models, with or without the technical assistance of digital means. The physical model is still necessary to allow us to get a better feel for scale, texture or the mode of operation of an artefact, be it a small hand-held gadget or a large building; indeed, all DI designers use models at least during the development phase of design projects. Digital devices, then, while helpful and in some cases indispensable, are not necessarily the answer to every single aspect of the process of designing. We shall have more to say about sketching in section 5 below. Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
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3
Design education and practice
Industrial designers, and to a lesser degree architects, are taught to work systematically, according to well-established methods (Roozenburg & Eekels 1995) that specify all RIWKHGHVLJQSKDVHVDQGWKHVHTXHQWLDODFWLYLWLHVWKDWVKRXOGEHFDUULHGRXWLQHDFK,Q mechanical engineering design the reliance on strict methodologies is even more stringent, with a large body of published research and handbooks to support this claim (e.g., Jänsch et al., 2005). In industrial design brainstorming and other group methods are taught and implemented in practice. However, in ‘real life’ there are many constraints and unexpected situations that force designers to divert from the perfect methods learned at school. Thus the DI car designers state that ‘They [at school] teach you to follow the perfect process, but in reality it doesn’t work that way… an innovative project doesn’t keep to planning, it needs freedom’. (DI.8_Carver small car, pp. 60-61). One of WKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIQRWEHLQJDEOHWRZRUNE\µVROLGUXOHV¶ ',B2I¿FHFKDLUS LV that there are more iterations, more improvisations, more fresh starts than anticipated, DQG WKLV PHDQV PRUH H[SORUDWLRQ DQG PRUH H[SHULPHQWDWLRQ &RQVHTXHQWO\ WKH EHVW tools are those best suited for exploration and experimentation, and they usually are not the digital tools. Despite the drive to use the ‘latest and greatest’ methods which inevitably are largely GLJLWDOWKHWRROVDYDLODEOHDUHVWLOOLQDGHTXDWHIRUFHUWDLQWDVNVDVSRLQWHGRXWDERYH In architectural education many studio classes have become paperless, resulting in projects that are detached from real materiality. Students are less occupied with developing rich, complex and sensitive spatial solutions and concentrate instead on the graSKLFTXDOLWLHVRIVOLFNUHQGHULQJV7HDFKHUVDUHXQDEOHWRGUDZRYHUVWXGHQWV¶VNHWFKHV and communication has become verbal only, related to PowerPoint presentations. With WKDWRQHLPSRUWDQWIDFHWRIGHPRQVWUDWLRQLVORVWLQWKHVWXGLRFULWLTXH ZLWKRXWSDSHU and pencil, the teacher cannot exemplify how something could or should be done, and is reduced to verbal reactions only to the student’s work in progress. This is a dramatic change in the otherwise still largely apprentice-style design education we practise in the studio, and not a change for the better1. Luckily, in both architecture and industrial design, in practice as well as in the educatioQDOVHWWLQJWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOPRGHOVDUHVWLOOEHLQJPDGH±QRWRQO\¿QDOSUHVHQWDWLRQ PRGHOVEXWDOVRVWXG\PRGHOVRIWHQTXLWHURXJK7KHSK\VLFDOREMHFWIXO¿OVQHHGVWKDW QRGUDZLQJFDQIXO¿O LWFDQEHWRXFKHGDQGLQWHUDFWHGZLWKLQZD\VWKDWDUHQRWSRVVLEOH otherwise. It is therefore not surprising that even long before models are built, both stuGHQWVDQGSUDFWLWLRQHUV¿QGZD\VWRXVHDUWHIDFWVLQFOXGLQJUHDG\PDGHVWKDWKDSSHQ to be in the work environment, to represent or simulate properties of a designed object HYHQEHIRUHWKHREMHFWKDVDFTXLUHGIRUP %UHUHWRQ 7KHOLWHUDWXUHDGGUHVVHVWKH mediating role of objects in our lives as knowledge translation agents, among other roles (e.g., Whyte et al. 2007), but in this paper we discuss only visualisations that are PDGHH[SUHVVO\GXULQJWKHSURFHVVRIGHVLJQLQJDVDPDWWHURITXRWLGLDQSUDFWLFH
4
Design phases – interlocutors
The different design phases are distinguishable not only by their contents or the speFL¿FDFWLYLWLHVXQGHUWDNHQEXWRIWHQDOVRDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRWDNHSDUWLQ them. It is hardly possible to arrive at a consensual breakdown of the design process 1
32
The commentary on design education is based on personal knowledge and experience. Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
into phases; in the Delft Interviews some designers talk about four phases, others about six, and yet others about a different number of phases. The participants in each phase may also vary according to the design task and the norms and practices of each ¿UP:HVKDOOWKHUHIRUHDGRSWDSUDJPDWLFEUHDNGRZQLQWRWKUHHSKDVHVRUUDWKHUVLWXDWLRQVWKDWUHTXLUHFRPPXQLFDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHGHVLJQHU V DQGRWKHUSDUWLHVZKRP ZHFDOOLQWHUORFXWRUV,QWHUORFXWRUVDUHWKRVHIRUZKRVHEHQH¿WWKHGHVLJQHUSURGXFHV visualisations, the party with whom he or she (or they) interacts in the normal course of the design process. The three phases/situations are: a) preliminary design; b) development phase; and c) discussions with clients and users. Table 1 maps the modes of visualisation reported in the DI according to these phases. This mapping cannot be HQWLUHO\DFFXUDWHVLQFHWKHLQWHUYLHZHHVZHUHQRWDVNHGVSHFL¿FDOO\ZKHQWKH\XVHG SDUWLFXODUYLVXDOLVDWLRQVDQG7DEOHUHÀHFWVRQO\DQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIZKDWZDVVDLG Nevertheless, it does provide a close enough picture to what we assume is the reality of practice in architecture and industrial design. 7KH ¿UVW FRQFOXVLRQ ZH FDQ GUDZ LV WKDW LQ WHUPV RI YLVXDOLVDWLRQ DUFKLWHFWXUDO DQG LQGXVWULDO GHVLJQ SUDFWLFHV DUH TXLWH VLPLODU WKURXJKRXW WKH GHVLJQ SURFHVV ,Q ERWK sketching is used heavily during the preliminary and development stages, and to some degree in discussions with clients or users. Clients may be involved throughout the process and discussions with them do not constitute a separate phase, of course. Rather, in this rubric we mean primarily formal and less formal presentations to clients at various points of decision making.
Preliminary design At the outset the major means of visualisation is sketching. Sketches are made during the search for a solution principle, in most cases following an initial, preconceived idea, by the leading designer(s). Architects make more models than do industrial designers in this phase, sometimes in compensation for the lack of drawings and sketches (DI.3_ 0HGLD0XVHXP+LOYHUVXP DQGDWRWKHUWLPHVEHFDXVHVRPHDUFKLWHFWVPD\¿QGLWKDUG to imagine complex spatial relations without models. Architectural sketches and drawings, as opposed to product design drawings, tend to be two-dimensional, using the conventions of orthogonal projections which do not describe spaces directly. Architects are trained to imagine spaces on the basis of plans and sections, but a model helps to perceive the space and its proportions, and test the accuracy of the image. Models DUHOHVVIUHTXHQWLQWKHSUHOLPLQDU\SKDVHRILQGXVWULDOGHVLJQ2QHUHDVRQPD\EHWKDW FXVWRPDU\WKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOGUDZLQJVDUHDGHTXDWH±DQGPRUHHFRQRPLFDO±UHSUHsentations at this stage. It may also be the case that rapid prototyping has become the standard mode of modelling, at least for smaller artefacts; making them is reasonably FKHDSDQGIDVWEXWSUHSDULQJWKHQHFHVVDU\&$'¿OHVLVWLPHFRQVXPLQJDQGPD\DOVR SUHPDWXUHO\¿[WKHGHVLJQSURSHUWLHV'HVLJQHUVPD\IHHOWKDWWKH\SUHIHUWKHIUHHGRP RIVNHWFKHVEHIRUHWKH\FRPPLWWKHPVHOYHVWR&$'¿OHVIRUWKHSXUSRVHRISURGXFLQJ a study model.
Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
33
Table 1: Visualisation modes in the Delft Interviews
We note that no digital drawings are produced at this phase. This is not surprising as neither dimensioned drawings nor ‘fancy’ images are needed in this phase, in which the designers communicate primarily among themselves, in search of a viable solution proposal that the designers can defend and which stands a chance of approval by the client. The sketch, at this phase, is a compact ‘laboratory’ in which designers can expeULPHQWZLWKGLIIHUHQWLGHDVIUHHO\ZLWKQRFRVWRUDQ\RWKHUQHJDWLYHFRQVHTXHQFHVLQ
34
Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
case of failure. This encourages more experimentation with extreme, unusual and poWHQWLDOO\LQQRYDWLYHFRQFHSWVZKLFKGXHWRWKHLUQRYHOW\UHTXLUHPRUHWHVWLQJ6XZDHW DO H[SODLQKRZGHVLJQHUVEHQH¿WIURPVNHWFKHVEHFDXVHWKH\FDQPDNHGLVFRveries in them, including the regrouping of elements, which offers new interpretations. Fish (2004) and Goldschmidt (e.g., 2002) have advanced similar arguments. Whereas this facet of sketching is mostly studied in the context of individual designers working alone, in teams sketching is essential to idea-generation sessions: it does not increase WKHQXPEHURILGHDVEXWLWVLJQL¿FDQWO\LPSURYHVWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFKWKH\EXLOGRQRQH another (van der Lugt 2005), which is normally a precondition for creativity.
Development The development phase is usually carried out by a larger group of people than the one involved in preliminary design. It is also more diverse in terms of expertise – we include in the group, or team, all the consultants, internal or external, who are involved in the SURMHFW,QPRVWFDVHVSDUWLFLSDQWVKDYHGH¿QHGUROHVDQGFRRUGLQDWLRQDPRQJWKHPLV DPDMRULVVXH7KHUHIRUHWKHDPRXQWDQGTXDOLW\RIFRPPXQLFDWLRQLVPRVWLPSRUWDQW DVJRRGFRRUGLQDWLRQUHVXOWVLQDQHI¿FLHQWVWUHDPOLQHGSURFHVV DVPXFKDVFRQVWUDLQWV SHUPLW ZKHUHDV SRRU FRRUGLQDWLRQ FDXVHV PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJV DQG FRQÀLFWV WKDW DUH costly and demoralising. A key to good coordination is a high level of understanding and agreement amongst team members regarding the designed entity, which is achieved through face-to-face meetings and conversations which include sharing of documents, also when members are not physically co-located. Naturally, visualisation plays a crucial role in all of these team deliberations. The Delft Interviews show that practically all modes of drawing and physical models are used in this phase (see Table 1), each for the purpose it serves best.
Figure 1: ‘Models in dialogue: Denys Lasdun, National Theatre, London, c. 19652. 2
Photo by Behr Photography. Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
35
Figure 1 shows a stack of study models made during the long years in which the design of the National Theatre in London, including three different performance halls, was EHLQJGHYHORSHGLQWKHRI¿FHRIDUFKLWHFW'HQ\V/DVGXQ8QWLOQRWWRRORQJDJRPDQ\ ODUJHDUFKLWHFWXUDO¿UPVHPSOR\HGIXOOWLPHPRGHOPDNHUVDQGSUDFWLFDOO\HYHU\SURGXFW GHVLJQ¿UPKDVDWOHDVWDVPDOOZRUNVKRSLQZKLFKPRGHOV QRWUDSLGSURWRW\SHV FDQEH executed. Most such models are fairly rough and their purpose is study and evaluation. As evident from Figure 1, the same entity may be modelled again and again, each time UHÀHFWLQJUHYLVLRQVLQWURGXFHGDVDUHVXOWRIDVVHVVPHQWVRISUHYLRXVYHUVLRQVXQWLOD satisfactory proposal is achieved. This mode of usage resembles sketching and rough preliminary models are sometimes referred to as ‘3D sketches’. Students, too, are alPRVWDOZD\VUHTXLUHGWRSURGXFHPRGHOVLQWKHFRXUVHRIGHYHORSLQJGHVLJQSURMHFWVLQ both industrial design and architecture, and as in practice, these models are different WKDQµ¿QDO¶RUSUHVHQWDWLRQPRGHOVWKDWDUHRIWHQRXWVRXUFHGWRVSHFLDOLVHGH[SHUWVRU produced as rapid prototypes by 3D printers or similar digital machines. Study models continue to play an important role in design development, arguably more so in architecture, especially since all stakeholders, including the client and others who may lack design expertise, can relate to them easily. Sketches and other drawings continue to be essential in the development phase. The VWDWHRIWKHGHVLJQNHHSVHYROYLQJDQGFKDQJHVPDMRURUPLQRUDUHVXEMHFWWRIUHTXHQW discussions and decision sessions. Consultants’ input needs to be integrated into the GHVLJQDQGWKLVUHTXLUHVFRQVLGHUDEOHFRRUGLQDWLRQHIIRUWVDQGWKHUHVROXWLRQRISURblems that keep coming up. Communication therefore builds on detailed representations of the latest versions of design drawings, be they measured plans or still, free-hand sketches. For communication over distances fax machines and the Internet are used to transmit information, including drawings. By comparison to the preliminary phase, in which sketches mainly express ideas and concepts and may be rather abstract and schematic, in the development phase sketches are more concrete and detailed, and describe the actual designed entity in its many facets. We begin to see digital drawings as well: CAD measured drawings are produced so that all designers and consultants have accurate information as the basis for their interventions. In the case of industrial design, this includes many more 3D drawings than in architecture. Fancier, so-called ‘presentation drawings’ are still rare at this phase, except for interim decision-making meetings for which they are typically prepared. All modes of visualisation are thus exploited at school and in practice to help develop a design project, as cogently stated by Paradiso et al. (2002):
Projects develop through sketches in cardboard and on trace [paper]; they are pushed further through exacting CNC-milled projects and detailed renderings. But students are as likely to work through complex details by KDQGDQGWRORRNWRWKHFRPSXWHUDVDPHDQVWRSURGXFHTXLFNDQDO\WLFDO sketches. (p 2)
Discussion with clients and users Discussions with clients and users take place at all stages of the design process, of course, but are typically built into certain checkpoints in which major decisions are taken. For those occasions designers prepare visuals that are meant to convince the client or users of the merits of the overall proposal, or as regards certain aspects of it. The Delft Interviews show (Table 1) that the means used for that end are mixed: from sketches, which are probably used in informal meetings in which certain details may be GLVFXVVHGWKURXJKPRGHOVWRIUHTXHQWGLJLWDOGUDZLQJV SUHVXPDEOHPRVWO\'UHQGH-
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Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
rings), and even movies. Often, designers refer to ‘presentations’ they prepare, which may indicate the use of tools like PowerPoint in order to show visuals, undoubtedly accompanied by oral explanations. This ‘mixed media’ panorama is most appropriate, and it applies to all branches of design, architecture and industrial design included. Each mode of visualisation has its own DGYDQWDJHVDQGLVXWLOLVHGE\GHVLJQHUVWRPD[LPLVHLWVEHQH¿WV%HIRUHWKHFRPSXWHU many more manual drawings were made, of course, but even before drawings were the standard means of visualisation (that is, before paper became readily available and VXI¿FLHQWO\LQH[SHQVLYHDIWHUWKHPRYLQJSULQWUHYROXWLRQLQWKHODVWWKLUGRIWKHWK century), models were made to be presented to patrons in order to secure their approval. Figure 2 shows a fresco by Vasari from the mid-16th century, depicting the architect Brunelleschi presenting a model of San Lorenzo to his client, Cosimo de’ Medici, who commanded the church. The model is a fairly accurate representation of the famous Florentine church. Earlier pictures and mosaics bear evidence of the fact that model presentation to patrons was an established practice (for example, a beautiful mosaic at the Kariye Museum in Istanbul, dated c. 1320, depicts Theodore Metochites, donor of the Chora, with a model of the church/monastery).
Figure 2: Fresco by Vasari (1565) showing Brunelleschi presenting the model for the church of San Lorenzo to Cosimo de’ Medici3.
'XULQJWKH5HQDLVVDQFHPDNLQJPRGHOVIRUWKHEHQH¿WRIFOLHQWVVWRRGLQVKDUSFRQWUDVW with the production of technical drawings which were made for the masons-builders of HGL¿FHV IRUH[DPSOHDGUDZLQJE\-DFRSR%HUORLDIURPWKHHDUO\WKFHQWXU\VKRZV the professional architect, accompanied by his scholarly advisors, presenting plans to the workmen who were building the Rotunda in Rome). Such drawings became standard 3 From: Ettlinger, L.D. (1977). The emergence of the Italian architect. In Kostof, S. (ed.), The architect. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 96-123; illustration p. 110. Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
37
practice following the introduction of orthogonal projections as the mode of delivering information about the geometry of spaces and objects. Perspective drawings were also made from that time, of course, and gradually joined models as formal renderings, but the two co-existed for centuries more as complimentary visualisations rather than rival or competitive modes of expression. Drawings that are made for clients or users are, as pointed out earlier, a mixed bag, depending on their purpose. The more tools we have at our disposal the more there is WRFKRRVHIURPDQGWKHZLVHGHVLJQHUNQRZVWKDWDQGVSHFL¿FDOO\DGMXVWVKLVFKRLFHWR the goals the visualisation is meant to achieve. Whyte et al. (2007) distinguish between ÀXLGDQGIUR]HQYLVXDOPDWHULDOVLQGHVLJQ7KHIRUPHUDUHµPRELOL]HGZKHQFRPPHQW LQSXWRUPRGL¿FDWLRQLVUHTXLUHG¶ S ZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVPRVWO\WRWKHSKDVHVRI SUHOLPLQDU\GHVLJQDQGWKHVXEVHTXHQWGHYHORSPHQWSKDVHVDQGWRDOHVVHUH[WHQWWR discussions with clients and users. The latter, frozen visuals ‘are characterized by greater certainty’. The authors remark that such visualisations have several functions, including use ‘for tactical and political reasons’ (p. 23). When thus used, the interlocutor is often the client or the users. Figure 3 captures three instances of the usage of visuals in the design process of designing a herbarium. In our terms Figure 3a describes a preliminary design usage of drawings; Figure 3c is taken from the development phase; and Figure EH[HPSOL¿HVDµÀXLG¶XVDJHRIGUDZLQJVLQDGLVFXVVLRQZLWKXVHUV$VLVHYLGHQWIURP this example, in all three cases the interaction among the concerned parties is entirely dependent on the use of visuals, in this case sketches and drawings.
)LJXUH ,QWHUDFWLRQVZLWKYLVXDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVVRPHRIZKLFKDUHÀXLGDQGRWKHUVIUR]HQLQ design work at Edward Cullinan Architects: a) the founder of the practice and an architect working on the project talk about the design concept; b) the ideas are presented and discussed with the library staff; c) working meeting between the project architects and the engineers4.
The public Designers do more than bring into being the best possible buildings and products; they also take part in the cultural and artistic discourse of their time. For some designers this becomes a major activity and they are interested in making statements through visualisations they exhibit and publish, in addition to other modes of representation (oral and written expressions). At times of heated debate designers even publish manifestos and SURGXFHYLVXDOVZKLFKDUHORDGHGZLWKV\PEROLFPHDQLQJ7KLVPD\EHPRUHVLJQL¿FDQW in architecture, whereas in industrial design it is the products themselves that are made with similar intentions. Figure 4 is an example of a drawing made in James Stirling’s RI¿FH LWLVQRWPDGHIRUFRPPXQLFDWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQWRIHOORZGHVLJQHUVRUWRRWKHUVWDkeholders in the project, nor is it meant for the builders. Instead, it is a statement about design thinking and representation, made during the early years of Postmodernism and 4
38
Figure 3 and its caption reproduced from Whyte et al. (2007), p. 22. Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
meant for the cultural avant-garde of the time. Stirling chose to present an isolated selected idea, in an unusual view (‘worm-view’ axonometric drawing).
Figure 4: James Stirling and Michael Wilford (1976). Axonometric up-views of major elements in the Westfalen Museum, Düsseldorf (competition entry, not built)5.
Goldschmidt (2004) distinguished between ‘private’ and ‘public’ representations. The former are those visuals that individuals and teams produce for themselves, as thinking and communication aids; the latter are made in order to advance ideas and concepts visà-vis particular interlocutors or the (relevant) public at large, as in Stirling’s case. Other architects and designers produced very different kinds of visuals of the same category; WKRVHYLVXDOVVHUYHGDVDJHQWVRIWKHXQLTXHGHVLJQLGHQWLW\WKRVHGHVLJQHUVZLVKHGWR publicise. The cultural discourse in which design participates, which is an extension of SUDFWLFH RUYLFHYHUVD" DOVRKHOSVVKDSHSUDFWLFHEHFDXVHHYHU\GHVLJQHUZRUNVZLWKLQ a cultural context, even if the level of explicit awareness of its grinding wheels, and the attention paid to it, may vary considerably from one designer to another.
5
The robustness of sketching
Sketches are the most dominant mode of visualisation in design practise. Today they are beginning to be produced digitally as well as manually, but sketches on paper are far from obsolete in the design world. In fact design schools have re-discovered the necessity of training students in free-hand drawing, after years of somewhat unrealistic hopes that digital means will happily replace all manual design output. Sketches are not all of a kind; Ferguson (1992) divides them into the thinking sketch, the talking sketch, and the prescriptive sketch. In our terminology this means: sketching as a cognitive aid in the generation of ides; sketching as an agent of communication, and sketching as instruction for execution (e.g., for the construction of manufacturing). In this paper we have largely addressed the talking sketch, which is prevalent in design practice where 5 Source: ‘Landesgalerie Nordrhein-Westfalen in Düsseldorf, James Stirling and Partner with Werner Kreis, Robert Livesey, Russ Bevington, Ueli Schaad’, Lotus International, 1977, Vol. 15, 58-67. Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
39
LQGLYLGXDOVUDUHO\ZRUNE\WKHPVHOYHV+RZHYHUWKLQNLQJ±DQGGHVLJQLV¿UVWDQGIRremost a thinking activity – occurs above all in the individual’s mind, and the thinking sketch helps in the conversation the designer holds with him or herself. We have already PHQWLRQHGEULHÀ\WKHFRJQLWLYHDGYDQWDJHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVNHWFKLQJZKLFKDFFRXQW for the robustness of sketching in design practice for over half a millennium now, since paper became the standard medium for visualisations. Figure 5 is a diagram explaining the status of sketching in visualisation as part of the design problem-solving process.
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40
The thinking sketch, on which we wish to focus here, does not need to be complete or precise. In fact it may be partial, vague, incomplete, inaccurate, not necessarily true to scale, and its level of concreteness of abstraction may vary sharply (within and between sketches). Furthermore, it can be stopped at any time without losing what was done to that point. We shall conclude the discussion with a brief enumeration of what we hold to be the major cognitive advantages of the sketch, which designers recognise and capitalise on, and which secures its utility in the design process for the foreseeable future.
The rough sketch: ŀ LVUDSLG PLQLPDOFRJQLWLYHUHVRXUFHV 6RPHWLPHVDIHZSHQFLOVWURNHV on paper are enough to capture an idea, a shape, a mechanism or a relationship among parts. ŀ KDVÀH[LEOHVWRSUXOHV QRDOJRULWKPJRYHUQVWKHVWHSVWREHWDNHQ The sketcher may stop any time and ultimately when the outcome ORRNVVDWLVIDFWRU\ DQGQRWZKHQUXOHVDUHVDWLV¿HG ŀ LVRQO\PLQLPDOO\UXOHERXQG H[DPSOHEDVHGYHUVXVUXOHEDVHG reasoning). More than anything else, the thinking sketch is a tool of reasoning. Reasoning is said to be either rule-based or example-based (Sloman 1996); sketching facilitates example-based reasoning which enjoys considerable freedom from rules (other than the rules of orthogonal projections, which are normally adhered to). This in turn has the potential of expanding the design space in which a solution is sought and may therefore enhance innovation and creativity. ŀ LVUHYHUVLEOHWUDQVIRUPDEOHDWDQ\VWDJH RYHUOD\LQJIDFLOLWDWHVUDSLG changes). The sketcher may change his or her mind at any time and retract any number of steps. ŀ LVWROHUDQWRILQFRPSOHWHQHVVDQGYDJXHQHVV(VSHFLDOO\ZKHQWKH sketch is made as part of the dialogue the designer holds with him or herself, ‘shorthand’ is enough; the designer will recognise intentions and will be able to mentally complete any missing or vague information. ŀ LVWROHUDQWRILQDFFXUDF\DQGODFNRIVFDOH:KHQFRQFHSWVRUEURDG intentions are important, accuracy and correct scale are not always necessary and there is no need to labour over them. ŀ VXSSRUWVIHHGEDFNORRSV6NHWFKLQJDQGPHQWDOLPDJHU\ZRUNLQ tandem: one informs the other. The ensuing cycle is in fact a feedback loop which helps push the process forwards. 6
In conclusion
Whatever the differences in the design process between architecture and industrial deVLJQSUDFWLWLRQHUVLQERWK¿HOGVµWKLQNYLVXDOO\¶DQGFRQVWDQWO\YLVXDOLVHWKHLUWKRXJKWV Often visualising is in fact thinking and not merely the recording of thoughts that had alUHDG\EHHQHQWHUWDLQHGLQWKHPLQG'HVLJQHUVLQERWK¿HOGVXVHDOOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDQG visualisation means available to them, from freehand sketching and manual drawing to digital drawings, through physical models and various simulations and movies. Naturally, more sketches are made in the front edge and more two- and three-dimensional digital drawings are produced later in the design process. Models are built throughout the process: they tend to be manual in architecture and digitally based prototypes in Visualization - G. Goldschmidt
41
industrial design. In essence, the kinds of visuals that are made in practice are not very different from the ones that have been made for hundreds of years, although we can now produce many of them digitally. A notable exception are the visuals made for display and publication not in the context of regular practise but rather as participants in a cultural discourse, where the norm is to break conventions and present innovative breakthrough concepts. The means utilised are correspondingly often novel. ,QSUDFWLVHZKHUHHI¿FLHQF\LVDQRYHUULGLQJYDOXHDQGJRDOPHDQVDUHDGMXVWHGWR ends, and the most effective visuals are used for each purpose, i.e. the most convenient, most economical and most potent modes of visualisation are selected at any JLYHQWLPH7KHIDFWWKDWVNHWFKLQJLVVWLOOLQZLGHDQGIUHTXHQWXVHLVHYLGHQFHRIWKH fact that, at least for the purposes of study and exploration, we have no tool that rates higher. We must therefore conclude that sketching has advantages that to date cannot be emulated by any other mode of visualisation. Sketching will continue to be in good currency as long as it is the state of the art.
Acknowledgment The writing of this paper was partially supported by a grant to the author from the fund for the promotion of research at the Technion, hereby gratefully acknowledged.
References Athavankar, U. A. (1997). ‘Mental Imagery as a Design Tool’, Cybernetics and Systems, Vol. 28, 25-47. Athavankar, U. A. & Mukherjie, A. (2003). ‘Blindfolded Classroom: Getting De sign Students to Use Mental Images’. In Human Behaviour in Design, edited by Lindemann, U., Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. 111-120. %LOGD=*HUR-6DQG3\UFHOO7 µ7R6NHWFKRUQRWWR6NHWFK"7KDWLV the Question’, Design Studies, 27 (5), 587-613. Brereton, M. (2004). ‘Distributed Cognition in Engineering Design: Negotiating between Abstract and Material Representations’. In Design Representation, edited by Goldschmidt, G. and Porter, W. L., Springer Verlag, London, pp. 83-103. Do, E. Y-L. (2002). ‘Drawing Marks, Acts and Reacts: Toward a Computational Sketching Interface for Architectural Design’. AIEDAM, Vol. 16, 149-171. Ferguson, E. S. (1992). Engineering and the Mind’s Eye. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Fish, J. (2004). ‘Cognitive Catalysis for a Time-lagged Brain’. In Design Representation, edited by Goldschmidt, G. and Porter, W. L., Springer Verlag, London, pp. 151-184. Fish, J. and Scrivener, S. (1990). ‘Amplifying the Mind’s Eye: Sketching and Visual Cognition’, Leonardo 23, 117-126. Goldschmidt, G. (2002). ‘Read-Write Acts of Drawing’. In TRACEY (Internet journal dedicated to contemporary drawing issues); issue on Syntax of Mark and Gesture. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/ac/tracey/ somag/gabi.html. Loughborough University, UK (accessed April 28, 2008). Goldschmidt, G. (2004). ‘Design Representation: Private Process, Public Image’. In Design Representation, edited by Goldschmidt, G. and Porter, W. L., Springer Verlag, London, pp. 203-217.
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Goldschmidt, G. (2007). ‘To See Eye to Eye: The Role of Visual Representations in Building Shared Mental Models in Design Teams’, CoDesign 3 (1), 43-50. Jänsch, J., Nissl, A., Strasser, C. and Bruch, C. (2005). ’The Importance of the Integration of Design Methods in Robust Engineering Design’. In Proceedings of 15th International Conference on Engineering Design ICED 2005, edited by Samuel, A. and Lewis, W. Institute of Engineers Australia, Melbourne (CD-ROM). Paradiso, A., Baxter, E. and Baumberger, M. (eds.) (2002). Foreword. Retrospecta 01-02. New Haven: Yale School of Architecture. Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995). Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods. Wiley, Chichester. Shapir, O., Goldschmidt, G. and Yezioro, A. (2007). ‘Conceptual Design: An Operational Prescription for a Computer Support System’. In Computer Graphics, Imaging and Visualisation: New Advances, IEEE & Computer Society, 4th CGIV07 International Conference, Bangkok, edited by Banissi, E., Sarfraz, M. and Dejdumrong, N., pp. 513-521. Sloman, S. A. (1996). ‘The Empirical Case for Two Systems of Reasoning’. Psychological Bulletin, 119 (1), 3-22. Suwa, M., Tversky, B., Gero, J. S. and Purcell, T. (2001). ‘Seeing into Sketches: Regrouping Parts Encourages New Interpretations’. In Proceedings of 2nd Conference on Visual and Spatial Reasoning in Design: Computational and Cognitive Approaches, Bellagio, edited by Gero, J. S., Tversky, B. and Purcell, T., pp. 207-219. van der Lugt, R. (2005). ‘How Sketching Can Affect the Idea Generation Process in Design Group Meetings’. Design Studies, 26 (2), 101-122. Whyte, J. K., Ewenstein, B., Hales, M. and Tidd, J. (2007). ‘Visual Practices and the Objects Used in Design’. Building Research & Information, 35 (1), 18-27.
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IDE+A Project Management Design Processes - Wim Poelman and David Keyson (Eds.) IOS Press, 2008 © 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
4
Project and risk Management in architecture and industrial design
Prof. dr. ir. J.W.F. (Hans) Wamelink1 and dr. John L. Heintz2 Professor, Department of Real Estate and Housing, Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Real Estate and Housing, Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology
1
Abstract This paper describes the ways in which factors of project environments determine the application of management concepts, particularly risk management, in industrial design engineering (IDE) and architectural projects. The paper is based on a set of eight design cases prepared for the IDE+A conference. Given the limited number of cases and the constraints imposed by the overall case study design, it was necessary to supplement the insight derived from the cases with a review of generally accepted accounts of the design process in IDE and architecture. By sorting the cases according to the emergent dimensions of internal vs. external project and market- vs. client-driven and comparing the applications of project management concepts in each case, we will ¿QGWKDWWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUVSURYLGHDFOHDUHUSLFWXUHRIKRZDQGZK\GLIIHUHQW project management concepts are applied than do the disciplinary factors. Indeed, by focusing on the project environment factors we may be in a better position to predict SURMHFWPDQDJHPHQWDSSURDFKHVZLOOEHUHTXLUHGLQGHVLJQEXLOGRURWKHUXQXVXDORU innovative project organisations. Keywords: Architectural Design, Industrial Design Engineering, Project Management, Risk Management
Introduction Although designers of all sorts are accustomed to operating under uncertainty, and engage in many activities intended to reduce that uncertainty, they tend not to think of WKHLUZRUNLQWHUPVRIULVNRUSURMHFWPDQDJHPHQW$VGHVLJQSURMHFWV¿WWKHPDQDJHPHQW GH¿QLWLRQRIµSURMHFW¶H[WUHPHO\ZHOOWKLVRPLVVLRQVHHPVRGG)XUWKHUZKLOHGHVLJQHUV are sometimes reluctant to speak of risks, and the word ‘risk’ is seldom used in the design literature, the literature does cover most of the issues that are covered by the notion of risk, and has done so for some time. However, which risks are considered WREHVLJQL¿FDQWDQGZKLFKSURMHFWPDQDJHPHQWWHFKQLTXHVDUHXVHGVHHPVWRYDU\ greatly between different design projects. By examining a range of cases across from WKH¿HOGVRI,'(DQGDUFKLWHFWXUHZHKRSHWRVKHGPRUHOLJKWRQWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHQ and where to best apply different notions of risk and project management in design projects. We will begin by comparing how project management is applied to IDE and architectural SURMHFWV:HZLOOWKHQXVHWKHFDVHVWRGHULYHWZRVLJQL¿FDQWGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHSURMHFW environment. By sorting the cases along these dimensions and again comparing the DSSOLFDWLRQVRISURMHFWPDQDJHPHQWFRQFHSWVZHZLOO¿QGWKDWHQYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUV
45
provide a clearer picture of how and why various project management concepts are applied than do disciplinary factors. Because our focus is on the management of design projects, we begin with a description of projects as seen from the perspective of management.
Project managment ,QPDQDJHPHQWOLWHUDWXUHDSURMHFWLVXVXDOO\GH¿QHGDVDRQHWLPHVHWRIDFWLYLWLHV ZLWKDGH¿QLWHEHJLQQLQJDQGHQGLQJSRLQW0DQDJLQJSURMHFWVLVGH¿QHGDVWKHWDVN RI FRPSOHWLQJ WKHVH DFWLYLWLHV RQ WLPH ZLWKLQ EXGJHW DQG DFFRUGLQJ WR VSHFL¿FDWLRQV (Robbins & Decenzo, 2004). Robbins and Decenzo attribute the growing popularity of project management to the increasing rates of change in the contemporary world. 3URMHFW PDQDJHPHQW ¿WV ZHOO ZLWKLQ D G\QDPLF HQYLURQPHQW DQG LW UHVSRQGV WR WKH QHHG IRU ÀH[LELOLW\ DQG UDSLG UHVSRQVH 2UJDQLVDWLRQV DUH LQFUHDVLQJO\ XQGHUWDNLQJ SURMHFWVWKDWDUHVRPHZKDWXQXVXDORUXQLTXHKDYHVSHFL¿FGHDGOLQHVFRQWDLQFRPSOH[ LQWHUUHODWHGWDVNVUHTXLULQJVSHFLDOLVHGVNLOOVRUDUHWHPSRUDU\LQQDWXUH7KHVHW\SHVRI projects are not well suited to the standardised operating procedures that guide routine DQGFRQWLQXRXVRUJDQLVDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHV2WKHUPHDQVDUHUHTXLUHGWRPDQDJHWKLVW\SH of projects successfully. Any project is about causing a “change” in an uncertain situation. – in other words, a project involves developing or making something new. Thus one common characteristic of all projects is discovering the unknown. Inherent to such endeavours are risk and uncertainty. However, the characteristics of risk and uncertainty differ in across projects. /RFN FODVVL¿HVSURMHFWVLQIRXUGLIIHUHQWJHQHUDOW\SHV Civil or chemical engineering and construction projects (buildings, tunnels and bridges) Manufacturing projects (automotive, pharmaceuticals, aircraft)1 Management projects (implementing new IT systems, reorganisation projects) 6FLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKSURMHFWV 7KH¿UVWWZRW\SHVDUHUHOHYDQWLQWKH¿HOGVRI,'(DQGDUFKLWHFWXUH/RFNVWDWHVWKDW construction projects incur special risks and problems deriving from their organisations. 7KH\ PD\ UHTXLUH PDVVLYH FDSLWDO LQYHVWPHQW LQ DGGLWLRQ WR ULJRURXV PDQDJHPHQW RI SURJUHVV ¿QDQFH DQG TXDOLW\ ,Q PDQ\ FDVHV D ODUJH QXPEHU RI LQGHSHQGHQW organisations are involved in the design and construction of a new building. Furthermore, the design process continues even after construction has been contracted out, as the primary contractor, sub-contractors and suppliers all redesign the various components and details of the building. This may also be the case for some large-scale and complex manufacturing projects (e.g. aircraft), in which a number of organisations collaborate to develop highly complex products. Such internationally oriented projects are prone WRKLJKHUULVNDQGGLI¿FXOWLHVLQFRQWURODQGFRRUGLQDWLRQWKDWDULVHIURPRUJDQLVDWLRQDO complexity, national rivalries, contracts and other factors. Most industrial products, however, are simpler, with the design concentrated within a small group of actors, and 6SHFL¿FDOO\/RFNFRQVLGHUVPDQXIDFWXULQJSURMHFWVWREHHLWKHURQHRIDNLQGLQZKLFK case design engineering and production, are all included within the project; or series production, in which only design is included in the project.
46
Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and dr. J.L. Heintz
with the possibility of a global distribution of part sourcing. In most product-design processes, control of both design and production is much held more closely within the design team. Even the simplest product, however, involves unexpected interactions between design intent, user preferences, available technology and production systems. In the building industry, project management is generally carried out by project PDQDJHPHQW FRQVXOWDQF\ ¿UPV ,Q LQGXVWULDO GHVLJQ SURMHFWV LW LV RIWHQ FDUULHG RXW internally by persons bearing titles such as ‘manager of product development’. These characteristics imply that projects are surrounded by risk and uncertainty. An important aspect of managing these projects is therefore dealing with these risks and uncertainties. Winch (2002) described the project process as the dynamic reduction of uncertainty through time (see Figure 1.). At the inception stages of a project, uncertainty is very high: ‘the asset of the future is little more than an idea and possibly a few sketches’. How high depends upon a number of factors, such as the extent to which standardised components and solutions can be used. It is clear that reducing uncertainty is an important part of managing projects: ’As the project moves through the life cycle, uncertainty is reduced as more information becomes available – ambiguities in design are resolved.‘ (Winch, 2002). The aim of the project manager , or more in generally the function of project management, is to achieve success in all aspects of the project. Conditions for the successful application of business strategies are also referred to as success factors. µ6XFFHVV IDFWRUV KDYH EHHQ GH¿QHG DV WKH FULWLFDO NH\ DUHDV ZKHUH ³WKLQJV´ PXVW JR ULJKWIRUWKHEXVLQHVVWRÀRXULVK¶ .RXWVLNRXUL'DLQW\HWDO 5RFNDUW ,WLV necessary to distinguish between the success factors, which lead to successful projects, and the success criteria, which are used to measure project success (Cooke-Davis, 2002). Thus, although success factors and success criteria commonly address similar issues, we must clearly delineate the differences between cause and effect. inception none
completion all
Uncertainty amount of information required
Amount of information processed
all
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0
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Figure 1: The project process as the dynamic reduction of uncertainty (Winch et al., 1998) Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and J.L. Heintz
47
Traditionally, these success criteria have been understood to refer to the three basic DVSHFWVRISURMHFWPDQDJHPHQW±FRVWWLPHDQGTXDOLW\±DVGHVFULEHGLQWKHPLG V by researchers such as Barnes (Barnes, 1988). Barnes later replaced the concept of TXDOLW\ZLWKSHUIRUPDQFH WKHQRWLRQWKDWXSRQFRPSOHWLRQDSURMHFWVKRXOGGRZKDWLW was intended to do (Lock, 2007). Barnes drew these three project objectives as a triangle, to illustrate that the three primary objectives are interrelated. A management decision to place greater emphasis on achieving one or two of these objectives must sometimes be made at the expense of the remaining objectives. Other scientists expanded the model to include additional aspects, such as people (to stress the importance of the management, organization and motivation of the people involved in the project) (Kliem & Ludin, 1992).
Figure 2: triangle of project objectives
A second distinction that must be made is between ‘1) the internal characteristics of project organisation such as time cost and performance goals, and 2) the external characteristics, such as customer satisfaction’ (Shenhar, Dvir et al., 2001; Koutsikouri, Dainty et al., 2006; Meredith and Mantel, 2006). It is conventionally assumed that success, as measured by internal project characteristics, will necessarily lead to customer satisfaction. but the Sydney Opera House, however, is a famous example of the potential for a disconnect between the two. More importantly, building projects DUHOHQJWK\DQGFOLHQWRUJDQLVDWLRQVDUHLQDFRQVWDQWVWDWHRIFKDQJHDVWKHIUHTXHQW practice of altering recently completed buildings attests.
Key themes in the description of project management in the IDE+A cases In the section above, several basic aspects of projects and project management were introduced. Although theories of project management are much more mature than LQGLFDWHGKHUHIRUWKHREMHFWLYHRIWKLVSDSHUWKLVWKHRUHWLFDOEDVLVLVVXI¿FLHQW2. To describe the differences concerning project management between the eight selected cases within the IDE+A project, we use the most important concepts from the foregoing section: Environmental properties of the project, in terms of risks and uncertainty Important management activities (risk management, estimating, scheduling, organisation) Project results, in terms of budget, time and performance 2 Readers interested in more in-depth reading on project management may refer to (Lock, 2007; Winch, 2002; Morris, 1994; Morris, 2001).
48
Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and dr. J.L. Heintz
Figure 3: Aspects investigated in the cases
As show in Figure 3, risk and uncertainty are determining factors in the description of the project environment. We therefore discuss risk and risk management as it appears in design projects and in the design literature. In the last decade, risk management has become an important consideration in project management (Lock, 2007). The term has emerged from management studies, and has slowly become accepted in the building industry. However, the term seems still to be novel in IDE, as indicated by its absence from recent books such as Von Stamm (2003), which contains (only a single mention of risk). Older texts .such as Roozenburg (HNHOV VRPHWLPHVGRQRWPHQWLRQµULVN¶DWDOO,QWKHVFLHQWL¿FOLWHUDWXUHZH ZHUHRQO\DEOHWR¿QGRQHWHDP DWWKH(LQGKRYHQ8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\ ZRUNLQJ on ‘risk management’ in product design. This does not mean that the concerns of risk management have been ignored. For many of the issues associated with risk are considered to be standard issues in the product design process. Keizer, Vos and Halman have studied perceptions of risk in product product-design processes (Halman, 2002; Keizer et al., 2005). They have found that, when prompted, product design teams identify a large number of risks in their projects. In one study, Keizer et al listed 142 GLIIHUHQW ULVNV LGHQWL¿HG E\ WKHLU LQWHUYLHZHHV .HL]HU HW DO &OHDUO\ SURGXFW designers are well aware of the risks associated with their projects. It is simply that they consider them to be normal to design practice.
Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and J.L. Heintz
49
5DQNLQJ
3HUFHLYHGULVNV &RPPXQLFDWLQJWKHQHZSURGXFWWRWDUJHWFRQVXPHUV 2UJDQLVDWLRQDQGPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHSURMHFW 6WDELOLW\RIWKHSURGXFWZKLOHLQVWRUDJHLQSURGXFWLRQ SODQWLQVKRSZDUHKRXVHGXULQJWUDQVSRUWDWLRQRUDW 4XDOLW\DQGVDIHW\UHTXLUHPHQWVRISURGXFWLRQV\VWHP IDFLOLWLHVDQGSHUVRQQHO &RQVWDQWDQGSUHGLFWDEOHTXDOLW\RIVXSSO\E\VXSSOLHUV 3RVVLEOHQHJDWLYHH[WHUQDOUHDFWLRQVE\NH\RSLQLRQ IRUPHUVRULQWHUHVWJURXSV $GHTXDWHSURGXFWLRQPHDQV HTXLSPHQWDQGWRROV DYDLODEOHZKHQQHHGHG 1HZSURGXFWIXOILOVLQWHQGHGIXQFWLRQV 1HZSURGXFWPHHWVFRQVXPHUVWDQGDUGVDQGGHPDQGV 1HZSURGXFW¶VDSSHDOWRJHQHUDOO\DFFHSWHGYDOXHV KHDOWKVDIHW\QDWXUHHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHV
)UHTXHQF\
7DEOH 0RVWIUHTXHQWO\SHUFHLYHGULVNLVVXHVZLWKLQFDWHJRULHV adapted from Halman (2002).
From their list of perceived risks, Keizer et al derived a shorter list of the 10 most IUHTXHQW It is interesting to note that in the case study material, the industrial design engineers provided very little information on risk management in their responses to either the RULJLQDO TXHVWLRQQDLUH RU WR D VHW RI IROORZXS TXHVWLRQV 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH UHVSRQGHQWVIUHTXHQWO\PHQWLRQHGWKHLQGLYLGXDOSHUFHLYHGULVNVQRWHGE\.HL]HUHWDO Thus, it seems as if, while the terminology is not widely accepted in IDE, the issue is fundamental to how industrial designers go about their work. Indeed MMID devotes an extensive section of their website to risk management (MMID 2007). It is possible that ZLWKLQDIHZ\HDUVWKHWHUPLQRORJ\ZLOOEHVWDQGDUGLQWKH¿HOGRILQGXVWULDOGHVLJQ In construction management, the term ‘risk’ is more widely accepted, and researchers in this domain have also indexed perceived risks. Contractors have long been understood to UXQULVNVWKHZHDWKHUEHLQJRQO\WKHPRVWREYLRXVEXWFRQWUDFWRUVLGHQWLI\DVLJQL¿FDQW number perceived risks (El-Sayegh, 2007; Mbachu & Vinasithamby, 2005). Consultants too perceive risks in their work. In their study of Australian building consultants and FRQWUDFWRUV0EDFKX 9LQDVLWKDPE\ LGHQWL¿HGGLVWLQFWVRXUFHVRIULVNLQWHUQDO WRWKHSURMHFW7KHHLJKWH[WHUQDOVRXUFHVRIULVNWKH\LGHQWL¿HGZHUHDOOUHODWHGWRWKH DELOLW\WRFRPSOHWHWKHSURMHFWDQGWRLQÀXHQFHVRQSURMHFWFRVWV(QGXVHUVDQGWKH market for buildings were not perceived as risks by either consultants or contractors. One thing emerges clearly in comparing lists of perceived risks in Architecture and IDE. In the construction industry, perceived risks are narrowly focused on project organisation and management issues. In contrast, the risks perceived in IDE span a wide range of issues, including ‘consumer acceptance and marketing’, ‘public acceptance risks’, and ‘commercial viability risks’. These perceived risks could be compared as follows:
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Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and dr. J.L. Heintz
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Table 2: Comparison of perceived risks in IDE and Architecture; IDE risks after Halman (2002), others supplied by the authors3
The key difference between the two disciplines is the degree to which risks associated with the market or with production are perceived, carried and dealt with by the designers. In architectural projects, the designers carried little or no risk. In IDE projects, the designers were often situated within an organisation carrying the project risk, and be therefore more attentive to these risks and more able to address them.
The cases Turning now to the cases, we began our analysis of the cases by creating a table in which we could compare a number of salient characteristics of each project. We were looking for patterns, for predictors of project management behaviours.
3 The lists of perceived risks in architecture and construction were compiled by the authors based on traditional project organisations, in which design and construction are carried out by different parties. The distribution of risk perceptions may be different in newer integrated project organisations. Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and J.L. Heintz
51
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Table 3: The cases
Organisations 7KHUHDUHWZRW\SHVRIRUJDQLVDWLRQVUHSUHVHQWHGDPRQJWKHFDVHV GHVLJQ¿UPV which consisting of a staff of sometimes multidisciplinary designers (some of whom are multidisciplinary) with, normally, no investment in the product and no productive capacity, and 2) large companies whose business is the design, production and GHOLYHU\RIFRQVXPHUSURGXFWV)RUVLPSOLFLW\ZHFDQFDOOSURMHFWVLQWKH¿UVWW\SHRI organization external projects, as the design team is external to the producer. The second type of organisation has an in-house design staff, and is responsible for the organization of, if not the actual, production of their products. We refer to the projects in these organisations as internal projects, as the design team is (largely) internal to the producing organisation. In all of the architectural design cases, the design was carried RXWE\DQH[WHUQDOGHVLJQ¿UPWKLVZDVDOVRWKHFDVHLQWZRRIWKH,'(FDVHVDOWKRXJK in one of these cases there is a very close relationship between the designer (Spark Design) and the producer, Eurotool/Carver Engineering. In the other two IDE cases, the GHVLJQZDVFDUULHGRXWE\ODUJHSURGXFW¿UPVXVLQJERWKLQWHUQDOGHVLJQHUVDQGH[WHUQDO design consultants. Thus, it is already clear that we cannot say that one organisational form is inherent WRHLWKHU,'(RUDUFKLWHFWXUH$QGHYHQWKRXJKZHVHHRQO\GHVLJQ¿UPVDPRQJWKH architecture cases, this is not a matter of principle. but only of custom. In the case of WKH+XLVWKHDUFKLWHFWXUDO¿UPKDGDPXFKFORVHUUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHSURGXFWLRQ company – similar to that of Spark Design and Carver Engineer. The advent of designbuild and other integrated contract forms is leading to new organisations where, at least for the term of the project, design and production are more integrated. In Japan, WKH EXLOGLQJ LQGXVWU\ LV GRPLQDWHG E\ ODUJH ¿UPV ZLWK LQKRXVH GHVLJQHUV :H FDQ venture to conclude that the discipline does not determine the organisational form of either the design team or the design project.
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Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and dr. J.L. Heintz
Drivers Further, we notice two types of projects in the cases. One project type is a one-off SURGXFWZKLFKPXVWFRQIRUPWRDSUHHVWDEOLVKHGOLVWRIUHTXLUHPHQWV7KHRWKHUSURMHFW type is the development of a product to be marketed to a mass audience. We can call these client-driven and market-driven projects, respectively. Figure 3 shows the cases arrayed in a matrix according to these two project environment dimensions. We will contend that these dimensions give us a much more reliable indication of how project management considerations are typically applied in design projects.
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Figure 4: Matrix showing cases grouped according to key environmental factors
Market-driven projects
Figure 5: Cases
The projects in this category are characterised by the fact that the design activities are carried out by and for businesses that will market, produce and distribute the products themselves. The project environment is therefore market oriented. In this category, we have placed, not only all of the IDE examples, but also one of the architectural cases: the 1-2-3 Huis., (although in this case the concept was not developed completely inhouse). Initially, there was a great deal of uncertainty about the production costs for these products. Uncertainties that played a role in this regard include the demand for the product, the price that the market would bear and the manufacturing technologies that ZRXOGEHUHTXLUHGWRREWDLQWKHGHVLUHGUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQSULFHDQGSHUIRUPDQFH The reaction of anonymous end users was of great importance throughout the entire Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and J.L. Heintz
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GHVLJQSURFHVV2XWSXWIDFWRUVRIVLJQL¿FDQFHLQFOXGHWLPHWRPDUNHWDQGSHUIRUPDQFH in relation to the desires and needs of the end users. In market-oriented projects management activity tends to focus on the concept GHYHORSPHQW SKDVH ,Q DOO ¿YH FDVHV WKH SURMHFW EHJDQ ZLWK D PDUNHW DQDO\VLV ,Q general, these market-driven projects are also driven by technology driven. This is well illustrated by the case of the 1-2-3 Huis, were the product is not the design of a single house, but a production system that allows customers to order custom-made houses WDLORUHGWRWKHLUXQLTXHQHHGV7KLVSURMHFWLVDOVRDQH[DPSOHRIKRZVXFKSURMHFWVDUH often responses to social needs. The 1-2-3 Huis was intended to respond to the need for the production of houses to replace the existing post-war stock, which no longer PHHWV WKH UHTXLUHPHQWV RI SUHVHQW GD\ FRQVXPHUV IRU LQH[SHQVLYH DGDSWDEOH DQG commodious houses supplied without long waiting periods. Dealing with these uncertainties and risks is an important part of project management. Characteristic of this is a phased approach to the design process with clear decision moments. Most design processes can be seen as proceeding according to following the IROORZLQJVHTXHQFH DQDO\VLVLGHDJHQHUDWLRQFRQFHSWGHYHORSPHQWGHWDLOHGGHVLJQ model building and testing, engineering, production start-up, and series production. In some cases you can observe a structured risk analysis sometimes using standard WHFKQLTXHV HJ)DLOXUH0RGH (IIHFW$QDO\VLV'HVLJQIRU)DEULFDWLRQ$QDO\VLV 2IWHQ risks are allayed through extensive testing of prototypes. In this manner, the designers have attempted to match product performance to user expectations, in accordance with the business model driving the product development process. Remarkably, the designers in this group undertook the management of the entire product development process. Planning, estimating and monitoring seem to be seen as core activities. by the design team. No only the costs of the design projects, but also the costs of production and delivery were carefully analyzed and optimised by the designers. for cases in which the budget for the design of the product proved LQVXI¿FLHQW DGGLWLRQDO IXQGV ZHUH PDGH DYDLODEOH ± IRU ERWK LQWHUQDO DQG H[WHUQDO projects. For the designers, the primary management goal was to optimise the return on investment for the project as a whole.
Client-driven projects Characteristic of client-driven projects is the fact that they are based on a brief supplied E\WKHFOLHQW±RQHVSHFL¿FFOLHQW7KHGHVLJQHUVRIWHQDOVRKDVKDYHRSLQLRQVDERXWWKH brief as well, but in general this leads only to slight changes in the brief. The client’s UHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWOLPLWHGWRWKRVHLQGLFDWHGLQWKHEULHI%H\RQGWKHVHWKHUHPD\ be additional design constraints such as typical project management goals as budget and time. The client often contracts the management of the project out to a project PDQDJHPHQW FRQVXOWDQF\ ¿UP 7KH GHVLJQHU LV WKHUHIRUH RIWHQ QRW LQYROYHG LQ WKH management of the project, and is therefore in general less able to ‘steer’ the design project. Client-driven projects usually involve a large number of independent parties. Different DVSHFWVRIWKHGHVLJQDUHQRUPDOO\FDUULHGRXWE\GLIIHUHQW¿UPV7KXVERWKWKHRYHUDOO complexity and the complexity of the construction phase are increased. The designer is reduced to the status of one of the links in the supply chain to be managed by the project PDQDJHPHQW¿UP&RPPXQLFDWLRQEHWZHHQDQGRUJDQLVDWLRQRIWKHGLIIHUHQWSDUWLHVLV
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Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and dr. J.L. Heintz
PRUHGLI¿FXOWDQGUHTXLUHGPRUHPDQDJHPHQWDWWHQWLRQLQFOLHQWGULYHQSURMHFWVWKDQ in market market-driven projects, and it is more likely to leads to disagreements. To meet with this increasing complexity., additional management capacity is usually added to the team. The budget for design is usually determined in advance, and is normally set as a SHUFHQWDJHRIWKHWRWDOLQYHVWPHQW7KLV¿[HGEXGJHWHQFRXUDJHVGHVLJQHUVWRUDWLRQ the time they invest in the project. The designer is, therefore, not always encouraged WRLQYHVWLQDYHU\WKRURXJKVWXG\WR¿QGWKHEHVWUHVROXWLRQSRVVLEOHIRUWKHFOLHQW¶V brief. Issues such as Design for Fabrication normally fall outside the architect’s scope of interest. The architect’s scope is negotiated anew for each new project with the client and the other design consultants.
Conclusions While noting that the exact form taken by project management activities is determined E\WKHVSHFL¿FVRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOSURMHFWHQYLURQPHQWVZHFDQYHQWXUHWRGUDZDQXPEHU of tentative conclusions regarding how the general character of the project environment determines project management. We may begin drawing conclusions by examining the WUDGHRIIVPRVWIUHTXHQWO\PDGHEHWZHHQWKHGLIIHUHQWPDQDJHPHQWIDFWRUV WLPHFRVW and performance) in market- and client-driven projects. In market-driven projects budget overruns are not always considered negative project results. On the contrary, additional expenditures seem to be readily accepted in Rather, in cases where other factors are more highly valued additional expenditures seem to be readily accepted, if they lead to higher performance and therefore a higher expected UHWXUQ 2IWHQ LW LV WLPH VSHFL¿FDOO\ WLPH WR PDUNHW WKDW VHHPV WR GRPLQDWH KHUH Performance and budget (i.e. development budget) may therefore be traded off against each other relatively freely. The budget for the Beertender, for example, was expanded VHYHUDOWLPHVGXULQJWKHSURMHFWDQGQREXGJHWZDVVSHFL¿HGDWDOOLQWKHFDVHRIWKH Carver. Time, however, seems to be the crucial constraint in market-driven projects. The internal project manager makes a global plan for the project. This schedule seems rarely to be extended.
Figure 6: Comparison of tradeoffs between management factors in market- and client-driven projects Project Management - J.W.F. Wamelink and J.L. Heintz
55
In client-oriented projects, project success is more likely to be was measured on the bases of compliance with previously established indicators for time, cost and performance. At the beginning of an architectural project, the client usually provides a relatively detailed brief. Yet it is actually other factors that seem to dominate. Time is generally assumed to be beyond the control of the project team. Delays are accepted as a natural part of the process. The time factor is determined primarily by external factors (i.e. factors external to the design process or the design team), such as building permits, and regulations), and there is little that can be done about them. Thus, although the delivery date may slip because of these factors, such shifts are often not seen as a particularly negative result; rather they are seen as a fact of life. Time only becomes an important management tissue once construction has begun. However, when costs begin to escalate, management intervenes and performance must be reduced to bring costs back into line, as for example, when the sustainability aspects of the IDE building were reduced. This is true not only of production costs, but of the design costs as well. In practice, client-driven projects are budget driven, and the level of performance achievable within the stated budget is accepted, even when this is less that then stated in the original brief. We can also observe differences in the organisational relationships between design and construction. In client-driven projects we see a separation of design and project management. In architectural projects project management is often performed by an H[WHUQDOSURMHFWPDQDJHPHQWFRQVXOWDQF\¿UP,QPDUNHWGULYHQRUJDQLVDWLRQVWKHUH is often an internal project manager. Thus, in IDE projects the designer is responsible, not only for the design, but also for the management of the project. ,QFOLHQWGULYHQHQYLURQPHQWVDQDGGLWLRQDOGLI¿FXOW\LVSRVHGE\WKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ WKH FOLHQW DQG WKH HQG XVHU ,Q WKH FDVH RI WKH ,'( EXLOGLQJ WKHUH ZDV IUHTXHQWO\ tension between the owner of the building (TU Vastgoed) and the users (Faculty of Industrial Design staff). Further, while building design projects often span a period of years, and the organisations to be accommodated continue to evolve throughout the duration of the project. This often leads to changes in the users’ needs and negotiations that lead to deviations from the originally stated brief. On the other hand, the market determines what the expected performance should be, through market research and product testing. The architectural design process is more complex. There are more parties involved, and many aspects of the design are contracted out to other parties. In some cases, the architect will provide only the concept design, and the working out of that design in GHWDLODQGVSHFL¿FDWLRQVZLOOEHGRQHE\DQRWKHUSDUW\ Risk management seems to be important in both market- and client-driven projects. However, the risks receiving the most attention are different. In market-driven projects, the most important risks to be managed are those associated with the market itself – price, and consumer demand. In client-driven projects, the most important risks are internal project risks – the client is concerned with managing the designer, and does not share their concerns for the market (in those cases where the product will eventually be brought to market) with the designer. The designer plays no part in market research, EXWUHFHLYHVWKH¿QGLQJVRIWKLVUHVHDUFKLQWKHIRUPRIDGHVLJQEULHI7KHHPSKDVLV is on arriving at a previously conceived result rather than maximising performance, production cost, or delivery time.
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Risk management varies between internal and external projects as well. In internal projects it is possible for designers to deal with risks associated with production, where as, we can see in the external projects, particularly in the architectural cases, that no account is taken by the designer of production risks. Thus we see that risk management, while not being named as such, is carried out in a more structured fashion in IDE projects than in architectural projects. In architectural SURMHFWV ULVN PDQDJHPHQW LV FRQ¿QHG WR SURMHFW PDQDJHUV ZKHWKHU WKH\ DUH HLWKHU external consultants or internal to the client organisation. This leads to a sort of conservatism, in which meeting predictable ends is more important than maximising performance. Innovation in architecture is, therefore, exceedingly gradual, and it tends to be focused on aesthetic issues. In this respect it should be noted that the only architectural project where patents were sought was the market-driven 1-2-3 Huis project. The only market-driven project not to seek patents was the A230 Chair, were Arhrend sought alternative means to protect their intellectual property. From this short study it can be seen that there are many similarities as differences between the ways in which project management as it is applied in IDE and architecture. In summary, we can say that IDE projects are managed to meet product and investment performance expectations, while architectural projects are managed to achieve compliance with briefs. More interestingly, the distinction between IDE and architecture is not always evident. The categories of market-driven and client-driven projects are more illuminating, as are the FDWHJRULHVRILQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOSURMHFWV,QPDQ\ZD\VWKHUHIRUHDQ,'(¿UPDQGDQ DUFKLWHFWXUDO¿UPWKDWDUHERWKZRUNLQJRQFOLHQWGULYHQSURMHFWVDUHOLNHO\WRKDYHPRUH LQFRPPRQWKDQZRXOGDQ,'(¿UPDQGDQ,'(GHSDUWPHQWLQDODUJHFRPSDQ\ZRUNLQJ exclusively on internal projects. Indeed, focusing on project-environmental factors may enhance our ability to predict the types of project management approaches that are UHTXLUHGLQGHVLJQEXLOGDQGRWKHUXQXVXDORULQQRYDWLYHSURMHFWRUJDQLVDWLRQV
References Barnes, M. (1988). “Construction Project Management.” International Journal of Project Management 6(2): 69-79. Cooke-Davis, T. (2002) “The ‘real’ success factors on projects.” International Journal of Project Management 20(3): 185-190. Halman, J. I. M. (2002) “Ontwikkeling van een risicoreferentielijst voor product innovatieprojecten.” Bedrijfskunde 74(5): 35-45. Keizer, J. A., J.-P. Vos, et al. (2005) “Risks in new product development: devising a reference tool.” R&D Management 35(3): 297-309. Kliem and Ludin (1992) The People Side of Project Management. Gower, Aldershot. Koutsikouri, D., A. Dainty, et al. (2006). “Critical success factors for multidisciplinary engineering projects.” 22nd Annual ARCOM Conference, Birmingham, UK, Association of Research in Construction Management. Lock, D. (2007) Project Management (9th edition). Aldershot, U.K., Gower.
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Mbachu, J. I. C., & Vinasithamby, K. (2005). Sources of risks in construction project development: An exploratory study. Paper presented at the Queensland University of Technology Research Week, Brisbane, Australia. Meredith, J. R. and S. J. Mantel (2006). Project Management; A managerial approach. New York, Wiley. MMID. (2007, 20/08/2007). “MMID full service design team (corporate website).” Retrieved 12/05/2008, from www.mmid.nl. Morris, P.W.G. (1994) The Management of Projects. London, Thomas Telford. Morris, P.W.G. (2001) “Updating the Project Management Bodies of Knowledge.” Project Management Journal 32 21 –30 Robbins, S. P. and D. A. DeCenzo (2004). Fundamentals of management: essential concepts and applications. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall. 5RFNDUW-) ³&KLHIH[HFXWLYHVGH¿QHWKHLURZQGDWDQHHGV´+DUYDUG Business Review 57(2): 81-93. Roozenburg, N.F.M. & Eekels, J. (1991) Produktontwerpen, Structuur en Methoden. Utrecht, Lemma. Shenhar, A. J., D. Dvir, et al. (2001). “Project success: A multidimensional strategic concept.” Long Range Planning 34(6): 699-725. Stamm, B. von (2003) Managing Innovation, Design & Creativity. Wiley, Chichester, UK. :LQFK*$8VPDQLDQG(GNLQV$ ³7RZDUGVWRWDOSURMHFWTXDOLW\ D gap analysis approach.” Construction Management and Economics 16: 193-207. Winch, G. (2002) Managing construction projects : an information processing approach. Oxford, Black
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IDE+A Social Complexity Design Processes - Wim Poelman and David Keyson (Eds.) IOS Press, 2008 © 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
5
Social complexity in design collaboration
Prof. dr. P.G. Badke-Schaub Professor Design Theory and Methodology Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering Delft University of Technology
Abstract 7KLVFKDSWHUIRFXVHVRQWKHFDXVHVDQGFRQVHTXHQFHVRIHQKDQFHGFRPSOH[LW\RIGHsign activities by the social context. The eight design projects, which were used as stimulating material, were analysed towards the variables which contributed to the social context. All interviewees discussed collaboration between different stakeholders as one of the main ambiguous issues in the design process. In the paper the challenges of the three problems prevalent in most projects are analysed in further detail: unshared or contradictory goals between different stakeholders involved in the process, the need IRUFURVVGLVFLSOLQDU\FRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGWKHXQLTXHQHVVRIWKHSURMHFWV)LQDOO\WZR concepts are presented and further detailed in how they may provide opportunities of LQÀXHQFLQJWKHVHFRPSOH[VRFLDOSURFHVVHVLQDGHVLUHGGLUHFWLRQ Keywords: coordination, communication, contradictory goals, team mental models
Introduction In the past the designer was a creative genius, a creator and the artist behind the ‘product’. Today, it’s common to state that design is a social process (e.g. Bucciarelli, 1994) since many design projects are far too complex for individual designers. Technological DGYDQFHVKDYHOHGWRLQFUHDVLQJVSHFLDOLVDWLRQZLWKWKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIDQLQFUHDVLQJ QHHGIRUWHDPZRUNLQWKHFRQWH[WRIPXOWLGLVFLSOLQDULW\7KHIRUPHUVHTXHQWLDOSURGuct development processes within one organisation have changed to concurrent engineering processes, often involving several organisations. Thus, the designer is often a member of a multi-disciplinary product development team including disciplines such as marketing and mechanics, software, product control, and more. The same is true for architects, whose work includes collaboration with disciplines such as statics, installation, construction, etc., each of them contributing their particular GRPDLQVSHFL¿FH[SHUWLVH $W¿UVWJODQFHWKLVVLWXDWLRQVHHPVWREHKLJKO\HIIHFWLYHEHFDXVHWKHRQO\RSWLRQIRU coping with these complexities is to integrate the expertise and knowledge of different disciplines. This synergistic effect is especially emphasised in the theoretical framework of social cognition: Knowledge is commonly socially constructed, through collaborative efforts towards shared objectives or by dialogues and challenges brought about by differences in persons’ perspectives. (Pea, 1993, p.48) However, multidisciplinary teams also run the risk of a variety of problems, to name only two aspects of any collaboration in a project team across disciplines and organisations: GLIIHUHQWODQJXDJH GLIIHUHQWGLVFLSOLQHVXVHGLIIHUHQWYRFDEXODULHV WKH same word can indicate different phenomena (for example, the word function) or different words can refer to the same feature;
61
GLIIHUHQWEDFNJURXQG PHPEHUVRIPXOWLGLVFLSOLQDU\WHDPVRIWHQUXQLQWR FRQÀLFWVGXHWRWKHLUODFNRIDVKDUHGPHQWDOPRGHO %DGNH6FKDXEHWDO 2007). Considering only these two aspects it becomes obvious that the social context adds adGLWLRQDOFRPSOH[LW\DQGWKXVUHTXLUHVIURPWKHGHVLJQHUWRHQFRPSDVVDEURDGHUVHWRI FDSDELOLWLHVDSDUWIURPKLVKHUGRPDLQVSHFL¿FUROHLQGHVLJQSURMHFWV In the following chapter the main challenges which constitute social complexity in design collaboration will be outlined and in the third part (chapter 3) some theoretical analyses explain the aspects which are most important when considering how to cope with these challenges successfully.
1
Challenges
:RUNLQJZLWKRWKHUSURIHVVLRQDOVLQDSURMHFWWHDPUHTXLUHVIRFXVLQJRQWKHDFFRPSOLVKment of the task at hand while embedded in a complex social process. The challenges resulting from this situation are of various kinds; the three challenges discussed here are taken from the interviews of four architects and four industrial designers (from 8 different projects) who were involved in the design of well-known Dutch buildings and products (8 different projects). These projects were chosen because they represent design success stories in architecture and product development.
1.1 Unshared and contradictory goals $FFRUGLQJWRWKHGH¿QLWLRQE\.DW]HQEDFKDQG6PLWK µDWHDPLVDVPDOOQXPEHU of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable’. Furthermore, team members strive for a common goal. However, these characteristics do not hold for teams we see more and more working in the globalised world, such as virtual teams, geographically dispersed teams, etc.. These teams may have a common goal – in the broader sense such as in project teams where each discipline brings in its own, often hidden agenda. For example, one of the architects interviewed describes WKHFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQWKHDUFKLWHFWDQGWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQFRPSDQ\DVDFRQWLQXRXVJRDO FRQÀLFW ZKHUHDV WKH DUFKLWHFW LV LQWHUHVWHG LQ WKH KLJKHVW TXDOLW\ WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ company gains the most with a project that is as cheap as possible; in order to save money the construction company does not always stick to the plans. The same problem was also mentioned by another architect: ‘The architect wants to create beautiful things where the building contractor wants the building to be cheap’. Obviously, the need to cope with different and often contradictory goals is not only a part of the task process but also of the social process. The designer has to balance between individual and domain-related goals and project goals, or as Bucciarelli (1994, S VWDWHV µWKH GHVLJQ SURFHVV LV QHFHVVDULO\ VRFLDO DQG UHTXLUHV SDUWLFLSDQWV WR negotiate their differences and construct meaning through direct, and preferably faceto-face exchange’. Thus, collaboration can be successful if the interaction focuses on joint objectives. 1.2 Cross-disciplinary communication The main contribution to the overall success of a complex design project is communication between the various parties involved, including the user and the client. However, the different individual backgrounds of the parties, visible as an amalgamation of differHQWH[SHUWLVHSHUVSHFWLYHVYDOXHVDQGJRDOVIUHTXHQWO\SRVHVGLI¿FXOWLHVIRUDGHTXDWH FRPPXQLFDWLRQ VHH)LJXUH $VDGLUHFWFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHVHGLI¿FXOWLHVGHVLJQHUV often refer to, and budget for, the time needed to come to a decision.
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The main aim of communication is the exchange of information, which in complex projects usually leads to an information overload for the individual professional. Hence, the integration of information is necessary in order to transfer information into knowledge. Some projects try to enable this process by using a sophisticated documentation system. The structure of such a system has to be transparent for all parties involved and the vocabularies used need to be understood by all disciplines in the same way. Furthermore, a documentation system should clearly describe the decisions that have been taken and why. The integrated knowledge should be more or less shared by all of the team members.
1.3 Structured procedures Structured procedures are, in the eyes of many designers, too structured. One designer related that in his company there is a standard procedure for handling a project. This procedure is similar to what he learned at university. ‘They teach you to follow the perfect process, but in reality it does not work that way. It’s neither preferable nor workable because each project needs its own approach. Every project is one of a kind; we start by asking ourselves what this project needs. And from there we start the project’. Although there are several methods which support project work there is a rather low rate of acceptance by professionals. Contrary to these structured approaches, brainstorming is widely accepted and used in daily work; however this method is not always used as prescribed by the inventor (Osborne, 1953) but more as a tool for unstructured discussions. 2
Essentials of social complexity in design
,QWKLVFKDSWHUWZREDVLFFRQFHSWVDUHVXJJHVWHGZKLFKUHTXLUHIXUWKHUUHVHDUFKLIZH want to understand and support multi-disciplinary design collaboration: coordination and team mental models.
2.1 Coordination 2QH RI WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW UHTXLUHPHQWV RI GHVLJQ SURMHFWV ± ZKLFK KDV DOVR EHHQ FRQ¿UPHGE\WKHGHVLJQHUVLQWHUYLHZHG±LVWKHÀRZRILQIRUPDWLRQZKLFKKDVWREH organised and distributed effectively in terms of team, time and space. As projects Social complexity - P.G. Badke-Schaub
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always have to cope with the intersections between disciplines it is necessary to make sure that the individual contributions are in line with the various interconnections. The PRUHLQWHUFRQQHFWLRQVWKHPRUHFRRUGLQDWLRQLVQHFHVVDU\7KXVDGHTXDWHFRRUGLQDWLRQ is a precondition for precisely aligning individual contributions to the team as well as contributions between teams. The way to coordinate may be different, depending on the use of tools, channels and media (see Figure 2).
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As indicated in Figure 2, an important element of coordination determines the team structure by allocating tasks, roles and responsibilities, in which the coordination of UROHV LV D PDLQ IDFWRU LQÀXHQFLQJ WHDP SHUIRUPDQFH $ FOHDU DOORFDWLRQ RI UROHV SURvides the group with a transparent group structure and a clear allocation of tasks and responsibilities according to the preferences and competencies of the team members LVDSUHUHTXLVLWHRIVXFFHVVIXOWHDPSHUIRUPDQFH 6WHPSÀH+EQHU %DGNH6FKDXE (2001). In this way the team members develop a shared team mental model and may be at the same time a transactive memory. A further major coordination issue is the allocation of time and careful scheduling so that enough time is available to accomplish tasks and for group development. A clear VFKHGXOHFODUL¿HVWKHWLPLQJRIDFWLRQVDQGPLOHVWRQHVIRUGHOLYHUDEOHV The coordination of the interaction between different locations becomes more important with increasing globalisation and hence the increasing virtualisation of collaboration. Another important topic with regard to geographically distant collaboration concerns cultural differences and their impact on different aspects of design work. Empirical studies reveal that the more team members coordinate their contributions, in relation to task and process, the better they perform (Gurtner, 2003). Certainly, the need for coordination depends on the complexity of the task, the number of different parties involved and the degree of interconnectivity between the parties; the more interdependencies the more coordination is needed. Groups working together for a longer period of time develop a common history and as DFRQVHTXHQFHLPSOLFLWFRRUGLQDWLRQHVSHFLDOO\IRUZHOONQRZQDQGVWUXFWXUHGSDUWVRI
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their work. However, when collaboration in teams is begun, coordination is communicated explicitly and this creates a ‘common ground’ (Clark & Brennan, 1991), which UHÀHFWVVKDUHGLQIRUPDWLRQDQGVKDUHGEHOLHIV There is also empirical evidence that teams tend to avoid coordination or postpone the start of coordination activities until it becomes obvious that the current muddling-through strategy is not successful (Hackman, Brousseau & Weiss, 1976). Gersick (1988, 1989) derived from an analysis of project teams that halfway through the project timeline a transition phase occurs, characterised by a sudden change of strategies. Resources can EHZDVWHGDVWKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIRPLWWHGFRRUGLQDWLRQEXWLQDGGLWLRQSRRUGHFLVLRQV can be made, which affects the result of the whole project in a negative way.
2.1.1 Regular face-to-face meetings Although all interviewees reported that during the projects information was also shared by computer-mediated communication, all participants underlined the need for regular face-to-face meetings. One designer explained that he does not use the phone or email that much, because he wants to see people and read their body language: ‘The scale of a project is not relevant to the way of communicating. Designing concerns tangible items. It is therefore also important that you see each other face to face and with a drawing or a mock-up’. 7KH LPSRUWDQFH RI IDFHWRIDFH PHHWLQJV LV FRQ¿UPHG E\ ¿QGLQJV WKDW IDFHWRIDFH meetings support the trust-building process (Tang & Isaacs 1993). Furthermore, the possibility of a shared view of sketches, models and mock-ups is a basic part of most face-to-face meetings in design teams. This ‘tangible aspect’ is mainly stressed by architects: face-to-face meetings are needed because – especially at the beginning of a SURMHFW±DORWRIWKLQJVDUHEHLQJVSHFL¿HG Some of the designers interviewed distinguished between two kinds of meetings; on the one hand, the more structured meetings usually chaired by the project leader, and on the other, unstructured brainstorm sessions. Brainstorming seems to be the method used in all projects and for different purposes, such as to identify various aims. 5HÀHFWLRQRQWDVNDQGVRFLDOFRQWH[W ‘You always have to stay critical about why you are doing something. This goes for the building but also for the management’. 7KLVVWDWHPHQWE\DGHVLJQHUHPSKDVLVHVµUHÀHFWLRQ¶DVDQLPSRUWDQWSDUWRIWKHGHVLJQ process. 7KHUHDUHQ¶WPDQ\HPSLULFDOVWXGLHVDQDO\VLQJUHÀHFWLRQDVSDUWRIKXPDQFRJQLWLRQ *XUWQHUHWDO VKRZHGWKDWUHÀHFWLRQHQKDQFHVSHUIRUPDQFHPHGLDWHGE\VWUXFtured communication and the similarity of mental models. Another interesting result UHIHUVWRWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQLQGLYLGXDOVDQGJURXSVLQWHUPVRIUHÀH[LYLW\ LQGLYLGXDOUHÀH[LYLW\ZDVVXSHULRUWRJURXSUHÀH[LYLW\EHFDXVHJURXSUHÀH[LYLW\LQFUHDVHG WKHGLVFXVVLRQRIYHU\JHQHUDOVWUDWHJLHV2EYLRXVO\UHÀHFWLRQHQKDQFHVSHUIRUPDQFHDV ORQJDVLWIRFXVHVRQWDVNVSHFL¿FVWUDWHJLHV &XUUHQWO\WKHUHDUHQRHPSLULFDOVWXGLHVWKDWLQYHVWLJDWHWKHUROHRIUHÀHFWLRQRQWKH VRFLDOFRQWH[WDQGLWVLQÀXHQFHRQSHUIRUPDQFH 2.2 Team Mental Models Mental models are internal representations that humans build in order to understand, predict and act in the world (Craik, 1943). There are different assumptions about the patterns of representations; however, researchers agree on two basic types of models (Cooke, Salas, Cannon-Bowers, & Stout, 2000; Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994; Rentsch & Hall, 1994): those concerned with the task and those concerned with the team. The Social complexity - P.G. Badke-Schaub
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task mental models encompass all aspects related to the execution of the task, while the team mental model covers all representations related to the team and the team members who are essential to working together. Team mental models are generally GH¿QHGDVWKHRUJDQLVHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIUHOHYDQWNQRZOHGJHWKDWLVVKDUHGE\WHDP members (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Converse, 1993; Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994). It has been shown that teams sharing a common understanding of the task, the team, and the situation perform better (e.g. Lim & Klein, 2006; Mathieu, Heffner, Goodwin, Cannon-Bowers, & Salas, 2005). More precisely, one designer interviewed describes his view of the kind of team-related NQRZOHGJHWKDWLVUHTXLUHG µ
