Archaeology and iconography bd3 and aprt bread moulds in the old kingdom Barta_SAK22_1995

Archaeology and IcooographY' Ix!I and 'prt bread moulds and "Speisetiscbszene" development in the Old Kingdom·

von Miroslav BW

During the last few years there has been quite a strong tendency in Egyptology towards studies dealing primarily either with mental constructs' or with the material culture of the ancient Egyptians'. The main point of this article is (0 ilustrate an example of possible interconnections between these (wo different levels of culture. Two aspects of this interconnection will be discussed below in some detail. namely the development of the pottery bread forms termed bell and rprl in Egypt during the Old Kingdom (ca 25752134 Be) and iconographic representations of bread loaves in scenes of a funerary repast in reliefs and paintings in tombs on the cemeteries at Meidum. Saqqara. Abusir and Giza of that time. First I examine the occurrence and development of two pottery types, I then analyse representations of Lbe offerings of bread·loaves. Finally, ( discuss interrelationship between these two cultural components giving special attention to the Peircean lheory of signs (semiotics). An attempt will be made to outline its symbolism and development in time, for this could playa very important role in distinguishing the degree of the mutual interconnection between material culture and religion: in this case the set of beliefs about the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom !WO main pottery types were used for baking of bread in Egypt. The most common fonn, especially during !.be first half of the period. was the b{lJ (Figure la and 3) which is archaeologically traceable at least back to the beginning of the first dynasty (ca 3100 Be). The oldest exemples are very wide and rough, with a width related 10 their height approximately in the ratio of about 5:2 and with almost

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• For important comments and discussion on prdimiDaIy drafts of this article 11m indebted to Prof. H. Altenm01Jer. Hamburg: Prof. J. Blines. Oxford: Dr. L Blret Prague; Dr. V.G. Calle~. Sydney; Prof. H. Goecbc.ke. Baltimore:: Dr. E. Nc:ustupnj. Prague and Prof. M_ Verner. Prague. E. Hornung, Geist der Pharaonc:nzeit, 1993.

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Do. Arnold. J. Bourriau, eds.• An Introduction to Ancient Egypuin Pottery. SDAIK 11. 1993.

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vertical sides]. The typical, Old Kingdom shape emerges and gradually comes to predominate from the beginning of the 3rd dynas'ty. This stage is well-documented by

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Figure 1: Example of a bread mould bd3 (a) and

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rprt form (b).

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Dynasty (1 :5).

finds from Bet Khallif", Naga ed-Der, Meidum6 and el-Kab7• During the 4th and 5"" Dynasty it is possible to trace the subsequent, relatively subtle changes in their shape which, however, had no influence on their basic fonn. For instance, we may note the use of wide open rims in the second half of the 4t)1 dynasty, and the increase height toward the end of the 5th dynasty8'. The development of these bread fonns bas principally been dealt with by H. Jacquet-Gordon9 • The second type of vessel used for baking of bread was represented by the Cprt forms (Figure Ib and 2). These can be described as shallow plates with low (in most cases vertical) walls and rounded bases. Sporadic finds can be dated as early as the 2nd_ 4lil dynasties - Saqqara lO, el-I\ab ll , Qau and Badari 12, MaMsna and Bet KhallMIJ and Giza l4•

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, 1 6 9 10

II

G.A. Reisner, A Provincial Cemetery of the Pyramid Age. Naga ed-DfT. Part ill.. 1932, 220. H. Jacquet-Gordon, A Tentative Typology of Egyptian "Bread Moulds, in Do. Arnold, ed.• Studien zur a!tagy[ltischen Keramik, 1981,11-12. Oarstang, Mah1sna and Bet KhalHif, 1902, PI. XXX,I?' idem, The 'Third Egyptian Dynasty at Reqaqnah and Bet KhaJJat', 1904, PI. XIII, 2-4. Reisner, Naga ed-Der, 1932.84, Fig. 36,2-3. A. el-Khouli, Meidum. A.C.E. Reports 3, 1991, PI. 49 13. Quibell, EI-J(ab, 1898. Pl. XII, 35. Reisner op.cit., 85, Fig. 36, 6-7. Jacquet-Gordon, op.cit., 11-24. QuibeU, Archaic Mastabas. PI. XXXIX. QuibeU, o[l.cit., ,PL. XII. 39. [pn. 12-14 5. S. 23J

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Figwe 2: Scene of bread baking ill "pre moulds . tb e I om b 0 f V1. 10 ALIen ":ka .. · aI Saqqara. Early 6" dynasty

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Their dominance is to be placed as far as to !he Sib and 6GJ dynasties when in some cases they even pTe ail 0 er the b(JI fonns 15 • The pivotal fact of their massive production just in the SU, and 6th dynasties (next to bg3 foons) is one which will be commented upon in the ensuing discussion.

The next step in the argument is to e amine whether or not there is a possibility of cenain link be een the pottery in wbich bread as baked during the Old Kingdom, and scenes sho ing the offering of bread loa es. Bread, together ith beer as from I.he beginning of Egyptian history. an internal part of tomb scenes portraying the fune.raJ repast of the deceased. The tomb owner is usually depicted sitting on a cha.ir with animal legs in front of which is a table on which the loaves of bread are placed l6 • His left ann is t.ouching the loaves on tho table. Offering bearers present many provisions consisting of food and drink, together with various tools and other more valuable items are presented to the tomb owner who is shown surrounded by his wife and other family members OD mODwnents of the Later Old Kingdom. The emphasis laid upon the provisions of food and drinks was to ensure sufficieol equipment for the deceased during the afterlife 17. Their role was considered so important that hieroglyphs of mammals occurring in the texts of the Old 'ngdom the Pyramid Texts and inscriptions in the underground chambers from the Sill and 6 dynasty tombs) who might (on a purely ymbolic level eat depicted food pro isions, were either left ou or ttuncated ll. During the Old Kingdom the intemal composition of the scene of the funerary repast became increasingly complex and tram the 3 r4 dynasty onward was supplemented by a list of the offerings presented to the deceased person. 19• From the 3rd dynasty this scene

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Brunlon, Qau and Harlari PL Vl, I and I Garstang, Mahisna and Bet KhaUif, PI. xxx. 14 Reisner, cerinus, 223. Reisner, Giza II, 88. I M. Barta. ymam na1e-za z pyramidoveho komplexu panovnika Raneferefa (pottery from the Pyramid Temple of Raneferef ~d its 101erpretation).I. Text. ADissertation, Praha 1994,17. Fig. 3.2.6.1.. 5th Dynasty pyramid temple of Raneferef at Abusir. 16 C. Aldred, in~ D, 853-857. 866·870; P. Kaplony, in: L VI, 711-7L2; Martin, in: L V. 1128-1133; Smith, HESPOK; Vandier, Manuel, 81-106. )l Heick, Wirtscbaftsgeschichte, 57-94. II Edel, Altiig. Gramm. 31-36. Ie C. Aldred, in: LA, 856, 866-877. U

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Figure 3' Balcing of bread in pre-heated b(il moulds (on the left and right side. of the figure). omb of Ti. Saqqara, mid-SIll dynasty

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Archaeology and Jconography

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The form and height of the bread loaves changed continuously. Their multiformity became also an internal part of the faJse·door. which was set up in the west waU of the tomb's offering chapel 1O• based on the material from Louvre has been summarised by n Chr. Ziegler l , Their tentative deveJopment in time was worked out by N.Cberpion and is, for the sake of intended analysis, briefly summarised here:

Stage I The loaves have the typical bdJ shape. This phase is to be dated to the 4" dynasty, exceptionally to the beginning of the 5" dynasty.

Stage

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Transitional stage between stage i and iii. 4'" and 5dr1 dynasty down to and including lIle reign of the king Newoscrrc. Stage iii In height the bread loaves reach from the knees to the shouJders of the seated recipient of offerings. The loaves are plain on both sides, wilh slightly tapering upper ends. Exceptionally, some examples of this form appear in the 4" dynasty, but their majority dale to the beginning of the 6· dynasty - reigns of Teli and Pepi l

Stage ;v Transition from Slages I-iv to the shape of the reed leaves. Reigns ofNewosc:m:, 'scsi,

Unas and Teti. Stage v Reed leaves. These representations occur during the reigns of Newoserre and Jsesi, and dominate in the 6 111 dynasty.

Stage vi Probably due to stylistic simplification, only the outside contours of reed leaves appear. Reigns of Pepi I., Mercnre and Pepi

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The weak point in this more or less diachronic division of the iconography of bread loaves are two omissions: it does not include the earliest scenes of the funerary repast,. and the author docs not try to explain wby these changes took place. The reason for

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S. Wieb.ch. Die tgyprlsche SCheintiir. Morpbologisdte Stlldien zut EntwickhDtg und Bedeucmg der Hauplkuhstelle in den Privatgrlbem des Ahen Reiches., 1981; W Gundlach, iD: LA V. S64~S6S: Oi. Arnold. Lexikon dec i,gypbschen Baukunst, 1994, 226. Ch. Ziegju, Catalogue de sttles et reliefs egypuens de rAncieD Empire et de la Premiere Pmode. Intermedaire., 1990, 328~329. N. Cherpion. Mambas et Hypogees d'Ancien Empire. Le Probleme de la Oalluon, 1989,42-49.

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these omissions is probably to be found in the nlithcr formal division of the individual scenes, an approach which precludes any fuMer searching for the ideas underlying the development and the relation of these scenes to the material culture of the period - in this particular case, to the pottery inventory (bread moulds). It is also necessary to enquire about the relationship between ideas, which could remain virtually unchanged, concerning life in the afterworld, and the varying forms in which they might be represented in tomb reliefs. One of my aims in this article is to offer an alternative to Cberpion's classification,. suggesting a new tentative chronology of the development of the scene of !.he funerary repast, attempting to pinpoint the dynamics of the formal development of the bread loaves, and concentrating on the main stages in their development. I use both arc:.bcological evidence, and ideas of the afterlife attested in the written records of the

time. I propose to divide the Old Kingdom development into four principal stages (I-TV) and a fifth (V) that was conlCmporary with stage IV. Stage I (Cherpion's stage i) can be divided. into three successive phases. These phases are outlined in the following paragraphs. The first phase iJ; represented on cylinder seals, where rudiments of the funenuy repast scene appear for the first time. These show the tomb owner sitting behind a plate covered with bread loaves as offerings. This iconography is attested from the I- - 3N dynastyD. The second phase is found on stone slab stelae mostly dating to the 2"" dynasty (Figure 4: 1). This set of finds consists of ca. twenty five slab stelae (later enlarged by Kaplony up to thirty-three pieces) from the early dynastic cemelery at Helwan discovered by SaadH , three being from the archaic cemetery at Saqqarall , one in the Berlin Museum u , one in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptolek in Copenhagen 21 and possibly also the Bankfield stela in Halifax u . Most of these stelae have bread loaves baked in bdl forms that are sliced into halves oriented from left to right and placed in a shallow bowl that

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F.W. von Bissins, Der Tote

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dem Opfettisch. SoAW 2, 19S2.

:w Z. Y. Sud. Ceiling Sielae in Second Dynasty Tombs from the Excavations al Helwan. SASAE 21.

19H; Kaplony. lnsehrif\en. 230-234. MISlabas. Pis. XXVI. XXVD, XXVOl, 1-2. » A. Scharff, £ine Archaische Grabplatte des Berliner Museums und we Entwickhmg der Gnbplatten ii'll. (rUben Allen R2:ich. in: Studies preseoted to F.lJ. Grifilhs, 1932. l1 O. KoeCoed·Petersen, La Stiles ~gyptiennes. PublIcations de la Glyptotheque Ny Carlsber&. No.1 .• 1941, I, PI. 1. 11 A. Gardiner, in' lEA 4, 1917,256-260. iI)

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Archaeology and Iconography

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is placed on a higher stand. Alexander Scharff supposed lbese slab-stelae to be lite earliest precursors of later false doors 29• Detailed discussion of their find circumstances is to be found with Haeny30 The third phase still wilhin Cberpion's Slage I is represented by the frequent depiction of slightly taller bread loaves placed on flat plates on the stands. the loaves being oriented symmetrically around a central vertical axis (Fig.4:2). The increase in the height of the bread loaves is in accordance with the archaeological evidence pointing towards the same tcndency in the inventory of the b{/J Conns (see supra). Offering tables of this type were called blwr l • This stage is to be dated to the 3 N and 4· dynasties. From that period onwards this scene was also an integraJ pan of the decoration of the west wall of offering chapeJs in tombs. Part of this scene also became the list of offerings which have been now for the first time clearly separated from the rest of the scene'2. Among scenes of the 31ll dynasty are those from tombs of Hesire'l , KhabausokaJ"'. and Metjen ll at Saqqara and Djefa-nysur'. From the beginning of the 4* dynasty there are scenes from the tombs of Nefennaatn , RahotepJl, Heknen :l9, and Nofret~. all from Meidum, and lunu

from Giu4 '. I propose lbat stage II (Figure 4:3, Cberpioo's ii il.Od iii) is quite homogenous and dates to the second half of the 4" and the early 5" dynasl)'. up and including the reign of Neferirkare. In this stage the bread loaves become considerably taller and expand to the distance between the knees and the chest of the seated tomb--owner. These loaves have Oat sides and pointed tOps. They were probably baked in rprt foans. Examples are in the Giza tombs of Seshathotep·J, Khufukhaf (I.)"l, Kanufer". Nefero and Kamen"'. 5"

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A. Scharff. op.cit., 356.351.

G. Haeny, Fs Ricke. 148·153. Wb Ul, 224; Gardiner, EG. SOl, sign R2. Junker. Giza XU. 69. J.E. Quibell. Excavations at Saqqara (1911-1912). The lomb of Hesy. 1913. Pis. XXXI-XXXII.

Murray. Saqqan. Mambas I, PI. I. n H. Goedicke. MDAIK 21. 1966. Taf. 1 and 6. For dating of Metjen 10 the early 4th Dynasly see for inslance N. Strudwick, The Administration of EgYPI in lhe Old Kingdom. Studies in Egyptology. 1985,13. 36 R. Drenkhahn. Die Igyplischen Reliefs im Keslner·Museum Hannover. 1989.22, Fig. 3. 11 W.M.F. Petrie. Mcdum. 1892. Pis. XX and XXVI. :It Pelrie. op.(:iL, PI. XD. » Petrie. op.ciL. PI. XVI. CI Petrie. op.cit.• PI. XV 41 Junker, Giza t. XXVU. C Junker. Giu 74. Abb. 9a. 4J W.K. Simpson, The Mastabas of Ka..... ab. Khafkhufu 1 and lL G 1111).20. 1130-40, 1150 and subsidiary nwtabas of Srreet G 1100. Giza Mastabas 3. 1978, Pl XIX. Fig. 31. [Fn. 44-46 s. S. 28) ,)I

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dynasty depictions of the bread loaves both in non-royal tombs and in the pyramid temple of Ncferirkare at AbusirH shows that the bread was already baked in (prt forms. This tendency in iconography is again paralleled by the development in the ponery inventory of the t"prt forms. What remains a bit striking evidence is this more or less parallel introduction of reed leaves in both private: and kiIigs'monuments. Stage III (Cberpion's ili-iv) is found from the second half of the S" dynasty (reign of Ncwoscrrc) to the beginning of the 66 dynasty. Typical for this stage is the contempamy occurrence of depictions of both bread loaves baked in rprt forms and of first reed leaves. To the reign of Newoserre dates the lomb of KhufuJchaf(U) at Giza which shows hom bread loaves of (prt forms and loaves with slightly beveUed bases side by side. This is the first indication we have that the earlier style gradually gave way to the latter depiction.... The same variation continues till the beginning of the 6· dynasty. in the tomb of Kaiemankh at Giza"'. From the S· dynasty onwards thcre arc tombs where the bread loaves reach as higb as to the shoulders of the seated tomHwner - as in the Giza tombs ofKaninisul (Il)so, Kai SI • Sesbemnefer (II1.)Sl. Kaisedju u • and thc Saqqara tombs of Nefer and Kabais- and Niankbnum and KhnumholCpSl. The Saqqara tomb of Ti. which dates to the beginning of the reign of Ncwoserre». shows only reed leaves iT• The Giza lombs of SehetepuSl, Mersuankb"', Nimaatre60 and Sekbcmankhptah61 are all dated to the end of the S· and the beginning of the 6" dynasty. have similar taU bread loaves. This tcndency also survives at the beginning of the 6- dynasty, in the tombs of Hetep-