Apuntes inglés

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Comparatives and superlatives Utilizamos los comparativos para hacer comparaciones sobre dos o más cosas, mientras que con los superlativos destacamos una cosa de un grupo de la misma clase.

Patterns Las estructuras que siguen los adjetivos y los adverbios para hacer comparaciones son las siguientes: A = B as + (adjective/adverb) + as A ≠ B not as/so + (adjective/adverb) + as A>B A B+C D > ever Never < E (Subject) + (perfect verb) + such [a] (Subject) + (verb) + (adjective/adverb) + E that… that…

She is as intelligent as her sister. He doesn't run as fast as the other players. A is bigger than B. A is not as big as C. A is the biggest letter in the group. D is the biggest letter I’ve ever seen. I have never seen such a big letter. It was such a big letter that…

Utilizamos el presente perfecto para hablar de experiencias pasadas del hablante.

Form old brave 1 or 2 syllables +er / +est sad happy useful interesting More than 3 syllables + more / + the most carefully quietly

older braver sadder happier more useful more interesting more carefully more quietly

oldest bravest saddest happiest the most useful the most interesting the most carefully the most quietly

Recuerda las formas irregulares de los siguientes adjetivos y adverbios:

Adjective

Adverb

good bad

well badly

little many/much much far

Comparative

Superlative

better best worse worst less least more most further/farther furthest/farthest

Modifications La mayoría de oraciones pueden convertirse de un tipo a otra según cómo empecemos a escribirla.

Mary is taller than Judy. Judy is shorter than Mary. Mary isn’t as short as Judy. Judy isn’t as tall as Mary. This book is more interesting than the other book. The other book is less interesting than this book.

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Contrast clauses Las oraciones subordinadas concesivas expresan contraste y oposición entre ideas.

but, yet, although Podemos utilizar yet y although para mostrar contraste. Although es más típico de textos formales. Podemos enfatizarlos con still y anyway. Además, but puede sustituirse por yet en el escrito.

Maria felt ill, but she went to school. Although she was ill, Maria went to school. Maria went to school although she was ill.

even though, though Utilizamos even though al igual que although para dar más énfasis, y though a la mitad y al final de oración en escrito y habla informal.

Even though she felt very ill, Maria went to school. Maria went to school. She was ill, though. Maria went to school though she was ill.

while, whereas While y whereas pueden utilizarse en escrito y habla formal para comparar dos hechos y enfatizar las diferencias entre ellos.

While/Whereas some experts expect the Government to win the election, most believe that the opposition will win.

despite, in spite of Ambos se utilizan para contrastar, pero van seguidos de un sustantivo o un verbo en gerundio. Podemos usar la misma estructura que although añadiendo the fact that.

Despite/In spite of being ill, Maria went to school. In spite of her illness, Maria went to school. Despite the fact that Maria was ill, she went to school.

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Modal verbs Características Son un grupo de verbos que, además de auxiliar, muestran la actitud o sentimientos del hablante ante una situación. Por ejemplo, expresan la probabilidad o necesidad de algo, o si el hablante pide o se ofrece a hacer algo. El mismo verbo modal puede utilizarse de forma diferente, y por tanto, tiene distintos significados. Son verbos incompletos, es decir, les faltan los tiempos verbales. No tienen participio ni infinitivo, por lo que no tienen pasiva ni tiempos perfectos. Por este motivo utilizan otros verbos para completar su conjugación.

Reglas ortográficas Afirmativa

Negativa

Tienen una forma única, ni añaden –s en la 3ª persona del singular. I can

He can

She can

Interrogativa

Se forma añadiendo not al verbo auxiliar. I should

→

Se forma invirtiendo el orden entre sujeto y verbo.

I should not

Should I?

Nunca pueden ponerse dos verbos modales juntos. Los modales van seguidos de la base del infinitivo sin to. Do you can meet me tomorrow? He can will meet you tomorrow.

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He must go. You should buy a new car.

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Can we?

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can / could / be able to Can se utiliza para el presente, y could para el pasado, y presente como forma de cortesía. Be able to tiene el mismo significado que can, pero es necesario conjugar el verbo to be. Significados

Habilidad y capacidad He can speak English very well. He was able to win a medal.

Pedir o dar permiso Can I go out tonight? Yes, you can go out tonight.

Petición

Posibilidad y sugerencia

Can I use your phone? Could I talk with you?

You can get the bus from here. She could come here to have lunch.

Ofrecimiento Can I help you? Could I serve you a cup of tea?

Prohibición – You can’t smoke here.

Was/Were able to se utiliza para hablar de un logro en una ocasión del pasado, es decir, tiene el significado de managed to. Could + have + Participio de pasado lo utilizamos para indicar que teníamos la posibilidad de hacer algo en el pasado, y de hecho, no lo hicimos.

may / might Significados

Pedir permiso May I go out tonight? Might I play with Tom?

Prohibición – You may not smoke here.

Posibilidad You may go out later. It might rain tomorrow.

Ofrecimiento May I help you? May I serve you a cup of tea?

must Significados

Órdenes y obligaciones externas I must visit my mum now, she’s in hospital. You must save the princess!

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Prohibición – You mustn’t smoke here.

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have to Se conjuga como un verbo normal, por tanto, emplea todos los tiempos verbales y necesita el auxiliar do/does/did para hacer la negativa e interrogativa.

Afirmativa I have to write. He has to write. I had to write.

Negativa I don’t have to write. He doesn’t have to write. I didn’t have to write.

Interrogativa Do I have to write? Does he have to write? Did you have to write?

Significados:

Obligación He has to start school next year.

Ausencia de necesidad – They don’t have to do it now.

need Need puede utilizarse como un verbo normal en todos los tiempos, pero también puede utilizarse como modal en las formas negativa e interrogativa.

Afirmativa I need to buy some food. She needs to find a solution.

Negativa I don’t need to buy any food. I needn’t buy any food.

Interrogativa Need I come with you? Do I need to come with you?

Significados:

Necesidad + I need to buy some food.

Ausencia de necesidad – He didn’t need to buy any food. 1 He needn’t have bought any food. 2

En este caso, need en negativo tiene dos significados diferentes según el uso. En el caso 1, no necesitaba comprar comida, y por tanto, no lo hizo; mientras que en el caso 2, no necesitaba haber comprado comida, es decir, la compró sin haber sido necesario. Por tanto, utilizaremos didn’t + verbo en hechos no necesarios en el pasado, y needn’t + have + Participio de pasado cuando hagamos referencia a algo que no tenía por qué haberse hecho.

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should / ought to Significados

Consejo You ought to go to a dentist. He shouldn’t be rude to everybody.

Predicción He should be home by ten.

Sugerencia Should I open the window?

Para referirnos al pasado, utilizamos should/ought to + have + Participio de pasado.

will Significados

Ofrecimiento It’s very cold here. I’ll switch the heat on.

Petición educada Will you do it for me?

shall Significados

Ofrecimiento Shall I open the window?

Sugerencia Shall we go to the disco?

would Significado

Ofrecimiento Would you like some more cake?

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Oraciones de imposibilidad Utilizaremos el verbo modal can’t para expresar algo que es imposible.

Presente

Pasado Can’t/couldn’t + have + Participio de pasado

You’ve just had lunch. You can’t be hungry!

She left home at 10:00. She couldn’t have caught the 10:05 train.

Oraciones de seguridad Utilizaremos el verbo modal must para expresar algo de lo que estamos completamente seguros.

Presente

Pasado

Futuro

Must + have + Participio de pasado

Mary has an exam soon. She must be studying hard.

Nobody answers the phone. They must have already gone.

Certainly / Probably

We’ll probably be arriving at 12.

Oraciones de probabilidad Aquí se utilizan varios verbos modales, y cada uno tiene un cierto grado de probabilidad, desde el 0% hasta el 100%. Estudia esta tabla de probabilidades:

100 % 80 % 60 % 30 % 0%

Certeza Deducción Expectación Duda Certeza

Presente y futuro

5

must; can’t should may; might; could won’t

Pasado

Who’s knocking at the door? It must be my brother. It could rain tomorrow.

will

Modal (duda) + have + Participio de pasado

I can’t find my keys anywhere. You might have left them in your office.

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Relación de verbos modales Can I? May I?

Pedir permiso

can('t) Dar/denegar permiso may/may not

Permiso

can('t) Presente be allowed to Hablar sobre permiso could(n't) Pasado be allowed to Autoridad del hablante

must

Objetivo

have to

Afirmativa

Obligación

needn't Autoridad don't need

Ausencia Externa

don't have to can('t)

Presente be able to

Habilidad

could(n't) be able to

Pasado

musn't

Prohibición

managed to

can't should ought to

Afirmativo

had better

Consejo

shouldn't Negativo oughtn't to

Posibilidad Deducción

may; might; could Certeza Imposibilidad

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must

can't

Alejandro English

Teacher

La voz pasiva Características La voz pasiva se utiliza frecuentemente como matiz impersonal, y por tanto se utiliza muy a menudo en el estilo periodístico, científico… La diferencia entre la voz activa y la pasiva es externa, ya que en el fondo significan lo mismo.

Estructura Sujeto

‘to be’

Participio de pasado

Complementos

El objeto directo de la oración anterior pasa a ser el nuevo sujeto.

Conjugado en el mismo tiempo que en el verbo de la oración activa.

Verbo de la oración activa en participio de pasado.

Complemento agente (si es necesario), circunstanciales…

The Town Hall is going to be rebuilt. Complemento agente En las oraciones pasivas, el sujeto activo se suele convertir como Complemento agente (acompañado de la preposición by). Se utiliza en los siguientes casos:  Cuando el agente es necesario o es alguien conocido.  Para introducir información nueva.  Como Complemento circunstancial de modo (+ gerundio) by paiting… En el resto de casos, añadir el Complemento agente no sería incorrecto, pero quedaría redundante. Someone/A painter/My sister is painting the house.

The house is being painted by a painter.

The house is being painted.

The house is being painted by my sister.

Conversión

The porter carries the bags.

Activa Suj → by + C. agente Vb → to be + part. Obj → Suj

The bags are carried by the porter. Ejemplo de conversión Activa → Pasiva utilizando el verbo do

Pasiva

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to do do did will do would do am/is/are doing was/were doing will be doing would be doing has done had done will have done would have done have been doing had been doing would have been doing

→

to be is was will be would be is being was been will be being would be being has been had been will have been would have been has been being had been being would have been being

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done

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Teacher

‘I was given’ En inglés existe una construcción pasiva consistente en el complemento indirecto de la oración activa convertido en sujeto de la pasiva. The Queen gave a medal to the pilot

The Queen gave the pilot a medal

A medal was given to the pilot.

The pilot was given a medal.

Something was given to someone.

Someone was given something.

Los verbos más comunes que responden a esta estructura son: give, send, pay, lend, hand, sell, promise, show, offer, teach, owe, award, grant, allow, leave, feed…

‘It is said’ También podemos utilizar otra estructura utilizando verbos del estilo indirecto cuando no necesitamos saber quién es el que habla. People say the bridge is unsafe.

It is said that the bridge is unsafe.

It (passive verb) that (active clause). Los verbos más comunes que responden a esta estructura son: say, report, mention, announce, think, believe, understand, agree, decide, know, find, expect, hope, regret, fear, intend, arrange…

‘He is said to’ La construcción anterior también puede construirse con un infinitivo. People say the bridge is unsafe.

The bridge is said to be unsafe.

(Subject) + (passive verb) + (to-infinitive) Los verbos más comunes que responden a esta estructura son: say, report, think, believe, understand, know, find, expect, intend, suppose, mention, announce, agree, decide, hope, regret, fear, arrange…

‘Have something done’ Esta estructura se refiere a servicios realizados por una persona o un profesional y a hechos sufridos, normalmente no agradables. The technician repaired our video recorder.

We had our video recorder repaired by a technician.

(Subject) + (have) + (something) + (verb) by (someone) A burglar has stolen our passports.

We have had our passports stolen by a burglar.

(Subject) + (have) + (something) + (verb) by (someone) Cualquier verbo puede responder a esta estructura, pero los más comunes son aquellos que pueden referirse a servicios o a hechos negativos.

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Reported speech A menudo contamos a la gente lo que otras personas han dicho. Para ello, empleamos el estilo indirecto reported or indirect speech. Casi nunca informamos de las palabras exactas, sino que damos un resumen general de lo dicho.

Sandra speaking to Petra:

‘Bye, Petra, it’s been great seeing you again. I’ll call you sometime next week when I get a chance.’ ↓

Petra reporting the ‘I saw Sandra yesterday. She said she’d call me next week.’ conversation to Roberta: Normalmente cambiamos los tiempos verbales y las referencias, como puede ser la gente, los lugares y el tiempo.

Changes Verbs

Adverbs

Directo

→

Indirecto

Directo

→

Indirecto

Presente simple1

Pasado simple

here

there

Presente continuo

Pasado continuo

now

then

Pasado simple2

Pasado perfecto simple

this

that

Pasado continuo

Pasado perfecto continuo

these

those

Pasado perfecto simple

tonight

that night

Pasado perfecto continuo

today

Pasado perfecto simple/continuo

tomorrow

the following day the next day

Futuro

Condicional

yesterday

the day before the previous day

can

could

next/last …

the … after

may

might

ago

before

must 3

had to

shall

should

Presente perfecto simple Presente perfecto continuo Pasado perfecto simple/continuo

→

→

that day

Los demás verbos modales no cambian.

Reported speech speakers En el estilo directo podemos mencionar al hablante al principio o al final de la oración. Ten en cuenta la posición de la coma o el punto en relación a las comillas.

Jack said, ‘We’re going to miss the train.’ ‘We’re going to miss the train,’ said Jack.

Si se habla de algo que siempre es cierto, no es necesario cambiar los tiempos. Ten en cuenta que si hay varios verbos en pasado en la oración, el estilo indirecto a veces puede cambiarse o no, dependiendo de si da lugar a malentendidos. 3 must no cambia a had to en estilo indirecto cuando es negativo o verbo modal de deducción. 1 2

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Resumir Normalmente se tiende a resumir lo que dice la gente al hacer el estilo indirecto.

‘Look, actually, tell him I’ll give him a call or email him next week, OK?’ ↓ She said that she’d get in touch next week.

Oraciones enunciativas Las oraciones enunciativas se unen a la oración introductoria mediante el nexo that, sumándole los cambios anteriores.

Directo

→

Indirecto

→

Mary said that she liked music. He told me that he hadn’t been to that place before.

Mary said: “I like music”. He said to me: “I haven’t been to this place before”. “He saw her yesterday”, said Mary.

Mary said that he had seen her the day before.

Oraciones interrogativas Informamos las preguntas con los verbos ask, wonder y want to know. Los cambios son los mismos que los anteriores.

Directo

→

‘Where do you live’ he asked.

Indirecto He asked me where I lived.

→

‘Do you live in Athens?’ he asked.

He wanted to know if I lived in Athens.

Yes/No questions Se unen a la oración introductoria mediante el nexo if o whether.

Directo

→

“Will you do it?”, she asked “Do you want one?” I wanted to know.

Indirecto She asked if he would do it.

→

I wanted to know whether she wanted one.

Wh- questions

Directo He asked me: “Why are you so happy?” They wondered: “How many children do they have?”

→

Indirecto

→

He asked me why I was so happy. They wondered how many children they had.

Recuerda que al pasar de interrogativa a afirmativa, cambiamos el orden de las palabras auxiliar + sujeto + verbo a sujeto + verbo.

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Órdenes y peticiones Una orden directa suelen darse en imperativo. En este tipo de oraciones se puede utilizar tell, pero nunca say. Para las peticiones utilizamos ask. También suelen utilizarse otros reported verbs que puedes ver más adelante. Este tipo de oraciones se unen a la oración introductora mediante to + infinitivo. Para negarlo, ponemos not delante del to.

tell

ask

subj. + tell + object (+ not) to …

subj. + ask + object (+ not) to …

Paul told his son not to touch that button. I told him to wait for me.

subj. + ask + object + for (something)…

Directo

→

“Study hard!” mum told me. ‘Can you pass me the salt, please?’ Lisa said.

Ann asked her sister for the salt. Indirecto My mum ordered me to study hard.

→

Lisa asked me for the salt.

Reporting verbs Hay ciertos verbos que pueden indicar la intención del hablante: una sugerencia, una disculpa, un ofrecimiento, una promesa, un rechazo…

say vs. tell Say y tell rigen estructuras diferentes. Normalmente, utilizamos say cuando no existe objeto y queremos enfatizar en el propio mensaje, mientras que tell lo usamos cuando es importante mencionar el objeto. Sin embargo, es posible utilizar say con objeto indirecto añadiendo to delante.

say

tell

subj. + say (+ to + object) (+ that)…

subj. + tell + object (+ that)…

She said (that) it was worm. She told me (that) it was worm. She said to me (that) she comes from Slovenia. She told me (that) she comes from Slovenia. say hello/goodbye say a name say something/anything/nothing say a prayer say a word/a phrase/a sentence

3

tell (someone) a story/stories tell (someone) a lie/lies tell (someone) a joke/jokes tell (someone) the truth tell the difference tell the future/fortunes tell (someone) the time

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verb (+ that) say, tell, speak; admit, advise, agree, recommend, suggest

verb + to·infinitive agree, decide, offer, promise, refuse, threaten

verb + gerund deny, recommend, suggest

4

verb + object + to·infinitive advise, ask, encourage, invite, remind, warn

verb (+ object) + preposition + gerund accuse of, apologize for, blame for, complain about, congratulate on, insist on,

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Conditional sentences Las oraciones condicionales son aquellas que nos indican una condición y su consecuencia. Los tiempos verbales que utilizaremos dependen de si las condiciones y sus consecuencias son reales o imaginarias, o si son hechos verídicos y están enlazadas con un evento en particular. Normalmente, la condición viene siempre antes que la consecuencia, en ese caso usaremos una coma; pero en caso que sea la consecuencia lo que venga antes no usaremos comas.

Type 0 En los ejercicios de tipo 0 se hablará de hechos científicos y cosas que siempre suceden (como hervir o congelar agua, mezclar pintura, etc.). 

If + (Present simple) , + (Present simple):

If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.



(Present simple) + if + (Present simple):

Water boils if you heat it.

Other if·clauses  when  in case  in case of  as long as  providing that

Water boils when you heat it. Take an umbrella in case it rains. In case of fire, break the glass. You can go out tonight as long as you come back by midnight. Providing that you come back by midnight, you can go out tonight.

Type 1 En las oraciones condicionales de tipo 1 se habla de cosas que son muy probables de que sucedan, por ejemplo imperativos, predicciones, condiciones... siempre en presente y futuro. 

If + (Present simple) , + (Future simple)

If you don’t take the exam, you’ll fail the subject.



(Future simple) + if + (Present simple)

You’ll fail the subject if you don’t take the exam.



(Imperative) + and + (Future simple)

Buy me a diamond ring and I’ll love you forever.

Other if·clauses  unless  Otherwise  Modal verbs

We will go out unless it rains. You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late. If you carry too many bags, you might drop the eggs.

Type 2 Las oraciones de tipo 2 hablan de condiciones imaginarias, es decir, aquellas que en el momento de hablar son muy poco probables. Los hablantes utilizan oraciones en presente, normalmente consejos. 

If + (Past simple) , + (Conditional simple):

If I knew her address, I would send her a postcard.



(Conditional simple) + if + (Past simple):

I would buy a new car if I had more money.

Other if·clauses  If I were you  Modal verbs

1

If I were you, I’d call the police. I could buy a new car if I had more money.

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Type 3 En este tipo de condicionales hablamos sobre hechos pasados que no pueden cambiarse, por tanto, la condición es imposible de realizar y su consecuencia es imaginaria. Los ejercicios siempre están en pasado. 

If + (Past perfect) , + (Conditional perfect):

If I had studied, I wouldn’t have failed the exam.



(Conditional perfect) + if + (Past perfect):

I wouldn’t have failed the exam if I had studied.

Other if·clauses  Modal verbs  I wish/If only + (Past simple)  I wish/If only + (Past perfect)  I wish/If only + (Cond. simple)

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If I had brought some more money, I could have taken a taxi. I wish I had more money. I wish I had met her before. If only he would stop laughing…!

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Relative clauses Las oraciones de relativo son frases cortas que comienzan con unas palabras denominadas pronombres relativos, que definen o describen cosas. Los hay de dos clases:

Especificativas ‘defining’ Las utilizaremos para identificar exactamente a qué persona, cosa o lugar nos estamos refiriendo. La información siempre es necesaria para que la oración tenga sentido.

The doctor who treated me told me not to worry. Podemos pensar que existe más de un doctor y que sólo nos referimos al que nos ha tratado.

Explicativas ‘non-defining’ Las usaremos para añadir información adicional a la oración. No es necesaria, por tanto, al eliminarla, no pierde el sentido de la oración. Siempre van entre comas.

Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor. En este ejemplo podemos pensar que existe más de un doctor y que sólo nos referimos al que nos ha tratado utilizando un pronombre relativo.

Pronombres relativos Sujeto1

Objeto

Posesión

Persona

who / that

who / whom / that

whose

Objeto

which / that

which / that

whose / of which

Lugar

where / in which

Tiempo

when

Omitir el pronombre relativo Debes diferenciar si la proposición hace referencia al sujeto o al objeto de la oración: Sujeto The doctor treated me. He told me not to worry. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry. Objeto I spoke to the doctor. He told me not to worry. The doctor that I spoke to told me not to worry.    

1

Podemos omitir el pronombre en una especificativa que se refiere al objeto. Sin embargo, no podemos omitirlo en una que se refiera al sujeto. En las oraciones explicativas, siempre debemos mantener el pronombre. También podemos omitir el pronombre después de un superlativo.

The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry. Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor. That was the best meal I’ve ever eaten!

Who y which no se pueden sustituir por that en las non-defining.

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Combinar oraciones Los rephrasing de las oraciones de relativo consisten en combinar dos o más oraciones mediante pronombres relativos. A bus goes to Cairo. It leaves from here. A woman teaches us music. She also plays in an orchestra.

The bus that goes to Cairo leaves from here. The woman who teaches us music also plays in an orchestra.

We took a road. It led to an ancient temple.

The road (that) we took led to an ancient temple.

We spoke to a woman. She gave us directions.

The woman (that) we spoke to gave us directions.

Hay que tener cuidado con los cambios en las oraciones. A girl’s case was stolen. She went to the police.

The girl whose case was stolen went to the police.

A doctor treated me. She told me not to worry.

The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

I spoke to a doctor. She told me not to worry.

The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.

El error más frecuente es el siguiente:

The bus that goes to Cairo it leaves from here. Al combinar oraciones, no repetimos el sujeto añadiendo otro pronombre. (The bus · · · it)

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Conditional sentences Las oraciones condicionales son aquellas que nos indican una condición y su consecuencia. Los tiempos verbales que utilizaremos dependen de si las condiciones y sus consecuencias son reales o imaginarias, o si son hechos verídicos y están enlazadas con un evento en particular. Normalmente, la condición viene siempre antes que la consecuencia, en ese caso usaremos una coma; pero en caso que sea la consecuencia lo que venga antes, no usaremos comas. Type 0 El condicional de tipo 0 se utiliza frecuentemente en verdades generales, hechos o resultados habituales.

Estructura If + Presente simple, + Presente simple Presente simple + if + Presente simple

Ice melts if we heat it. Type 1 Utilizamos los condicionales de tipo 1 cuando ocurren condiciones que pueden ser posibles. También podemos utilizar el imperativo para expresar esta clase de condición.

Estructura If + Presente simple, + Futuro simple Futuro simple + if + Presente simple Imperativo + and + Futuro simple

If you buy me a diamond ring, I’ll love you forever. Type 2 Lo utilizamos en las condiciones imaginarias, es decir, aquellas que en este momento son prácticamente imposibles o muy poco probables. El tiempo utilizado es el Pasado simple, aunque el hablante esté pensando en el presente o el futuro.

Estructura If + Pasado simple, + Condicional simple Condicional simple + if + Pasado simple

I would buy a new car if I had more money. If I were you, I wouldn’t talk to her anymore. Además, podemos utilizar was/were para dar consejos.

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Type 3 En este tipo de condicionales hablamos sobre hechos pasados que ya no pueden cambiarse, por tanto, la condición es imposible de realizar y su consecuencia es imaginaria.

Estructura If + Pasado perfecto, + Condicional perfecto Condicional perfecto + if + Pasado perfecto

If I had studied harder, I wouldn’t have failed the exam. Modal verbs with conditional sentences Podemos utilizar los verbos modales can, could, may, might, must y should en vez de will/won’t o would/wouldn’t. If you carry too many bags, you might drop the eggs. If I had brought some more money, I could have taken a taxi.

Other if-clause words Unless Tiene la misma función que if, pero en sentido negativo. Lo utilizamos en el tipo 1. We will go out unless it rains.

As long as; Provided/Providing (that) Usamos estas expresiones para expresar una idea muy fuerte de limitación. Siguen la norma del resto de condicionales. You can go out tonight as long as you come back by midnight.

In case No tiene el mismo significado que if, sino que expresa una idea de precaución. Es decir, la acción del verbo aún no se ha realizado. Take an umbrella in case it rains.

In case of No tiene el mismo significado que in case, sino que el hecho a ocurrir sólo se realiza cuando la condición se activa. In case of fire, break the glass.

Otherwise A veces una condición puede sobreentenderse aunque no se manifieste. You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late.

I wish; If only Utilizado con el Pasado simple, expresa un deseo en el momento de hablar. Junto al Pasado perfecto, expresa un lamento en el pasado que no puede cambiarse. Junto al Condicional simple, expresa el deseo de que ocurriera algo para cambiar algo que molesta al sujeto. I wish I had more money.

I wish I had met him before.

If only he would stop laughing…!

I’d rather Suelen ir seguidas de un verbo en Pasado simple, y tienen un sentido de presente. Para negarlo, se escribe not después de rather. Indicando a un objeto indirecto, se utiliza para expresar consejo. I’d rather you didn’t bring cameras.

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I’d rather not go to the match, if you don’t mind.

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Text organisers There are many features of texts which help the reader understand how the information in the text is organised. This term covers a wide range of linking words and phrases which make texts easier to understand. By connector is meant any word or phrase that can stand alone at the front of a sentence, often followed by a comma.

Adding a point 

Also is used to add a point within a sentence. It is not normally used as a connector at the beginning of a sentence in formal speech and writing.

Cars use up valuable energy resources and also pollute the environment. 

As well as + noun/-ing can be used in an introductory clause.

Cars use up valuable energy resources as well as polluting the environment. As well as polluting the environment, cars use up valuable energy resources. 

In addition can be used as a connector

Cars use up valuable energy resources and also pollute the environment. In addition, they make life unpleasant in big cities.

Contrast or concession 

However can be used as a connector at the beginning or end of the sentence. Note that there is always punctuation on both sides of it (full stop or comma). It cannot be sued to connect two clauses.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy. However, they have their draw backs. Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy. They have their drawbacks, however. 

Despite, in spite of + noun/-ing/the fact that + Subj. + Verb introduces a point which contrasts with a previous statement.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy. Despite being easy to build, they do have some drawbacks. 

But joins two contrasting ideas. The but-clause always comes second.

Wind turbines are another source of renewable energy but they do have some drawbacks. 

While, whereas, whilst

I prefer city life whereas John prefers countrylife. 

Although contrasts two sentences.

Although we paid an enormous amount of money for the meal, the food was disappointing. Though has the same meaning as although. It’s more common in informal speech or writing. It can be placed before or after the main clause and sometimes at the end. It requires a subject and a verb.

We paid an enormous amount of money for the meal. The food was disappointing, though. 

Even though gives extra emphasis between two contrasting ideas within a sentence. It can be placed before or after the main clause.

Comparing and contrasting 

On the one hand, ... (but/while) on the other hand introduce contrasting points.

On the one hand, nuclear power does not add carbon to the atmosphere, but on the other hand it presents other more serious pollution risks. On the other hand on its own introduces a new contrasting paragraph.

The job was interesting, but, on the other hand, it was also not very well paid.

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Results and reasons 

Consequently, as a result (of)

As a result of this neglect, it is now in a poor condition. 

Due to is a preposition with the same meaning as owing to, but which can follow be.

Maria had to retire from professional tennis due to a foot injury.

Exceptions and alternatives 

Except (for), apart from

Except for Helen, who was still reading her old one, everyone chose a new book. Everyone chose a new book, apart from Helen, who was still reading the old one.

Sequences 

Writers often signal that they are going to make a list of points.

There are a number of ways in which this can be done. There are several ways of looking at this matter. 

First of all, secondly, thirdly… next, finally… are often used to number points in a sequence.

Except for Helen, who was still reading her old one, everyone chose a new book. 

Words such as point, issue, problem, advantage can also be numbered.

The first problem facing the government is... 

In an argument, there is often a conclusion which can be introduced by in conclusion.

In conclusion, we could say that…

Summarizing 

To sum up can be used to introduce a summarizing comment at the end of an argument.

To sum up, it seems clear that…

Giving examples 

For example, examples include, to take an example need punctuation before and after.

To take an example, swans fly several thousand kilometres… 

e.g. is an abbreviation from Latin exempli gratia.

To take an example, swans fly several thousand kilometres… 

Such as introduces an example.

Many birds, such as swans, migrate over long distances.

Replacing words 

In other words, to put it in another way are used to introduce a point we want to make clearer by repeating it in a different way.

Describing types 

A kind of, a sort of can describe a type of something.

An okapi is a kind of small giraffe.

Making clear 

In other words, to put it in another way are used to introduce a point we want to make clearer by repeating it in a different way.

I think you should go out more with friends, or perhaps take a part-time job. In other words, make more of an effort to be sociable.