Apuntes de Biologia

 

 

\KBXLSYBG@G K@IBNK@F GL XBFF@ DLSILGLY

Iursn gl KBXLF@IBÙK lk CBNFNOÄ@

3108

Glstbk`t`rbns. @fudkns bkorls`ktls gl f`s i`rrlr`s=

Fbilkib`tur` lk Lkhlrdlrä`   Fbilkib`tur` lk Jbklsbnfnoä` y Hbsb`trä`   Fbilkib`tur` lk Ncstltrbib`   Wâikbin Yuplrbnr lk Olstbùk @dcblkt`f   Cbnbkolkblrä`  

Qrnhlsnr innrgbk`gnr= Do. Ybfvb` Gàvbf`

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NCMLWBXNY GLF I\SYN

Ncmltbvns Olklr`fls= -H`vnrlilr f` bkslribùk glf `fudkn lk f` vbg` ukbvlrsbt`rb` y su `g`pt`ibùk ` lst` kulv` lt`p`. -Oub`r `f `fudkn lk f` dltngnfnoä` gl lstugbn gl cbnfnoä` lstbduf`kgn su p`rtbibp`ibùk `itbv` lk fns prnilsns gl lkslð`kz` y `prlkgbz`ml dlgb`ktl uk` hfubg` rlf`ibùk gnilktl ’ `fudkn.

Ncmltbvns Lspliähbins= -Gb`oknstbi`r y kbvlf`r fns inknibdblktns prlvbns rlf`tbvns ` f` Cbnfnoä`. -Bktlrbnrbz`r `f `fudkn lk f` dltngnfnoä` gl lkslð`kz` y `prlkgbz`ml utbfbz`g`  y lk lf d`klmn cbcfbnor`hä`.pbf`rls hukg`dlkt`fls gl f` Cbnfnoä`. cbcfbnor`hä`. -@k`fbz`r tld`s gl qulf`inkstbtuylk -Qrnpnribnk`r `f `fudkn, lfldlktns p`r` f` indprlksbùk gl f` lstruitur`, hukibnk`dblktn y indpflmbg`g gl fns slrls slrls vbvns.

QSNOS@D@ \KBG@G 0= Indpnsbibùk 0= Indpnsbibùk quädbi` gl fns slrls vbvns.  vbvns.   Cbnlfldlktns y cbndnfâiuf`s. @ou`= pulktl gl ebgrùolkn y su bdpfbi`kib` lk f`s prnpblg`gls glI-I= f `ou`.lsqulfltns Inkilptn i`rcnk`gns. gl pE, f` lsi`f` lsi`f` gl pE. Àibgns nroàkbi`s. y c`sls. c`sls. Lf Ofýibgns= i`rcnkn. F`s ukbnkls glf D`irndnfâiuf`s if`sbhbi`ibùk. Fäpbgns= if`sbhbi`ibùk. Qrntläk`s= lstruitur` olklr`f gl fns `fh``dbknàibgns. Kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk dnfliuf`r gl f`s prntläk`s= lstruitur`s prbd`rb`, sliukg`rb`, tlrib`rb` y iu`tlrk`rb`. Àibgns kuiflbins. @GK y @SK= lstruitur` olklr`f gl fns kuiflùtbgns y trbgbdlksbnk`f gl f`s dnfâiuf`s gl @GK y @SK. Hukibnkls. Xbt`dbk`s. \KBG@G 3= I`r`itlräs I`r`itlrästbi`s tbi`s gl fns f ns slrls vbvns  vbvns  Nro`kbz`ibùk Lspliähbi`= Kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk. Qrnpblg`gls ldlrolktls. Dlt`cnfbsdn= @k`cnfbsdn. I`t`cnfbsdn. Dnvbdblktn= Ybokbhbi`gn cbnfùobin. Lxibt`cbfbg`g= prnpblg`gls. Slprnguiibùk= Wbpns gl rlprnguiibùk= `slxu`f y slxu`f. 3

 

 

Gls`rrnffn y irlibdblktn= i`r`itlrästbi`s. Endlnst`sbs= Lfldlktns gl uk sbstld` endlnstàtbin. @g`pt`ibùk. \KBG@G 9= Cbnfnoä` Ilfuf`r Wlnrä` ilfuf`r. Qrnpblg`gls gl fns sbstld`s vbvns. Wbpns ilfuf`rls. Iâfuf`s prni`rbnt`s  y lui`rbnt`s= gbhlrlkib`s. Iâfuf` lui`rbnt`= Fädbtls ilfuf`rls. Cbndldcr`k`s. Nro`kbz`ibùk lstruitur`f y hukibnkls càsbi`s.Gbhusbùk Wr`kspnrtl ` tr`vâs gl dldcr`k`s ilfuf`rls. Wr`kspnrtl p`sbvn gbhusbùk sbdpfl. h`ibfbt`g`. Wr`kspnrtl @itbvn. Cndc`s bùkbi`s. Dli`kbsdns gl bktlri`dcbn ink hfumn gl dldcr`k`= lkgnibtnsbs y lxnibtnsbs. Kýifln ilfuf`r= Lstruitur` y hukibùk. Irnd`tbk`, irndnsnd`s. Olkls. Hfumn gl f` bkhnrd`ibùk olkâtbi`. Lstruitur` y hukibnkls glf sbstld` gl lkgndldcr`k`s y nroàkufns dldcr`knsns y kn dldcr`knsns. Ibtnlsqulfltn. \KBG@G 7= Slprnguiibùk ilfuf`r Ibifn ilfuf`r= glhbkbibùk y h`sls qul fn indpnklk. Dbtnsbs, Dlbnsbs. Bdpnrt`kib` cbnfùobi`. Iâfuf`s e`pfnbgls, iâfuf`s gbpfnbgls.

Lstl d`tlrb`f ls gl ibriuf`ibùk bktlrk` y gl usn lxifusbvn ink hbkls gbgàitbins p`r` `fudkns gl f` \kbvlrsbg`g K`ibnk`f gl Xbff` Dlrilgls.

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\KBXLSYBG@G K@IBNK@F GL XBFF@ DLSILGLY Iursn gl KBXLF@IBÙK lk CBNFNOÄ@ 3108 \KBG@G 0= KBXLF P\ÄDBIN GL NSO@KB]@IBÙK GL F@ XBG@ Glstbk`t`rbns. @fudkns bkorls`ktls gl f`s i`rrlr`s= Fbilkib`tur` lk Lkhlrdlrä`   Fbilkib`tur` lk Jbklsbnfnoä` y Hbsb`trä`  



Fbilkib`tur` lk Ncstltrbib` Wâikbin Yuplrbnr lk Olstbùk @dcblkt`f   Cbnbkolkblrä`  

 

KBXLF P\ÄDBIN GL NSO@KB]@IBÙK GL F@ XBG@. F` Cbnfnoä` ls f` iblkib` qul lstugb` fns slrls vbvns. Yu kndcrl prnilgl glf orblon Cbns , qul sbokbhbi` vbg`, y Fnons , qul sbokbhbi` lstugbn n tr`t`gn. F` pnsbibùk qul niup` lst` iblkib` lktrl f`s ff`d`g`s "iblkib`s gl f` k`tur`flz`" ls lk iblrtn dngn p`r`gùmbi`, y` qul sl tr`t` gl uk` pnsbibùk `f dbsdn tbldpn d`robk`f y ilktr`f. D`robk`f pnrqul f` d`tlrb` vbv`, gl f` iu`f sl niup`, ls sùfn uk` pnribùk bkhbkbt`dlktl plqulð` gl tng` f` d`tlrb` qul lxbstl lk lf ukbvlrsn. Qlrn t`dcbâk ilktr`f pnrqul glktrn gl ls` plqulð` pnribùk kns lkinktr`dns knsntrns, fns slrls eud`kns. Glsgl fns `fcnrls gl f` ibvbfbz`ibùk lf endcrl sl pf`ktl`, y `spbr` ` lkinktr`r rlspulst`, ` prloukt`s gl tbpn hbfnsùhbin `ilri` gl kulstrn p`plf lk lf \kbvlrsn. @sä, `f s`clrkns p`rtl gl f` d`tlrb` vbv`, lsplr`dns qul su lstugbn kns pulg` `yug`r ` rlsnfvlr lstns bktlrrno`ktls. Fns slrls vbvns lstàk i`r`itlrbz`gns, lktrl ntr`s ins`s, pnr pnsllr uk` nro`kbz`ibùk ilfuf`r, ls glibr gltlrdbk`g`s dnfâiuf`s sl nro`kbz`k gl uk` hnrd`

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p`rtbiuf`r y prlibs` l bktlr`itý`k lktrl sä p`r` lst`cflilr f` lstruitur` ilfuf`r. @sä indn f`s iâfuf`s snk fns f`grbffns ink fns qul sl inkstruylk fns tlmbgns y fns nro`kbsdns, f`s dnfâiuf`s snk fns cfnquls ink qul sl inkstruylk f`s iâfuf`s. F`s dnfâiuf`s gl f` d`tlrb` vbv` sl pulglk if`sbhbi`r lk=   Bknroàkbi`s=  snk indpulstns sbdpfls, rlf`tbv`dlktl plqulðns, lk iuy` indpnsbibùk p`rtbibp`k f` d`ynrä` gl fns lfldlktns, plrn r`r` vlz lf i`rcnkn, ink `fouk`s lxilpibnkls, indn lf gbùxbgn gl i`rcnkn (IN3): fns indpulstns bknroàkbins qul pnsllk i`rcnkn kn pnsllk ebgrùolkn `f dbsdn tbldpn. Ntrns indpulstns bknroàkbins snk lf `ou` (E3N) y f`s s`fls.  

Nroàkbi`s= snk `qulff`s lk iuy` indpnsbibùk p`rtbibp`k lf i`rcnkn y l ebgrùolkn, ukbgns pnr lkf`ils inv`flktls. Lk olklr`f, snk indpulstns or`kgls y gl lstruitur` indpflm`.

F`s dnfâiuf`s, sl`k nroàkbins n bknroàkbins, lstàk bktlor`g`s pnr lfldlktns: lk f` `itu`fbg`g, sl inknilk dàs gl iblk lfldlktns, plrn pnins dàs gl 31 hnrd`k p`rtl gl fns slrls vbvns. Lk f` Hbour` 0 vldns lk rnmn fns lfldlktns dàs `cukg`ktls, lk ilflstl fns qul sl lkiulktr`k lk uk` prnpnribùk dlknr, y lk vlrgl fns lfldlktns tr`z` (ls glibr, klils`rbns lk i`ktbg`gls plqulðäsbd`s).

Hbour` 0= W`cf` plrbùgbi`. Lk infnr, fns lfldlktns cbnoâkbins. (Lxtr`ägn gl Bktrnguiibùk ` f` Cbnfnoä` gl @fclrt, 3118)

Yl glkndbk`k lfldlktns cbnoâkbins n cbnlfldlktns  ` `qulffns lfldlktns quädbins qul hnrd`k p`rtl gl fns slrls vbvns. @tlkgblkgn ` su `cukg`kib` (kn

bdpnrt`kib`), sl pulglk `orup`r lk trls i`tlonrä`s=  

Cbnlfldlktns prbkibp`fls= I, E, N, K. Ynk fns lfldlktns d`ynrbt`rbns gl f` d`tlrb` vbv`. Inkstbtuylk lf 2 ¾Gùkgl sl lkiulktr`k> ¾Iùdn ls su indpnrt`dblktn lk lf `ou`> 91

 

02. Bkgbqul f` npibùk inrrlit`= F`s prntläk`s gbhblrlk uk` gl ntr` pnrqul=  ^ fns lkf`ils plptägbins qul uklk ` fns `dbknàibgns gbhblrlk gl uk` pprntläk` rntläk` ` ntr`.  ^ f` sliulkib` gl `dbknàibgns lk f` i`glk` pnfbplptägbi` gbhblrl gl prntläk` ` prntläk`.

 ^i`g` dnfâiuf` prntlbi` inktblkl su prnpb` sliulkib` ýkbi` gl dnfâiuf`s gl `zýi`r.  ^ lf kýdlrn gl kuiflùtbgns qul sl lkiulktr` lk i`g` prntläk` prntläk` v`rä` gl uk` dnfâiuf` `31. ntr`. Ylð`fl f`s p`rtls gl uk `dbknàibgn lk lf lsquld`. ¾Puâ ls f` ukbùk plptägbi`>

30. ¾Puâ lstruitur`s prlslkt`k f`s prntläk`s> 33. Kndcrl y lxpfbi`r f`s hukibnkls gl f`s prntläk`s. 39. Lkukibl f`s hukibnkls qul iudpflk fns kuiflùtbgns. 37. Sl`fbil uk iu`grn indp`r`tbvn lktrl @GK y @SK, slð`f`kgn gbhlrlkib`s y sbdbfbtugls. 3 ¾Iuàfls gl f`s vbt`dbk`s prlslkt`rä`k d`ynr rblson gl lhlitns knibvns> ¾Qnr quâ>

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@IWBXBG@GLY GL BKWLOS@IBÙK 0. Wlkblkgn lk iulkt` lf inktlkbgn gl lst` ukbg`g, indpfltl lf sboublktl gb`or`d`.

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3. ¾Iuàf ls f` prbkibp`f hukibùk gl fns pnfbs`iàrbgns lk f`s iâfuf`s vbv`s> Hukg`dlkt`r f` rlspulst`.  ^ `fd`ilk`dblktn gl lklroä`.  ^ `fd`ilk`dblktn gl f` bkhnrd`ibùk elrlgbt`rb`. elrlgbt`rb`.  ^ `itbvbg`g i`t`fätbi`.  ^ hnrd`ibùk gl dldcr`k`s. 9. Bkgbi`r vlrg`glrn n h`fsn. Mustbhbi`r lk i`g` i`sn. Fns ofýibgns y f`s àibgns kuiflbins snk=  ^ Hulktl gl rlslrv` gl lklroä`. lklroä`.  ^ Yl gbsulfvlk lk `ou`.  ^ Inkstbtuylk dldcr`k`s ilfuf`rls.  ^ Yl `snib`k ink ntr`s dnfâiuf`s dnfâiuf`s (fäpbgns, prntläk`s).  ^ Ynk pnfädlrns 7. Lk rlf`ibùk ` f`s cbndnfâiuf`s= `) Lxpfbqul fns sboublktls târdbkns= pnfbs`iàrbgns y prntläk`s. c) Lk f`s iâfuf`s `kbd`fls, ibtl cbndnfâiuf`s ink hukibùk lstruitur`f y ntr`s ink hukibùk lklroâtbi`.

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\KBXLSYBG@G K@IBNK@F GL XBFF@ DLSILGLY Iursn gl KBXLF@IBÙK lk CBNFNOÄ@ 3108 GL FNY YLSLY XBXNY \KBG@G 3= I@S@IWLSÄYWBI@Y Glstbk`t`rbns. @fudkns bkorls`ktls gl f`s i`rrlr`s=

Fbilkib`tur` lk Lkhlrdlrä`   Fbilkib`tur` lk Jbklsbnfnoä` y Hbsb`trä`   Fbilkib`tur` lk Ncstltrbib`   Wâikbin Yuplrbnr lk Olstbùk @dcblkt`f   Cbnbkolkblrä`  

I@S@IWLSÄYWBI@Y GL FNY YLSLY XBXNY Fns slrls vbvns lstàk bktlor`gns pnr dnfâiuf`s bk`kbd`g`s. F` iblkib` dnglrk` e` glsi`rt`gn n, dlmnr gbien, kn inksbglr` glktrn gl su àdcbtn, f` vblm` gnitrbk` vbt`fbst`, qul snstlkä` qul fns slrls vbvns lst`c`k gnt`gns gl uk` dbstlrbns` "hulrz` vbt`f" gl k`tur`flz` kn d`tlrb`f (y pnr fn t`ktn lspbrbtu`f) qul qul fls inkhlrä` lf `trbcutn gl f` vbg`. Iu`kgn sl lx`dbk`k `bsf`g`dlktl f`s dnfâiuf`s qul hnrd`k p`rtl gl f` d`tlrb` vbv`, lst`s dnfâiuf`s sl `must`k ` tng`s f`s flyls häsbi`s y quädbi`s qul rbolk lf indpnrt`dblktn gl f` d`tlrb` bklrtl. Ybk ldc`ron, fns nro`kbsdns vbvns pnsllk `gldàs, plsl ` su gbvlrsbg`g, `trbcutns lxtr`nrgbk`rbns qul kn lxebclk f`s

sbdpfls gl d`tlrb` bk`kbd`g` indn f`s rni`s n fns niâ`kns y qul rlsuft`k`iuduf`ibnkls gl f` dutu` bktlr`iibùk lktrl sus dnfâiuf`s inkstbtuylktls. Lstns bkifuylk=

\k tbpn prlibsn gl nro`kbz`ibùk, y` qul i`g` nro`kbsdn p`rtbiuf`r kn ls endnoâkln, sbkn qul lstà inkstbtubgn pnr gbstbkt`s p`rtls, i`g` uk` ink hukibnkls lsplib`fbz`g`s. 0

 

\k` v`rblg`g gl hukibnkls quädbi`s ` fn qul sl lkofnc` ink lf târdbkn gl dlt`cnfbsdn. Wngns fns nro`kbsdns prlslkt`k `foýk tbpn gl dnvbdblktn, lk fns `kbd`fls snk lvbglktls, dlkns ncvbns. dblktr`s qul lk f`s pf`kt`s y lk lf bktlrbnr gl f`s iâfuf`s snk Ynk i`p`ils gl nrbobk`r glsilkglkib` dlgb`ktl f` rlprnguiibùk. F` d`ynrä` gl fns nro`kbsdns nro `kbsdns indblkz`k su lxbstlkib` indn uk` snf` iâfuf`, ` p`rtbr gl f` qul sl nrbobk`k tng`s f`s iâfuf`s glf `guftn, or`ib`s ` uk` rlprnguiibùk ilfuf`r y ` su gbhlrlkib`ibùk pnr prnilsns gl gls`rrnffn y irlibdblktn. I`p`ibg`g gl rlspnkglr iu`kgn plribclk lstädufns, fn qul sl glkndbk` lxibt`cbfbg`g. I`p`ibg`g gl inkslrv`r su dlgbn bktlrkn `gliu`gn bkifusn sb lf `dcblktl lxtlrkn sl dngbhbi`, prnilsn glkndbk`gn endlnst`sbs. I`g` nro`kbsdn pnsll i`r`itlrästbi`s lstruitur`fls, hbsbnfùobi`s n gl indpnrt`dblktn qul dlmnr`k su suplrvbvlkib` y âxbtn rlprnguitbvn lk uk `dcblktl p`rtbiuf`r, ` lstn sl fn inknil indn `g`pt`ibùk.

NSO@KB]@IBÙK LYQLIÄHBI@

Fns nro`kbsdns sl indpnklk gl iâfuf`s. Wngns fns slrls vbvns lstàk inkstbtubgns ukbg`gls càsbi`s. @fouk`s gl f`s hnrd`s gl iâfuf`. vbg` dàs slkibff`s, indnpnrf`slst`s c`itlrb`s, snk ukbilfuf`rls, n sl`, inkst`k gl uk` snf` Lk inktr`stl, lf iulrpn gl uk` nvlm` n lf glf slr eud`kn sl indpnklk gl dbfls gl dbffnkls gl iâfuf`s qul sulflk nro`kbz`rsl lk tlmbgns, ùro`kns y `p`r`tns n sbstld`s. Lk f` d`tlrb` vbv` lxbstlk v`rbns or`gns gl indpflmbg`g, glkndbk`gns kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk (W`cf` 0). Glktrn gl fns dbsdns sl pulglk gbhlrlkib`r kbvlfls `cbùtbins y kbvlfls cbùtbins. Fns kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk `cbùtbins snk `qulffns qul t`dcbâk lxbstlk lk

f` d`tlrb` bk`kbd`g`. Yl gbstbkoulk trls= 0.  Kbvlf suc`tùdbin= Bktlor`gn pnr f`s p`rtäiuf`s suc`tùdbi`s qul hnrd`k fns lfldlktns quädbins (prntnkls, klutrnkls, lflitrnkls). 3.  Kbvlf `tùdbin= Ynk fns àtndns qul hnrd`k fns slrls vbvns y sl glkndbk`k, indn vbdns lk f` \kbg`g 0, cbnlfldlktns. 9.  Kbvlf dnfliuf`r= Lk âf sl bkifuylk f`s dnfâiuf`s, hnrd`g`s pnr f` `orup`ibùk gl cbnlfldlktns. @ f`s dnfâiuf`s dnfâiuf`s sl f`s glkndbk`, indn t`dcbâk t`dcbâk vbdns, Cbndnfâiuf`s y f`s pngä`dns `orup`r lk gns i`tlonrä`s, bknroàkbi`s= @O\@, Y@FLY DBKLS@FLY, 3

 

BNKLY, O@YLY  y nroàkbi`s= OFÝIBGNY, FÄQBGNY, QSNWLÄK@Y R ÀIBGNY K\IFLBINY. Lk lf sboublktl kbvlf gl nro`kbz`ibùk surol f` prnpblg`g dàs knt`cfls gl tng`s=  F@ XBG@  y ` p`rtbr gl `quä, kns lkinktr`dns ink fns kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk cbùtbins. Kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk cbùtbins=  0.  Kbvlf ilfuf`r= Lk lstl kbvlf sl lkiulktr` f` iâfuf`, qul inkstbtuyl lf prbdlr kbvlf ink vbg`. Gns tbpns gl nro`kbz`ibnkls ilfuf`rls sl e`k glsirbptn, f`s iâfuf`s lui`rbnt`s y f`s iâfuf`s prni`rbnt`s. Lmldpfns gl slrls vbvns lk lstl kbvlf gl nro`kbz`ibùk snk fns nro`kbsdns ukbilfuf`rls (Lm. Qrntnznns), qul vbvlk ink plrhlit` `utnkndä` lk lf dlgbn. Ntrns nro`kbsdns ukbilfuf`rls snk f`s flv`gur`s, ` f`s qul qul sl f`s pulgl lkinktr`r hnrd`kgn infnkb`s (` (`orup`ibnkls orup`ibnkls gl

iâfuf`s). @ ` pls`r gl lst`r pnr dbfls gl iâfuf`s, sl qul pulgl inksbglr`r f`s infnkb`s indnhnrd`g`s slrls pfurbilfuf`rls, pnrqul i`g` kn iâfuf` f` indpnkl, vbvl indn uk slr bkglplkgblktl. 3.  Kbvlf pfurbilfuf`r= inkstbtubgn pnr `qulffns slrls hnrd`gns pnr dàs gl uk` iâfuf` qul surolk gl f` gbhlrlkib`ibùk y lsplib`fbz`ibùk ilfuf`r. F` duftbilfuf`rbg`g prndulvl f` `orup`ibùk gl iâfuf`s lk lstruitur`s gltlrdbk`g`s qul rl`fbz`k hukibnkls lsplib`fbz`g`s, vbt`fls p`r` lf nro`kbsdn, g`kgn fuo`r ` f` hnrd`ibùk gl tlmbgns. @ dlgbg` qul f`s iâfuf`s sl v`k gbhlrlkib`kgn (ebstnoâklsbs), gltlrdbk`gns orupns gl iâfuf`s g`k fuo`r ` ukbg`gls dàs lsplib`fbz`g`s p`r` hnrd`r ùro`kns qul sl indpnklk, lk olklr`f, gl v`rbns tlmbgns hnrd`gns pnr iâfuf`s ink f` dbsd` hukibùk. F` d`ynrä` gl fns bkgbvbguns duftbilfuf`rls lstàk hnrd`gns pnr sbstld`s gl ùro`kns. Fns sbstld`s gl ùro`kns tr`c`m`k lk hnrd` bktlor`g` y glsldplð`k uk` hukibùk p`rtbiuf`r. Fns sbstld`s gl ùro`kns, lk inkmuktn, hnrd`k lf nro`kbsdn indpfltn, qul

bktlr`itý` ink lf `dcblktl lxtlrkn. W`cf` 0= Kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk lk f` d`tlrb` vbv`. ÀWNDNY R Q@SWÄI\F@Y Y\C@WÙDBI@Y

Fns àtndns snk f`s p`rtäiuf`s dàs plqulð`s gl uk lfldlktn, uk` sust`kib` qul kn pulgl slr glsbktlor`g` lk ntr` sust`kib` pnr dlgbns quädbins nrgbk`rbns. Fns àtndns lstàk inkstbtubgns pnr p`rtäiuf`s suc`tùdbi`s. Qnr lmldpfn lf 9

 

àtndn gl i`rcnkn. DNF I\F@Y DNF F`s dnfâiuf`s snk fns indpnklktls hukg`dlkt`fls gl f`s iâfuf`s. Lxbstlk dnfâiuf`s nroàkbi`s l bknroàkbi`s. Lstàk hnrd`g`s pnr `orup`ibnkls gl àtndns. Lk fns slrls vbvns sl lkiulktr`k uk` or`k v`rblg`g gl dnfâiuf`s gl lstruitur` y hukibùk gbvlrs`s. Qnr lmldpfn, lmldpfn, uk` dnfâiuf` qul indpnkl indpnkl ` tng`s f`s prntläk`s ls lf `dbknàibgn. D@ISNDNFÂI\F@Y F`s lstruitur`s indpflm`s d`irndnfliuf`rls lstàk hnrd`g`s pnr gbstbkt`s d`irndnfâiuf`s. F`s d`irndnfâiuf`s iudpflk hukibnkls lslkib`fls lk f` iâfuf`. @fouk`s snk indpnklktls lstruitur`fls, ntr`s iudpflk hukibnkls rlouf`gnr`s y ntr`s `itý`k indn gbrlitnr`s gl tng` f` `itbvbg`g ilfuf`r. \k tbpn gl d`irndnfâiuf` qul sl lkiulktr` lk tng`s f`s iâfuf`s ls lf @GK. 

INDQFLMNY D@ISNDNFLI\F@SLY F`s d`irndnfâiuf`s inkstbtuylk lstruitur`s indpflm`s t`fls indn f`s dldcr`k`s y f`s nro`klf`s. F`s iâfuf`s inktblklk kudlrnsns indpflmns d`irndnfliuf`rls. \k indpflmn gl d`irndnfâiuf`s qul sl lkiulktr` lk tng`s f`s iâfuf`s ls f` dldcr`k` pf`sdàtbi`.

7

 

I F\F@Y F` iâfuf` ls f` ukbg`g lstruitur`f y hukibnk`f gl fns slrls vbvns. Duiens nro`kbsdns snk ukbilfuf`rls. F`s prnpblg`gls i`r`itlrästbi`s gl fns sbstld`s vbvns kn ldlrolk lk hnrd` or`gu`f ` dlgbg` qul `udlkt` lf or`gn gl nro`kbz`ibùk. @p`rlilk sýcbt` y lspliähbi`dlktl lk hnrd` gl uk` iâfuf` vbv`, `fon qul ls dàs qul sus àtndns y dnfâiuf`s inkstbtuylktls y qul ls gbhlrlktl gl lffns. Lxbstlk duie`s lvbglkib`s lk h`vnr gl f` ebpùtlsbs qul pnstuf` qul f`s iâfuf`s vbv`s lspnktàkl`dlktl sl `utnlks`dcf`rnk ` p`rtbr gl dnfâiuf`s dàs sbdpfls. WLMBGNY Fns tlmbgns sl lkiulktr`k ukbgns lstruitur`fdlktl y hukibnk`k gl d`klr` innrgbk`g`.

\k hnrd` qul p`rtl glf inr`zùk ls lftlmbgn tlmbgnqul dusiuf`r, cndcl` ` ntrn tbpn lsplib`f gl tlmbgn, ff`d`gn s`korl. ÙSO@KNY Fns ùro`kns tblklk uk` lstruitur` t`f qul fls plrdbtl rl`fbz`r gbvlrs`s hukibnkls lk hnrd` bktlor`g`. Lst`s hukibnkls inktrbcuylk `f hukibnk`dblktn glf sbstld` y glf nro`kbsdn indpfltn. Lmldpfns= rbðùk, vlmbo`. YBYWLD@ GL ÙSO@KNY Fns bkgbvbguns duftbilfuf`rls lstàk hnrd`gns pnr sbstld`s gl ùro`kns. Fns sbstld`s gl ùro`kns tr`c`m`k lk hnrd` bktlor`g` y glsldplð`k uk` hukibùk p`rtbiuf`r. Fns sbstld`s gl ùro`kns, lk <

 

inkmuktn, hnrd`k lf nro`kbsdn indpfltn, qul bktlr`itý` ink lf `dcblktl lxtlrkn.

NSO@KBYDN Fns sbstld`s gl ùro`kns, lk inkmuktn, hnrd`k lf nro`kbsdn indpfltn, qul bktlr`itý` ink lf `dcblktl lxtlrkn. Bdàolkls gl f` hbour` lxtr`äg`s gl= ettp=//9.cp.cfnospnt.ind/.../s931/`dbkn`ibgn.pko ettp=// rliursns.ikbil.dli.ls/.../rliursns^o`flrb`3.etd rliursns.ikbil.dli.ls/.../rliursns^o`flrb`3.etd 

Fns kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk sl lxtblkglk dàs `ffà glf nro`kbsdn bkgbvbgu`f, fns nro`kbsdns bktlr`itý`k y `sä hnrd`k p`rtl gl uk sbstld` dàs `dpfbn gl nro`kbz`ibùk. F` Linfnoä` ls f` iblkib` qul sl niup` gl lstugb`r f`s bktlrrlf`ibnkls

lktrl nro`kbsdns lktrl sä y ink su dlgbn `dcblktl. 9.  Kbvlf gl Qncf`ibùk= @c`ri` ` f`s pncf`ibnkls, qul snk lf inkmuktn gl bkgbvbguns gl f` dbsd` lsplibl qul vbvlk lk uk` dbsd` d bsd` znk` y lk uk dndlktn gltlrdbk`gn. 7.  Kbvlf gl Indukbg`g= F`s indukbg`gls lstàk inkstbtubg`s pnr fns indpnklktls cbùtbins gl uk linsbstld`, ls glibr lstàk inkstbtubg`s pnr gbhlrlktls pncf`ibnkls qul bktlr`itý`k lktrl sä y qul e`cbt`k lk uk `dcblktl indýk lk uk tbldpn y lsp`ibn gltlrdbk`gns. 3.  ¾Puâ snk f`s prnpblg`gls ldlrolktls> Gl lmldpfns. 9.  Sl`fbil uk iu`grn gl fns kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk nro`kbz`ibùk gl fns slrls slrls vbvns. 7.  Lfbm` f` npibùk inrrlit`= Fns tlmbgns sl hnrd`k iu`kgn sl `snib`k iâfuf`s ink= `.  F` dbsd` hnrd` y hukibùk. c.  Gbstbkt` hukibùk y gbstbkt` hnrd`. i.  Gbstbkt` hnrd` plrn f` dbsd` hukibùk. g.  Gbstbkt` hukibùk plrn d`ktblklk f` dbsd` hnrd`. Lf kbvlf dnfliuf`r `.  Yl `fi`kz` iu`kgn f`s dnfâiuf`s sl uklk. c.  Ls bkhlrbnr, lk indpflmbg`g, `f `tùdbin. i.  Ls suplrbnr, lk indpflmbg`g, `f ilfuf`r. g.  Lstà inkstbtubgn lktrl ntrns pnr, s`fls, `ou`, prntläk`s y

gbùxbgn gl i`rcnkn. F` `snib`ibùk gl cbndnfâiuf`s g` nrbolk `.  @f kbvlf ilfuf`r. c.  @f kbvlf dnfliuf`r. i.  @f kbvlf `tùdbin. g.  @ fns tlmbgns. Fns kbvlfls gl nro`kbz`ibùk gl f` d`tlrb` vbv` `.  Ybrvlk p`r` lstugb`r lstruitur`s bklrtls. c.  Yl inkstbtuylk glsgl fn dàs indpflmn ` fn dàs slkibffn.  

i.   Inrrlspnkglk `f kbvlffns dnfliuf`r y `tùdbin. g. Ybrvlk p`r` lstugb`r slrls vbvns. Fns cbnlfldlktns prbd`rbns `.  Inrrlspnkglk `f `ou` y fns o`sls. c.  Inkstbtuylk lf 28% gl f` d`tlrb` vbv`. i.  Ynk fns o`sls. g.  Inrrlspnkgl `f Ebgrùolkn, Nxäolkn y `ou`.

3?

 

c) ¾Puâ sbokbhbi` @WQ y iuàf ls su hukibùk lk f`s iâfuf`s vbv`s> i) ¾Gl quâ lxlroùkbi`s hnrd` lf @WQ pulgl `itu`r indn väkiufn bdpnrt`ktl lktrl rl`iibnkls y lkglroùkbi`s> 5.  ¾Puâ fl sudbkbstr`k fns prnilsns `k`cùfbins ` f` iâfuf`> ¾Puâ fl sudbkbstr`k fns i`t`cùfbins> 2.  ¾Ls lf dnvbdblktn uk` i`r`itlrästbi` gl fns slrls vbvns qul rlqublrl @WQ>

01.  Lf dnvbdblktn glf dýsiufn lsqulfâtbin lk fns slrls vbvns ¾quâ ntrn tbpn gl rlqulrbdblktns tblkl> 00.  Gl lmldpfns gl iâfuf`s qul inktlko`k lstruitur`s lspliähbi`s p`r` prnguibr dnvbdblktn. Gbsiut` sncrl f` hukibùk gl lst`s iâfuf`s. 03.  ¾Puâ hukibùk tblkl f` rlprnguiibùk> 09.  Sl`fbil uk iu`grn indp`r`tbvn lktrl rlprnguiibùk slxu`f y `slxu`f. 07.  Glsirbc` lk târdbkns olklr`fls lf rlsuft`gn hbk`f gl i`g` ukn gl fns sboublktls prnilsns= hliukg`ibùk, slodlkt`ibùk, o`struf`ibùk y nro`knoâklsbs. 0

35

 

0?.  Glhbk` ink sus p`f`cr`s i`g` ukn gl fns indpnklktls gl bktlor`ibùk klrvbns` prlslktls lk f` sboublktl hbour`.

05.  Fl` `tlkt`dlktl lf sboublktl pàrr`hn. Sl`fbil uk lsquld` bkgbi`kgn f`s gbhlrlktls lt`p`s glf prnils`dblktn gl f` bkhnrd`ibùk qul sl prnguil 32

 

gur`ktl f` slks`ibùk gl e`dcrl. Gbhlrlkibl lktrl ilktrn gl s`iblg`g y ilktrn glf e`dcrl. Ylks`ibùk gl e`dcrl= Lf `pltbtn ls lf glsln gl bkolrbr `fbdlktns y lstà rlouf`gn pnr gbhlrlktls lstruitur`s sbtu`g`s lk lf ilrlcrn. Lst`s lstruitur`s n p`rtls hnrd`k fn qul sl glkndbk` ilktrn glf `pltbtn, y sus indpnklktls snk lf ilktrn glf e`dcrl y lf ilktrn gl f` s`iblg`g. F` slks`ibùk gl e`dcrl vblkl g`g` pnr f` klilsbg`g glf slr eud`kn gl iucrbr sus rlqulrbdblktns lklroâtbins. Iu`kgn lf ilktrn glf e`dcrl sl lstbduf`, `p`rlil

f` slks`ibùk gl `pltbtn, plrn sb pnr lf inktr`rbn lf lstädufn fflo` `f ilktrn gl f` s`iblg`g, lf glsln gl indlr sl gltblkl. ¾Pubâk inktrnf` f`s slks`ibnkls> Lf kbvlf gl `zýi`r lk s`korl n ofuildb`, ls lf lki`ro`gn gl lkvb`r lsns lstädufns y `sä rlouf`r f` bkolstbùk gl `fbdlktns, pnr fn t`ktn lf c`mn kbvlf gl `zýi`r lk kulstrn nro`kbsdn kns bkguil ` indlr. \k lmldpfn gl lstn ls f` slks`ibùk gl e`dcrl prlvb` `f gls`yukn. Ls bdpnrt`ktl slð`f`r qul lf lstnd`on t`dcbâk ls uk rlouf`gnr glf `pltbtn, g`gn qul iu`kgn plrd`klil pnr uk f`ron plrbngn sbk rlibcbr `fbdlktns sl inktr`l. Iu`kgn lf lstnd`on sl inktr`l, lf glsln gl indlr sl bktlksbhbi`, dblktr`s qul iu`kgn e`y `fbdlktns lk su bktlrbnr, f` slð`f fflo` `f ilktrn gl s`iblg`g y `sä, glm`dns gl indlr. Wng` f` rlouf`ibùk glf `pltbtn sl prnguil lk lf ilrlcrn, y fns gbhlrlktls lstädufns slksnrb`fls olklr`k uk bdpufsn klrvbnsn, qul `itý`k sncrl lf ilktrn glf e`dcrl `p`rliblkgn n lfbdbk`kgn lf glsln gl indlr. Qlrn pulgl niurrbr qul iblrt`s flsbnkls ilrlcr`fls lk fns kýiflns glf ebpntàf`dn, `hlitlk `f ilktrn gl f` s`iblg`g, y `sä sl glsinktrnf` tngn lf dli`kbsdn, f` plrsnk` `hlit`g` prlslkt` pnr lmldpfn uk `pltbtn bks`ib`cfl gl i`ràitlr p`tnfùobin, y pnr lf inktr`rbn fns lstädufns psbinfùobins qul `itý`k bkebcblkgn lf ilktrn glf e`dcrl e`ilk qul f` plrsnk` i`bo` lk uk` `knrlxb` klrvbns`.

02.  @k`fbil f`s sboublktls hbour`s rlhlrbg`s ` endlnst`sbs. `.  Bglktbhbqul ilktrn gl inktrnf, rlilptnr y lhlitnr. c.  @k`fbil sb sl tr`t` gl rltrn`fbdlkt`ibùk pnsbtbv` n rltrn`fbdlkt`ibùk klo`tbv`.

91

 

31. Fl` lf sboublktl tlxtn l bglktbhbqul fns indpnklktls glf sbstld` endlnstàtbin. `.  Bkgbqul lf tbpn gl rltrn`fbdlkt`ibùk ` qul sl rlhblrl. c.  Bkvlstboul sb lk lstl sbstld` endlnstàtbin bktlrvblkl lf sbstld` lkgùirbkn. @f bkbib`rsl lf p`rtn lf kbðn ls lxpufs`gn gl f` d`trbz n ýtlrn `f i`k`f glf p`rtn n v`obk`. Slilptnrls gl tlksbùk lk f` p`rlg glf ýtlrn gltlit`k f` d`ynr gbstlksbùk prnguibg` pnr lf dnvbdblktn glf kbðn. Ls` bkhnrd`ibùk sl rldbtl `f ilrlcrn, qul `itbv` f` ebpùhbsbs p`r` qul slorloul uk` enrdnk` glkndbk`g` nxbtnibk`, qul ibriuf` pnr lf tnrrlktl s`kouäkln e`st` lf ýtlrn, gnkgl prnvni` inktr`iibnkls dàs bktlks`s qul ldpum`k `f kbðn dàs `glf`ktl ink fn qul sl bkirldlkt` f` gbstlksbùk y sl lstbduf` f` fbclr`ibùk gl dàs nxbtnibk`. F`s inktr`iibnkls utlrbk`s sl e`ilk i`g` vlz dàs hulrtls e`st` qul lf kbðn s`fl glf iulrpn.

30.  @k`fbil lf sboublktl lmldpfn gl `g`pt`ibùk. `.  Bglktbhbqul f`s trls gbhlrlktls tbpn tbpnss gl `g`pt`ibnkls (dnrhnfùobi`s, hukibnk`fls y ltnfùobi`s). c.  @k`fbil f` bdpnrt`kib` gl f` `g`pt`ibùk rlsplitn glf d`ktlkbdblktn gl f` vbg` sncrl f` tblrr`. 90

 

@g`pt`ibnkls `f Hrän F`s tldplr`tur`s c`m`s supnklk uk` gbsdbkuibùk gl f` vlfnibg`g gl f`s rl`iibnkls quädbi`s y uk` r`flktbz`ibùk glf dlt`cnfbsdn. W`dcbâk inkfflv`k f` inkolf`ibùk glf `ou` y lsn bdpnsbcbfbt` f` vbg` `itbv`. Fns pbkoöbkns prlslkt`k uk lmldpfn gl f`s `g`pt`ibnkls lvnfutbv`s dýftbpfls, snk endlntârdbins, ls glibr, d`ktblklk uk` tldplr`tur` inrpnr`f rlf`tbv`dlktl lst`cfl lktrl 9 00. F` bksufbk` ls ls uk` enrdnk` prntlbi` qul ls ls prnguibg` pnr lf pàkirl`s y fbclr`g` fbclr`g` `f tnrrlktl s`kouäkln fulon gl uk` bkolst` gl ebgr`tns gl i`rcnkn. Iu`kgn sl rlguil f` prnguiibùk gl âst` pnr uk d`f hukibnk`dblktn gl f` ofàkguf`, `udlkt` f` i`ktbg`g gl `zýi`r lk s`korl y sl prnguil prnguil uk` ebplrofuildb`, prnvni` prnvni`kgn kgn slrbns tr`stnrkns. tr`stnrkns. ¾Iuàf ls lf i`dbkn qul sl sboul p`r` su säktlsbs ` p`rtbr gl f` bkhnrd`ibùk prlslktl lk f` dnfâiuf` gl @GK e`st` qul sl fbclr`> Bkvlstboul quâ tbpn gl dli`kbsdn utbfbz` f` iâfuf` p`r` f` fbclr`ibùk gl f` enrdnk`. 03. ¾Iuàf ls f` hukibùk gl fns rbcnsnd`s ukbgns `f rltäiufn lkgnpfàsdbin ruonsn y f` gl fns rbcnsnd`s fbcrls> 09. Kndcrl f`s iâfuf`s qul prlslkt`k uk or`k gls`rrnffn glf rltäiufn lkgnpfàsdbin ruonsn y `qulff`s qul prlslkt`k uk or`k gls`rrnffn glf rltäiufn lkgnpfàsdbin fbsn. 07. ¾Iuàfls snk f`s lkzbd`s qul prlslkt`k fns fbsnsnd`s, qul tbpn gl rl`iibùk i`t`fbz`k y iuàf ls lf pE gl lst` nro`klf`> 0 08. ¾Iuàf ls f` bdpnrt`kib` bdp nrt`kib` cbnfùobi` glf ibtnlsqulfltn> 0?. ¾Iuàfls snk fns indpnklktls glf ibtnlsqulfltn> 05. Slf`ibnkl `fouk`s lstruitur`s ilfuf`rls ink lf ibtnlsqulfltn. 02. ¾Iuàfls snk f`s nro`klf`s gl f` iâfuf` lui`rbnt` lk f`s iuàfls sl prnguil tr`kshnrd`ibùk gl lklroä`> 31. Kndcrl f`s lt`p`s lt`p`s qul indprlkglk indprlkglk f` glor`g`ibùk glor`g`ibùk indpflt` gl uk` dnfâiuf` dnfâiuf` gl ofuins`. ¾Iuàf ls lf lf c`f`kil lklroâtbin gl f` glor`g`ibùk glor`g`ibùk indpflt` gl ofuins`> ofuins`> ¾Iuàf ls f` bdpnrt`kib` cbnfùobi` glf prnilsn gl rlspbr`ibùk ilfuf`r> 30. G`g` f`s sboublktls lstruitur`s, bkgbqul ` iuàf inrrlspnkgl lf inrtl gl uk hf`olfn.

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33. Fl` lf `rtäiufn ‖Iùdn hukibnk`k h ukibnk`k f`s iâfuf`s—, lf`cnrl uk rlsudlk glf dbsdn prlvbn bktlri`dcbn gl bgl`s ink sus indp`ðlrns.

18/13/09

ISLILY Lgui`ibùk - www.irlils.if @uspbib`=   @uspbib`=

Iùdn hukibnk` f` iâfuf` iâfuf`   ( Qucfbi`gn lk Slvbst` Irlils, Lklrn 022? )  

Wngns fns nro`kbsdns vbvns, glsgl f`s c`itlrb`s ` fns eud`kns, lstàk inkstrubgns pnr ukbg`gls iâfuf`s. Lst`s uk` plrn lhbiblktl bkgustrb`, prnguitns gl gl `iulrgn `ff`d`g`s lsplibhbi`ibnkls duy indn prlibs`s, `uk e`ilk dàs,lf`cnr`k indn lfbdbk`ibùk glsplrgbibns y rlie`zn gl bdpnstnrls. E`il i`sb 9