Application of Psychology in Different Fields

ASSIGNMENT On Application of Psychology in Different Fields Subject Introduction to Psychology Submitted to Ms. Warda Javed Submitted by Hassan Tahir Sial Roll no 109-11003 BBA (Hons) 3rd Semester

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Meaning & Definition of "Psychology" Psychology is a combination of two words in two different languages. Psychology in Latin: “Psyche”

Soul/Mind

“Ology”

Study

Psychology in Greek: “Psyche”

Soul/Mind

“Logus”

Word/Knowledge

In both Languages its meaning is “The study of the soul or mind.” The derivation of "psyche" comes from Latin and the Greek psukhe - breath, life, soul. To get a better "feel" for this term try to think of it as the invisible animating principle or entity that occupies, interacts with and directs the physical body. "Psyche" is defined as: 1. The spirit or soul. 2. The human mind. 3. In psychoanalysis, the mind functioning as the center of thought, emotion, and behavior. And defining "soul", we have: 1. The spiritual or immortal elements in a person. 2. A person's mental or moral or emotional nature. This meaning has been altered over the years until today; this is not what the word means at all. The subject of psychology, as studied in colleges and universities, currently has very little to do with the mind, and absolutely nothing to do with the soul or spirit. It is important to understand that words and ideas are supposed to refer to something. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society. The founder of Psychology was “William Wundt”. In 1879 he established first lab Leipzig in Germany. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a Psychologist.

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Applications of Psychology in Different Fields Psychological tests and methods have proved useful in solving some concrete problems. Whereas basic researchers test theories about mind and behavior, applied psychologists are motivated by a desire to solve practical human problems. Psychology helps the human in many different fields.

Psychology in Education Psychology helps the students in getting Education by solving their problems. This is also called Educational Psychology. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. Researchers and theorists are likely to be identified in the US and Canada as Educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. This distinction is however not made in the UK, where the generic term for practitioners is "Educational Psychologist". Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties’ within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks. Modern educational psychologists are not the first to analyze educational processes. Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s. Juan Vives (1492-1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature. He was one of the first to emphasize that the location of the school is important to learning. He also supported the education of women. Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) emphasized the child rather than the content of the school. He spoke out against the method of rote memorization as the method for learning and suggested direct observation as a better way of learning. 3

Johann Herbart (1776-1841) is considered the father of educational psychology. He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher. He thought that teachers should consider the students existing mental sets, what they already know, when presenting new information or material. Herbart came up with what is now known as the formal steps. They are 5 steps that teachers should use are: 1. Review material that has already been learned by the teacher 2. Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next 3. Present the new material. 4. Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned. 5. Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.

Psychology in Health

Health psychology is concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and the prevention of illness. Health psychologists work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings, work on behavior change in public health promotion, teach at universities, and conduct research. The allied field is Occupational Health Psychology.

Four Basic Divisions of Health Psychology 1- Clinical health psychology (CIHP) Clinical health psychology is a term that refers to the application of scientific knowledge, derived from the field of health psychology, to clinical questions that may arise across the spectrum of health care. ClHP is one of many specialty practice area for clinical psychologists. It is also a major contributor to the prevention focused field of behavioral health and the treatment oriented field of behavioral medicine.

2-Public health psychology (PHP) Public health psychology is population oriented. A major aim of PHP is to investigate potential causal links between psychosocial factors and health at the population level. Public health psychologists present research results to educators, policy makers, and health care providers in order to promote better public health. PHP is allied to other public health disciplines including epidemiology, nutrition, genetics and biostatistics.

3- Community health psychology (CoHP)

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Community health psychology investigates community factors that contribute to the health and well-being of individuals who live in communities. CoHP also develops community-level interventions that are designed to combat disease and promote physical and mental health.

4- Critical health psychology (CrHP) Critical health psychology is concerned with the distribution of power and the impact of power differentials on health experience and behavior, health care systems, and health policy. CrHP prioritizes social justice and the universal right to health for people of all races, genders, ages, and socioeconomic positions.

Objectives of Health Psychology •

Understanding behavioral and contextual factors

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Preventing illness

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The effects of disease

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Critical analysis of health policy

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Improving doctor–patient communication

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Improving adherence to medical advice

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Managing pain

Psychology in Politics Political psychology is an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to the relationship between psychology and political science, with a focus on the role of human thought, emotion, and behavior in politics. It analyzes political science as related to entities such as voters, lawmakers, local and national governments and administrations, international organizations, political parties, and associations. While the grammar of "political psychology" tends to stress psychology as the central field, the discipline could also be accurately labeled "the psychology of politics," so as to more evenly recognize the interdisciplinary nature of the field. Also not fully conveyed by the label is the wide scope of the disciplines from which political psychology draws, including anthropology, cognitive and personality psychology, sociology and social psychology, psychiatry, international relations, and other more distant fields such as economics, philosophy, and the arts. The cross-fertilization between political science and psychology has risen to a modestly active level since its beginnings in the 1940s, though both fields have traditionally had a 5

wider magnitude of collaboration with other disciplines, such as history with political science, and sociology with psychology.

Prominent Political Psychologists 1- James David Barber

2- Francis A. Beer

3- Eugene Borgida

4-Christopher Federico

5-Ofer Feldman

6-Diana Mutz

7-John Sullivan

8-Steven Walker

9-Jack Levy

10- John Jost

Psychology in Law Psychology in Law also called Legal Psychology. Legal psychology involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Legal psychologists typically take basic social and cognitive principles and apply them to issues in the legal system such as eyewitness memory, jury decision-making, investigations, and interviewing. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into usage, primarily as a way to differentiate the experimental focus of legal psychology from the clinicallyoriented forensic psychology.

Many psychologists today work in the legal system. They consult with attorneys, testify in court as expert witnesses, counsel prisoners, teach in law schools, and research various justice-related issues. Sometimes referred to as forensic psychologists, those who apply psychology to the law study a range of issues, including jury selection, eyewitness testimony, and confessions to police, lie-detector tests, the death penalty, criminal profiling, and the insanity defense. Psychologists in this area often testify in court as expert witnesses. In cases involving the insanity defense, forensic clinical psychologists are often called to court to give their opinion about whether individual defendants are sane or insane. Used as a legal defense, insanity means that defendants, because of a mental disorder, cannot appreciate the wrongfulness of their conduct or control it (see Insanity). Defendants who are legally insane at the time of the offense may be absolved of criminal responsibility for their conduct and judged not guilty. Psychologists are often called to testify in court on other controversial matters as well, including the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, the mental competence (fitness) of defendants to stand trial, and the reliability of early childhood memories. Together, legal psychology and forensic psychology form the field more generally recognized as "psychology and law". Following earlier efforts by psychologists to address legal issues, psychology and law became a field of study in the 1960s as part of an effort to enhance justice, though that originating concern has lessened over time. The multidisciplinary American Psychological Association's Division 41, the American Psychology-Law Society, is active with the goal of promoting the contributions of psychology to the understanding of law and legal systems through research, as well as providing education to psychologists in legal issues and providing education to legal personnel on psychological issues. Further, its 6

mandate is to inform the psychological and legal communities and the public at large of current research, educational, and service in the area of psychology and law. There are similar societies in Britain and Europe.

Polygraph The polygraph is a device that measures a person’s bodily responses to being questioned. Commonly called a lie detector, it is often used in law enforcement to assess whether a suspect is telling the truth. Because of its questionable accuracy, however, its results are usually inadmissible as evidence in court.

Psychology in Industries and Organizations Industrial and organizational psychology (also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, or personnel psychology) is the scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Industrial and organizational psychologists contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance and well-being of its people. An I/O psychologist researches and identifies how behaviors and attitudes can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, and feedback systems. I/O psychologists also help organizations transition among periods of change and development. Industrial and organizational psychology is related to the concepts of organizational behavior and human capital. An applied science, I–O psychology is represented by Division 14 of the American Psychological Association, known formally as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). The "industrial" side of I–O psychology has its historical origins in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of performance. This branch of the field crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty stations. After the War, the growing industrial base in the US added impetus to I–O psychology. Walter Dill Scott, who was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I–O psychologist of his time, although James McKeen Cattell (elected APA President in 1895) and Hugo Münsterberg (1898) were influential in the early development of the field. Organizational psychology gained prominence after World War II, influenced by the Hawthorne studies and the work of researchers such as Kurt Lewin and Muzafer Sherif.

Objectives of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1- Motivation in the workplace 2- Goal-setting 3- Job Satisfaction 4-Employee Effectiveness’ 7

5-To adjust the Attitude and Behaviors of Employees Organizations support the use of teams, because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than can be accomplished by an individual contributor, and because the collective results of a group of contributors can produce higher quality deliverables. Five elements that are contributors to team effectiveness include: (1) team composition, (2) task design, (3) organizational resources, (4) team rewards, and (5) team goals. Job satisfaction reflects an employee's overall assessment of their job, particularly their emotions, behaviors, and attitudes about their work experience.

Psychology in Sports Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from the fields of kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors.[1] In addition to instruction and training of psychological skills for performance improvement, applied sport psychology may include work with athletes, coaches, and parents regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building, and career transitions. In its formation, sport psychology was primarily the domain of physical educators, not researchers, which can explain the lack of a consistent history. In Europe, the early years of sport psychology were highlighted by the formation of the Deutsch Hochschule für Leibesübungen (College of Physical Education) by Robert Werner Schulte in 1920. The lab measured physical abilities and aptitude in sport, and in 1921, Schulte published Body and Mind in Sport. In Russia, sport psychology experiments began as early as 1925 at institutes of physical culture in Moscow and Leningrad, and formal sport psychology departments were formed around 1930. Sport and exercise psychology consists of instructing athletes, coaches, teams, exercisers, parents, fitness professionals, groups, and other performers on the psychological aspects of their sport or activity. It is pertinent to mention that the practice of applied sport psychology is not legally restricted to individuals who possess one type of certification or licensure. The subject of "what exactly constitutes applied sport psychology and who can practice it?" has been debated amongst sport psychology professionals.

Psychology in Military Military psychology is the research, design and application of psychological theories and experimentation data towards understanding, predicting and countering behaviours either in friendly or enemy forces or civilian population that may be undesirable, threatening or potentially dangerous to the conduct of military operations.

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Military psychology is applied towards counseling and treatment of stress and fatigue of military personnel or military families as well as treatment of psychological trauma suffered as a result of military operations. Another use of military psychology is in interrogation of prisoners who may provide information that would enhance outcomes of friendly military operations or reduce friendly casualties. Psychological stress and disorders have always been a part of military life, especially during and after wartime, but the mental health section of military psychology has not always experienced the awareness it does now. Even in the present day there is much more research and awareness needed concerning this area. One of the first institutions created to care for military psychiatric patients was St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington D.C.. Formerly known as the United States Government Hospital for the Insane, the hospital was founded by Congress in 1855 and is currently in a state of disrepair although operational, with revitalization plans scheduled to begin in 2010. Besides contributing to the solution of some of the general personnel problems of the army, the psychologists devised tests to detect ability for particular military tasks. Among these, the tests for aviators were noteworthy. Intelligence tests and psycho-physical tests were worked out which, taken as a whole, proved to be of considerable value in predicting flying ability. In the navy, the Dodge test for the selection and training of gun pointers proved to be a brilliant success. A different sort of psychological problem was tackled by the committee on problems of emotional stability, fear, and self control. The psychiatrists and the psychologists combined to suggest methods which would be useful in discovering psychopathic or neuropathic tendencies and such emotional instability as might result in a breakdown under the strain of war. The psychologists also co-operated in a general way with the morale branch of the army. In addition to considering some of the problems of military efficiency, the psychologists took up some of the problems of incapacity, shell shock, and re-education. The problems which confront a civil service commission are not widely different from those which confronted the personnel officer of the army. A civil service commission can therefore make good use of a general intelligence examination to eliminate at the outset candidates of low-grade mental ability and to mark those of superior ability. Already a few examples of such use of the tests have been reported. In 1916 a trial of the Stanford-Binet tests was made in selecting men for positions on the fire and police forces of San Jose, California.[14] Those who stood low upon the tests were rejected without further consideration.

Psychology in Traffic Traffic psychology is a young, expanding and wide field in psychology. Whereas traffic psychology is primarily related to the study of the behavior of road users and the psychological processes underlying that behavior (Rothengatter, 1997, 223) as well as to the relationship between behavior and accidents, transportation psychology, sometimes referred 9

to as mobility psychology, focuses on mobility issues, individual and social factors in the movement of people and goods, and travel demand management (TDM). One of the most prominent behavioral models divides the various tasks involved in traffic participation into three hierarchical levels, i.e. the strategic, the tactical and the operational level. The model demonstrates the diversity of decision and control tasks which have to be accomplished when driving a vehicle. However, until now, most of the psychological models have had a rather heuristic nature, e.g. risk theories such as the risk compensation hypothesis, Fuller's task capability model, and thus are not sufficiently precise to allow for concrete behavioral prediction and control.

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10 Ways Psychology can Improve your life Psychology helps the human in many fields but how we can apply Psychology in our daily life?

Practical Ways to Apply Psychology in Everyday Life Do you think that psychology is just for students, academics and therapists? Then think again. Because psychology is both an applied and a theoretical subject, it can be utilized in a number of ways. While research studies aren't exactly light reading material for the average person, the results of these experiments and studies can have important applications in daily life. The following are some of the top 10 practical uses for psychology in everyday life.

1. Get Motivated Whether your goal is to quit smoking, lose weight or learn a new language, some lessons from psychology offer tips for getting motivated. In order to increase your motivational levels when approaching a task, utilize some of the following tips derived from research in cognitive and educational psychology: • • • • •

Introduce new or novel elements to keep your interest high. Vary the sequence to help stave off boredom. Learn new things that build on your existing knowledge. Set clear goals that are directly related to the task. Reward yourself for a job well done.

2. Improve Your Leadership Skills It doesn’t matter if you’re an office manager or a volunteer at a local youth group, having good leadership skills will probably be essential at some point in your life. Not everyone is a born leader, but a few simple tips gleaned from psychological research can help your improve your leadership skills. One of the most famous studies on this topic looked at three distinct leadership styles. Based on the findings of this study and subsequent research, practice some of the following when you are in a leadership position: • • •

Offer clear guidance, but allow group members to voice opinions. Talk about possible solutions to probelms with members of the group. Focus on stimulating ideas and be willing to reward creativity.

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3. Become a Better Communicator Communication involves much more than how you speak or write. Research suggests that nonverbal signals make up a huge portion of our interpersonal communications. In order to communicate your message effectively, you need to learn how to express yourself nonverbally and to read the nonverbal cues of those around you. A few key strategies include the following: • • •

Use good eye contact. Start noticing nonverbal signals in others. Learn to use your tone of voice to reinforce your message.

4. Learn to Better Understand Others Much like nonverbal communication, your ability to understand your emotions and the emotions of those around you plays an important role in your relationships and professional life. The term emotional intelligence refers to your ability to understand both your own emotions as well as those of other people. Your emotional intelligence quotient is a measure of this ability. According to psychologist Daniel Goleman, your EQ may actually be more important than your IQ (1995). What can you do to become more emotionally intelligent? Consider some of the following strategies: • • •

Carefully assess your own emotional reactions. Record your experience and emotions in a journal. Try to see situations from the perspective of another person.

5. Make More Accurate Decisions Research in cognitive psychology has provided a wealth of information about decision making. By applying these strategies to your own life, you can learn to make wiser choices. The next time you need to make a big decision, try using some of the following techniques: •

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Try using the “six thinking hats” approach by looking at the situation from multiple points of view, including rational, emotional, intuitive, creative, positive and negative perspectives. Consider the potential costs and benefits of a decision. Employ a grid analysis technique that gives a score for how a particular decision will satisfy specific requirements you may have.

6. Improve Your Memory

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Have you ever wondered why you can remember exact details from childhood events yet forget the name of the new client you met yesterday? Research on how we form new memories as well as how and why we forget has led to a number of findings that can be applied directly in your daily life. What are some ways you can increase your memory power? • • •

Focus on the information. Rehearse what you have learned. Eliminate distractions.

7. Make Wiser Financial Decisions Nobel Prize winning psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky conducted a series of studies that looked at how people manage uncertainty and risk when making decisions. Subsequent research in this area known as behavior economics has yielded some key findings that you can use to make wiser money management choices. One study (2004) found that workers could more than triple their savings by utilizing some of the following strategies: • • •

Don’t procrastinate! Start investing in savings now. Commit in advance to devote portions of your future earnings to your retirement savings. Try to be aware of personal biases that may lead to poor money choices.

8. Get Better Grades The next time you're tempted to complain about pop quizzes, midterms or final exams, consider this - research has demonstrated that taking tests actually helps you better remember what you've learned, even if it wasn't covered on the test (Chan et al., 2006). Students who were tested repeatedly were able to recall 61 percent of the material while those in the study group recalled only 40 percent. How can you apply these findings to your own life? When trying to learn new information, self-test frequently in order to cement what you have learned into your memory.

9. Become More Productive Sometimes it seems like there are thousands of books, blogs and magazine articles telling us how to get more done in a day, but how much of this advice is founded on actual research? For example, think about the number of times have you heard that multitasking can help you become more productive. In reality, research has found that trying to perform more than one task at the same time seriously impairs speed, accuracy and productivity. So what lessons from psychology can you use to increase your productivity? Consider some of the following: • •

Avoid multitasking when working on complex or dangerous tasks. Focus on the task at hand. 13

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Eliminate distractions.

10. Be Healthier Psychology can also be a useful tool for improving your overall health. From ways to encourage exercise and better nutrition to new treatments for depression, the field of health psychology offers a wealth of beneficial strategies that can help you to be healthier and happier. Some examples that you can apply directly to your own life: • • •

Studies have shown that both sunlight and artificial light can reduce the symptoms of seasonal affective disorder. Research has demonstrated that exercise can be an effective treatment for depression as well as other mental disorders. Studies have found that helping people understand the risks of unhealthy behaviors can lead to healthier choices.

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