AP Comparative Government and Politics terms

[TEACHER]

Summer Reading Assignment AP Comparative Government & Politics Olivia Hu Due September

*Completion of this assignment does not guarantee placement in this course for the school year.

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION Page |1

I.

CHAPTER 1- ISSUES IN COMPARATIVE POLITICS: pages 1-29 1. Define: a. political systems Political systems are where political decisions have power.

“Political decisions always take place within some community that we may call a political system.” (1) b. governments

“Governments are organizations of individuals who are legally empowered to make binding decisions on behalf of a particular community.” (2) c.

night watchman state

The night watchman state model of government is characteristic of nineteenth century western governments. Such governments provided for basic law and order, defense, and protection of property rights (and gradually, education). (2) d. welfare state The welfare state has various welfare programs (e.g. “unemployment benefits, accident and sickness insurance, old age pensions, public education …” (2)). This type of state started with Otto von Bismarck‟s gov‟t in the 1880s. Their policies vary from country to country. e. regulatory state The regulatory state regulates sectors of society, including economic factors – savings, investment, inflation, and employment. They developed alongside welfare states, and have come to be criticized. (3) f. State of Nature Ideal state of society, ideal social contract; philosophically, the state that would exist without any government – or the state of society that existed before the first governments had formed (3) 2. How do the private and public spheres influence politics? Private spheres oughtn‟t to influence politics much at all, though there is some crossover. Politics “has directly to do only with those decisions that are public.” (2) 3. How can politics be authoritative? Politics has to do with political decisions that those of the political system are bound to comply with. These public decisions may be backed by force/coercion, but preferably by legitimacy (which may be established through [rigged] elections (85)) 4. How may welfare state politics vary within industrial countries? Welfare state politics may vary in scope and in priorities – the United States stresses equality of opportunity through education, while many western European countries stress social security and health programs. 5. How do Hobbes and Rousseau differ in their explanations of the Social Contract? Hobbes: The state of nature is eternal conflict; therefore, there must be a strong government for industry, culture, trade, etc. Without government, there would be fear, violent death… Rousseau: The state of nature is the best state. Governments are the source of power and inequality corruption and alienation, excesses. 6. Describe the benefits of nation-building.

“Nation-building activities help instill common world views, values, and expectations.”(4) =More homogeneity → easier to live peacefully together +more mutual goals + more mutual gain

7. What are the two defining factors of Public Goods? Explain. a. “…if they are provided to one consumer, they cannot be withheld from anyone else.” (5) You can‟t sell clean air to one person and no others. b. “…one person‟s enjoyment or consumption of the good does not detract from anyone else‟s.” (5) One person‟s enjoyment of a public good will not cause someone else to have less. 8. How can externalities be related to market failure?

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“A… type of market failure is externalities, which occur when some economic activity produces costs that are not borne or taken into account by any of the parties.” (5) The burdens of the negative externalities can be shared or protected against through government intervention. 9. Define: NIMBY

“„Not-in-my-backyard‟” groups organize protest against obnoxious externalities (e.g. “Polluting factories, waste dumps, prisons, pornographic shops, or major highways…”). (5) 1. When Does Government Become the Problem? 10. Who are the libertarians and what are their ideals? “Libertarians are individualists who see society as composed of individual human beings with fundamental rights that

must be protected. The main problem with government, libertarians argue, is that the more tasks it takes on, the more prone it is to violate such basic rights. … [They] promote a society of unfettered individuals, free to make their own choices and to seek out the groups to which they want to belong.” (7)

11. Who are the anarchists and what are their ideals?

“Anarchists are communitarians. They see societies … as naturally close –knit and egalitarian communities” that are corrupted by government and power; they believe in “voluntary cooperation and natural communities” (7) Optimists, the lot of them. They‟re kind of Native American-ish regarding property – “Radical anarchists reject all forms of private property as well as formal authority.” (10) 12. How does Rent Seeking impact policymaking? Rent seeking impacts policymaking by making the primary purpose of policymakers who seek rent “[controlling] the spoils of government.” (9) 13. Why may “vested interests” remain in government? Those with vested interests resist change (more and more “the larger the government and the more attractive the benefits it provides”) unless the change is in their favor. Those with vested interests may make up a large group that “may become a powerful force against change…” (9). 14. How would libertarians solve “market failures”? They are market-oriented, so they would strengthen ownership and minimize government intervention – they want to “rely on free markets and individual property rights.” (10)

B.

POLITICAL SYSTEMS

15. Define: a.

political systems {**^ “main organizing concept of this book” (11)}

“Any system must necessarily have two properties: (1) a set of interdependent parts, and (2) boundaries towards the outside environment. There are many kinds of systems: mechanical systems such as automobiles, ecological systems (ecosystems) such as the plants and animals coexisting in a single habitat, and social systems such as a family. All have interdependent parts and boundaries. Political systems are a particular type of social system – namely, one involved in the making of authoritative public decisions. To put it slightly differently, the political system is a set of institutions, such as parliaments, bureaucracies, and courts that formulate and implement to collective goals of a society or of groups within it.” (11) A political system is a type of social system that is involved authoritative public decision making. As all systems do, it has both interdependent parts and boundaries.

C.

STATES

16. Define: a. state

“A state is a political system that has sovereignty” (11)

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION Page |3 b. sovereignty

“[Sovereignty is] independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory, based on the recognized right to self-determination … [and] rests with those who have the ultimate right to make political decisions.” (11-12) Internal sovereignty deals with one‟s own citizens. External sovereignty deals with treaties, &c. 17. How does the EU impact each state‟s sovereignty? The EU takes some sovereignty away from each state.

D.

BUILDING COMMUNITY

18. Give the origins of Religious Fundamentalism and how has it become relevant? 19. Define: a.

nation

“A nation refers to a group of people with a common identity … [and] the self-identification of a people.” (16) Nationality is usually thought of as “a form of primary identification.” (17) b. ethnicity Ethnic background c. political cleavage …divisions, when they “systematically affect political allegiances and policies” (21) d. cumulative cleavage Issue 1 causes Group A to go against Group B Issue 2 also causes Group A to go against Group B Problems compound (See Northern Ireland) e.

cross-cutting cleavage Issue 1 causes Group A to go against Group B Issue 2 causes Group A to join with Group B [maybe against Group C, or not] Issues tend to cancel each other out, sort of. (See the Netherlands) 20. Describe the two conceptual challenges low-middle- High income economies face. 1- Industrialization and economic inequality 2- Environmental costs – industrialization results in pollution (27)

E.

FOSTERING DEVELOPMENT

21. Define: a.

GNP The gross national product is the total economic output. Per capita GNP is GNP/person. (22)

b. PPP Purchasing power parity takes into account price level differences. (22)

F.

SECURING DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND CIVIL LIBERTIES

22. Define: a.

democracy The citizens govern. (27) b. oligarchy The few govern. (27) c.

totalitarian systems

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION Page |4 The governing governs all. (27) 23. What is the “Third Wave”? The “Third Wave” of worldwide democratization, as referred to by Samuel P. Huntington, was from 1974: S. Europe, E. Asia, Latin America, E. Europe (USSR successor states), and parts of Africa (28). The first two waves were after WWI and after WWII. (See 103 for some examples) 24. List the challenges of the “Third Wave”. Military coups

“„…tyranny of the majority‟” Cultural and religious disagreements regarding human rights and civil liberties Gender equality policies (see Muslim countries) (28) Development/not enough development Income/wealth inequality increase (29) 25. Which factors led to political fragmentation and polarization of government? Political effects of developments – economic, technological; class antagonism; partisanship

II.

CHAPTER 2- COMPARING POLITICAL SYSTEMS: pages 31-45 A.

WHY WE COMPARE?

1. How do people study politics? They compare institutions – past and present; nation 1 and nation 2 (and 3 and 4). (31) -

Description: form a conceptual framework(s)

- Explanation: identify relationships; theorizing … statistical analysis … hypothesis generation - Prediction (32) 2. What are conceptual frameworks? Conceptual frameworks provide outlines for thought patterns regarding ABC

“In order to describe politics, we need a set of concepts that are clearly defined and well understood.” (32)

B.

HOW WE COMPARE

3. According to Bennett and George, “states in transition to democracy are more war prone than established democracies.” Why might this statement be significant? Do you agree? “Box 2.2 Statistical Methods” (33) ^ This statement may be significant because it could lead to the study of specific cases in which states in transition to democracy were or are in war, and then to the answer of “why” questions regarding democracy and war, or transitioning states. I do agree with the statement, as based on the available data.

C.

SYSTEMS: ENV’T & INTERDEPENDENCE/ STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS

4. Define: a. system General concept (1) (34); object-environment interaction

“System, as we defined it in Chapter 1, suggests an object having moving parts, interacting with a setting or an environment.” (34) b. political system

“The political system is a set of institutions and agencies concerned with formulating and implementing the collective goals of a society or groups within it.” (34) c.

government/states

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“Governments or states are the policymaking parts of political systems.” (34) d. structures General concept (2) (34): Structures are specialized agencies that perform functions (36)

“In order to carry on [the many activities of governments], governments have specialized agencies, or structures, such as parliaments, bureaucracies, administrative agencies, and courts, which perform functions…” e.

Most modern political systems have all of the structures listed in II.C.6, but they are rarely comparable because of differences in function (36). functions General concept (3); actions, functions… what structures do “Functions… enable the government to formulate, implement, and enforce its policies.” (36)

“Process functions are…necessary for policy to be made and implemented in any kind of political system…;” “system functions…determine whether or not the system will be maintained or changed;” (38) “policy functions…[have] substantive impacts on the society, the economy, and the culture” (39) f.

inputs Information received; stuff that enters the political system to be reviewed and acted upon by structures There is input from both the domestic environment and the international environment.

“…a political system exists in both a domestic and an international environment, molding these environments and being molded by them. The system receives inputs from these environments and attempts to shape them through its outputs.” (34) 5. What factors mold the international environment of political systems? Military, economic, and diplomatic factors mold the international environment of political systems. 6. What are the six types of political structures? 1- Political parties 2- Interest groups 3- Legislatures 4- Executives 5- Bureaucracies 6- Courts (36) 7. How might comparisons of these political structures be challenging? Most of these structures do not share functions across borders. E.g. Britain and China (36-37) 8. Define: a. political socialization

“Political socialization involves families, schools, communications media, churches, and all the various political structures that develop, reinforce, and transform attitudes of political significance in the society.” (39) (System function) b. political recruitment

“Political recruitment refers to the selection of people for political activity and government offices.” (39) (System function) c.

political communication

“Political communication refers to the flow of information through the society and through the various structures that make up the political system.” (39) (System function) d. outputs Outputs are “the implementations of the political process” and policy functions. (39) e.

political policy functions

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f. g.

Policy functions are functions that create substantive impacts on the society, the economy, and the culture. (39) (II.C.8.f-h) regulation “…the various forms of regulation of behavior” (39) (Policy function) extraction

“…extractions of resources in the form of taxes and the like” (39) (Policy function) h. distribution

“…distribution of benefits and services to various groups in the population” (39) (Policy function) i.

outcomes Outcomes are whatever happens after political activities; they result in new inputs (39-40)

a)

RUSSIA 1985-2002

9. Explain how the structural-functional approach applies to Russia. Social institutions were engaged in socialization and recruitment, interest groups were engaged in policy implementation, independent parties couldn‟t do anything, the Communist Party and the bureaucracy did everything, the parliament did little of anything, and other structures had specific roles. (40-43)

III.

CHAPTER 3- POLITICAL CULTURE AND POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION: pages 46-61 A.

POLITICAL CULTURE/ MAPPING 3 LEVELS

1. How do “cultural norms” shape politics? Attitudes and values (“cultural norms”) affect how we act and how we go about politics. (See III.A.2.a) (46) 2. Define: a. political culture

“…public attitudes toward politics and their role within the political system” (46) b. political socialization

“…how individuals form their political attitudes and thus, collectively, how citizens form their political culture” (46) c.

legitimacy **** The legitimacy of a political system is measured by how much the citizens believe that the government should be in power. A government may have a legitimacy based on tradition, ideology, voting, &c. Without legitimacy, or with violation of legitimacy, resistance, violence, and rebellion may be expected. (47-48)

3. Explain the aspects of political culture. It‟s the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system. 4. Give an example of a leader/ruler whose “special grace, wisdom, or ideology” claimed to transform citizen‟s lives for the better. To what extent was this leader/ruler successful? Mao Zedong – not very successful J. Stalin – not very successful

B.

PROCESS LEVEL

5. Define: a. Participants

“Participants are involved as actual or potential participants in the political process. They are informed about politics and make demands on the polity, granting their support to political leaders based on performance.” (48)

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION Page |7 There are more participants in modern industrial democracies than authoritarian or preindustrial societies. b. Subjects

“Subjects passively obey government officials and the law, but they do not vote or actively involve themselves in politics.” (48)

c.

Commonly found in modern authoritarian societies, subjects have little to do with public affairs, but they are aware. Parochial

“Parochials are hardly aware of government and politics. They may be illiterates, rural people living in remote areas, or simply people who ignore politics and its impact on their lives.” (48) There are the most parochials in preindustrial (not counting prehistoric, which is not covered) societies. Which role do you play as a citizen, RIGHT NOW? Why? Currently, I play the role of a subject; I do not vote, nor do I pursue changes in policy. 6. Define: a.

consensual political culture

“In a consensual political culture, citizens tend to agree on the appropriate means of making political decisions and to agree on the major problems facing the society and how to solve them.” (52) b. conflicting political culture

“In a conflictual [conflicting] political culture, the citizens are sharply divided, often on both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems.” (48) c.

political subcultures These may develop in long-term conflictual political cultures. Those in different political subcultures may be sharply divided in at least some critical issues.

d. socialization “…socialization…refer[s] to the way in which political values are formed and the political culture is transmitted from one generation to the next.” (52) 1- Direct/indirect socialization: explicitly indoctrinated (like in classes or indoctrination programs)/experience-molded (especially in early interpersonal relationships, environment, etc.) 2- Continues throughout one‟s life with experiences 3- Unifying/divisive: ~consensual/conflictual 7. What is the “political self”?

“At any specific time, an individual‟s political self will be a combination of several feelings and attitudes” such as self-images (identities) and beliefs. (52)

8. Describe the dualities of Political Socialization. Political socialization can be either direct or indirect and unifying or divisive. 9. List the agents of Political Socialization. -

The Family (53) Schools (53-54)

-

Religious Institutions (54-55)

-

Peer Groups (55) Social Class and Gender (55) Mass Media (55-56) Interest Groups (56-57)

-

Political Parties (57)

-

Direct Contact with Governmental Structures (57-58)

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C.

TRENDS IN CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL CULTURES

10. Define: a. modernization Secularization, globalization; expectations from gov‟t homogenize (58) b. postmaterial values

“…social equality, environmental protection, cultural pluralism, and self-expression” (58) c.

ethnicity Ethnic identities (58)

d. democratization Especially in e. Europe, e. Asia, etc. developing (59) e.

IV.

marketization Growth of market economies (59)

CHAPTER 4- INTEREST ARTICULATION: pages 62-80 1. Define: a. interest articulation Interest articulation is the process by which citizens and social groups express their needs and demands to the government. (62) b. personal interest contacts Personal interest contacts are the interest articulations of small groups or individuals.

A.

CITIZEN ACTION/ PARTICIPATION

2. How is grassroots politics effective? Grassroots politics involve a large portion of the citizenry and often the media, and thus exert a great deal of pressure on a political system/gov‟t.

B.

INTEREST GROUPS

3. Define: a.

anomic groups A SPONTANEOUS GROUP OF WORKING-CLASS INDIVIDUALS LIVING IN THE SAME NEIGHBORHOOD (68)

“Anomic groups are generally spontaneous groups that form suddenly when many individuals respond similarly to frustration, disappointment, or other strong emotions.” Brief in nature, they form when

organized groups either do not work or are nonexistent. They are public outbursts. (65) b. non associational groups

c.

THE WORKING CLASS AS A COLLECTIVE (68) Nonassociational groups are based on common ground – whether that is ethnicity, religion, &c. – and are thus more continuous than IV.B.3.a. Yet, they are also rarely well organized. Two “interesting” kinds of this group are 1) the large, not-yet formally organized group and 2) the highly personal small group – a small village or subgroup. (65-66) collective action problems There is a common problem, but those involved don‟t find it worth it to get organized, for there could also be large collective benefits from the work of the few. These problems result in the first type of nonassociational group (IV.A.3.b.). (67)

d. institutional groups

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION Page |9 THE LABOR DEPARTMENT WITHIN THE GOVERNMENT (68)

“Institutional groups are formal and have other political or social functions in addition to interest articulation. Either as corporate bodies or as smaller groups within these bodies (legislative blocs, officer cliques, groups within the clergy, or ideological cliques in bureaucracies), such groups express their own interests or represent the interest of other groups in the society.” Their influence strength is usually ∝ member number or income.

e.

E.g. military-industrial complex (Defense Dept. and defense industries), farm lobby + Dept. of Agriculture, Roman Catholic Church… (67) associational groups LABOR UNION (68) Particular interest groups; orderly E.g. unions, chambers of commerce, manufacturers‟ associations,

f.

civil society

Sociopolitical interactions free of state control civil society 4. Explain some of the differences between Interest Group Systems. Pluralist v. democratic corporatist v. controlled - Pluralist: multiple groups for one interest; voluntary and limited membership; decentralized or loose structure; clearly separated from the government (69-70) - Democratic corporatist: more organized than pluralist; one association for one interest; compulsory and nearly universal membership; centrally organized; involved in policymaking and implementation - Controlled: GOVERNMENT-CONTROLLED. One group per social sector, compulsory membership, hierarchal organization 5. Define: a. mass media TV, radio, newspapers, magazines 6. On page 76 Table 4.3, list three summative conclusions from this chart. 1- All the groups besides the anomic groups have used clearly legitimate channels 2- Institutional groups are rather more concerned about economic problems 3- Anomic and associational groups are more often coercive (76)

V.

CHAPTER 5- INTEREST AGGREGATION & POLITICAL PARTIES: pages 81-100 1. Define: a.

interest aggregation

“Interest aggregation [henceforth to be IA] is the activity in which the political demands of individuals and groups are combined into policy programs. … [It] helps create a balanced government program” through

compromise of competing goals. In larger nations, this is done mostly by specialized organizations, such as political parties and V.0.c and V.0.d. See V.0.e and V.0.f for party workings. (81) Structure – political parties: functions – IA; organization of political thought; political recruitment; interest articulation; demand transmission; public policy making, implementation, and adjudication; &c. (81) Function – IA: structures – political parties; associational groups; institutional groups; individuals with lots of political clout; &c. (81-84, the whole chap.) b. patron-client network Nearly universal, the patron-client network‟s patron is the benefit provider and the client is the loyalty provider. It is based on personal connections. This is indicative of a “static political system” if this is the

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c.

predominant structure for IA (shifting factional agreements). E.g. feudalism, political machines, the president and advisors… (81-82) associational groups Organizations with powerful resources can easily cross the line between IAr and IAg. This possible power depends on the associational group‟s “ability to develop coherent policy positions and mobilize the votes of their members to support these positions.” (83)

d. institutional groups Usually the bureaucracy, which can negotiate with groups E.g. bureaucratic and military factions (see military coups (94-96)) (83-84) e. competitive party systems “[They] primarily try to build electoral support” (84) (84-92) f.

authoritarian party systems

“[They] seek to direct society” (84) (92-94) g.

Duverger‟s Law, page 85 Box 5.1 See C.P.G. Grey - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7tWHJfhiyo

V.0.h  two-party systems, V.0.i  multiple party systems via underrepresentation of small, noncompeting parties in V.0.h (85) also see V.2. h. single-member district plurality election rule “First past the post” election rule: “the country [is divided] into many election districts. In each district, the candidate who has more votes than any other – a plurality – wins the election in the district.” Rarely found in non-Britain-influenced countries. i. proportional representation Used by most democracies, “the country is divided into a few, large districts ([or just one]) 2. What is meant by “first-past-the-post”? However many parties are competing, the one that gets more than all the others wins (see Horse Racing). This results in Duverger‟s Law. In future elections, the lowest-scoring parties drop out, and their votes get “transferred” to the highest-scoring parties because they think that those parties will have the greatest chance of getting their opinions represented. This repeats until only two parties are left. (V.1.g)

A.

CLASSIFYING COMPETITIVE PARTY SYSTEMS

3. Define: a. majoritarian party system Either a) like the US – two-party domination or b) like in Britain – two large parties and laws that give one of them legislative majorities (90) b. multiparty systems

“[Combos] of parties, voter support, and election laws [make it so that] no single party wins a legislative majority.” Post-election, IA via interparty bargaining “…is critical for shaping policy directions” E.g. France, Germany (90) c.

consensual party systems The majority of parties (going by # of seats) have similar policy ideas, and there is trust in the system and in each other (90) E.g. US, Britain, Austria 1966-1980; Germany; Norway, Sweden (top of figure 5.2 (88), figure 5.3 (90)) d. conflictual party systems The majority are highly antagonistic and far apart on issues E.g. Austria 1918-1934; French Fifth Republic; Russia, French Fourth Republic, Weimar Germany, Italy (90, Figure 5.3; 91)

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 11 e.

consociational party system Also “accommodative,” this system is a mix between V.3.c. and V.3.d. E.g. Austria 1948-1966, Lebanon 1948-1975, South Africa when transitioning; Netherlands, Belgium (9091)

V.A.3.c-V.A.3.e.: “Although the number of parties affects the degree of political stability, the degree of antagonism among parties is more important.” (92) f. authoritarian party system Authoritarian party systems are specialized IA structures. “[IA] takes place within the ranks of the party or

in interactions with business groups, landowners, and institutional groups in the bureaucracy or military. The citizens have no real opportunity to shape aggregation by choosing through party alternatives, although controlled elections are often organized.” One may compare these systems based on how controlling they are a) within the party and b) of other groups. (92) g.

exclusive governing party Extreme 1:“The exclusive governing party … insists on control over political resources by the party

leadership. It recognizes no legitimate [IA] by groups within the party nor does it permit any free activity by social groups, citizens, or other government agencies. In its most intensive form, sometimes called totalitarianism, it penetrates the entire society and mobilizes support for policies developed at the top.” Legitimacy: its ideology is in “the true interests of the citizens.” “An unchallenged ideological focus provides legitimacy and coherence.” It can provide unified mobilization of political resources for policies, and can thus be a tool for massive social change, but leads to succession problems. h. inclusive governing party Extreme 2: “The inclusive governing party … recognizes and attempts to coordinate various social groups in the society.” It picks and chooses interests to aggregate and forbids challenges. (92) In these “authoritarian corporatist systems,” large associational/institutional groups are allowed to make “limited autonomous demands.” (93) The gov‟t tries to include more voices for greater overall control. 4. Give examples and specifics of the Exclusive and Inclusive Authoritarian Systems. Exclusive: USSR pre-1985, E. Europe pre-1989, N. Korea, Vietnam, Cuba; sort-of China – IA may be permitted within bounds, but no one can try to mobilize support if the top elite has not decided on policy. (92-93) Inclusive: Kenya and Tanzania – IA from some groups was allowed within decentralized orgs; Mexico‟s PRI – Though it controlled ballot-counting, it also gathered many social groups into its web. They got most orgs at least vaguely connected, and bargained every 6 yr. Now, however, discontent is rising; the impoverished want more democracy, as they didn‟t share in growth. (94)

B.

MILITARY & INTEREST AGGREGATION

5. Define: a. military government Post-WWII, the newly installed parliamentary and democratic gov‟t‟s broke down and were replaced by military gov‟ts, as the military controlled “instruments of force”/“coercive resources” and there were no longstanding traditions in democracy. Where civilian authority was reest.‟d, the military still often holds much power. (See Brazil, Syria, Pakistan, Guinea, Zaire, Paraguay, and Haiti) If either democratic or authoritarian IA fails, “the military may emerge by default as the only force able to maintain orderly government.” However, the military is limited in its internal structure, which is not made for IA, and in its lack of legitimacy. (94-96)

VI.

CHAPTER 6- GOVERNMENT AND POLICYMAKING: pages 101-128 1. Define: a. policymaking

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“Policymaking is the pivotal stage in the political process, the point at which” billslaw, edicts are issued. Implementation and enforcement comes later. (101) b. constitution

“A constitution is the basic rules concerning decision making, rights and the distribution of authority in a political system.” It reigns supreme in systems based on VI.1.c. (101) c.

rule of law

“In political systems based on the rule of law…government can take no action that has not been authorized by law and…citizens can be punished only for actions that violate an existing law.” (101) d. decision rules Contained in VI.1.b, decision rules govern how decisions are made and how one makes agencies and offices that can make decisions. They also tell those who wish to influence policy who to pressure, ask, &c. to obtain decisions in their favor.

e.

Il faut que les règles ne changent pas, et que les gens les sachent – si ce n‟est pas, les gens ne feraient pas de confiance au gouvernement. (101-102) egalitarian

Under egalitarian voting rules, each member has the same voting power (officers may break ties). (102) f. hierarchical Everyone is supposed to defer to his or her superior. –Chain of command? (102) 2. What prompts constitutional formation? They are often prompted by [usually violent] breaks with the past – war, revolution, rebellion… Constitutions are formed to put in place decision rules that acknowledge the change in balance. The EU is an exception (if one does not count WWI and WWII). (103) 3. Which country upon our studies does not have a formal constitution? Great Britain – they have the common law, years and years of customs and conventions, “buttressed by important ordinary statutes”. (103) 4. How are policymakers chosen in an authoritarian regime? “…military councils, hereditary families, dominant political parties,” &c. (103) 5. How do decision rules of political systems differ? Citizens have more (democratic) or less (authoritarian) say in who the policymakers are. (103) Democratic systems differ in a) how powers are separated, b) geographic dist. of authority (central gov‟t and state, province, &c. gov‟t‟s – centralization), and c) gov‟t authority limits. (104) 6. Define: a. confederal VI.5.b: decentralized, e.g. EU, US under Articles (106 Figure 6.1). Ultimate power resides with individual states (at the local level). (107) b. federal VI.5.b: semi-centralized, e.g. Germany, Nigeria, USSR, Russia, US, Mexico, &c. (106 Figure 6.1). Central and local levels of power have their spheres of authority and means to implement their power. (107) Large and diverse states tend to be federal. (108) c. unitary systems VI.5.b: very centralized, e.g. China, Egypt, Japan, Britain, France (106 Figure 6.1). The ultimate power resides with the central gov‟t. It may delegate powers specifically to the local levels, but it may also change or withdraw them at will. (107) However, in actuality, however, local levels have power that is rarely challenged. (108) d. democratic presidential regime

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 13 VI.5.a: “The democratic presidential regime provides two separate agencies of [gov‟t] – the executive and the legislative – separately elected an authorized by the people.” Everyone has a fixed term, and each branch cannot unseat the other. The functions of these two branches differ between systems. (104) e.

f.

parliamentary regime VI.5.a: “The parliamentary regimes…make the executive and legislative branches interdependent.” The legislative branch is directly elected, whilst the PM & cabinet emerge from the legislature. There is no fixed term of office, though they can be voted out of office at any time (usually). (104) confidence relationship

“The [confidence relationship between the prime minister and the parliamentary majority] makes [VI.6.e] possible.” (104) They are codependent through “the parliamentary majority‟s dismissal power [noconfidence or confidence vote power] and the prime minister‟s dissolution power [calling of new elections whenever power].” (105) g.

semi-presidential VI.5.a: A mixed-type (VI.6.d and VI.6.e) democracy may be characterized as semi-presidential. There is some sort of shared control. E.g. France (105)

Presidential

Parliamentary

Legislative

Executive

Legislative

Executive

Voted

Voted

Voted

Emerges from Legis. Majority (?)

Legislation and budget authorization

Varied; gov‟t appointments, veto, &c…

Less influential

Policymaker

Mostly separate from the Executive, except for veto…

Mostly separate from the Legislative (except for impeachment…)

Confidence in the PM

Agent of the parliamentary majority

Fixed term

Fixed term

Unfixed term (alldismissed), voted out whenever

Unfixed term ([no-] confidence votes), voted out whenever

h. constitutional regimes VI.5.c: “Systems in which the powers of various government units are defined and limited by a written constitution, statutes, and custom are called constitutional regimes.” (108) i. majoritarian democracy Majoritarian democracy is democracy based on the rule of the majority. In this type of democracy, there is the danger of “tyranny of the majority.” (Wiki) It is also sometimes referred to as Westminster democracy. (ucsd.edu) j. consensual democracies An alternative to majoritarian democracy, their decision-making structure tries to take into account as many different opinions as possible. (Wiki: Consensus Democracy) Thus, it is better for divided societies. 7. What three types of government institutions are involved in policymaking? 1- The legislative assembly 2- The chief executive 3- The higher levels of bureaucracy (111) 8. List several functions of assemblies: -

Deliberating, debating and voting on policies Public spending decision control (budgeting)

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 14 -

Varied: o Court of appeals (British House of Lords) o

Varying degrees of policymaking 

U.S. Congress – very active in formulation and in enactment



British House of Commons – “proposals are sometimes initiated or modified by ordinary

members of Parliament, but public policy is usually initiated an proposed by members of the Cabinet ([chosen from the Parliament])” 

PRC‟s National People‟s Congress – rubberstamps decisions made elsewhere and listens to party leaders

o o o

Elite recruitment (major, esp. in parliamentary systems) IA1 and IA – committee hearings and floor debates (esp. w/o cohesive majority) Public information, socialization of elites and the people – debates (esp. Br. Commons) (very limited in PRC)

o

Prepare politicians for executive office (House of Commons) (113)

9. Define: a. Chief Executive

“…chief executives [are] officials who sit at the very top of the often-colossal executive branch … [and] have various names, titles, duties, and powers.” E.g. presidents, PMs, chancellors, &c. “…they tend to be the main formulators and executors of public policy.” (115) Functions: First/last word in policymaking (just 1st for parliamentary, they don‟t have veto), policy implementation overseer, foreign policy crisis decision maker, starter of political initiatives, force for change, influence in children‟s perceptions of government, communicator, &c. (122) b. Head of State Head of State is ceremonial c. Head of Government Head of Government is effective d. individual The Head of State or of Government is typically an individual. e. collective f.

Cabinets are typically collective. effective If an officer (political executive) is effective, he or she has “genuine discretion in the enactment and

implementation of laws and regulations, in budgetary matters, or in important government appointments.” (116) g.

ceremonial Those who are ceremonial have no real input in the policymaking/governing/&c. process. (116)

10. List several functions of bureaucracy. -

Implements and enforces laws and regulations Policy implementation and enforcement

-

IA1 and IA2 Adjudication o E.g. Tax authorities determine if citizens have paid their taxes and assign penalties

-

Communication o To political elites

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 15 o

To interest groups, political parties, business elites, and the public

o

Media influence (less and less; now more ““spin control”” than “classification and “executive privilege””)

- (123-124) 11. How do the authors explain bureaucratic organization? The bureaucracy is the executive branch below the president/monarch/PM/cabinet. Britain: At the top, there is the ~100 members = “government” (Mycroft). They, a group of elite civil servants, oversee the permanent higher civil service. Below these are the ordinary civil servants, those who are employed in departments and agencies. The permanent civil service exists in some capacity in most countries, though it is most fully institutionalized in Britain. The French have a group with long tenure and experience, and the U.S. has – below presidential appointees – permanent civil servants. They are generally specialists – “military officers, diplomats, doctors, scientists, economists, and engineers, who exert great influence on policy formulation and execution in their specialties.” (123) 12. Which out of the five explanations is the most important and why?

Max Weber: 1- Decision making is based on fixed and official jurisdictions, rules, and regulations; 2- There are formal and specialized educational or training requirements for each position; 3- There is a hierarchical command structure: a firmly ordered system of super- and subordination, in which information flows upward and decisions downward; 4- Decisions are made on the basis of standard operating procedures, which include extensive written records; and 5- Officials hold career positions, are appointed and promoted on the basis of merit, and have protection against political interference, notably in the form of permanent job tenure. (124) … 13. What are challenges of bureaucratic systems?

“Bureaucratic organizations have a tendency to become stodgy, rule-bound, inflexible, and insensitive to the needs of their clients. In many cases, bureaucrats also have few incentives to be innovative and efficient, or even to work very hard. …” They are also not usually as neutral as they should, and are conservative politically and conform ideologically.

Inefficiency and inertia 14. Define: a.

ombudsman (page 125)

“Sweden invented the institution of the ombudsman to prevent bureaucrats from doing injury or injustice to individuals. [They] typically have no power of their own, but report to the legislature for remedial action. …Their cases rarely lead to criminal conviction, but often [gov‟t] officials change their policies as a result of embarrassing publicity.” (125) 15. List four ways individuals are selected for government. 1- University recruitment 23416. How are the removals of the chief executive positions different in Presidential and Parliamentary Systems? In parliamentary systems, either the Parliament calls for a vote of no-confidence or the PM calls for a vote of confidence. In presidential systems, there is a call for impeachment, and the case is looked into.

A. 17. Define:

LIMITATIONS ON GOVERNMENT POWER

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 16 a.

constitutional regimes

“Systems in which the powers of various government units are defined and limited by a written constitution, statutes, and custom are called constitutional regimes.” (108) b. judicial review Judicial review is the power of the courts to limit governmental power. This has a wide range across nations, from中国, 非洲, and Nigeria‟s non-independent courts to those of 美国, 日本, 和德国. 因果在中. (108, 108 Table 6.1) Most democratic systems have weak judicial review. (109)

B.

CHECKING THE TOP POLICYMAKERS

18. Define: impeachment and procedures Impeachment is the procedure through which officers are removed from office before their terms are up, found in most presidential systems. “Impeachment typically involves three components: (1) impeachable offenses are usually

identified as presenting unusual danger to the public good or safety; (2) the penalty is removal from office (sometimes with separate criminal penalties); (3) impeachment cases are decided by the legislature, but require more than ordinary majorities and may also involve the judiciary in some way.” (110)

C.

ASSEMBLIES

19. What are the essential components of legislative assemblies? - The legislative 20. Define: bicameralism Bicameralism is an assembly structure in which there are two chambers. “In most bicameral systems one chamber is dominant, and the second…has more limited powers that are often designed to protect regional interests.” (112)

D.

THE BUREAUCRACY

21. Define: a. bureaucracies

“…systems of public administration” (122) b. Civil Service Those in service to the government (123) c.

Higher Civil Service Numbering ~3000 in Britain, these permanent civil servants are “largely recruited directly from the

universities. They spend their lives as an elite corps, moving about from ministry to ministry, watching governments come and go, and becoming increasingly important as policymakers as they rise in rank.” (123)

VII.

CHAPTER 7- PUBLIC POLICY: pages 129-155

1. Define: a. public policies

“…public policies … [are] all those authoritative public decisions that governments make” (129) b. outputs Outputs of the political system are what VII.1.a are referred to as (129, 146-148) c.

outcomes Political outcomes are what VII.1.b are supposed to promote/result in. (129, 140-148) d. political goods & values

“Whether a certain outcome is good or bad ultimately depends on normative criteria that we call political goods and values.” They are oft disagreed over by politicians and citizens. (129, 148-153)

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 17 1.

Public policies

2. Define: a. extraction Refers to the extraction of resources (130, 130-133) b. distribution c.

Refers to the distribution of resources, goods (130, 133-137) regulation Refers to the regulation of human behavior (130, 137-140)

d. symbolic policies Refers to “political speeches, holidays, rites, public monuments and statutes, and the like – used by

governments to exhort citizens to desired forms of behavior, often to build a sense of community or to celebrate exemplary conduct (see Chapter 1)” (130, 140)

e.

taxation

“Taxation is the extraction for governmental purposes of money or goods from members of a political system, for which they receive no immediate or direct benefit.” (131) f.

GDP

“…gross domestic product (GDP) … [is] the total value of goods and services produced by a country‟s residents in a year.” (132) g.

OECD The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has three categories of countries. (133) 3. What are the three categories of OECD?

1- Heavy social security tax systems which receive 1/3 to ½ of their revenue from social security, e.g. Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, France, and Italy 2- The U.S. and日本, which fall the farthest below average in total tax burden and rely heavily on direct taxes rather than on sales and consumption taxes 3- Countries such as Sweden and Norway, which impose the highest tax burdens of all the OECD countries and rely on all three types of taxation – direct, indirect, and social security payments but impose particularly burdensome social security payments on employers. (133) 4. What causes tax rates to come down?

“Tax rates have come down because of the spread of economic views that stress the importance of entrepreneurial incentives for productivity.” (133) 5. What are several goals of symbolic policies? page 130, 140

“…to build a sense of community […by boosting people‟s national identity, civic pride, or trust in government] or to celebrate exemplary conduct…, to win elections or get their own pet programs enacted, to make people [more compliant, especially in times of crisis]…, [to] attempt to contribute to the population‟s sense of governmental legitimacy and its willingness to comply with public policy.” (130, 140)

B.

POLITICAL GOODS & VALUES

6. Define: a. system goods Order, predictability, and stability; “system goods…reflect the functioning and effectiveness of the whole political system.” (148) b. process goods Democratic procedures and various rights of due process; participation, compliance, and procedural justice c.

policy goods

COMPARATIVE POLITICS TODAY: 8TH EDITION P a g e | 18 Economic welfare, quality of life, freedom, and personal security 1. Strategies for Producing Political Goods, p. 150-151 7. List three examples according to the text. 1- Separation of powers to protect liberty 2- “Dictatorship of the proletariat” for a just and harmonious society 3- A strong leader to increase national power and glory (150) 8. Give a brief description of each of the challenges of the preindustrial nations. a.

neotraditional political systems

Their success and subsequent political modernization contributes to their demise (152) b. personal rule Rent seeking, low to negative growth, low life expectancy, etc., lack of legitimacy, susceptibility to military coups (152) c. clerico-mobilizational regimes Unclear, though international coalitions may be difficult to mount because of religious/national rifts (152) d. technocratic- repressive Growing economic inequality (152) e. technocratic- distributive Low participation (153) 9. Define: a. trade-offs Choosing one value over another b. opportunity costs Giving up the opportunity for something in lieu of something else