Anthropology Notes

 

Syllabus

3

Past papers

5

2016

5

2017

5

NOTES!  Anthropology

6 6

Definition

6

Historical development and recent trends

6

Social Anthropology Culture

8 8

Relationship of anthropology with other social sciences

12

Sub fields of anthropology

14

Institution of Family and Marriage

16

Kinship and Social Organisation

22

Economic Organisation

32

Political organisation Religion??

41 44

Contemporary human problems??

44

Urban Anthropology

44

Rural-urban Migration

44

Expansion of cities/ urbanisation/ development

46

Ethnicity and race

47

Ethnic Groups and Ethnicity: (kottak: ch6)

47

Origin of race and theories

48

Ethnic Groups, Nations and Nationality (kottak: ch6)

51

Ethnic Conflict (kottak: ch6)

52

Degree of Social Variation (Ember)

54

Rank Societies; (heviland:ch22)

57

Social Soc ial Strati Stratifica ficatio tion n (hev (hevila iland: nd:ch1 ch11, 1, 22): 22): Pick Pick point points s fr from om variat variation ion sectio section n

59

Racism and Inequality, (EMBER)

61

Ethnicity and Inequality, (EMBER)

62

Socio-Cultural Changes Need to read, make notes!!

 Anthropologi  Anthropological cal theories Hamza’s notes (need to self-read)

 Anthropological research  Anthropological research methods

63 63

63 63

63

 

Hamza’s notes (need to self-read)

63

 

Syllabus I. Anthropology § Definition of anthropology, anthropology, its historical development and recent trends

II. Social Anthropology § Definition of culture, its characteristics and functions § Relationship of anthropology with other social sciences § Sub fields of anthropology that is Biological, archeological, linguistics § Institution of Family and Marriage (Definition, types, structure, functions, family organisation) § Kinship and Social Organisation (Definition, types, functions, kinship terminology etc) § Economic Organization: (Definition, evolution, substantivism versus formalism, reciprocity reciprocity,, production, consumption, redistribution, barter and primitive economic systems) § Political organization: (Definition, evolution of political system, characteristics of Band societies, tribal societies, Chiefdom, and State societies. Internal conflict theories, external conflict theories, origin of civilization, ethnicity, nationalism the politic of identity, identity, , modernism, post modernism etc (need to read, make notes) § Religion: (Definition, evolution of primitive religions, functions of religion, comparison of divine religions and other world religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc) § Contemporary human problems such as poverty, social inequality (ethnicity and inequality??, racism and inequality??) political instability, population problems ethnic violence (SAME AS ethnic confilct??) and terrorism (ember)

III. Urban Anthropology (left for now, now, will cover before November!!) Rural-urban migration, expansion of cities,major environmental issues, and sanitation problems. Urbanization development, establishment of slums and squatter settlements, refugees, Yankees, Yankees, betties, gypsies, wars and conflict. Conversion of power from feudal to industrialists, institutionalization, education system, change in the mode of production: agriculture to Capitalists’ poverty: theories and remedies, remedies, psychological, cultural, economical, political, religious, physical, environmental, environmental, ecological ecological,, demographical, lingual, lingual, and city management. Conflict theory: Carl Marx, problems created by the mechanization and automation.

 

IV IV.. Socio-Cultural Changes (need to read, make notes, w will ill cover before november) Definitions of socio-cultural Changes, various Dimensions of Social Change, barriers in sociocultural and psychological change. Motivational factors for change, Population pressure, diffusion of innovation, socio-religious barriers in accepting the innovation and new ideas. Media and Cultural Change, Dynamics Dy namics of change in Pakistan: T Trends rends and Prospects

V. Ethnicity and race Ethnic Groups and Ethnicity: (kottak: ch6) Origin of race and theories; (hevilek: ch12) Ethnic Groups, Nations and Nationality; (kottak: ch6) Ethnic Conflict; (kottak: ch6) Degree of Social Variation (ember) Rank Societies; (heviland:ch22) caste and Class Societies; (heviland:ch22) Racism and Inequality, (ember) Ethnicity and Inequality, Inequality, (ember) Social Stratification (heviland:ch11, 22) etc.

VI. Anthropological Theories (hamza notes) § Contributors: (Edward Burnett Taylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, James Frazer, Kari Marx, Edmund Leach, Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, Alfred Krobber, Krobber, AR Radcliff-Brown, Malinowski, Clifford Geertz, Talal Talal Asad, Akbar S Ahamd, ibne-Khaldoon, Shah Waliulah) § Classical Theories (Degenerations, Evolutionism, Diffusions, § Modern Theories Functionalism, Structural-functionalism, Class struggle, Structuralism, Historical Particularism, Feminism, Culture and personality) § Current Trends in Anthropological Thoughts: (Post Modernism, Romanticism, Po Poetics etics and Political of Ethnography)

VII. Anthropological Research Methods (hamza notes) § Meaning, definition, types and aims of social research § Qualitative and Quantitative research § Purpose of research, Research Research Question, Variables, Hypothesis, Research Objective, Research Research design, Sampling, field Data Collection, Tools Tools of Data Collection (Questionnaire, Interview, Interview, Participant Observation), Data Classification, Data Analysis, and Report Writing.

 

Past papers 2016  Q. No. 2. Define Culture and its major Characteristics; also discuss how the discipline of  Anthropology is di di!erent from other Social Sciences? (20)   Q. No. 3. Discuss major Socio-cultural and psychological barrie barriers rs to change.  (20)  Q. No. 4. What are the major Anthropological Research Techniques Techniques which are used to collect field data? Also discuss how Qualitative Research is di!erent from Quantitative Research? (20)  Q. No. 5. What are the major Contemporary Social Problems of Pakistan?   (20)  Q. No. 6. What is the Anthropological definition of Religion and its major functions? Also discuss how the primitive religion was evolved? (20)  Q. No. 7. Describe the theory of Social Evolution given by Lewis H. Morgan & E. B. Tylor. (20)   Q. No. 8. Write short notes on any FOUR of the following: (5 each)   

(a) Acculturation (b) Emic & Etic  & Enculturation (c) Endogamy & Exogamy  (d) Consanguine & A #ne Relatives  (e) Ethnocentrism  (f) Neolithic Culture 

2017 Q. 2 How perspective of Anthropology can be used to study global trends like global warming and erosion of bio-adversity? (20)  Q. 3 How applied anthropology anthropology can be utilized to solve the problems faced by humanity in contemporary world? (20)  Q. 4 Write a detailed account of gift exchange. Give samples from everyday life to substantiate your answer. (20)  Q. 5 Define "animism" and state the evolutionary scheme of religion provided by E. B. Tylor. (20)   Q. 6 What is incest taboo? Explain di!erent theories about incest taboo. (20)  Q. 7 Is this poverty which is the real cause of overpopulation or it is the population pressure that is responsible for increasing poverty? Substantiate your argument by quoting relevant facts and figures. (20)  Q. 8 Write short notes on any FOUR of the following: (5 each)  (a) Sororal Polygyny & Sororate  (b) Uxorilocal residence & Virilocal Residence  (c) Phratry & Moiety  (d) Research tools & Research Method  (e) Paleolithic Culture  (f) Ethnography%

 

NOTES!  Anthropology  Anthropology Definition &

The word ‘anthropology’ is ultimately from the Greek  anthropos (  , ‘human’, plus logos  logos, ‘discourse’ or ‘science’). 

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confronts and ponders major questions of human existence as it explores human biological and cultural diversity in time and space 

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study of what makes us human 

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study of the human species and its immediate ancestors

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exploration of human diversity in time and space  

comparative field: examines all societies, ancient and modern, simple and complex &

o!ers a unique cross-cultural perspective by constantly comparing the customs of one society with those of others.

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 Anthropologists also also compare humans wi with th other animals (most often, other p primates rimates like monkeys and chimpanzees) to see what we have in common with them and what makes us unique. 

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holistic science: study of the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future;

biology, society, language, and culture (expand on each variable)  &

 Anthropologists also also try to understand how peop people le interact in social rrelationships elationships (for example with families and friends).

Historical development and recent trends Beginning Varying Varyi ng theories on where the discipline began:  &

Largely held belief: it traces its roots to ancient Greek historical and philosophical writings about human nature and the organisation of human society. &

many philosophers, like Aristotle, were conducting studies of anthropological nature as early as the 4th century BC.

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anthropology,, as a scientific discipline, has its roots in the European Enlightenment during the anthropology eighteenth century. century. It is also believed that it evolved due to the other disciplines like social and cultural sciences, archeology, sociology, and history.   &

originated in ‘the We West’, st’, notably in three or four ‘Western’ countries: France, Great Britain, the USA and, and Germany. 

 

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The European Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries marked the rise of scientific and rational philosophical thought.

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Enlightenment thinkers, such as Scottish-born David Hume, John Locke of England, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau of France, wrote a number of humanistic works on the nature of humankind.

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They based their work on philosophical reason rather than religious authority and asked important anthropological anthropological questions. 

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Today it is clearly considered a social science, and many aspects cross over into other social science disciplines, such as psychology, history, sociology, philosophy, etc.  

Development and Recent trends  Early Persp Perspecti ective ve (cultur (c ultural al evolut ev olutioni ionists) sts) 19th century anthropologists constructed stages of cultural progress to explain cultural

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di!erences called unilinear evolution &

Lewis Henry Morgan, Edward Tylor and James Frazer, Henry Maine 

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savagery " barbarism " civilisations  Technological advances of the Industrial Revolution and the spread of European &

colonialism contributed to this belief  Further developments by anthropologists from di!erent areas, moved the field away from evolutionism to actor, agency, and context studies 

 American Historical rical Parti Particular cularism ism  Ameri can Histo &

Looked for the past influences on a particular culture that shaped its trajectory 

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Emphasised that each culture has its own unique past and must be understood on its own terms

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Need more information and must go out an collect own data, not read others accounts of their experiences because they are incomplete and biased and written by untrained casual observers

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Main proponent: Franz Boas  &

Emphasis on cultural relativism

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Focused on collection of empirical data

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Concerned about cultural change and loss of unique cultures 

 British Functional ionalism ism  Brit ish Funct &

Cultural features should be explained in terms of the function they perform

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How ideas and actions contribute to the well being of the individual or the persistence of the society as a whole

 

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Main proponent: Bronslow Malinowski &

Emphasized immersing oneself in the culture completely

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Focused on the individual’s individual’s actions within the t he framework of society’s society’s social structure 

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Set forth the rules still followed in doing fieldwork in the early 20th century – participant observation 

 Mid-20th 20th centu century ry approac a pproachh- Cultur C ultural al Ecolo E cology gy  Mid&

the study of human adaptations to social and physical environments. &

Human adaptation refers to both biological and cultural processes that enable a population to survive and reproduce within a given or changing environment 

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Leslie White – studied technological progress throughout human history

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Julian Steward – though local environment and technology together shaped a culture 

 Mode  Modern rn Anthro Anthropolo pologists gists &

Modern anthropologist utilise a variety of perspectives in approaching culture

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These can be divided into 2 categories – scientific and humanistic &

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Scientific approaches believe that culture can be explained as an adaptation to the natural and social environment (cultural materialism) Humanistic approaches emphasise the uniqueness of culture and resist generalising about human culture as a whole

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Focus on description and interpretation instead of explanation 

Social Anthropo Anthropology logy Culture

Definition &

Culture refers to the sum of human beings’ life ways, their behaviour, behaviour, beliefs, feelings, thought; it connotes everything that is acquired by them as social beings (through communication, communication, traditions)  &

It is a way of life of the t he people in a certain geographical area.

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Life style and social pattern of a society being the direct consequence of the accumulated heritage of ages past distinguish and di!erentiate one community from another. 

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Culture has been defined in number of ways  &

Edward Tylor: Tylor: “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” 

 

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Tylor’s definition focuses on attributes that people acquire not through biological inheritance but by growing up in a particular society where they are exposed to a specific cultural tradition. 

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There are some writers who add to this definitions some of the important “other capabilities and habits” such as language and the techniques for making and using tools.

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Culture consists of all learned, normative behaviour patterns – that is all shared ways or patterns of thinking and feeling as well as doing 

Notes:

Enculturation is the process by which a child learns his or her culture. Quote Bronislaw Malinowski often 

Characteristics

1. Cu Cultu lture re is le learn arned ed &

Culture is learned: combing one’s hair, standing in line, all constitute behaviours which had to be learned 

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Sometimes culture is taught directly: parents telling children children to eat food in a certain way   Sometimes through conscious learning: learning by observation 

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Sometimes through unconscious learning: North Americans acquire their culture’s notions

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about how far apart people should stand when they talk not through direct or conscious learning  &

On the basis of cultural learning, people create, remember, remember, and deal with ideas 

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all human populations have equivalent capacities for culture. Regardless of their genes or their physical appearance, people can learn any cultural tradition

 2. Cultu Culture re is symbo symbolic lic & &

Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural learning culture originated when our ancestors acquired the ability to use symbols, that is, to originate and bestow meaning on a thing or event, and, correspondingly, correspondingly, to grasp and appreciate such meanings

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 A symbol is something verbal verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language language or culture, that comes to stand for something else

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Symbols are usually linguistic. But there are also nonverbal symbols, such as flags 

 3. Cultu Culture re is shared &

Culture is an attribute not of individuals per se but of individuals as members of groups. It is transmitted in society.

 

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Shared beliefs, values, memories, and expectations link people who grow up in the same culture. Enculturation unites people by providing us with common experiences.

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 Although a culture culture constantly changes, ce certain rtain fundamental beliefs, beliefs, values, worldviews, and and child-rearing child-rea ring practices endure (e.g. American family’s family’s way of asking children to eat food, countries change but way of persuasion remains the same) 

Culture re and Nature  4. Cultu &

Culture takes the natural biological urges we share with other animals and teaches us how to express them in particular ways &

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Cultural habits, perceptions, and inventions mould “human nature” in many directions. &

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people must eat, culture teaches on what to eat, how to eat and when to eat!   People removing waste in di!erent ways depending on their culture

Our “bath- room” habits, including waste elimination, bathing, and dental care, are parts of cultural traditions that have converted natural acts into cultural customs.

 5. Cultu Culture re is All-e All-encom ncompassi passing ng &

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culture includes much more than refinement, taste, sophistication, education, and appreciation of the fine arts. The most interesting and significant cultural forces are those that a!ect people every day of their lives, particularly those that influence children during enculturation

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t rivial or unworthy of serious study, study, It encompasses features that are sometimes regarded as trivial such as “popular” culture.

Cultu lture re is inte integr grate ated d 6. Cu &

Cultures are not haphazard collections of customs and beliefs.

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Cultures are integrated, patterned systems.

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If one part of the system (e.g., the economy) changes, other parts change as well  E.g. during 1950s, most American women wanted “domestic careers” but most of & today’s today’ s college women pursue high paying jobs outside &

This has impacted their culture in certain ways: Attitudes At titudes and behaviour regarding marriage, family, family, and children have changed. Late marriage, “living together,” and divorce have become more common

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Cultures are also integrated by sets of values, ideas, symbols, and judgments &

 A set of characteristic central or or core values (key, (key, basic, or central values) values) integrates each culture and helps distinguish it from others. e.g. individualism in America

 

Functions

1. Cu Cultu lture re Defin Defines es Situa Situatio tions ns &

Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation.

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It reveals whether one should prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. &

For example, suppose someone approaches you with right hand outstretched at waist level.

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But in another place or time the outstretched hand might mean hostility or war warning. ning.

Each society has its insults and fighting words. The cues (hints) which define situations appear in infinite variety.

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 A person who moves from from one society into another will spend many years misreading misreading the cues. 

Culture re defines def ines Atti Attitudes tudes,, Values and Goals  2. Cultu & &

Each person learns in his culture what is good, true, and beautiful.  Attitudes, values and goals goals are defined by the culture. culture.  &

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 Attitude are tendencies tendencies to feel and act in certain ways ways..

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Values Valu es are measures of goodness or desirability, desirability, for example, we value private property 

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Goals are those attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning the race 

By approving certain goals and ridiculing others, the culture channels individual ambitions. &

In these ways culture determines the goals of life. 

 3. Cultu Culture re defines def ines Myths Myths,, Legend Le gends, s, and a nd the t he Super S upernatur natural al &

Myths and legends are important part of every culture.

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They may inspire, reinforce e!ort and sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they are true is sociologically unimportant. (e.g. belief in spirits) 

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Culture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the universe.

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The nature of divine power and the important moral issues are defined by the culture. &

The individual does not have to select, but is trained in a Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim or some other religious tradition.

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This tradition gives answers for the major (things imponderable) of life, and fortuities the individual to meet life’ life’s s crises. 

 4. Cultu Culture re provides pro vides Behavi Behaviour our Patt Patterns erns &

The individual need not go through painful trial and error learning to know what foods can be eaten (without poisoning himself), or how to live among people without fear. fear.

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He finds a ready-made set of patterns patter ns awaiting him which he needs only to learn and follow.

 

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The culture maps out the path to matrimony. matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder how one secures a mate; he knows the procedure procedure defined by his culture. 

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it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits on human and activities. &

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disorderly behaviour is restricted and orderly behaviour is promoted.

Social order cannot rest on the assumption that men will spontaneously behave in ways conducive to social harmony. 

Relationship of anthropology with other social sciences

Introduction &

Holism, is both a unifying and distinctive aspect of Anthropology as compared to other fields 

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For example, techniques used to date fossils and artefacts have come to anthropology from physics, chemistry, chemistry, and geology. geology. (anthropologist often collaborates with others for research)  It is both scientific (uses scientific methods for its purposes) and humanistic  It also has links to the natural sciences: e.g., geology, geology, zoology  sociology, psychology  social sciences: e.g., sociology, philosophy, and the arts (e.g. humanities : English, comparative literature, classics, folklore, philosophy, Ethnomusicology)

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 Anthropo hropology logy vs. Soci Social al Scie S cience nces s  Ant 1. an anthr thropo opolog logy y and sociol sociology ogy Similarities

Di!erences

share an interest in social relations, organisation, and behaviour.

Initially each studied di!erent kinds of societies  & Sociologists studied industrial West  &  Anthropologists  Anthropolo gists studied non-industrial non-industrial societies

The two fields are converging converging in methods and study:  industrialisation:  & Sociologist now work in developing nations  &  Anthropologists  Anthropolo gists now work in industrial industrial nations> study rural decline etc.

Di!erent methods of data collection and analyses  & sociologists> studied large-scale, complex nations> reliance on questionnaires questionnaires (quantifiable data: statistical techniques and sampling commonly employed)  &  Anthropolo  Anthropologists> gists> studied small, non non literate populations> statistical training less common> ethnography> fieldwork method> participant observation> focus on descriptive aspects 

 2. Anthro Anthropolo pology gy and a nd Psycho P sychology logy & &

 

most psychologists do research in their own society statements about “human” psychology cannot be based solely on observations made in one society or in a single type of society. society.

 

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The area of cultural anthropology known as psychological anthropology studies cross-cultural variation in psychological traits.

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Societies instil di!erent values by training children di!erently. Adult personalities reflect a culture’s child-rearing practices.

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Bronislaw Malinowski’s theory on the “Trobriand Islanders of the South Pacific” challenges Freud’s Oedipus complex) 

Anthropolo pology gy and a nd Arts A rts  3. Anthro & &

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The expressive arts, including graphic art, music, dance, and literature, have long had a major place in anthropology.  Archaeologists  Archaeo logists and cultural anth anthropologist ropologists s study art for clues abo about ut the culture an and d social organisation organisation of a given people, as well as for psychological analyses of what art reveals about human thought.  Archaeologists  Archaeo logists also seek the o origins rigins of humans' capacity for creativity an and d symbolic expression. Linguistic anthropologists anthropologists look at artistic forms of speech, iincluding ncluding ritual, to study how thought and feeling vary by culture and time. 

Anthropolo pology gy and a nd Econo E conomics mics  4. Anthro &

economic anthropologists, anthropologists, although interested in such conventional topics as production,, consumption, and exchange, also examine economic thought in nonproduction market societies, ancient civilisations, and societies in transition from one type of economy to another. 

Anthropolo pology gy and a nd Polit P olitical ical scien science ce  5. Anthro & &

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Political science studies how public and private power is obtained, used, and contested. Cultural anthropologists anthropologists study power too, such as leadership styles in societies of all types, from non-hierarchical non-hierarchical ones to highly stratified states, and from the contemporary world to ancient Mesopotamia and Greece. Political anthropologists anthropologists are studying important contemporary issues such as ethnic violence and state disintegration in Ireland and the former Soviet Union, and the way that global phenomena such as Christianity Christianity,, nationalism, and democracy vary in meaning and function across cultures and historical periods. 

6. An Anthr thropo opolog logy y and sociol sociology ogy & & & &

Sociologists study the organisation of people into groups, from smaller ones like the family to larger ones like the corporation. Cultural anthropologists also study social organisation, but place greater emphasis on extensive fieldwork and the method of participant-observation.  Anthropologists  Anthropologis ts almost always work directly with the people they study study,, speaking their native language, and often living in their homes. Fieldwork is frequently, frequently, but not always, done in a culture di!erent from that of the anthropologist. anthropologi st. By promoting multi- and cross-cultural awareness, sociological generalisations based on mainstream American culture can be evaluated and sometimes challenged. 

 

Anthrop ropolog ology y and ling linguist uistics ics 7. Anth & & &

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Linguists study the structure of language. By cracking the code through which linguistic information is transmitted, they hope to learn more about the structure of the human mind. Linguistic anthropologists anthropologists study the ways in which people use language in di!erent cultures to communicate. By investigating verbal behavior close-up and first-hand through ethnographic fieldwork, they are often able to demonstrate not only the variety of speech patterns, but the systematic ways in which such activities as greetings, oratory, oratory, jokes, stories, advertisements, baby-talk, and "women's language" vary with context and over time. These skills have practical applications in the fields of educational consulting, business communication, document design, and political communication. 

Anthropolo pology gy and a nd religio rel igion n  8. Anthro & & &

anthropologists study the major world religions, they also tend to study the whole range of anthropologists human beliefs and rituals, including shamanism and witchcraft. In recent years, anthropologists have been at the forefront of scholarship examining the e'orescence of religious movements in our contemporary world. These include Hindutva in India, Pentecostal and Islamic reform movements, and di!erent forms of secularism and processes of secularisation, for example debates about headscarves and laïcité in France and creationism in the U.S.  

Sub fields of anthropology (1)Biological &

The subject matter of biological, or physical, anthropology is human biological diversity in time and space.

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The focus on biological variation unites five special interests within biological anthropology: 1. Human evoluti evolution on as revealed revealed by the fossil fossil record record (paleoan (paleoanthro thropolo pology) gy) 2. Huma Human n gen genet etiics  3. Human Human growt growth h and and develo developme pment nt  4. Human biolog biological ical plastic plasticity ity (the (the body’s body’s ability ability to change change as it copes with with stresses, such as heat, cold, and altitude)  5. The biology biology,, evolution, evolution, behaviour behaviour, and social life life of monkeys, apes, apes, and other nonhuman primates.

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These interests link physical anthropology to other fields

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Charles Darwin’s Darwin’s evolution theory (self-selection) proves that the environment environment (e.g. nutrition, altitude etc.) we live in also a!ects our biology.  &

Thus, biological anthropology also investigates the influence of environment on the body as it grows and matures.

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lso includes primatology  A lso

 

(2)Archeological &

Reconstructs, describes, and interprets human behaviour and cultural patterns through material remains &

 Analysing such data, archaeologists archaeologists answer several several questions about an ancient cient economies

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& & &

From such information, archaeologists reconstruct patterns of production, trade, and

consumption  Archaeologists have have spent much time studying studying potsherds, fragments fragments of earthenware. Many archaeologists examine paleoecology paleoecology (looks at tthe he ecosystems of the past)    Archaeologists may infer infer cultural transformations, transformations, for example, by observing observing changes in the size and type of sites and the distance between them

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 Archaeologists also also reconstruct behaviour behaviour patterns and lifestyles lifestyles of the past by excavating &

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Excavation can document changes in economic, social, and political activities 

They also study the cultures of historical and even living peoples 

(3)Linguistics &

Linguistic anthropology anthropology studies language in its social and cultural context, across space and over time. &

Some linguistic anthropologists make inferences about universal features of language, linked perhaps to uniformities in the human brain.

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Others reconstruct ancient languages by comparing their contemporary descendants and in so doing make discoveries about history.

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Still others study linguistic di!erences to discover varied perceptions and patterns of thought in di!erent cultures.

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Language dialects, speeches di!erent: why?  &

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geography,, as in regional dialects and accents. geography

& bilingualism of ethnic groups Linguistic and cultural anthropologists collaborate in studying links between language and

many other aspects of culture 

(4)Cultural &

Study of human society and culture, the subfield that describes, analyses, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and di !erences

Two tools 1. Ethnograp Ethnography hy (based (based on field field work) work) &

provides an account of a particular community, society, or culture

 

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field work: gather data> describes, analyses> build and present that account in the form of a book, article.

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have lived in small communities and studied local behaviour, behaviour, beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and religion

2. Ethnology (based on cross-cultural cross-cultural comparison)  &

Examines, interprets, analyses, and compares the results of ethnography 

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The Scientific Method: tests hypothesis, build theories 

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It gets its data from ethnography and archaeology

Institution of Family and Marriage Introduction &

Man is gregarious, man lives in social groupings 

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This very nature of man not wanting to live in isolation necessitated the need for man to create the institutions of the family and marriage 

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Institutions of family and marriage are the basic social building blocks in any society linking

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otherwise separate groups in a common social unit   These institutions are a cultural cultural universal i.e. they are operational and obtainable obtainable in every society around the world be it traditional or modern.  

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however,, the forms and organisations, vary from society to society and through time  however

The Family Definitions &

di!erent definitions of the family exist and this is owing to the fact that the family has various manifestations, organisation and structures in various societies

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Di!erent anthropologists have suggested di!erent definitions 

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the various definitions emphasised di!erent ideas about what the family is, however what is striking and cross-cutting in all is that: i.

The family family is is a group group of people people related related or connecte connected d by bloodl bloodline, ine, marria marriage ge rite rite or adoption

ii. They shar share e common common residen residency cy.. They live togeth together er.. iii. They share share sentimen sentiments ts of oneness. oneness. They They view themselv themselves es as a unit. iv. iv. They share values and and responsib responsibilities. ilities. Perform care taking services for others especially the very young.  

 

Forms of family &

families are categorised based on the number and generations of people involved in the family groups and the leadership or power/authority holders in the group 

1) Nuclear Family &

The nuclear family refers to a couple along with any dependent, unmarried childr children en who share a residence and form a social unit. 

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The nuclear nuclear family family is the smallest smallest unit of society and and it is also called called the „elementary „elementary family 

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anthropologists have distinguished the nuclear family into two broad categories

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The family of orientation or natal family: the family in which one is bor born n and grows up

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The family of procreation procreation or conjugal conjugal family: the family family formed when one marries marries and has children 

2) One One or Single Parent Family

3) Extended Family &

Units larger than the nuclear family 

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extended nuclear units 

&

three or more generations connected by blood or marriage relationships form a social unit and live together 

&

Extension of nuclear units can either be vertical or horizontal 

4) Blended Families &

This is a family made up of a couple and children children either or both raised raised in an earlier marriage, and children they raised together (if any) 

&

also called „reconstituted(, „reorganizing(  or „blended(  families 

5) Compound Family &

This form of family organization organization can be seen as an overlapping set set of nuclear families, each with the same man as family head 

Types of Family & &

Types of Family According to Authority and Power Structure   Authority and decision decision making in the family varies varies from society to society 

1) Patriarchal Family &

In this kind of family structure, decision making authority and power llies ies in the hands of the man whether be it a nuclear family, family, single single family family or an extended family 

 

2) Matriarchal Family &

This is a female headed family 

&

very common in the West Indies and Nayar in India 

3) Egalitarian Family &

Power and decision-making authority are equally distributed between the husband and wife. 

&

Due to Western education, skills, paid employment employment for women, women emancip emancipation ation programmes in recent times 

 Function tions s of Famil Family  y    Func The family as the basic social institution is playing a vital role central to the survival of any society  1) Nurture 2 )Regulation of Sexual Relationships 3) Procreation 4) Social placement &

 An individual acquires acquires his identity identity and place in society society through his family family 

5) Material and Emotional Security 6) A !ection and companionship 7) Protection 8) Socialisation 9) Legitimising Inheritance

The institution of Marriage  Definitio  Defi nition n &

The beginning of a legitimate family is marked by a socially and culturally acceptable legally consummated union called marriage 

&

The marriage institution is a common phenomenon present in every society 

&

di#culties defining the concept marriage  &

Largely arises from the variations of marriage arrangements that have been witnessed in di!erent societies 

&

conventional definition of marriage is that it is a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are recognized as legitimate o !spring of both parents 

 

&

However,, Okodudu (2010) assert that the idea of marriage has changed in recent However times. 

&

In much of the Western European countries, marriage has been conceptualized as a union between two consenting consenting adults irrespective irrespective of their sexes with or without approval from their parents of family 

&

hence same sex marriages are are being contracted today without the possibility possibility of having children, children, except that it is a relationship relationship between two consenting adults adults that has been recognised by law 

&

&

Marriage also confers upon a man various rights over a woman  &

rights to a woman(s sexual and domestic services 

&

rights to a woman as a mother  

Marriage must meet the following prerequisites for it to be valid in most societies:  1. Involvemen Involvementt of the parents parents of couple couples s – sexual regul regulation ation and and rules of incest incest 2. Transfer ransfer of Bridewealt Bridewealth h or Progency Progency transfer transfer – symbol of marriage marriage contract. contract. 3. Religious Religious factor factor – obtaining obtaining supernatu supernatural ral blessings blessings from from the church, church, mosque mosque or shrines etc 

 Forms s of Mate Selec Selection tion  Form 1) Endogamy &

This is a marriage practice of selecting mates only from within one’ one’s s own social group, especially from one’s own ethnic group.  

2) Exogamy &

This is mate selection outside one’s one’s social group or ethnic group 

3) Hypergamy &

 A marriage between a high class class man and a low class woman iin n society 

4) Hypogamy &

Marriage between a high class woman and a low class man. 

5) Homogamy &

Mate selection based on similar characteristics between couple such as; educational, religious and race a#liation 

Types of Marriages   1) Monogamy &

This is a form of marriage between one man and a woman 

2) Polygamy &

Polygamy is a form of marriage in which a person has more than one mate 

3) Polygyny

 

&

which has to do a man having more than one wife 

4) Polyandry &

which involves a woman having more than one husband. 

&

Fraternal’ or ‘Adelphic’ polyandry: Polyandrous marriages involving siblings (Himalayan

cultures)  &

 matriarchal  matriarch al polyandry : where the woman stays at her house and her various husbands come

to live with her in turns 

5) Group Marriage &

in this type of marriage all men share marital relations with a group of women 

&

They all share reciprocal obligations, as it is required in all marriages jointly. No one particular man owns a wife and vice versa 

&

Oneida community of the 1960s in New York is often cited as one of such extreme fraternities frater nities that practiced group marriage 

6) Levirate Marriage &

This is a type of marriage where a widow is expected to marry her late husband(s brother 

&

the younger brother can now raise children for him by marrying the widow  

&

The children from such a union belong to the dead brother 

&

 Another important reason reason for this marriage arrangement arrangement is to forestall the situation where the woman could possibly move out with or without without children to another another family through remarriage. 

7) Widow Inheritance &

In widow inheritance, the brother, brother, son or close relative of the deceased husband inherits the wife for the same reasons as highlighted in levirate marriage 

8) Ghost Marriage &

This is a marriage arrangement whereby in other to perpetuate the name of a dead male member of a family, a living brother gets married to a woman on behalf of the dead brother who died a bachelor hence never had an opportunity to get married and have children 

9) married or raise a family &

In this case the wife is socially married to the dead man whom she probably never knew and the children born belongs to the dead man  

&

This kind of marriage existed among the Nuer of Sudan 

10) Woman-to-Woman Marriage

 

&

In this kind of marriage, marriage, a wealthy barren woman acquires acquires a wife by performing all all traditional traditional rites and pay appropriate bride wealth. The woman becomes the husband while the lady being married becomes the wife 

&

The female husband determines the manner of allocation of her sexual favours by screening and approving her sexual partners 

&

Children born belong to the woman-husband who is the Pater (social father) while the man she arranged arranged to raise children with the woman-wife is the Genitor Genitor (Biological (Biological father) 

&

practiced among the Efiks and Kalabaris of the Niger Delta 

11) Gift Gift or Charity Charity Marriage Marriage &

In this kind of marriage, parents parents give out one of their their young daughters as a gift to their friends or patrons without any consideration as a demonstration of friendship, honour and total loyalty 

&

Hausa people 

&

Kanuri of Nigeria 

12) Child-to-Child Marriage &

In this kind of marriage, parents of betrothed children make perfect the marriage pact as soon as the boy boy was of school age between 5-7 years. 

13) Pawn Marriage &

This is a situation where a man cannot readily pay his creditor may give out his daughter as payment for debt owned 

14) Wife Capture/Elopement Capture/Elopement &

This is a situation when a young suitor captures or elopes with a girl he intends to marry. 

among the Ezamgbo (Igbo) 

15) Cross Cousin/Parallel Cousin Marriage &

Cross and parallel parallel cousin marriage are are types of preferential preferential and prescribed prescribed marriages; &

preferential preferenti al marriage: the societal law stipulates that a partner or close relative ought to marry another close relative in a particular generation or relationship, though it is not compulsory 

&

prescribed marriage: marriage partners could be rigidly fixed by the culture for a man to take his spouse from among relatives in a given society society.. 

&

Fulani and Kanuri in Nigeria  

16) Sororate and Sororal Polygyny????? &

Sororate marriage is culturally opposite to levirate marriage 

 

&

in sorate, the sister of the dead wife is culturally required to marry the late sister’s husband 

&

Zulus of Southern Africa 

 Notes s  Note & &

Genitor: biological father of the children   

&

Pater: socially recognised father Parallel cousins: children of two brothers or two sisters 

&

Cross cousins: children of brother and a sister 

&

Incest: forbidden sexual relationships with a close cousin 

&

plural marriage: More than two spouses simultaneously, simultaneously, aka polygamy. polygamy.

&

polygyny: Man has more than one wife at the same time.

&

polyandry: Woman Woman has more than one husband at the same time.

&

sororate: Widower marries sister of his deceased wife.

&

levirate: Widow marries brother of her deceased husband.

Kinship and Social Organisation Organisation Introduction &

Man is gregarious, man lives in social groupings 

&

This very nature of man not wanting to live in isolation necessitated the need for man to create the institutions of the family and marriage 

&

the forms and organisations, vary from society to society and through time 

Definition &

Kinship is one of the main organising principles of human societies which have its roots in the predominant extended family.

&

Kinship describes and establishes a network of enduring relationships between individuals and groups on the model of biological relationships between parents and children, between siblings and between marital partners. 

&

In nonindustrial contexts, kinship units normally have a much wider array of functions. &

basic units of production, political representation representation and even as religious bodies for the worship of spiritual beings 

&

Several anthropologists define kinship in di!erent ways, but a generally agreed upon definition is provided by Ewuruigwe (1994): &

“kinship is a socially recognised fact based on the assumption of genealogical connection between a person and his forebears, real or putative.”

 

By this he meant: blood ties happen to be the basis for kinship, however it goes

&

beyond actual biological ties or a common ancestry… “socially constructed by people within a culture” 

Modes of derivation/ Types &

It is on this basis that Ewuruigwe (1994) established that kinship could be derived from four principles &

Blood or consanguinity

&

Marriage or a#nity

& &

 Adoption Ritual or fiction e.g. Godfather 

1.  Consanguineal Kinship  &

It refers to the relationships based on blood, i.e., the relationship between parents parents and children, and between siblings are the most basic and universal kin relations. 

 2.   Affin  Affinal al Kinshi K inship p It refers to the relationships formed on the basis of marriage. The most basic relationship that & results from marriage is that between husband and wife 

Degrees of Kinship  Primary  Prim ary Kinshi K inship p Primary kinship refers to direct relations. People who are directly related to each other are known as primary kin. There are basically eight primary kins—wife father son, father daughter mother son, wife; father son, father daughter, daughter, mother son, mother daughter; brother sister; and younger brother/sister older brother/sister.  1. Primary Consanguineal Kinship

 

kin, who are directly related to each other by birth (e.g. father father,, mother)  2. Primary A #nal Kinship

the direct relationship formed as a result of marriage (husband and wife) 

Secondary Kinship  those who are directly related to primary kin (primary kin’s kin’s primary kin) become one’s secondary kin. There are 33 secondary kin.  1) Secondary Consanguineal kinship  primary consanguineal kin’s primary consanguineal kin (grandparents and grandchildren)  2) Secondary A #nal Kinship 

refers to one’s primary a#nal kins primary kin. all his/her sisters-in-law, brothers-in-law, and parents-in-law 

Tertiary Kinship Tertiary kinship refers to the primary kin of primary kin’s primary kin or secondary kin of primary kin primary kin of secondary kin. Roughly 151 tertiary kin have been identified.  1) Tertiary Consanguineal Kinship 

refers to an individual’s individual’s primary consanguineal kin (parents), their primary kin (parents’ parents), and their primary kin (parent’s parent’s parents). great grandchildren and great grandparents  2) Tertiary A #nal Kinship 

refers to primary a#nal kin’s primary kin’s primary kin, or secondary a #nal kin’s primary kin, or primary a#nal kin’s secondary kin. spouse’s spouse’ s grandparents, or grand uncles and aunts 

Characteristics of kinship structure  Brown has arrived upon the following characteristics of kinship social structures. 

1. Changing system   According to Brown kinship systems are are made and remade by men through social processes. processes. 

 2. Soli Solidarit darity y of the sibli sibling ng group g roup    Another characteristic of the kinship kinship system is the soli solidarity darity of sibling group. group. 

 3. Unity of the sibli sibling ng group g roup   This refers to the unity of the group in relations to a person outside it and connected with it by a specific relation to one of its members. 

 

 4. Sex as the th e principl pri nciple e of diffe differentia rentiation tion   In many kinship systems, sex is an important basis for di!erentiation between di!erent members. 

 5. Senio Seniority rity as the t he princi p rinciple ple of differe differentiat ntiation ion   Where seniority is strongly emphasised, a man may distinguish between the senior brother and the junior brother either in behaviour alone or both in behaviour and terminology, terminology, but there still remains a common element in the pattern patter n of behaviour towards all brothers. 

6. Division into generation  The distinction of generation has its basis in the elementary family, family, in the relations of parents and children. A certain generalising tendency is discoverable in many kinship systems in the behaviour of relatives of di!erent generations. There is, in fact, a generalised relation of ascendancy and subordination subordinatio n between the two generations. 

7. Combinations of alternate generations   This means that relatives of the grandfather's generation are thought of as combined with those of one's own generation over against the relatives of the parents' generation. 

Functions of kinship &

Kinship assigns guidelines for interactions between persons. It defines proper proper,, acceptable role relationship between father- daughter, brother-sister etc.  

&

Kinship determines family line relationships, gotra and kula.  

&

Kinship decides who can marry with whom and where marital relationshi relationship p are taboo. 

&

Kinship helps us to determine the rights and obligations of the members in all the sacraments and religious practices starting from birth to death. 

&

Kinship system maintains solidarity of relationships. 

&

In rural and tribal societies kinship or kinship relations determine the rights and obligations of the family and marriage, system of production and political power power.. 

&

Kinship through its di!erent usages regulates the behaviour of di !erent kin. 

&

Kinship helps in (through kinship terms) designating kin of various types such as classificatory and descriptive. 

&

Kinship through its usages creates special groupings of kin.  

&

Kinship rules govern the role relationships among kins. 

&

Kinship acts as a regulator of social life.  

&

Kinship influences ownership of land, concept of wealth and the system of production and its  

use.

 

Kinship terminology   People perceive and define kin relations di!erently in di!erent cultures (their native taxonomy)  there are a limited number of patterns in which people classify their kin 

1. Li Line neal al Ter Termin minolo ology gy it distinguishes lineal relatives from collateral relatives. lineal relative is an ancestor or descendant, anyone on the direct line of descent that leads to

and from ego Collateral relatives are all other kin (sister’s  A #nals are relatives by marriage, whether of lineals (e.g., son’s wife) or of collaterals (sister’s husband). This terminology is more prevalent in industrial societies e.g. US, Canada (nuclear families) 

 2. Bifu Bifurcate rcate Merging Termin erminolog ology y  bifurcates, or splits, the mother’s side and the father’s side.

it also merges same-sex siblings of each parent. People use this system in societies with unilineal (patrilin (patrilineal eal and matrilineal) descent rules and unilocal (patrilocal and matrilocal) postmarital residence rules

 

 3. Genera Generation tional al Terminology Terminolo gy &

uses the same term for parents and their siblings, but the lumping is more complete

&

With generational terminology, terminology, there are only two terms for the parental generation (father (father and  mother)

&

Generational kinship terminology does not distinguish between the mother ’s and father ’s

&

It uses just one term for father, father’s brother, and mother’s brother

&

Generational kinship terminology also uses a single term for mother, mother ’s sister, and father ’s sister.

&

We’d We ’d expect to t o find generational terminology in cultures in which kinship is much more important &

Kalahari San groups and several native societies of North America

&

no rigid distinction between the father’s side and the mother’s side

 4. Bifu Bifurcate rcate Coll Collatera aterall Termin Terminolog ology y the most specific of all: It has separate terms for each of the six kin types of the t he parental generation Many of the societies that use it are in North Africa and the Middle East 

Summary table for terminologies

 

 Note  Notes s (import (i mportant ant for RA RAT TA!) Genealogical Kin Types and Kin Terms &

Genealogical kin type refers to an actual genealogical relationship relationship (e.g., father’s brother) as

opposed to a kin term (e.g., uncle ). &

Kin terms reflect the social construction of kinship in a given culture.

&

t ogether several genealogical relationships relationships (paternal, maternal cousins e.g. kin term may lump together

&

lumped into one term: cousin) kinship calculation and kin terminologies reflect the social features of the host society/ culture 

&

e.g. if father’s brother and father are called by the same term then it shows their closeness and

 

significant role in the upbringing of the household’s children  Phratries and Moieties (exam question on this!)

Descent System  Definitio  Defi nition n &

a permanent social unit whose members say they t hey have ancestors in common.

&

Descent-group members believe they share, and descend from, those common ancestors.

&

The group endures even though its membership changes, as members are born and die, move in and move out.

&

In general, every society recognises the fact that all o!spring or children descend from parents and that a biological relationship relationship exists between parents and children.

 Desce  Descent nt groups g roups &

Descent groups may be lineages or clans, (which are further categorised into phratries and moieties)

&

Common to both is the belief that members descend from the same  apical ancestor   That person stands at the apex, or top, of the common genealogy (e.g. Adam and Eve) &

LINEAGE 

 

&

refers to the line through which descent is traced.

&

This is done through the father’s father’s line or the mother’s line or sometimes through both sides.

&

Both descent and lineage go together as one cannot trace descent without lineage 

&

 A lineage uses demonstrated descent (they have a certain chain identified to link them to a common ancestor)

CLANS   CLANS &

clans use stipulated descent (they just just claim to be decedents decedents of a certain ancestor) &

Clan members merely say they descend from the apical ancestor. ancestor.

&

They don’t try to trace the actual genealogical links between themselves and that ancestor. 

&

clans have more members and cover a larger geographic area than lineages do

&

Sometimes a clan’s apical ancestor is not a human at all but an animal or plant (called a totem ).

&

the ancestor symbolizes the social unity and identity of the t he members, distinguishing them from other groups.

&

The economic types that usually have descent- group organization are horticulture, pastoralism, and agriculture

PHRATRIES  &

The term Phratry is derived from a Greek word Phrater which means a brother. brother. &

Thus, a phratry is a kin group of brotherhood in which there are several clans combined together. 

& &

a unilineal descent group composed of two or more clans.

The members of a clan may feel they have particularly close ties with other clan or clans of the phratry.

& &

 A kinship group which is one half of a dual dual division of the society society is a moiety. moiety.  Phratries are found in very few societies of the world. &

They were reported from Hopi and some other red Indians from United States 

&

Based on the principles of descent, phratries can also be classified into two types:  &  Matriphratries and  Patriphratires Patriphratires 

&

The phratries in a society can be named or may not be named.

&

They may be or may not be exogamous 

&

The phratries are characterized by common religious obligations and observe common religious rites.

&

 A phratry may constitute an important important political unit.

&

 Among the Aztecs of Mexico the phratries phratries are important poli political tical units in the structure structure of the empire.

&

 A phratry may be associated with totemism like among the Muria Gonds. 

&

 A phratry constitutes a group group characterized by solidarity solidarity..

&

The clans in a phratry retain their separate identity but each clan has some kind of special a#nity with the phratry.

 

MOIETIES &

The term Moiety is derived from a French word meaning half.

&

When a society is divided into two groups so that every person is necessarily a member of one or the other groups, the dichotomy results in the formation of two moieties. 

&

Compared to Phratries, moieties have a wider occurrence in the various societies of the world. &

&

Murngin in Australia, Gonds and Korkus of Madhya Pradesh

On the basis of the principles of descent governing the formation of the moieties, they can be classified into  patrilineal  matrilineal moieties.  patrilineal moieties moieties and matrilineal

&

Moieties can be named like among the Todas and may also be unnamed like among the  Australian societies.

& & &

 A moiety is usually exogamous. exogamous. and rarely endogamous. endogamous. Moreover a moiety may constitute a totemic group like among the Bondos of Orissa.  A moiety is always associated with a dual organisation. organisation. &

This kind of dual organisation helps an easy detection of kinship relationship relationships. s.

&

In dual organisations one moiety may be linked to the other through complementary roles in the form of exchange of specific services. 

Examples: yanomami of Venezuela and Brazil (call their female cross cousins as “wives” and male cross cousins as “brother-in-laws”) 

Types of Descent/ Lineage systems 1) non-unilineal/ Ambilineal/ cognate decent system &

Double: ego acquires membership from both the matrilineal and patrilineal lineages according

to certain culturally defined rules (Yako (Yako of Nigerian) &

Bilateral: properly describes a pattern of property inheritance system in which the ego inherits

property and positions from any of the kins so recognised by him (the Hapu of Moari) 2) unilineal (agnate) decent system  &

Matrilineal : individuals trace their genealogy through their mother’s mother’s ancestry (Ashanti tribe,

Ghana)  &

Patrilineal: individuals trace their genealogy through their father’s father’s ancestry (most societies) 

 

Marital Residence Pattern Patterns of residence among newly married couple are very important in perpetuating the

&

structure of the particular group’s group’s decent system. Di!erent marital residence patterns are adopted by di!erent societies and communities

&

depending on the needs and social organisation of such societies. Ingiabuna (2012) identified eight of such marital residence patterns:

&

i.  Patri  Patrilocal local or Verilocal Resid ence •

married couples are required to live in or near the husband’s husband’s family or lineage.

•

The authority of the lineage head rests with the father, father, or in his absence, the eldest son. 

U xorilocal ocal Resid Residence ence ii.  Matril ocal or Uxoril

•

married couples are expected to live with or near the wife’s family. family.

•

Here the man is subject to the rule and authority of his wife’s kinsmen.

•

This kind of residence pattern is mainly popular in matriarchal/ matrilineal societies and societies where dowry payment is predominant. predominant.

•

 Among the Yao Yao and Cewa of Malawi, a man lives lives in his wife’s wife’s home but he is later allowed allowed to remove her to a village of his own matrilineal kin 

•

This practice is also seen among the people of Trobriand Trobriand Island 

R esiden ce iii.  Bilocal  Biloc al Residen

•

couples can reside either with the man’s relatives or the wife’s relatives.

•

this residence pattern became popular with the emergence of infectious diseases brought about by European travellers who contracted such diseases, which eventually caused mass death thereby completely erasing some families.

• •

Therefore people began to live with whichever parents or relatives that was alive.  Another reason for the existence existence of this residence residence style is that couple o often ften needed the material support of one set of parents before setting up a home of theirs.

 Avunculocall Residen Re sidence ce iv. iv.  Avunculoca

•

marital residence pattern in which a man and his wife settle down with his mother’s mother’s people after marriage.

•

 Among the Yao Yao and Cewa of Malawi in Central Central Africa, a man lives in h his is wife’s wife’s home after marriage.

•

Later he moves to settle with his mother’s kinsmen.

v.  Neolo  Neolocal cal Resid Residence ence •

married couples leave home for an independent residence after marriage.

 

This refers to residency pattern in which the couple is expected to live separately outside of

•

the husband’s or the wife’s kinsmen. This means that on marriage they are not expected to live with either family but relocate to a

•

new location.

o r Natoloc Na tolocal al vi.  Duolo cal or

couples are required to reside separately. This means that both husband and wife stay in their families of orientation or in their

• •

di!erent apartments and only visit each other. other.

vii. Amitil  Amitilocal ocal Resid Residence ence •

Here a girl child is expected to live with her father’s sister until she is married out.

•

Similarly,, a boy child remains with his parents, but moves to live with his father’s sister with Similarly his wife as soon as he is married 

viii. Uxori-Virilocal Residence the couple lives with the wife’s family and later with the man’s family after the man must

•

have proved himself a good provider through hunting and providing providing game meat for the bride’s family. •

among the Yao Yao and Cewa of Malawi in Central Africa, a man lives with his wife’s people after marriage, and later moves to settle with his matrikin.

•

The situation where he must provide this “bridal service” to his in-laws for a period before relocating to his own territory may he described as uxori-local.

Economic Organisation  Definition &

 An economic system is an organised arrangement for producing, distributing, and consuming goods

&

 Anthropologists study study economics in the context of th the e total culture of particular particular societies  &

Theories derived from the study of capitalist market economies have limited applicability to economic systems in non-industrialised non-industrialised societies 

&

in non-industrialised societies the economic sphere of behaviour is not separate from the social, religious, and political spheres 

&

In any given economic system, economic processes cannot be interpreted without culturally defining the demands and understanding the conventions that dictate how and when they are satisfied.

 

&

Trobriand Islanders for their sisters, gifts> prestige Case in point: yam production among the Trobriand

Evolution (don’t know if this is right!)  Brief backg background round &

Humans have evolved in two ways   &

In biological terms, this flexibility means that di !erent organisms within the population have somewhat di!ering genetic endowments.

&

In cultural terms, it means that t hat variation occurs among individual skills, knowledge, and personalities.

Cultural evolution &

Through cultural adaptation, adaptation, humans develop ways of doing things that are compatible with the resources they have available to them and within the limitations of the various habitats in which they live

&

The process of adaptation establishes an ever-shifting ever-shifting balance between the needs of a population and the potential of its environment.

&

e.g. Tsembaga Tsembaga people of Papua New Guinea (pigs act as a balancing force in their economy: feasts on special occasions only)  

&

Through their distinctive cultures, di!erent human groups have managed to adapt to a very diverse range of natural environments environments 

&

Human groups adapt to their environments by means of their cultures 

&

Di!erence between cultural evolution and progress: urban societies vs. Food foragers (both are highly evolved, but in quite di!erent ways) 

&

Cultural adaptation must also be understood from a historical point of view

&

Example: Comanche of southern Idaho> traditionally foragers evolved to become raiders when got horses and guns 

&

Convergent evolution &

the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by di!erent peoples with di!erent ancestral cultures

&

Sometimes societies that developed independently of one another find similar solutions to similar problems 

& &

e.g. Cheyenne Indians and Comanche

Parallel evolution  &

similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental condition conditions s are achieved by peoples whose ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike.

&

E.g. development of farming in south west Asia and Mesoamerica 

 

Stages of Evolution &

economic organisation evolved with changes in the ways of food production 

&

Each mode of subsistence involves not only resources but also the technology required to e!ectively capture and utilise them

Food-foraging societies &

It is a mode of subsistence involving some combination of hunting, fishing, and

&

gathering wild plant foods. Initially humans were few in numbers so they relied on foraging as a means of survival 

&

Economic activities were organised on the basis of subsistence, no hoarding (because not need) 

&

Typically foragers: have less material goods, migrate regularly, regularly, maintain balanced diet, have plenty of time 

&

Characteristics include: mobility, small group size, flexible division of labour by gender, food sharing, egalitarian social relations 

&

Practiced in frozen arctic tundra, deserts and inaccessible forests

&

Impact of technology on foragers: talk of guns and hunting techniques!

Food- producing societies (the neolithic revolution) &

 As numbers grew, grew, people began to settle rather than than move from place to plac place e 

&

Humans developed the art of domestication of plants and animals 

&

The transition from food foraging to food production first took place about 10,000 years ago in Southwest Asia (the Fertile Crescent)

&

 After the emergence of tool making, which enabled h humans umans to consume significant significant amounts of meat as well as plant foods, the next truly momentous event in human history was the domestication of plants and animals.

&

Transformation: new economic arrangements, social structures, and ideological patterns based on plant cultivation, breeding and raising animals, or a mixture of both

&

No longer on the move, they could build more permanent dwellings and began to

&

make pottery for storage of water, water, food, and so on  This transformation took them t hem from horticulture to agriculture 

&

Characteristics of food-producing societies: mixed farming (crop growing and animal breeding) 

Substantivsim versus Formalism  Referr the  Refe th e slides!! sli des!!

Distribution and Exchange In societies without a money economy, economy, the rewards for labor are usually direct

 

They consume what they produce, create tools for themselves and share when needed  In these economies the distribution of goods and services takes place through:  reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange 

 Reciprocit procity y  Reci &

refers to the exchange of goods and services, of roughly equal value, between two parties

&

May involve gift-giving: but what actually matters are the social ties that are created or reinforced reinfor ced between givers and receivers

&

Gift-giving is seldom self-less: motive is to fulfil social obligations and prestige 

&

Cultural traditions dictate the manner and occasion of exchange

&

E.g. a hunt is always shared in Australia by indigenous hunters> hunter themselves get the lowest share (worst meat), but they are compensated when someone else makes the hunt next time: social credit to hunters 

&

Such sharing of food reinforces reinforces community bonds and ensures that everyone eats:

&

Reciprocity falls into several categories 

&

Generalised reciprocity: reciprocity: exchange in which the value of what is given is not calculated, nor is

the time of repayment specified (mostly occurs among close kin k in networks)  & &

E.g. Australian example above 

receiving are specific specific Balanced reciprocity: reciprocity: A mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery (One has a direct obligation to reciprocate recipro cate promptly in equal value)  &

E.g. hosting baby showers in contemporary North America or buying drinks 

&

Kula ring in the southwestern Pacific Ocean  

&

Kula participants are men of influence who travel to islands within the Trobriand Trobriand ring to exchange prestige items

&

ceremonial items (seemingly useless) circulated clockwise and anti-clockwise, keeps flowing in the economy (armbands vs. necklaces): show of faith in the other party 

&

Divergent behaviour is also controlled through this system: isolating the t he ones who transgress 

& &

the Kula ring illustrates the inseparability of economic matters from the rest of culture.

the aim is to get something for as little as Negative reciprocity: reciprocity: A form of exchange in which the possible. Neither fair nor balanced, it may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, and outright cheating. &

E.g. political fundraising in the United States (politicians vs. contributors) 

Production  Brief overv overview iew Definition?? 

 

&

In every society, particular customs and rules govern “production” “production” through:  &

the kinds of work done,

&

who does the work,

&

attitudes toward the work,

&

how it is accomplished,

&

who controls the resources necessary 

&

The primary resources in any culture are raw materials, technology, and labor.

&

The rules directing the use of these are embedded in a people’s culture and determine the way the economy operates within any given natural environment.

 Resources  Reso urces

Land and water resources &

Foragers own collectively: e.g. among the Ju/’hoansi of the Kalahari Desert territory defined through water holes present in each territory

&

kind of lease: can’t sell these lands, use it or leave it 

&

In modern capitalist societies everything is privately owned, with private property laws strictly followed 

Technology resources &

foragers use simple tools, make and use yourself, share if needed 

&

recognition given to the creator: e.g. hunt’s first share given to tthe he creator

&

Technological know-how passed on through out generations, learned  

&

In modern societies, technology is advanced and complex 

Land and labour patterns  &

Division of labour by gender, age 

&

Cooperative labour followed in most primitive societies: work together on a project, no pay, expectation of reciprocity next time, little compensation in the form of a one time feast  

&

Task specialisation followed in some primitive societies

 Distributi ibution on and Exchan E xchange ge  Distr Refer above 

Consumption  Definitio  Defi nition??? n???

 Brief overv overview iew consumption is central to everyday life, identity and social order. order.

 

It is often associated with social class, identity, identity, group membership, age and stratification as it plays a huge part in modernity 

 How did the conc concept/ ept/ ways of consu consumptio mption n evolve? evo lve? Subsistence to moden economies Fit in patterns of subsistence!!! 

Redistribution &

Redistribution is a form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place where they are

sorted, counted, and reallocated: usually involves an element of power  &

Su#cient surplus gives rise to support a government system, leaders collect tributes, taxes to redistribute  &

The redistribution system of the ancient Inca empire in the Andean highlands of South  America was one of the most e#cient the world has ever known

&

They had Administrators to check inflows of inventories, census recor records ds 

&

careful accounts were kept of income and expenditures

 Moti  Motives ves of o f redistri red istributi bution on &

gain or maintain a position of power through a display of wealth and generosity 

&

to assure those who support the leadership an adequate standard of living by providing them with desired goods

&

to establish alliances with leaders of other groups by hosting them at lavish parties and giving them valuable goods.

 Redi stributio  Redistrib ution n for fo r prestige pres tige (prest (prestige ige econ economy) omy) & &

Gradations of wealth small in primitive societies: through cultural practices and checks conspicuous consumption: In these societies, showy display for social prestige & &

 Acts as a strong motivator for the distribution distribution of wealth. In present times, many North Americans and Europeans spend much of their lives trying to impress others

&

 A form of conspicuous consumption consumption also occurs in some crop-cul crop-cultivating tivating and foraging societies &

e.g. potlatches hosted by the chiefs of various American Indian groups 

&

In extreme displays of wealth, chiefs even destroyed some of their precious possessions.

 

 Leveling ing mecha mechanisms nisms  Level &

Levelling mechanism—a cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host public feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates significantly more wealth than anyone else. &

Potlatch is an example of levelling mechanism 

&

levelling mechanisms are important for the long-term survival of traditional communities 

&

Keep resources in circulation: they don’t have modern institutions which could do this otherwise 

&

They also reduce social tensions- promoting a collective sense of togetherness

Barter and primitive economic systems  Principle  Prin ciples s of primi primitive tive econ economy  omy   &

Economic relationships are based on barter and exchange: no currency 

&

Economic system is based upon social customs, physical conditions and faith in ancestors. crosses their limits &  Almost no primitive crosses &

Profit is seldom the motive of economic activities 

&

Mutual obligations and unity perform the function of motivation

&

Give and take among primitives is the t he basis of economic system 

&

Mutual cooperation and collective enterprises are characteristics of primitive economy 

&

There are no regular markets. &

Weekly Wee kly moving markets are the bases of exchange.

&

There is no monopoly and cut throat competition characteristic of civilised society society.. 

&

There is no institution of private property: All the land is collectively owned 

&

Economic values change in decades: There is no specialisation. 

&

Types of primitive economies include: foraging, pastoral, subsistence farming economies 

 Barter  Barte r &

No concept of money in primitive societies, so they relied on barter 

&

Barter refers to a transaction when the parties negotiate a direct exchange of one trade good for another (usually takes form of negative reciprocity) reciprocity) 

&

However other forms may include balanced reciprocity depending on the customs of a given society  &

&

E.g. In India: blacksmiths exchanging ghee, ghee producers exchanging grain etc. 

Hence reciprocity dominates the exchange system: fit fi t in the reciprocity reciprocity section here!! 

 

Glossary

 Modes  Mode s of subsi subsistenc stence e &

ecosystem: A system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the natural environment and

all the organisms living within it. &

cultural evolution:

&

progress:  The notion that humans are moving forward to

 Cultural change over time; not to be con- fused with progress. progress.

a better, better, more advanced stage in their cultural development toward perfection.) convergent evolution: In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to

similar environmental conditions by di !erent peoples with di!erent ancestral cultures. & &

e.g. Cheyenne Indians and Comanche

parallel evolution: In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to

similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike. &

E.g. development of farming in south west Asia and Mesoamerica 

&

culture area: A geographic region in which a number of societies follow similar patterns of life  

&

food foraging: Hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods.

&

carrying capacity: The number of people that the avail- able resources can support at a given

level of food-getting techniques. &

Neolithic: The New Stone Age; prehistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which

peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated plants and/or animals. &

Neolithic revolution: The profound cultural change beginning about 10,000 years ago and

associated with the early domestication of plants and animals and settlement in permanent villages. &

t ools such as digging sticks or Horticulture:  Cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools hoes.

&

slash-and-burn cultivation: An extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation

is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes; also known as swidden farming. &

agriculture:  The cultivation of food plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production.

Involves using technologies other than hand tools, such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals. &

pastoralism: Breeding and managing large herds of domesticated grazing and browsing

animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses, llamas, or camels. &

agribusiness: Large-scale businesses involved in food production, including farming, contract

farming, seed supply, agrichemicals, farm machinery, machinery, distribution, processing, and marketing.  Also known as corporate farming, farming, it stands in contrast to smaller ffamily-owned amily-owned farms.

 

The economic system &

arrangement for producing, producing, distributing, an and d consuming economic system An organized arrangement goods.

&

technology Tools and other material equipment, together with the knowledge of how to make

and use them. &

reciprocity The exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two

parties. &

generalized reciprocity reciprocity A mode of exchange in which the value of what is given is not

calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified. &

receiving are specific specific balanced reciprocity reciprocity A mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery. delivery.

&

as s negative reciprocity A form of exchange in which the aim is to get something for as little a possible. Neither fair nor balanced, it may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, and outright cheating.

&

exchange in which mutually mutually distrusting ethnic groups groups avoid silent trade A form of product exchange direct personal contact 

&

&

E.g. the Mbuti Pygmy of Congo’s Ituri forest: forest: leave your goods, other come and exchange 

&

May occur due to lack of lack of a common language, to control situations of distrust

reciprocity that reinforces reinforces trade relations relations among the seafaring seafaring Kula ring A form of balanced reciprocity Trobriand Islanders and other Melanesians.

&

where re they are redistribution: A form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, whe sorted, counted, and reallocated.

&

prestige. conspicuous consumption A showy display of wealth for social prestige.

&

potlatch On the northwest coast of North America, a ceremonial event in which a village chief

publicly gives away stockpiled food and other goods that signify wealth. &

prestige economy Creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a

public display of wealth that is given away as gifts. &

obligation compelling prosperous prosperous members of a community community to leveling mechanism A cultural obligation give away goods, host pub- lic feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates significantly more wealth than anyone else

&

market exchange The buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of

supply and demand. &

money Something used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to

measure their value. &

informal economy A network of producing producing and circulating circulating marketable commodities, labor labor,

and services that for various reasons escapes government control. 

 

Political organisation Definition &

The term political organization organization refers to the way power is accumulated, arranged, executed, and structurally embedded in society, whether in organizing a whale hunt, managing irrigated farmlands, staging a religious festival, or raising an army.

&

It is the means through which a society creates and maintains social order order..

&

It assumes a variety of forms among the peoples of the world 

&

Four basic kinds of political systems:

&

&

bands

&

tribes 

&

chiefdoms 

&

states

The first two are uncentralized systems; the latter two are centralized.

Evolution of political system (pdf: the state) &

 About 5,500 years ago, on the fertile floodplains of the Tigris and Euphrates Euphrates Rivers in what is today Iraq, there developed a type of society unique to its time.

&

 After millennia in which which humans have gradually gradually turned from migrator migratory y foraging toward seasonal settlements based on a few domesticated plants and animals, and then toward year-

 

round farming villages, there came into being the world’ world’s s first true cities, and with them a novel form of political organization. &

The hunting-foraging adaptation requires requires an almost perfect ecological balance: growing populations meant a change was needed

&

Radically new types of social structure appeared only with the sedentary lifestyles and greater population densities brought about by the domestication of plants and animals.

&

This revolution was by no means sudden: it took years to for this transition to materialise

&

Previously,, society had been structured according to kinship networks; now there appeared a Previously permanent administrative bureaucracy that demanded loyalties transcending lineage and clan.

&

Local chiefs relinquished relinquished much of their authority to a ruling class who had the power to gather the agricultural surpluses and call forth the labor necessary to create large-scale irrigation projects and monumental architecture. architecture.

& & &

Fortified cities, such as Uruk and Ur, boasted populations of upward of 40,000 “citizens.”  A full-time caste of priests priests presided over a complex complex temple religion religion.. Craft specialists manufactured the obsidian knives and gold and silver figurines that would tie vast areas together through webs of trade.

&

The state had been born 

characteristics of Band societies

 

tribal societies

Chiefdom

State societies (the making of state: heviland)

Internal conflict theories (pdf: the state)

external conflict theories (pdf: the state)

origin of civilisation (pdf: the state)

the politic politic of identity (downloaded PDF+gender PDF+gender notes)

ethnicity

nationalism

modernism

post modernism (kottak)  •

post postmo mode dern rnit ity y •

•

post postmo mode dern rn •

•

Time Time of ques questio tionin ning g of esta establi blishe shed d canons, canons, ide identi ntitie ties, s, and st standa andards rds..

Breakdo Breakdown wn of establ established ished canons, categor categories, ies, disti distinctions nctions,, and boundar boundaries. ies.

post postmo mode dern rnis ism m •

Mov Movemen ementt aft after er mo modern dernism ism iin n arc archit hitectu ecture; re; n now ow mu much ch wi wider der..

Postmodern architecture rejected the rules, geometric order, and austerity of modernism. Modernist buildings were expected to have a clear and functional de- sign. Postmodern design is “messier” and more playful. It draws on a diversity of styles from different times and places

 

NOTES (Extras) Reli Re ligi gion on?? ??1

Contemp Con tempor orary ary human human problems problems?? ??2

Urba ban n Anthr Anthrop opol olog ogy y3 Ur Rural-urban Migration Basic overview Rural flight (or rural exodus) is the migratory pattern of peoples from rural areas into urban areas. It is urbanization seen from the rural perspective  In modern times, it often occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture  Rural flight is exacerbated when the population decline leads to the loss of rural services

Historical trends Pre-industriall societies did not experience large rural-urban migration. Pre-industria Lack of large employment industries, high urban mortality, mortality, and low food supplies all served as checks keeping pre-industrial cities much smaller than their t heir modern counterparts.  The onset of the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the late 19th century removed many of these checks  As food supplies increased increased and stabilized stabilized and industrialized industrialized centers moved into into place, cities began to support larger populations, sparking the beginning of rural flight on a massive scale.   The United Kingdom went from having 20% of the population living in urban areas in 1800 to more than 70% by 1925.  as industrialization spread throughout the world during the 20th century, century, rural flight and urbanization followed quickly behind. Today, rural flight is an especially distinctive phenomenon in some of the newer urbanized areas including China and more recently sub-Saharan Africa  During the Dust Bowl and the Great Depression of the 1930s, large numbers of people fled rural areas of the Great Plains  Post-World War II rural flight has been caused primarily by the spread of  industrialized agriculture. 

1

readings done, need to make notes worked yet

2 not

3 need

to read on this, copied from wiki so far!!!!

 

Determinants of rural flight There are several determinants, push and pull, that contribute to rural flight 

 Econ omic deter  Economic determinan minants ts to pursue greater economic opportunity in urban areas: Greater economic opportunities can be real or perceived. Since the industrialization of agriculture, mechanization has reduced the number of jobs present in rural communities. globalisation: increased economic competitiveness leads people to choose capital over labor.  The combination of declining rural jobs and a persistently high rural fertility rate positive feedback loop: previous migrants from rural communities assist new migrants in adjusting to city life  chain migration: migrant networks lower barriers to rural flight fl ight  For example, an overwhelming majority of rural migrants in China located jobs in urban areas through migrant networks.  Some families choose to send their children to cities as a form of investment for the future. remittances back home after getting a job in the city 

Social determinants Migration with households and marriage a!ect women in particular as most often they are the ones required to move with households and move for marriage, especially in developing regions  Rural youth may choose to leave their rural communities as a method of transitioning into adulthood, seeking avenues to greater prosperity. prosperity. rural youth may choose to migrate m igrate to cities out of social norms – demonstrating leadership and self-respect  In Sub-Saharan Africa, a study conducted by Touray Touray in 2006 indicated that about 15% (26 million) of urban migrants were youth.  Lastly,, natural disasters can often be single-point events that lead to temporarily Lastly t emporarily massive ruralurban migration flows. The 1930s Dust Bowl in the United States, for example, led to the flight of 2.5 million people from the Plains by 1940, many to the new cities in the West. More recently, recently, drought in Syria from 2006-2011 has prompted a rural exodus to major urban centers.

Consequences of rural flight Migrants face several challenges that may hinder their quality of life Many migrants do not have the education or skills to acquire decent jobs in cities and are then forced into unstable, low paying jobs.

 

The steady stream of new rural migrants m igrants worsens underemployment underemployment and unemployment, common among rural migrants. Employers o!er lower wages and poorer labor conditions to rural migrants, who must compete with each other for limited jobs, often unaware of their labor rights. Many cities have exploded in population; services and infrastructure, in these cities, are unable to keep up with population growth. Massive influxes in rural population can lead to severe housing shortages, inadequate water and energy supply, supply, and general slum-like conditions throughout cities.  rural migrants often struggle adjusting to city life. In some instances, there are cultural di!erences between the rural and urban areas of a region. Urban residents may also look down upon these newcomers to the city who are often unaware of city social norms. Both marginalized and separated from their home cultures, migrants face many social challenges when moving to cities  Women, in particular, face a unique set of challenges. employers may attempt to take advantage of women migrants preying on their unfamiliarity with labor laws and social networks on which w hich to rely. In the worst of cases, destitution may force women into prostitution, exposing them to social stigma and the risks of sexually transmitted diseases 

Expansion of cities/ urbanisation/ development III. Urban Anthropology Rural-urban migration, (kottak 143: small part) expansion of cities, major environmental issues, sanitation problems. Urbanization and development, establishment of slums and squatter settlements, refugees, Yankees, betties, gypsies, wars and conflict. Conversion of power from feudal to industrialists, institutionalization, education system,

 

change in the mode of production: agriculture to Capitalists’ poverty: theories and remedies, psychological, cultural, economical, political, re religious, ligious, physical, environmental, environmental, ecological ecological,, demographical, lingual, lingual, and city management. Conflict theory: Carl Marx, problems created by the mechanization and automation.

Ethnicity and race Ethnic Groups and Ethnicity: (kottak: ch6) Ethnic groups Definition &

One among several culturally distinct groups in a society or region 

&

members of an ethnic group share certain beliefs, values, habits, customs, and norms because of their common background 

&

Distinction may arise from a combination of: similar language, religion, historical experience,

$

geographic placement, kinship, or “race” Markers of ethnic groups &

a collective name,

&

belief in common descent,

&

a sense of solidarity,

&

an association with a specific territory  

Ethnicity & &

Identification with an ethnic group   According to Fredrik Fredrik Barth (1969), ethnicity ethnicity can be said to exist whe when n people claim a certain ethnic identity for themselves and are defined by others as having that identity

&

It means identification with, and feeling part of, an ethnic group and exclusion from certain other groups because of this a#liation.

&

Ethnic feelings and associated behaviour vary in intensity within ethnic groups and countries and over time.

&

 A change in the degree degree of importance attached to an e ethnic thnic identity may reflect: reflect:  &

political changes (Soviet rule ends— ethnic feeling rises) 

&

individual life-cycle changes (young people relinquish, relinquish, or old people reclaim, an ethnic background) 

&

Individuals often have more than one group identity 

&

negotiation of social identity  identity   people constantly negotiate their social identities:  situational negotiation

 

Origin of race and theories

What is a Race? (kottak) *

Race: Ethnic group assumed to have a biological basis 

*

In theory, theory, a biological race is a geographically isolated subdivisi subdivision on of a species 

*

Such a subspecies would be capable of interbreeding with other subspecies of the same species, but it would not actually do so because of its geographic isolation.

*

Some biologists also use “race” to refer to “breeds,” (e.g. bulldog is a “race”) 

*

Humanity ( Homo Homo sapiens ) lacks such races because: because:

*

human populations have not been isolated enough from one another to develop into such discrete groups

*

humans have not experienced controlled breeding like that which has created the various kinds of dogs and roses 

The Origin of Races (google) &

People whose ancestors have been living in the same geographic area for a long time tend to show similarities in visible characteristics such as size and shape, skin colour, colour, and hair form, and also invisible characteristics such as blood groups.

&

Human "racial" diversity is a result of people in a geographic area intermarrying, being exposed to a number of biological processes, processes, and adapting slowly to local environments.

&

These biological processes include combining and recombining inherited genetic material over the generations, which produces o!spring and descendants who di!er from their parents and ancestors.

&

The environment may favour certain characteristics, producing populations that are on the average taller, taller, or darker, darker, or more rugged than other populations from other geographic areas. &

Isolation and inbreeding of some populations may produce di!erences as well.

&

These natural processes occur in humans as well as other animals and are the source of much study in biology and anthropology.  

&

However, even if people in di !erent geographic areas di!er, it is impossible to draw sharp lines between racial groups.

&

Few if any populations are cut o ! from others, and even if laws, culture, and/or religion prohibit it, mating does take place.

& &

Characteristics of people change gradually from one geographic area to another   Anthropologists  Anthropologis ts see races as temporary, temporary, changing phenomena, phenomena, products of genetic processes processes and natural selection.

&

The races we see today are di!erent from those of yesterday and will be di!erent tomorrow 

 

Human biological diversity and the concept of Race (page129 kottak)  Historically,, scientists have approached the study of human biological diversity in two main ways: Historically w ays: (1) racial racial classificati classification on (now largely largely abandon abandoned) ed) (2) the current current explanatory approach, which focuses focuses on understanding understanding specific di!erences 

 Raci  Racial al classif cl assificati ication on &

 A race is supposed to reflect reflect shared genetic material (inherited from a common ancestor), but early scholars instead ( wrongly) wrongly) used phenotypical traits (usually skin colour) for racial classification

&

However there are certain problems with using phenotypical traits for racial classification: 

1. Problem Problem of of deciding deciding which which traits traits ar are e most important important &

Should you classify on the basis of height, weight, w eight, colour of skin? 

&

Priority was given to skin colour initially and it was as arbitrary as any other trait (colonial times)  Many schoolbooks and encyclopaedias still proclaim the existence of three great

&

races: the white, the black, and the yellow  &

 Additional problem: problem: skin colour not accurately accurately described either (whites (whites contains beige, pink; blacks have di!erent shades of brown, yellow: so no fixed position) 

& &

Human populations don’t fit neatly into any one of the three “great races”

Is it better to use a combination of traits for racial classification?  &

It is fraught with more di #culties 

&

For example, people with dark skin may be tall or short

2. Phenotyp Phenotypical ical similarit similarities ies and di!erences don’t necessarily have a genetic basis &

Di#culty to distinguish Heredity (versus environment) induced phenotypical traits 

&

Changes in the environment a!ect individuals during growth and development  &

The range of phenotypes characteristic of a population may change without any genetic change (natural selection plays a key role) 

$

E.g. explaining skin colour (pg. 131 kottak)

&

Gist: variation in human skin colour results from a balancing act between the evolutionary needs to:

+

(1) protect against all UV hazards (dark skin in the tropics) and

+

(2) have an adequate supply of vitamin D (lighter skin outside the tropics)

What’s wrong with Race? &

Race is socially constructed & &

Was largely used in the colonial times to validate subjugation and inequalities Leaders among European-Americans fabricated the cultural/ behavioural characteristics associated with each “race,” linking superior traits with Europeans and

 

negative and inferior ones to blacks and Indians: validation of slavery and other cruelties, holocaust &

It became a strategy for dividing, ranking, and controlling controlling colonised people used by colonial powers everywhere. &

“Race” thus evolved as a world view, view, a body of prejudgments that distorts our ideas about human di!erences and group behaviour. 

$

 American anthropological anthropological association: association: &

No human is born with a built-in culture or language. Our temperaments, dispositions, and personalities, regardless of genetic propensities, are developed within sets of meanings and values that we call “culture” . . . 

&

present-day inequalities between so-called “racial” groups are not consequences of their biological inheritance but products of historical and contemporary social, economic, educational, and political circumstances 

&

Evidence: The analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about

94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic “racial” groupings di!er from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within “racial” groups than between them!  

Social construction of Race

 Explain  Expl ain the t he view vi ew of AAA as above! ab ove! &

Races are ethnic groups assumed (by members of a particular culture) to have a biological basis, but actually race is socially constructed.

&

The “races” we hear about every day are cultural, or social, rather than biological categories

&

Social construction of race in di!erent societies

1. Hypodescen Hypodescent: t: Race Race in the United United States States & & &

In American culture, one acquires his or her racial identity at birth, as an ascribed status   American culture follows follows the Hypodescent Rule  It automatically places the children of a union between members of di!erent groups in the minority group: “racially mixed” child is ascribed as black 

&

Blacks still facing discrimination as manifest in contemporary America! 

2. Not Us: Rac Race e in in Japa Japan n &

Japan has cultivated its image as a nation “that is homogeneous in race, ethnicity, ethnicity, language, and culture”

& &

however, 10 percent of Japan’s national population are minorities of various sorts !

Japan follows “intrinsic racism”—the belief that a (perceived) racial di erence is a su#cient reason to value one person less than another.

 

&

In Japan the valued group is majority (“pure”) Japanese, who are believed to share “the same blood.”

&

The (majority) Japanese define themselves by opposition to others, whether minority groups in their own nation or outsiders—anyone who is “not us.” &

E.g. Burakumin are perceived as standing apart from majority Japanese. Through ancestry, ancestry, descent (and thus, it is assumed, “blood,” or genetics) 

&

More like the Indian concept of race: Burakumin considered “untouchab “untouchables” les” 

&

Residentially segregated, discriminated, considered unclean, no inter inter-marriage, limited access to education, health, and other amenities

3. Phenotyp Phenotype e and Fluid Fluidity: ity: Race Race in Brazil Brazil &

Brazilians use many racial labels to distinguish di!erent classes 

&

Through their traditional classification system, Brazilians recognise and attempt to describe the physical variation that exists in their population

&

In Brazil racial identity is more flexible, more of an achieved status.

&

Brazilian racial classification pays attention to phenotype— expressed physical characteristics (“manifest biology”—physiology biology”—physiology and anatomy, anatomy, including skin colour, colour, hair form, facial features, and eye colour) 

& &

 A brazilian can change change his or her race by ado adopting pting di!erent lifestyles and cultures No hypodescent rule developed in Brazil B razil because of historical reasons  &

The Portuguese came as men: attacked, married with locals, had local heirs

&

English settlers came with families and avoided any intermarriage children

Race theories?? (google)  Ethnic Groups, Nations and Nationality (kottak: ch6) Basic definitions

 Ethnic  Ethn ic groups: g roups: alread already y discusse di scussed d above ab ove

 Nations  Natio ns and a nd Nation N ationalit alities ies &

The term nation once was synonymous with tribe or ethnic group

&

Now nation has come to mean state

&

Combined in nation-state they refer to an autonomous political entity, a country

&

Because of migration, conquest, and colonialism, most nation-states are not ethnically homogeneous 

&

Nationalities: Ethnic groups that have, once had, or want, their own country

 

Nationalities and Imagined Communities &

Nationalities &

Ethnic groups that once had, or wish to t o have or regain, autonomous political status (their own country) 

& &

they are “imagined communities.”

Even when they become nation-states, they remain imagined communities because most of their members, though feeling comradeship, will never meet

&

Western European nationalism, which arose in imperial powers such as England, France, and Spain, can be traced back to the 18th century. century.

&

Language and print media played a huge role during that time to reinforce a common thought among the populace: everybody read the same thing, and adopted the same concepts 

&

Over time, political upheavals, wars, and migration have divided many imagined national communities that arose in the 18th and 19th centuries: &

E.g. Germany and Korea divided after 2nd world war; Kurds left stranded after creation of independent states 

&

Colonialism also helped foster the concept of “imagined communities” beyond nations  &

E.g. the negritide: blacks from di !erent African states formed one entity

Ethnic Conflict (kottak: ch6) Positive interactions  Assimilati  Assim ilation on &

describes the process of change that a minority ethnic group may experience when it moves to a country where another culture dominates.

& &

By assimilating, the minority adopts the patterns and norms of its host culture. It is incorporated into the dominant culture to the point that it no longer exists as a separate cultural unit &

e.g. Brazil where di!erent ethnic groups have subsumed their individual ethnicities in favour of a Brazilian identity 

The plural society &

 A Society with economically interdependen interdependentt ethnic groups 

&

Ethnic distinctions can persist despite generations of interethnic contact.

&

Through a study of three ethnic groups in Swat, Pakistan, Fredrik Barth, challenged an old idea that interaction always leads to assimilation. He showed that ethnic groups can be in contact for generations without assimilating & and can live in peaceful coexistence 

 

&

In Barth’s view, ethnic boundaries are most stable and enduring when the groups occupy di!erent ecological niches. That is, they make their living in di !erent ways and don’t compete.

&

Given niche specialisation, ethnic boundaries and interdependence interdependence can be maintained, although the specific cultural features of each group may change.

 Mult iculturali  Multicult uralism sm and an d ethnic et hnic ident identity ity &

The view of cultural diversity in a country as some- thing good and desirable Opposite of assimilationist

&

The multicultural view encourages the practice of cultural–ethnic traditions.

&

&

 A multicultural society society socialises individuals individuals not only into the dominant dominant (national) culture culture but also into an ethnic culture

&

&

In the United States and Canada C anada multiculturalism is of growing importance *

Growing migration 

*

Changing ethnic composition

*

Globalisation

Multiculturalism Multiculturalis m seeks ways for people to understand and interact that don’t depend on sameness but rather on respect for di!erences.

& &

Multiculturalism Multiculturalis m stresses the interaction of ethnic groups and their contribution to the country    A Shift away from “melting “melting pots” to “salad bowls” 

Negative interactions  prejudice,  prejud ice, discr discrimina imination tion,, Genoci Ge nocide, de, ethno ethnocide, cide, cult cultural ural colo coloniali nialism, sm, ethni ethnic c expulsion

Roots of ethnic conflict  *

Ethnicity can be expressed either peacefully (multiculturalism) or through discrimination, violent interethnic confrontation, genocide, ethnocide… (refer table below) 

*

The perception of cultural di!erences can have disastrous e!ects on social interaction.

*

The roots of ethnic di!erentiation can be political, economic, religious, linguistic, cultural, or racial

*

*

Sense of injustice 

*

Reaction to discrimination 

*

Expressions of devalued identity 

E.g. Iraq’s Sunni minority oppressed the Shitte minority under Sadam Hussain! 

 

 Prejud  Prejudice ice and Discr Discrimin imination ation *

Ethnic conflict often arises in reaction to prejudice (attitudes and judgments) or discrimination (action)

*

Prejudice stems from stereotyping

%

Discrimination can be:  %

de facto: practiced, but not legally sanctioned (harsher treatment for minorities in

US)  % %

*

de jure: part of law (segregation in US and apartheid in South Africa) 

Basic terms: *

prejudice: Devaluing a group be- cause of its assumed attributes.

*

stereotypes: Fixed ideas about what members of a group are like.

*

discrimination: Policies and practices that harm a group and its members.

e.g. arrival of Koreans in US in 1992: clashes with African Americans due to competition and mismatch of American values and cultures (Koreans not friendly friendly,, polite) 

Degree of Social Variation (Ember)

Brief overview Societies vary in the extent to which social groups, as well as individuals, have unequal access to advantages. unequal access to three types of advantages: (1) wealth wealth or economic economic resour resources ces (land, (land, tools, tools, goods) goods)  (2) power (abili (ability ty to force force others others to do what what you want) want) 

 

(3) prestige prestige (respec (respectt or honour accord accorded ed to someone) someone)  Thus, anthropologists conventionally conventionally distinguish three types of society in terms of the degree to which di!erent social groups have unequal access to advantages: egalitarian, rank, and class societies  Stratification in three types of societies Some social groups have greater access to:

Types of societies societie s

Economic resources

Power

Prestige

Examples

Egalitarian

no

no

no

!Kung, Mbuti, Australian aborigines, Inuit, Aché, Yanomamö

rank

no

no

yes

Samoans, Tahiti, Trobriand Islands, Ifaluk 

class/ caste

yes

yes

Yes

United States, Canada, Greece, India, Inca

Types of societies  Egalitari  Egal itarian an societi so cieties es &

Societies in which all people of a given age-sex category have equal access to economic resources, power, and prestige 

&

Egalitarian societies can be found not only among foragers, horticulturalists, pastoralists

&

egalitarian does not mean that all people within such societies are the same.

&

&

di!erences among individuals in age, gender, gender, abilities like hunting skill, perception etc. 

&

Some di!erence in prestige exists (e.g better hunters) but can be transferred 

 An egalitarian society society keeps inequality at a mini minimal mal level  & &

 Any di!erences in prestige that do exist are not related to economic di!erences. sharing: ensures equal access to economic resources despite di!erences in acquired prestige

&

For instance, in some egalitarian communities, some members achieve higher status through hunting (but di!erences evened out after distribution of hunt) 

& &

The culture works to separate the status that members achieve 

Egalitarian societies use a number of customs to keep leaders from dominating others. &

Criticism and ridicule can be very e !ective (The Mbuti of central Africa shout down an overassertive leader) 

&

Disobedience is another strategy (killing the leader is also possible in some cases)  

 

&

move away from a leader they t hey don’t like 

 Rank socie societies* ties* &

Societies that do not have any unequal access to economic resources or power power,, but with social groups that have unequal access to status positions and prestige 

&

Ranking is characterized by social groups with unequal access to prestige or status but not

&

significantly unequal access to economic resources or power. Unequal access to prestige is often reflected in the position of chief  &

the position of chief is at least partly hereditary (Polynesians) 

&

chiefs are often treated with deference by people of lower rank. For example, among the Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia (chief treated like a king) 

&

 Although there is is no question that chiefs chiefs in a rank society enjoy special special prestige, there there is some controversy over whether they really do not also have material advantages.

&

chief in a rank society lacks power because he usually cannot make people give him gifts or force them to work on communal projects 

Class societies* Class Societies are societies containing social groups that have unequal access to economic & resources, power, and prestige  &

 A social class is a category of of people who all have about about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige.

&

In class societies, groups of people are stratified, or divided into levels, according to their degree of access not only to prestige, as in rank societies, but also to wealth and power. power.

&

Class societies range in strictness from somewhat open systems, to virtually closed, or caste, systems. 

!

Open Class system &

&

 A category of people who have about about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige.  Class systems are called open if there is some possibility of moving from one class to another.

& &

 An important way classes perpetuate perpetuate themselves is thr through ough inheritance to generations generations In addition to di!erences in occupation, wealth, and prestige, social classes vary in many other ways, including religious religious a #liation etc. 

&

Class boundaries have been established by custom and tradition; sometimes they have been reinforced by the enactment of laws  &

!

E.g. private property laws in the U.S.  

Degree of openness &

Some class systems are more open than others  

&

Measuring the degree of mobility: compare with older generations 

 

& !

Class openness varies over time and space  

Degree of inequality &

Degree of class mobility is related to degree of inequality—more inequality—more unequal societies generally have less mobility from one class to another. another.

&

Change over time in the degree of inequality sometimes appears to have economic causes; for example, the 1929 crash made the wealthy less wealthy. 

& !

One way of measuring inequality is by the Gini coe#cient 

Caste systems (covered below) & &

societies where classes (called castes) are virtually closed.  A caste is a ranked group in in which membership is is determined at birth, and marriage marriage is restricted to members of one’ one’s s own caste.

&

The only way you can belong is by being born into the t he group  &

&

e.g. Indian hindu caste system

Perpetuation of the caste system is ensured by the power of those in the upper castes, who derive three main advantages from their position: economic, prestige, and sexual gains. 

&

Japan also had a caste group within a class society (burakumin) 

&

In the United States, African Americans used to have more of a caste-like status 

&

South Africa: Apartheid (all are manifestations of a caste system)  

Rank Societies; (heviland:ch22)

Brief intro from above

Definition and markers of Rank societies *

Rank commonly refers to the social position of people in societies recognising social hierarchies hierarchie s of one kind or another 

*

How people are socially situated in any given society vis-à-vis others is a political question 

*

it is an issue of people’s people’s relative “value” as this is determined by the members of a community 

*

In the political sphere, rank clearly identifies the hierarchical relationships of people operating within positions of power and authority. authority.

*

However, the basis upon which these relationships rest may be found within the belief systems of the people. 

*

These societies are organised according to principles determining the relative value of certain groups or individuals over others.

*

implications for people’s relative access to resources, opportunity, positions of power, and authority within the political or religious sectors.

*

markers of relative value: 

 

*

age, gender, and other individual characteristics

Types of Ranks societies

 Ascribed  Ascri bed Rank soci societies eties $ $

 A society in which social social status is not based on an iindividual’ ndividual’s s choice i.e. where individuals and groups find themselves in relative positions of rank by virtue of being born into socially established positions of hierarchy 

%

E.g. The Trobriand Islands  *

uses hereditary rank established in the mythological origins of the four clans. 

*

Each of the clans has relative status to each other (Tabalu (Tabalu clan holding the highest rank)

*

clans further divided into subclans that are likewise ranked.

*

Not only does the highest-ranking chief come from the T Tabalu abalu clan, but he also comes from the highest-ranking subclan 

%

E.g. The indigenous people of the Hawaiian Islands *

had a more complex social system based on hereditary rank and classes. 

*

people were born into social classes as inferiors, commoners, or nobles. 

*

traced descent from the gods, with those t hose more closely linked to godly descent occupying the higher echelons of the society and forming the elite classes

%

*

The whole system was ranked according to formal rules of hierarchical descent.

*

The ruling elite maintained religious and secular control over the rest of the population 

E.g. the Hindu rank system

 Achieved eved Rank soci societies eties  Achi & &

 A society where social social status is e!ected by individual choices and achievements In these societies, there is no formal, well-established hierarchical structuring of groups, no positions of rank to be filled. fi lled.

&

Instead, all groups enjoy relative equality with each other and group consensus is sought in decision making.

&

However,, there are some men who seek more status by manipulating relationships of However exchange and marriage to build up positions of status.

&

While achieved status gives them temporary “rank” in that people look to them for leadership and direction, their positions are extremely tenuous.

&

They have no o#cial status.

%

E.g. the “big man” political systems of Melanesia *

men establish their rank by “achieving” status for themselves. 

 

Social Stratification (heviland:ch11, 22): Pick points from variation section Brief overview *

*

 A society in which people people are hierarchically hierarchically divided divided and ranked into social social strata, or layers, and do not share equally in the basic resources that support survival, influence, and prestige. The rise of large, economically diversified populations presid presided ed over by centralised governing authorities brought with it social stratification, or the emergence of social classes.

*

Evidence found in archaeological sites (grave goods, skeletons, customs): Mesopotamia

*

Social stratification is a common and powerful structuring force in many of the world’s world’s societies

*

In sharp contrast to egalitarian society, society, where everyone is treated equally (foragers) 

*

Members of bottom strata su!er discrimination, abuse, hate etc. 

*

They receive lower status, fewer resources, no power etc. 

Manifestations of social stratification Caste and Class Societies* *

Social class *

It is a category of individuals in a stratified society who enjoy equal or “nearly equal”   prestige according to the system of evaluation.

*

 A certain amount of inequality inequality may occur even within a gi given ven class

*

Class distinctions not always clear-cut 

%

Indicators of Social Status %

*

 Verbal  Ver bal evaluation (what people say about others in the society) 

%

Patterns of association (who interacts with whom, how and in what context) 

%

Symbolic indicators (status symbols) 

Caste *

It is a closed social class in a stratified society in which membership is determined by birth and fixed for life.

*

the caste system is based on the principle that humans neither are nor can be equal.

*

Castes are strongly endogamous, and o!spring are automatically members of their parents’ caste.

Example: The traditional Hindu caste system (India’s (India’s Hidden Apartheid) * *

world’s longest surviving social hierarchy encompasses a complex ranking of social groups on the t he basis of “ritual purity.” purity.”

*

Jatis: Some 2,000 di!erent castes varying regionally

 

*

*

Further categorised into 4 categories: *

Brahamins: priests and lawgivers, the purest

*

Kashatryas: fighters and rulers 

*

 Vaisyas:  Vai syas: merchants and traders 

*

Sudras: artisans and labourers 

Falling outside the varna system is a fifth category of degraded individuals “Untouchables: Ashud  “Untouchables:  Ashud ””,, later named Harijan (children of God) by  Gandhi  Gandhi 

*

Each caste follows its specific dharma (ritual path of duty) and avoids taboos

*

Di!erences in caste rankings justified by concept of karma (the Hindu religious doctrine of the transmigration of the soul)

*

The caste system is still widespread in India, with segregation of whole villages 

*

Recently civil rights movements led by Shudras and the Ashuds (Dalit movement) 

*

 a subgroup of such movements  Gulabi Gand: India’s pink women with “lathis”  a

Example: Historical Racial Segregation in South Africa and the United States *

hierarchy based on ethnic origin or skin colour 

(segregation): white superiority ideology o#cially relegated indigenous dark1.  Apartheid (segregation):

skinned Africans to a low-ranking stratum. *

South African whites feared pollution of their purity through improper contact with blacks.

2. Same followed in the US: ruling class comprised of the European immigrants  *

Manifested in one drop rule: it codified the idea of white racial purity by classifying individuals as black if just one of their multiple m ultiple ancestors was of African origin

*

Such institutionalized racial discrimination continued for a century after slavery was abolished,

*

today self-segregation exists in many parts of the United States 

 Maint aining  Maintainin g stratif st ratificati ication on *

The elites assert stratification through intimidation or propaganda (in the form of gossip, media, religious doctrine, and so forth) that presents their position as normal, natural, divinely guided, or at least well-deserved. *

e.g. through religious ideologies 

*

Hindus: social order is divinely fixed and not to be questioned  karma (  system,  reincarnation )

Social mobility *

Most stratified societies o!er at least some sort of social mobility (Upward or downward downwar d change in one’ one’s s social class position in a stratified society) 

 

*

Prospects Prospec ts of improving eases the strains

%

Open-class societies *

Societies that permit a great deal of mobility

*

Highest mobility where: most common in societies made up of independent nuclear families, fewer people, neolocal residence

* %

E.g. U.S. society

Closed-class societies *

societies that do not permit mobility 

*

Severe institutionalised limits to social mobility 

*

E.g. hindu caste system

Racism and Inequality, Inequality, (EMBER) Brief overview on Racism: covered

Race as a construct in biology: covered Race as a social construct: covered

Racism and inequality &

Incidence of cardiovascular disease: African Americans die more often than European  Americans.

&

The same kind of disparity occurs also with almost every other major cause of death—cancer, death—cancer, cirrhosis of the liver, liver, kidney disease, diabetes, injuries, infant mortality, mortality, and homicide.

& &

 African Americans twice as likely likely as European Americans to have high rates o off hypertension (high blood pressure).  stress levels also higher: African Americans still subject to prejudice and discrimination  &

Proven fact that blacks from other countries not at the same level of risk as blacks in U.S. 

&

&

subtle discrimination by the medical profession itself: unequal medical care.

&

related also to di!erences in lifestyle and wealth.

 African Americans in the United States are disproportionately disproportionately poorer poorer  &

$

Self-segregation, unequal access to education, health 

 Add more!!

The arbitrary and social basis of racial classifications &

Consider,, for example, what used to be thought about the “races” in South Africa. Consider

 

&

when important people of African ancestry (from other countries) would visit South Africa, they were often considered “white.”

&

Chinese were considered “Asian”; but the Japanese, who were important economically to South Africa, were considered “white.” 

& & &

In much of Latin America and the Caribbean, the reverse rule is the case.  A small amount of European European blood can make you “white.” “white.”  If people of di!erent “races” are viewed as inferior, inferior, they are more likely going to end up on the lower rungs of the social ladder in a socially stratified society society..

&

Discrimination will keep them out of the better-paying or higher-s higher-status tatus jobs and in neighborhoods that are poorer with w ith underperforming schools.

&

One recent study sent résumés for jobs with randomly assigned “white” sounding names or “black” sounding names. 

forward: d: may be copied from ethnicity part!! Way forwar Ethnicity and Inequality, (EMBER) Brief overview on ethnicity: covered

Politics of ethnicity &

It is apparent that ethnic groups and ethnic identities emerge as part of a social and political process 

&

Outsiders and insiders often perceive ethnic groups di!erently. In a country with one large core majority group, often the majority group doesn’t think of itself as an ethnic group 

&

Ethnic di!erences can sometimes arise from class di!erences. India is a good example!!

&

Ethnic identity may be manipulated, by insiders and by outsiders, in di !erent situations. 

Ethnicity and inequality &

In many multiethnic societies, ethnicity and diversity are things to be proud of and celebrated

&

Still, ethnic di!erences in multiethnic societies are usually associated with inequities in wealth, power, and prestige.

& &

In other words, ethnicity is part of the t he system of stratification.   Although some people believe believe that inequitie inequities s are deserved, the origins origins of ethnic ster stereotypes, eotypes, prejudice,, and discrimination usually follow from historical and political events prejudice

&

&

e.g. the English were the invaders, and negative stereotypes about native peoples were developed to justify taking their land and their lives   African slaves were were initially acquired acquired as cheap labor labor,, but inhumane treatment treatment of slaves was  justified by beliefs beliefs about their inferiori inferiority ty 

 

Way forward &

the picture is not all bleak: Change has occurred.

&

The ethnic identity a minority group forges can help promote political activism, such as the nonviolent civil rights movement in the United States in the 1960s 

&

The traditional barriers in the United States have mostly been lifted in recent years,

&

however the “color line” has not disappeared.

&

 African Americans are are found in all social classes, but they remain remain underrepresented underrepresented in the wealthiest group and overrepresented at the bottom.

&

Discrimination may be lessened, but it is still not gone. 

&

Self-segregation,, other discriminations: arrests, prejudice, high rates of convictions, shootings  Self-segregation

&

Socio-Cultural Changes Need to read, make notes!!

Anthropologic Anthropological al theories Hamza’ss notes (need to self-read) Hamza’

Anthropological ical research methods Anthropolog Hamza’ss notes (need to self-read) Hamza’