ANCIENT INDIA
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CONTENTS 1.
INDIAN PRE-HISTORY..........................................................................3-7
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION ............................................................ 8-12
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THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION ................................................................ 13-18
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BUDDHISM AND JAINISM ................................................................ 19-22
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THE MAHAJANAPADAS .................................................................... 23-25
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THE MAURYANS ............................................................................. 26-30
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POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS ........................................................... 31-34
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EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA .................................................. 35-45
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THE GUPTA PERIOD ........................................................................ 46-50
10. LATER GUPTAS (7-12 CENTURY A.D.) .............................................. 51-56 11. POST-GUPTA PERIOD IN SOUTH INDIA ........................................... 57-63 12. ART & ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA ...................................... 64-91
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ANCIENT
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INDIAN PRE-HISTORY
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Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in caves and rock shelters. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery of any material and mainly used hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, scrapers and burins. Their tools were made of a hard rock called ‘quartzite’ and hence Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’. Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase and the Palaeolithic man belonged to the Negrito race. Sir Robert Bruce Foot discovered the first Palaeolithic stone tool in the Indian sub-continent near Madras in 1863 A.D. The discovery of Indian Pre-history got a boost after the Yale-Cambridge expedition in 1935 under De Terra and Patterson. The Paleolithic stage has been divided into Lower Palaeolithic (250,000-100,000 B.C.), Middle Palaeolithic (100,000-40,000 B.C.) and Upper Paleolithic stage (40,000-10,000 B.C.) primarily based on tool typology and technology and also according to the nature of change in the climate. The tools of the lower Paleolithic stage are mainly hand axes, cleavers, choppers and chopping tools and covered the greater part of the Ice Age. In this period the climate became less humid. The middle Paleolithic age tools are mainly based on flake industries. The upper Paleolithic stage is characterized by burins and scrapers and a warm and less humid climate. Agewise the lower Paleolithic extended upto 100,000 years ago, middle Paleolithic extended upto 40,000 years ago and upper Paleolithic up to 10,000 BC. The Son and the adjacent Belan valley (Mirzapur, UP) provide a sequence of artifacts from lower Paleolithic to Neolithic. Situated around Bhimbedka hill, in central India near Hoshangabad on the Narmada River, the caves and rock shelters have yielded evidence of Paleolithic habitation. At Bhimbetka near the Narmada, a series of rockshelters have been excavated from caves. This site lacks in Chopper and Abbevillian hand axes. During middle palaeolithic age, Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus evolved. But this cultural stage was dominated by Neanderthal Man.
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The idea of pre-history is barely 200 years old. And so is the word pre-history; it was first used by M. Tournal in 1833. Dr. Primrose rediscoverd Indian pre-history by discovering prehistoric implements (stone knives and arrow heads) in 1842 at a place called Lingsugur in Karnataka. Robert Bruce was another person who enriched our knowledge about Indian prehistory when he discovered a large number of prehistoric sites in South India and collected Stone Age artifacts. These early efforts could not place India on the prehistoric map of the world. Sir Mortimer Wheeler's efforts in 1921, resulted in our knowledge of the entire pre historic culture sequence of India, putting India firmly on the world map of prehistory. As regards the early man; no fossils of early man have been found in the entire subcontinent, but their presence is indicated by stone tools dated around 250,000 BC. Earliest traces of human activity in India go back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C. From their first appearance to around 3000 B.C. humans used only stone tools for different purposes. Based on the tool mining traditions, this period is therefore known as the Stone Age and the entire Stone Age culture has been divided into 3 main stages i.e. Paleolothic (early or Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
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Palaeolithic Age (500,000 B.C.–8000 B.C.)
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The Palaeolithic Age commenced from the time when the earliest man learnt the art of making stone tools. The greatest achievement of the earliest man could be traced to his learning as to how to make a fist hatchet, the spear and the fire. In India, the Palaeolithic Age developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age and was spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial parts of Ganga and Indus. Food gathering and hunting were the main occupations of the people of this phase and Palaeolithic men learnt to use animal skins for wrapping their dead bodies.
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The upper Palaeolithic culture belongs to the last phase of the Ice Age. This culture is marked by the appearance of new flint industries and the evolution of Homo sapiens or the modern man. At Chopani-Mando in the Belan valley of the Vindhyas and the middle part of the Narmada valley, a sequence of occupation from all the three stages of the Paleolithic to Neolithic stage have been found in sequence. Chopani Mando is an important site where fossil animal bones have been found. Mesolithic Era (8000 B.C.–6000 B.C.)
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Although major changes began to appear around 10,000 B.C. the Mesolithic era seems to have started around 9000 B.C. and 8000 B.C. with the folding up of the Ice Age and continued at certain places till 4000 B.C. In this age, climate changes brought about changes in the fauna and flora and made it possible for human beings to move to new areas. Since then there haven’t been major changes in the climate. The Mesolithic era is characterized by the reduction in the size of well established tool types from the archaeological point of view with a decrease in size of some artifacts and the presence of a higher proportion of ‘geometric’ microliths. Microliths, first discovered from the Vindhyan rock shelters by C.L. Carlyle in 1867; are the characteristic tools of the era comprising of pointed, cresconic blades, scrapers, etc. all made of stone. These are very small in size with their length varying from 1-8 cm. Blackened blade, core, point, triangle, lunate and trapeze are the main Mesolithic tools. However some tools used earlier like choppers, burins and scrapers continue. The hunting implements are spears with multiple barbs apparently obtained easily by attaching microliths. The crude material is chert, agate, carnelian and quartz. Bagor, a Mesolithic site in Rajasthan on the river Kothari is the largest Mesolithic site in India also from where systematic burials of skeletons have been found. Tapti, Narmada, Mahi and Sabarmati river basins in Gujarat have yielded many Mesolithic sites. Langhnaj in Gujarat is the first discovered site in the arid zone to demonstrate the development of a Mesolithic culture. The site of Chopani Mando in Allahabad provides a continuous sequence from late upper Palaeolithic to late Mesolithic stage with crude handmade pottery. Here round hut floors were found. In Peninsular India the Mesolithic industry is based on milky quartz. A new feature in the tool industry
Lifestyle • The age represents the hunting-gathering nomadic pastoral stages of human social evolution as the people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage, they also domesticated animals. • The people of this age achieved their special adaptation as early as 8000 B.C. which coincides with the same in both Europe and Africa. • The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plane cultivation. • The Palaeolithic age does not yield any information about the religious practices of the people but with the Mesolithic age the first archaeological information about them becomes available. The burials and rock paintings give us ideas about the development of religious practices. • Some Mesolithic sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur are famous for their rich art and paintings. Animals are the most frequent subjects of all these paintings with the most frequently represented ones being deer or antelope whereas paintings of tigers and monkeys are rare. • Animal headed human figures also appear. • This is also the period when we find evidence of carefully burying the dead, which shows the beginning of belief in life after death.
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is the appearance of ‘D’ shaped, transverse arrowhead. • A large number of animal bones were found in the rock-shelters of Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh which indicate domestication of animals only, not a pastoral economy.
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Neolithic Era (6000 B.C.–1000 B.C.)
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In the world context, the Neolithic age began around 9000 B.C. but in the Indian context it began in 7000 B.C. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is the only site belonging to that period. Regular Neolithic attributes have been found from around 5000 B.C. and in South Indian context Neolithic settlements appeared around 2500 B.C. The principal features of Neolithic culture are crop cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life. The last two coming into existence in the last phase of Mesolithic culture. During this period people depended on stone implements but used stones other than quartzite for making tools which were more lethal, more finished and more polished. The phase is known for grinding and polishing of tools. The stone tools can be studied under two groups: (a) Ground and polished stone implements and (b) small and chipped stone tools. ANCIENT 4
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there was a pattern of subsistence based on wheat, barley, sheep, goats and cattle. The remains of charred grains of paddy husk and wheat are quite visible at Chirand in Bihar, the hand-made pots as well. The people of Kachar Hills of Assam lived in mudwalled houses and their hand-made pots were decorated with basket impressions. Koldhiwa and Mahagara lying south of Allahabad have thrown evidence of many strata of circular huts alongwith a crude handmade pottery. The most interesting find is evidence of rice suggested around 5440 and 4530 B.C. which is the oldest evidence of rice not only in India but also anywhere in the world. Instances of earlier cave dwelling have also been discovered with walls decorated of scenes of hunting and dancing. Neolithic man also knew the art of making boats and could weave cotton and wool to make cloth. In the later phase of the Neolithic stage people led a more settled life and lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed.
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Ground and polished stone implements are associated with the Neolithic culture because of their links with food-producing stage and domestication of animals. Small and chipped stone tools had been continuing from earlier Mesolithic levels which are generally termed as microliths. The Neolithic people at certain point of time started making potteries. On this basis Neolithic culture has been divided into aceramic Neolithic and ceramic Neolithic ages. At certain Neolithic levels we get the evidence of use of metal (copper being the earliest metal). Such levels are termed as Chalcolithic level. Important sites of this age are Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses), Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampatti in Tamil Nadu, Piklihal and Hallur in Andhra Pradesh, Garo hills in Meghalaya, Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for remarkable bone tools), Amri, Kot diji, etc. In Baluchistan , sites of Neolithic age include Kili Ghul Muhammad, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Siahdamb and Mundigak. In the Indus system the most Neolithic site is at Mehrgarh in the Kacchi Plain regarded as the ‘bread basket’ of Baluchistan. The Neolithic stratum at Mehrgarh seems to have emerged from a locally established Mesolithic substratum.
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In the northern Himalayas, the best known Neolithic site is Burzahom in Kashmir where the earliest occupation was characterized pit dwellings with conical roofs. The site also gives evidence of a rectangular chopper of a kind not known in India. In Burzahom sometimes dogs and wolves were found buried with their owners. Later on, there comes evidence of mud brick houses, copper arrow heads and a number of burials and graves with goods. This phase also yield a stray painted pot showing a typical early Indus buffalo deity. Gufkral, literally ‘the cave of the potter’ is another important Neolithic site in Kashmir where the earliest seize yield pit dwellings without pottery. However in subsequent phases coarse grey pottery was used and a large number of bone tools occur. People domesticated sheep, goats and oxen and animal remains of early periods corroborate it. Cultivation of wheat, barley, fruits, corn like ragi and horsegram and lentils have been reported from the beginning and between 6000 B.C. and 5000 B.C.
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Chalcolithic Period
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The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals of which copper was the first. A culture based on the use of stone and copper arrived called the Chalcolithic phase meaning the stone-copper phase. The first full-fledged village communities evolved in the Chalcolithic phase which was chronologically antecedents to Harappan people. Rafique Mughal of Pakistan named there settlements as Early Harappan culture. Though some Chalcolithic cultures are contemporary of Harappan and some of preHarappan cultures but most Chalcolithic cultures are post-Harappan. Though Chalcolithic cultures mostly used stone and copper implements, the Harappans used bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) on such a scale that Harappan culture is known as a Bronze Age Culture. Apart from stone tools, hand axes and other objects made from copperware were also used. The evidences of relationship with Afghanistan, Iran and probably Central India and visible at Mehargarh. The Chalcolithic culture at many places continued till 700 B.C. and sometime around 1200 B.C. the use of iron seems to have begun in the Chalcolithic level itself. The use of iron subsequently revolutionized the culture making progress and by 800 B.C. a distinct Iron Age came into existence. ANCIENT
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The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular. It was wheel made and painted with white line design. The Chalcolithic people were not acquainted with burnt bricks and generally lived in thatched houses. It was a village economy. They venerated the mother goddess and worshipped the bull.
Sites
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Important sites of this stage are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, etc. The Chalcolithic culture in Rajasthan is known as Banas culture after the river of the same name and is also known as Ahar culture after the typesite. In the Malwa region the important Chalcolithic sites are Nagda, Kayatha, Navdatoli, and Eran. Mud-plastered floors are a prominent feature of Kayatha. The Kayatha culture is characterized by a sturdy red-slipped ware painted with designs in chocolate colour, a red painted buff ware and a combed ware bearing incised patterns. The Ahar people made a distinctive black-and-red ware decorated with white designs. The Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric, but has a thick buff surface over which designs are made either in red or black. The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are both derived from the Harappan, but have a glossy surface due to which they are also called Lustrous Red Ware. Jorwe ware too is painted black-on-red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. The settlements of Kayatha cutlure are only a few in number, mostly located on the Chambal and its tributaries. They are relatively small in size and the biggest may be not over two hectares. In contrast to small Kayatha culture settlements those of Ahar cultures are big. At least three of them namely Ahar, Balathal and Gilund are of several hectares. Stone, mud bricks and mud were used for the construction of houses and other structures. Excavations reveal that Balathal was a wellfortified settlement. The people of Malwa culture settled mostly on the Narmada and its tributaries. Navdatoli, Eran and Nagada are the three best known settlements of Malwa culture. Navadatoli measures almost 10 hectares and is one of the largest Chalcolithic settlements. It has been seen that some of these sites were fortified and Nagada had even a bastion of mud-
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bricks. Eran similarly had a fortification wall with a moat. The Rangpur culture sites are located mostly on Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat. The Jorwe settlement is comparatively larger in number. Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon are some of the best known settlements of this culture. The largest of these is Daimabad which measured 20 hectares. From Mesolithic culture onwards, all the culture types coexisted and interacted with each other.
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The Chalcolithic people built rectangular and circular houses of mud wattled-and-daub. The circular houses were mostly in clusters. These houses and huts had roots of straw supported on bamboo and wooden rafters. Floors were made of rammed clay and huts were used for storage also. People raised cattle as well as cultivated both Kharif and Rabi crops in rotation. Wheat and barley were grown in the area of Malwa. Rice is reported to have been found from Inamgaon and Ahar. These people also cultivated jowar and bajra and so also kulthi ragi, green peas, lentil and green and black grams. Religion was an important aspect which interlinked all Chalcolithic cultures. The worship of mother goddess and the bull was in vogue. The bull cult seems to have been predominant in Malwa during the Ahar period. A large number of these both naturalistic as well as stylised lingas have been found from most of the sites of Chalcolithic settlements. The naturalistic ones may have served as votive offerings, but the small stylised ones may have been hung around the neck as the Lingayats do today. The Mother Goddess is depicted on a huge storage jar of Malwa culture in an applique design. She is flanked by a woman on the right and a crocodile on the left, by the side of which is represented the shrine. Likewise the fiddle-shaped figurines probably resembling Srivatsa, the symbol of Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth in historical period represent a mother Goddess. In a painted design on a pot, a deity is shown with dishevelled hair, recalling Rudra. A painting on a jar found from Daimabad shows a deity surrounded by animals and birds such as tigers and peacocks. Some scholars compare it with the ‘Shiva Pashupati’ depicted on a seal from Mohenjodaro. ANCIENT 6
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in kiln, it was fired at a temperature between 500700°C. In metal tools we find axes, chisels, bangles, beads, etc. mostly made of copper. The copper was obtained, perhaps, from the Khetri mines of Rajasthan. Gold ornaments were extremely rare and have been found only in the Jorwe culture. An ear ornament has been found from Prabhas in the Godavari valley also. The find of crucibles and pairs of tongs of copper at Inamgaon in Maharashtra shows the working of goldsmiths. Chalcedony drills were used for perforating beads of semi-precious stones. Lime was prepared out of Kankar and used for various purposes like painting houses and lining the storage bins, etc.
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Two figurines from Inamgaon, belonging to late Jorwe culture, are identified as proto-Ganesh, who is worshipped for success. Several headless figurines found at Inamgaon have been compared with Goddess Visira of the Mahabharata. Fire-worship seems to have been a very widespread phenomenon among the Chalcolithic people of Pre-historic India as fire-altars have been found from a large number of Chalcolithic sites during the course of excavations. The occurence of pots and other funerary objects found along with burials of the Malwa and Jorwe people indicate that people had a belief in life after death. The Chalcolithic farmers had made considerable progress in ceramic as well as metal technology. The painted pottery was well made and well fired
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION Origin and Phases
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The Indus Valley civilization was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus river and the Ghaggar-Hakra river in what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan civilization in reference to the first excavated city of Harappa. An alternative term for the culture is SaraswatiSindhu civilization based on the fact that most of the Indus Valley sites have been found along the Ghaggar-Hakra river. R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or ‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these. Harappan civilization forms part of the proto history of India i.e. the script is there, but it cannot be deciphered and belongs to the Bronze Age. The Indus valley civilization gradually developed to a full-fledged civilization which has been established through a continuous sequence of strata named as Pre-Harappan, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan and Late Harappan stages or phases. The long term indigenous evolution of this civilization which obviously began on the periphery of the Indus Valley in the hills of eastern Baluchistan and then extended so far into the plains, can be documented by an analysis of four sites which have been excavated in recent years: Mehargarh, Amri, Kalibangan and Lothal which reflect the sequence of the four important phases or stages in pre and proto history in the north-west region of the Indian sub-continent. The sequence begins with the transition of nomadic herdsmen to settled agriculturists in eastern Baluchistan (First Phase), continues with the growth of large villages and the rise of towns in the Indus Valley (Second Phase), leads to the emergence of the great cities (Third Phase), and finally, ends with their decline (Fourth Phase). Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the first two were more numerous. More than 100 sites belonging to this civilization
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have been excavated. According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500-1750 B.C. Copper, bronze, silver and gold were known but not iron.
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Geographical Extent
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Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some parts of Western U.P. It extended from Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in the south and from Alamgirpur in western U.P. to Sutkagendor in Baluchistan in the west. Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on river Ravi in west Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), etc. In India the major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali (Hissar) and Alamgirpur (western U.P.) The largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in it. Town Planning
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The Indus Valley people were primarily urban people. Elaborate town-planning following the Grid System. Roads were well cut dividing the town into large rectangular or square blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lightening. Flanking the streets, lanes and by-lanes were well-planned houses. The streets were quite broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet in breadth. Burnt bricks of good quality were used for building material except in Rangpur and Kalibangan. Elsewhere in the contemporary world mud bricks were used. No pottery-kiln was allowed to be built within the four walls of the city. Houses were often of two or more storey, of varying sizes but were quite monotonous – a square courtyard around which were a number of rooms. The windows faced the streets and the houses had tiled bathrooms. It is especially noteworthy that almost every house had its own wells, bathrooms, courtyards, drains and kitchens. There was a good drainage system and drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered ANCIENT 8
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but elephant was. Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in graves in Ropar have been discovered. Produced sufficient to feed themselves. There was no exchange of foodgrains/export or import. Food grains were stored in granaries. Eg. In Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
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Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through Barter System. Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc. and were generally cubical in shape. 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, 320). Flint tool-work, shell-work, bangle-making (famous in Kalibangan), etc. were practiced. Raw materials for these came from different sources: gold from north Karnataka, silver and Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, copper from Khetri and Baluchistan, etc. Bead making factories existed in Chanu daro and Lothal. They were items of export. A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagendor and Sutkakoh functioned as outlets. The inland transport was carried out by bullock carts. Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem often of a religious character, and a name or brief description, on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may have also served as amulets. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations with Meluhha, the ancient name of the Indus region. Harappan seals and other material have been found at Mesopotamia. There were also instances of trade with Sumer, Babylonia, Egypt, etc.
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with large brick slabs for easy cleaning which shows a developed sense of health and sanitation. Every house had its own soak-pit which collected all the sediments and allowed only the water to flow into the street drain. House drains emptied themselves into the main drains which ran under the main streets and below many lanes. There were special trenches constructed outside every city for the rubbish to be thrown in them. The towns were divided into two parts: Upper part or Citadel and the Lower part. The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform some 30-50 feet high and about some 400-200 yards in area. It was enclosed by a thick (13 m in Harappa) crenellated mud brick wall. The Citadel comprised of public buildings whereas the lower part comprised of public dwellings. In Mohenjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath) measuring 12 m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep has been found. Steps led from either end to the surface, with changing rooms alongside. The Great Bath was probably used for ritual bathing. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lighting. There were special series constructed for the travelers and a system of watch and word at night also existed.
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Political Organization/ Municipalities
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There is no clear idea of the political organization of the Indus valley people. Perhaps they were more concerned with commerce and they were possibly ruled by a class of merchants. Also there was an organization like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.
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The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood which indicated agriculture and knowledge of calendar reading. The people grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc. The Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs. Domestication of animals was done on a large scale. Besides the cattle, sheep, pigs, camels, cats and dogs were domesticated. Horses weren’t in regular use
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The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age and bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze. For making bronze, copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Baluchistan and tin from Afghanistan. The people of this culture were not acquainted with iron at all. ANCIENT
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The Indus Valley people had achieved a great skill in drawing the figures of men, animals and various other objects of nature and were fully conversant with the art of craving with figures on ivory, soapstone, leather, metal and wood proving their artistic acumen. Cotton fabrics were quite common and woolens were popular in winter. One male figure or a statue shows that generally two garments were worn and the female dress was more or less like that of a male. The Indus valley people were very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper, bronze and precious stones) and dressing up. Ornaments were worn by both men and women, rich or poor. Women wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets, figure-rings, girdles, nose-studs and anklets. The Harappans were expert bead makers. They were fully conscious of the various fashions of hair-dressing and wore beards of different styles.
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Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent. Many trees (pepal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorns were also worshipped. However no temple has been found though idolatry was practiced. At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found. Although no definite proof is available with regard to disposal of the dead, a broad view is that there were probably three methods of disposing the dead – complete burial (laid towards north), burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts, and cremation followed by burial of the ashes. The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones or charcoal may however suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus valley culture, the third method was generally practiced. In Harappa, there is one place where evidence of coffin burial is there. The people probably believed in ghosts and spirits as amulets were worn. Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation. It appears from excavations that the people of this culture were well-versed with surgery. For example, some evidences have come from both Kalibangan and Lothal hinting at head surgery. Otherwise, they used to take recourse to black magic, amulets etc.
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Potter’s wheel was in use. The Indus Valley Pottery was red or black pottery and the people indulged in dice games, their favorite pastime being gambling. The Harrapans most notable artistic achievement was their seal engravings especially those of animals. The red sandstone torso of a man is particularly impressive for its realism. However the most impressive of the figurines is the bronze image of a dancing girl (identified as a devdassi) found at Mohenjodaro. Maximum number of seals discovered is made of steatite with the unicorn symbol being discovered on the maximum number of seals. For their children, the Harappans made cattle-toys with moveable heads, model monkeys which could slide down a string, little toy carts and whistles shaped like birds all of terracotta. Religious Life The main object of worship was the Mother Goddess or Shakti. But the upper classes preferred a God – nude with two horns, much similar to Pashupati Shiva. Represented on the seal is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posture, surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two deer. Pashupatinath represented the male deity. The elaborate bathing arrangement marking the city of Mohenjodaro would suggest that religious purification by bath formed a feature of the Indus Valley people.
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The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered pictographs). The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that it was written from right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedon’. End/Decay
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The Harappan culture lasted for around 1000 years. The invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods (7 floods), social breakup of Harappans, Earthquakes, successive alteration in the course of the river Indus and the subsequent drying up of the areas in and around the major cities, etc. are listed as possible causes for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization
1. Harappa Harappa is situated in Montogomery district of ANCIENT 10
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they never tried to shift to a safer place. Rather, they came back to the original site whenever the water table receded. Nor did they ever try to build strong embankments to protect themselves from floods. 3. Alamgirpur •
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The famous Harappan site is considered the eastern boundary of the indus culture. Although the caves found here resemble those at other Harappan sites, other findings suggest that Alamgirpur developed during the late-Harappan culture. The site is remarkable for providing the impression of cloth on a trough.
4. Kalibangan Kalibangan was an important Harappan city. The word Kalibangan means ‘black bangles’. A ploughed field was the most important discovery of the early excavations. Later excavations at Kalibangan made the following specific discoveries: • A wooden furrow • Seven fire altars in a row on a platform suggesting the practice of the cult of sacrifice. • Remains of a massive brick wall around both the citadel and the lower town (the second Harappan site after Lothal to have the lower town also walled. • Bones of a camel. • The skull of a child found suffering from hydrocephalus. • A tiled floor which bears intersecting designs of circles. • A human head with long oval eyes, thick lower lips, receding forehead and straight pointed nose. • Evidences of two types of burials: Burials in a rectangular grave and Burials in a circular grave.
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Punjab (Pakistan). Excavations at the site have led to the following specific findings: Two rows of six granaries with brick platforms; 12 granaries together had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjodaro. Working floors, consisting of rows of circular brick platforms lay to the south of granaries and were meant for threshing grain. Evidence of coffin burial and cemetery ‘H’ culture. The dead were buried in the southern portion of the fortified area, called cemetery R-37. Single room barracks just below the walls of the citadels for the labourers and factory workers. It has been identified with Hari-Yupiya which is mentioned in the Rigveda. Evidence of direct trade and interaction with Mesopotamia. Discovery of a red sandstone male torso and Stone symbols of female genitals. Almost 36% of the total seals excavated in the Indus Civilization are excavated from Harappa alone. Other discoveries include Bronze image of an ‘ekka’ (vehicle) and a seal with the representation of the sign of ‘swastika’ on it.
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2. Mohenjo-daro
Also known as the ‘Mound of the dead’, it lies in Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan). Some of the specific findings during the excavations of Mohenjodaro include: • A college, a multi-pillared assembly hall. • The Great Bath • A large granary (the largest building of Mohenjodaro) which suggests extreme centralization as the ruling authorities must have first brought the agricultural produce here and then redistributed it. • A piece of woven cotton alongwith spindle whorls and needles. • Superficial evidence of a horse or an ass. • A pot-stone fragment of Mesopotamian origin. • Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia. • A bronze dancing girl. • Evidence of violent death of some of the inhabitants (discovery of human skeletons put together). • A seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her womb, and a woman to be sacrificed by a man with a knife in his hand. • A bearded man • A seal with a picture suggesting Pashupati Mahadev. • This city is also an extreme example of conservatism, as despite having been flooded almost nine times, © Chronicle IAS Academy
5. Kot-Diji Kot-Diji is known more as a pre-Harappan site. It gives the impression of a pre-Harappan fortified settlement. Houses were made of stone. The remains of Kot-Diji suggest that the city existed in the first half of the third millennium B.C. Excavations at the site suggest that the city was destructed by force. 6. Lothal Lothal was an important trade centre of the Harappan culture. The town planning in Lothal was different from that of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The city was divided into six sections. Each section was built on a wide platform of unripe bricks. Each platform was separated by a road with width ranging from 12 feet to 20 feet. Excavations at Lothal led to some specific discoveries which include: ANCIENT
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Remains of rice husk (the only other Harappan city where the rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad). An artificial dock yard. Evidence of a horse from a doubtful terracotta figurine. Impressions of cloth on some of the seals. Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia. Houses with entrances on the main street (the houses of all other Harappan cities had side entries). A ship designed on a seal. A terracotta ship. A painting on a jar resembling the story of the ‘cunning fox’ and the ‘thirsty crow’ narrated in Panchatantra. Evidence of double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave) found in three graves whereas in Kalibangan one such grave has been found. Evidence of games similar to modern day chess and An instrument for measuring 180, 90, 45 degree angles (the instrument points to modern day compass).
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Ropar is a Harappan site from where remains of pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures have been found. Buildings at Ropar were made mainly of stone and soil. Important findings at the site include pottery, ornaments, copper axes, chert blades, terracotta blades, one inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs, several burials interred in oval pits and a rectangular mud brick chamber. There is also an evidence of burying a dog below the human burial (Though the practice was prevalent in Burzahom in Kashmir, it was late in the Harappan context.
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Amri also gives evidence of pre-Harappan settlement. However it lacks the fortification plan of the pre-Harappan phase. A spectacular feature of Amri is that it gives the impression of existence of transitional culture between pre and post Harappan culture. Important findings at Amri include the actual remains of rhinoceros, traces of Jhangar culture in late or declining Harappan phase and fir altars.
8. Chanhu-daro • Excavations at Chanhu-daro have revealed three different cultural layers from lowest to the top being Indus culture, and the pre-Harappan Jhukar culture and the Jhangar culture. • The site is especially important for providing evidences about different Harappan factories. These factories produced seals, toys and bone implements. • Through excavations, the evidence of bead maker’s shops has come to light. • It was the only Harappan city without a citadel. • Some remarkable findings at Chanhu-daro include bronze figures of bullock cart and ekkas, a small pot suggesting an inkwell, footprints of an elephant and a dog chasing a cat. © Chronicle IAS Academy
10. Banawali • Situated in Hissar district of Haryana, Banawali has provided two phases of culture during its excavations: the pre-Harappan (Phase I) and the Harappan (Phase II). • Though Phase II belonged to the Harappan period, chess board or grid pattern of town planning was not always followed as in other Harappan sites. • The roads were not always straight nor did they cut at right angles. • It also lacked another important feature of the Harappan civilization – a systematic drainage system. • High quality barley has been found in excavations. • Other important material remains include ceramics, steatite seal and a few terracotta sealing with typical Indus script, ear rings shaped like leaves of a peepal tree and terracotta bangles. 11. Surkotda • Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat and excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1972, Surkotda was an important fortified Harappan settlement. • This site is important because it provides the first actual remains of horse bones. • A cemetery with four pot burials with some human bones has also been found. • A grave has been found in association with a big rock (megalithic burial), a rare finding of the Harappan culture. 12. Sutkagendor • •
Sutkagendor situated in Sindh (Pakistan) was an important coastal town of the Indus civilization. Excavations of Sutkagendor have revealed a twofold division of the township: the Citadel and the Lower City, it is said that Sutkagendor was originally a port which later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift. ANCIENT 12
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Four rivers of Afghanistan are clearly described in the Rigveda. These are: Kubha, Krumu, Gomati (Gomal), Suvastu (swat). It consists of ten Mandala or books of which Book II to VII is the easiest portion. Book I and X seem to have been the latest additions. In the Rigvedic period, the dead man’s soul is said to depart to the waters of the plants. Since the Aryans came through the mountains, which were considered the dwelling places of their gods, these are repeatedly mentioned in the Rigveda. Meru, a mountain beyond the Himalayas, is a happy divine abode in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iranian language. The two texts use the same names for several Gods and even for social classes. The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. These include the three Vedas – Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda and the Brahamanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and the Sutras. The collection of the Vedic hymns or mantras were known as Samhitas. For purposes of singing, the prayers of the Rigveda were set to tune and this modified collection was known as the Samveda Samhita. The Yajurveda contains not only the hymns but also the rituals which have to accompany their recitation. The Atharvaveda is completely different from the other three Vedas. It contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. Atharvaveda is the most valuable of the Vedas after the Rig Veda for the history and sociology. All the Vedic literature is together called the Shruti and they include apart from the four Vedas, the Brahamanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Brahamanas are a series of texts that followed the Vedic samhitas. Each Veda has several bhramanas attached to it. These are ritual texts. Brahamanas attached to the Rigveda are Aitareya, Kaushitaki (composed by Hotri priest). Brahamanas
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We know about the Aryans in India from the various Vedic texts, especially the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of the Indo-European language and the chief source of information on the history of this period. Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans. However, the Central Asian Theory given by Max Muller, is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia. They entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in the Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 B.C. The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran. The early Aryans did not have to look routes to Indian sub-continent; for the Harappans had crossed the high passes of the Hindukush and reached the middle course of the Amu Darya where they had set up a trading post at Shortughai. In the Rigvedic period, the nobles were advised to eat from the same vessel as the vis for success. Metal came to be known as Ayas and Iron as Krishanayas (Black Metal). The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata: the Early Vedic (1500-1000 B.C.) when most of the hymns of the Rig Veda were composed and the Later Vedic (1000-600 B.C.) when the remaining three Vedas and their branches were composed.
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Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period (1500-1000 B.C.)
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The Rig Veda is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets and sages. From Rigveda, we come to know that there were 33 gods that time who were divided into three categories viz., heavenly gods, atmospheric god, and earthly gods. Varuna, Surya, Aditi, Savitri were heavenly gods. Indra, Rudra, Maruts etc. were atmospheric gods. Agni, Soma, and Prithvi were earthly gods.
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in India is called the Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava (the Indus and the five tributaries and the Saraswati). Political Organization •
The political organization was of monarchial form. The tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan. He was the leader in battle and protector of the tribe. His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men. The Rajan was not an absolute monarch, for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of the tribal councils like sabhas, samitis, gana and vidhata. Even women attended gana and vidhata only. Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the family and the Kulapa was the head of the family. The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita was the most important. Next important functionary was the Senani (leader of the army) even though there was no regular or standing army. The military technique of the Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses. There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and booty won in battle.
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attached to Samveda are Jamini, Tandyamasha, Panchavis, Chhandogya (composed by Udgatri priest). Brahamanas attached to Yajurveda are Satpatha Brahmana (composed by Adhvaryu priest). Brahamanas attached to Atharvaveda are Gopatha Brahamana. The Brahamanas throw light on the socio-political life of the Aryans and form a sort of explanation of their religion, especially sacrifice. They also contain ritualistic formulae for the respective Vedas and its priests. The Aranyakas are forest books that are treaties on mysticism and philosophy and are concluding portion of the Brahamanas. They explain the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. They lay emphasis not on sacrifice but on meditation. They are infact opposed to sacrifice and many of the ritualistic practices. Their stress is on moral virtues. They form a bridge between the way of the works (karma-marga, advocated by the Brahamanas) and the way of knowledge (gyan-marga, advocated by the Upanishads). Some important Aranyakas are Aitreya Aranyaka, Kaushitaki Aryanka and Taittiriya Aranyaka. The Upanishads contain philosophical speculations. They are generally called Vedanta which means the end of the Vedas. One reason is that they came at the end of the Vedic period or that they were taught at the end of the Vedic instruction. These texts were compiled around 600 B.C. and criticized the rituals and laid stress on the values of right belief and knowledge. They emphasized that the knowledge of the self and the atma should be acquired and the relation of atma with Brahma should be properly understood. The ten Upanishads are: Ishopanishat, Kenopanishat, Kathopanishat, Parshnopanishat, Mandukopanishat, Koushikopanishat, Thaittariyopanishat, Chandogyopanishat and Brihadaranyaopanishat. These are commentaries appended to the Aranyakas and deal mainly with philosophy and religion. The Smriti are the auxiliary treatises of the Vedas or their supplements. It refers to that literature that has been passed on from one generation to the other. Manusmriti written by Manu is the oldest of all the Smritis. The Puranas are 18 in number, of which the Bhagawat Purana and Vishnu Purana are the most important. Geographical Spread The early Aryans settled in eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western U.P. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled
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The term Varna was used for colour, the Aryans being fair and the Dasas dark. Family was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power with men. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are a few instances of polyandry, levirate and widow marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17. Both dowry and bride price were recognized during the Early Vedic period. The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who was respected. Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. Sura was purely secular and more potent and was disapproved by the priestly poets. Throughout the Vedic period, education was imparted orally. Unlike the Harappans, the Aryans do not seem to have a system of writing. The Aryans loved music and played the flute, lute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling. ANCIENT 14
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From Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we get the first exposition of the doctrine of transmigration of soul. Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B.C.)
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They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western U.P. covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with the use of iron tools which became common by 1000-800 B.C. In Later Vedic period, many great cities like Videha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur and Indraprashtha etc. had sprung up.
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Economy Their bronze smiths were highly skilled and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of Harappa culture. There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc. Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part. Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a sort of currency and values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man’s life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held sacred at the time. The horse was almost as important as the cow. Standard unit of exchange was the cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana). Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time. Reference to money lending first occurs in Shatapatha Brahmana, which describes a usurer as Kusidin. Lived in fortified mud settlements. Physicians were then called ‘Bhishakas’. The staple crop was ‘yava’ which meant barley.
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Religion The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar and was also associated with storms and thunder). The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered an intermediary between gods and men. Varuna occupied the third position. He personified water and was supposed to uphold the natural order (Rta). He was ethically the highest of all Rigvedic gods. Soma was considered to be the god of plants. Maruts personified the storms. Some female deities are also mentioned like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of dawn. Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas. Aryans didn’t worship animals – only gods in man’s form. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows.
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Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. The earliest legend on the origin of kingship occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana, one of the Later Vedic texts, perhaps of the 8th or 7th century B.C. During the Rigvedic period the Aryans had built only small kingdoms, as they were always busy fighting the non-Aryans. But now they had crushed the resistance of the non-Aryans and had established such powerful kingdoms as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Magadha, Kasi and Anga. Powers of the king who was called the Samrat increased. Importance of assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies and the term ‘Rashtra’ indicating territory first appeared in this period. The establishment of vast empires led to the growth of the royal power. The Sabha and the Samiti were now not powerful enough to check the power of the kings. The office of the monarch had now become more or less hereditary. A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom. In the Rigvedic period we hear of three main assistants of the king, i.e., the Purohita, the Senani and the Gramini. But now in addition to these officials many new assistants of the king were present. References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrihita), Tax collector (Bhagdugha), Chief queen (Mahisi) and the Great companion (Aksavapa). ANCIENT
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The centre of gravity was the king and not the priest. If there was any difference between the ruler and the priest, it was the priest who yielded. Kings of various grades are mentioned in the Vedic hymns. For example, the Rajaka was inferior to a Raja who in turn was inferior to a Samrat. Political affairs, religious and social matters were discussed by the speakers in the local assemblies. These speakers sought the help of spells and magic herbs to stimulate their eloquence in debate (Pras) and overcome their rival debaters (Pratiprasita).
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The four fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation which later became hereditary; Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status deteriorated compared to earlier time. The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors. In this age also Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling the main pastime. The excavations at Hastinapur in Meerut, dating back to about 900 B.C.-500 B.C. have revealed settlements and faint beginning of town life. It may be called a proto-urban site. Later Vedic period, especially from around 800 B.C.- 500 B.C., is also the Sutra period. Sutra means formula. Grihasutra contained social rituals including sixteen sanskaras through which individual had to pass from conception to cremation. Woman was now gradually losing her position of importance in the religious and social sphere. The king and the nobility had now begun to marry more than one wife and the birth of a daughter was now regarded as source of misery. Higher education was, however, imparted to women. The re-marriage of a widow was prevalent and the practices of sati, child-marriage, purdah and child infanticide were not heard of. Now in place of four main varnas many new castes were born, leading to the complexities of the caste system. The life of an ordinary man was now, however, divided into four stages popularly known as the four Ashramas.
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Daiva: Marriage in which the father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fees. Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride price of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter’s father. Prajapatya: Marriage in which the father gave the girl without any dowry and without demanding bride price. Gandharva: Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties. Asura: Marriage by purchase. Rakshasa: Marriage by capture. Paishacha: Marriage involving the seduction of a girl while sleeping, etc. Anuloma marriage: was the marriage of higher varna man with a lower varna woman. Pratiloma marriage: was the marriage of a lower varna man with a higher varna woman.
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Types of marriages • Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class. © Chronicle IAS Academy
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Asvamedha: A king performed this sacrifice which meant control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which the horse sacrificed was performed. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows. Vajapeva: A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race (it was fixed). It was meant to re-establish the supremacy of the king over his people. Rajasuya: A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king. Ratnahavimsi: A part of Rajasuya ceremony where different royal officials (ratnins) invoked different gods and goddesses. Upanayana: An initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year. Pumsayam: A ceremony to procure a male child. Garbhadhana: A ceremony to promote conception in women. Culakarma: A ceremony, also known tonsure performed for boys in their third year. Semontannayam: A ceremony to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: A birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.
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Though the Later Vedic phase has been identified with the Painted Grey Ware pottery culture, but the fact is that this type of pottery constitutes only about 3-15% of the total pottery found. ANCIENT 16
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The later vedic people used four types of pottery: black and red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware. Red ware for commoners was most popular and has been found almost all over western U.P. However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by upper classes.
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Vedas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to hear) as they were passed from generation through verbal transmission. Harappa is known in Vedas as ‘Haryupriva’. They are four in all – rigveda, samaveda, yajurveda and atharveda. The first three Vedas are known as ‘Tyari’ or ‘trio’. Each veda is further subdivided into Samhitas. The phrase ‘Arya’ and ‘Shudra’ appearing in the Vedic literature perhaps meant only to distinguish those who were theoretically qualified for the firecult from those who were not.
Rig veda
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Economy • During Later Vedic period, Krishnala berry was unit of weight and this probably led to the use of coinage. The Nishka replaced cow as a unit of value. The Satamana mentioned in the Brahmanas was a piece of gold weighing a hundred Krishnalas. • Rigveda mentions only gold and copper or bronze but Later Vedic texts mention tin, lead, silver and iron. • In addition to the cultivation of barley, wheat and rice, many new grains such as sesame (Tila) and beans began to be cultivated during this period and great progress was doubtlessly made in the methods of cultivation
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Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice. According to the scheme of four stages, life did not begin with one’s physical birth, but with the second birth which was after the investiture ceremony or Upanayana. The age of Upanayana was 8 years for Brahmanas, 11 years for Kshatriyas, and 12 years for Vaishyas. Shatpatha Brahmana says that east, west, north, south; all should be given to priests as fee. Indra, Varuna, Surya and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. Some of the special orders came to have their own deities e.g. Pushan responsible for well being of the cattle, became the God of the Shudras. Towards the end of the period, began a strong reaction against the sacrificial cults and rituals with the composition of the Upanishads which valued right belief and knowledge more than anything else. The Vedic Literature
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The Vedas •
The word ‘veda’ comes from the root ‘vidi’ signifying knowledge.
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Oldest religious text in the world. Must have been composed around 1700 B.C. A collection of hymns. Were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. Contains 1028 hymns (1017+11 valakhilyas) and is divided into 10 mandalas. II to VII are the earliest mandalas, each of which is ascribed to a particular family of seers (rishis) – Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaj and Vashistha. VII Mandala is ascribed to the Kanvas and Angiras. IX is the compilation of Soma hymns. I and X are considered the later additions. The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the four varnas (Brahmans, Ksatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma. Words in Rig Veda: Om (1028 times), Jan (275 times), etc. 250 hymns are dedicated to Indra while 200 are dedicated to Agni. The third Mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to the sun/Savitri – goddess associated with Surya). Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda and is referred to 8 times while the Sindhu/Indus is referred to 18 times. There is a reference to prison (urva) in the Rigveda and also to fetters of iron. Ordeal of the red-hot axe is mentioned only once in the Chhandogya Upanishad as part of criminal procedure.
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Derived from the root ‘Saman’ i.e. ‘melody’. It is a collection of melodies. It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have been borrowed from Rig Veda. ANCIENT
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Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’ which is the oldest of the ragas.
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Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. There are two main texts of Yajurveda: White Yajurveda (or Shukla Yajurveda) and Black Yajurveda (or Krishna Yajurveda). The former contains mantras and the latter has commentary in prose.
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Smritis • Explains rules and regulations in the vedic life. • Main are Manusmriti, Naradsmriti, Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti. • Dharmasutras contain social laws popularly known as ‘Smriti’. Earliest Dharmasutra is the Manusmriti which is also called Manav Darshan.
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Atharvaveda • Entirely different from three other Vedas. • Divided into 20 kandas (books) and has 711 hymns – mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people). • Atharvaveda refers to king as protector of Brahmanas and eater of people. • From the point of view of Vedic rituals, Atharvaveda is the most important.
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Vedangas •
The Brahamans • • •
They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner. Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it. The most important is ‘Satpatha Brahmana’ attached to Yajurveda which is the most exhaustive and important of all. It recommends ‘One Hundred Sacred Paths’.
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Called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for their pupils. These are the concluding part of the Brahmanas. Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to sacrifice and emphasized meditation. Form a bridge between ‘Way of Work’ (Karma Marg) which was the sole concern of the Upanishads and the ‘Way of Knowledge’ (Gyan Marg) which the Brahmanas advocated.
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The word means ‘to sit dowm near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. Called Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) firstly because they denote the last phase of the vedic
Six Vedangas are Shiksha which deals with pronunciation, Kalpa which deals with rituals, Vyakarana which deals with grammar, Nirukta which deals with etymology or phonetics, Chhanda which deals with meter and Jyotisha which deals with astronomy.
Epics
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period and secondly because they reveal the final aim of the Vedas. They are the main source of Indian philosophy. There are 108 Upanishads. They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices. They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (karma). Mandukyu Upanishad is the source of ‘Satya Mevya Jayate’.
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The period that lies between the Rigvedic period and the rise of Buddhism in India i.e., 2000 to 700 B.C. has been designated by some as the Later Vedic Period and by some as Epic Age. Though the two epics – the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic Period. The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa is considered older than the Ramayana and describes the period about 1400 B.C.; compiled from the tenth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. It is also called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one lakh verses and is divided into eighteen books with the Harivansa attached to it at the end. The Ramayana attributed to Valmiki has 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the fifth century B.C. and passes through five stages; the fifth stage ending in the 12th century A.D.
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BUDDHISM AND JAINISM Causes for the Growth of Buddhism and Jainism The Vedic rituals were expensive and the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated and had lost their meaning. The caste system had become rigid. Supremacy of the Brahmins created unrest. All the religious texts were in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.
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truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or the Great renunciation) and wandered for 6 years. He first meditated with Alara Kaiama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then joined forces with five ascetics – Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practicing the most rigorous self-mortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss. For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after six years he felt that his fasts and penance had been useless so he abandoned these things and the five disciples also left him. Attained Nirvana or Enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela, Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree. Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath at Deer Park where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called ‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’. Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of U.P.) in 483 B.C. at the age of 80 in the Malla republic. His death is said to have been caused by a meal of pork (sukramad-dava), which he had taken with his lay disciple Chunda at Pavapuri. His last words were: “All composite things decay. Strive diligently!” This was his “final blowing out” (Parinirvana). His body was cremated and his ashes were divided among the representatives of various tribal societies and King Ajatshatru of Magadha.
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Buddhism
Buddhism is the middle way of wisdom and compassion. It stands for three pillars: • Buddha – its founder • Dhamma – his teachings • Sangha – order of Buddhist monks and nuns.
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Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their Symbols • • • • •
Birth – Lotus and bull Great renunciation – Horse Nirvana – Bodhi tree First Sermon – Dharmachakra or wheel Parinirvana or death – Stupa
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The Buddha •
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Also known as Sakyamuni (the Sage of the Sakyas), Jina (the Victorious) or Tathagata (one who has reached the truth). Born in 563 B.C. on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal. His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler. His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth and he was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. Buddha was married at 16 to Yashodhara and enjoyed married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula. After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer. Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of
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The Dhamma
The Four Great Truths • • •
Dukkha – The world is full of sorrow and misery. The cause of all pain and misery is desire and attachment. Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire. ANCIENT
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Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.
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The Eight Fold Path •
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The central theme of Buddha’s teachings is the eight-fold path (Astangamarga) prescribed by him which consist of: • Wisdom – Right Faith, Right Thought, • Moral Discipline – Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Speech, • Mental Discipline – Right Effort, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration. Belief in Nirvana •
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When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth and death by following the eight-fold path. According to Buddha the soul is a myth.
Belief in Ahimsa
One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man. Law of Karma
Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds. The Sangha • • •
Fourth Council – At Kashmir (Kundalvan) in 72 A.D. under Vasumitra (king was Kanishka). Vice Chairman was Ashwagosha. Divided into Mahayana and Hinayana sects. In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Turkey and other South East countries. Hinayana became popular in Magadha and Sri Lanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol worship. Apart from these two there is third vehicle called Vajrayana, which appeared in the 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc. as a taboo in the dietary habits and freely consumed them. Fifth Council – In Mandalay, Burma (now Myanmar) in 1871 and was presided over by Theravada monks in the reign of King Mindon. Sixth Council – In Kaba Aye in Yangoon in 1954, was sponsored by the Burmese Government.
Consists of monks (Bhikshus and Shramanas) and nuns. Bhikshus acted as torch bearer of the Dhamma. Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.
Buddhist Councils
The monks gathered four times after the death of the Buddha and the effect of these events had their effect on Buddhism. • First Council – At Rajgriha, in 483 B.C. under the Chairmanship of Mehakassaapa (king was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka. • Second Council – At Vaishali, in 383 B.C. under Sabakami (king was Kalasoka of Shishunaga Dynasty). Followers were divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas. • Third Council – At Pataliputra, in 250 B.C. under Mogaliputta Tissa (king was Ashoka). In this the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language. © Chronicle IAS Academy
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Buddhism after Buddha • Of all the religious remains of between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. so far discovered in India, those of Buddhism far outnumber those of any other religion viz., Hinduism, Jainism etc together. • Hieun Tsang (the Chinese traveler), in the 7th century A.D. found that the Lesser Vehicle or Hinayanism is almost extinct in most of India, and only flourishing in a few parts of the west. • From Nalanda, the missionary monk Padmasambhava went forth to convert Tibet to Buddhism in the 8th century A.D. • In the 6th century AD, the Huna King Mihirkula destroyed monasteries and killed monks. • A fanatical Shaivite king of Bengal, Sashanka, in the course of an attack on Kannauj in the beginning of the 7th century A.D., almost destroyed the Tree of Wisdom at Gaya. • As late as the 5th century A.D., written scriptures were rare and the pilgrim Fa-hien was hard put to find a copy of the Vinay Pitaka. Buddhist Literature Buddhist literature in Pali language is commonly referred to as Tripitakas i.e. ‘Threefold Basket’. • Vinaya Pitaka are the rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries. • Sutta Pitaka is the largest and contains collection of Buddha’s sermons. • Abhinandan Pitaka is the explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion. ANCIENT 20
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His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchhavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali. Mahavira was related to Bimbisara. Married to Yashoda and had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first discipline. At 30, after the death of his parents he became an ascetic. In the 13th year of his asceticism, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya). From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant i.e. worthy. At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna in 527 B.C. Mahavira survived the death of his chief rival Gosala and probably also that of the Buddha, and died of self-starvation at the age of 72 in the little town of Pava, near the Magadhan capital Rajagriha. It is said that at the time of Mahavir’s death at Pavapuri, the kings of the two clans viz., the Mallas and the Lichchhavis, celebrated the lamp festival in his honour. After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta, a severe famine led to the great exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they established important centres of their faith. This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu who led the emigrants insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusion of the famine. Hence arose two sects of the Jains: the Digambaras (sky-clad i.e. naked) and the Svetanbaras (white-clad). Our knowledge of Jainism after Mahavira is meager. There were eleven ‘Gandharas’ but only one of them named Sudharman survived the master and became the first pontiff. He died 20 years after Mahavira.
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Mahayana and Deepvamsa are other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then Sri Lanka. Jatakas are the fables about the different births of Buddha. The fundamentals of Buddhist teachings are contained in the “Dhammacakka-Pavattana Sutta (Sermon of the Turning of the Wheel of Law). Buddha first taught this to his first disciples at Benaras. This contains the Four noble truths and the Noble eight-fold path, which are accepted as basic categories by all Buddhist sects. Among the chief Mahayana texts is the Lalitvistara, a flowery narrative of the life of Buddha. This test was utilized by Sir Edwin Arnold for The Light of Asia, a lengthy poem on the life of Buddha, which enjoyed much popularity at the end of the last century.
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It succumbed to the Brahmannical rituals and ceremonies such as idol worship, etc. which Buddhism had earlier denounced. Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth century onwards. Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals in place of Pali, the language of the common people. Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in the Buddhist monasteries. Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders in the 12th century A.D. which continued till the 13th century A.D.
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Jainism
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Founded by Rishabhanath, the first Tirthankara. There were 24 Tirthankara (Prophets or Gurus) and all of them were Kshatriyas. Rishabhanath’s reference is also there in the Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two are historical personalities. The 23rd Tirthankara Parshwanath (symbol: snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Benaras. His main teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Nonstealing, Non-possession. The 24th and the last Tirthankara was Vardhman Mahavira (symbol: lion). He added celibacy to his main teachings.
Vardhman Mahavira •
He was born in Kundagram (district Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 B.C.
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Teachings of Mahavira •
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Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the performance of the sacrifices. He believed that every object even the smallest particle possesses a soul and is endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict nonviolence. ANCIENT
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The Second Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the 5th century A.D. under the leadership of Devridhigani. It resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
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Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya’s time. In Kalinga it was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the first century A.D. Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs. They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices could not become popular with the common man. Lack of patronage from the later kings. Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects. Due to the influence of Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which grew the Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada languages.
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The Jains reject the concept of the Universal soul or a Supreme power as the creator or sustainer of the Universe. Jainism does not deny the existence of Gods but refuses to give Gods any important part in the universal scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina. Universal brotherhood (non-belief in the caste system). In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.
Jain Councils • According to a Jain tradition, an oral sacred literature had been passed down from the days of Mahavira, but Bhadrabahu was the last person to know it perfectly. On Bhadrabahu’s death, Sthulabhadra called a Great Council at Pataliputra which was the First Jain Council held in the beginning of third century B.C. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the former 14 Purvas. The Digambaras rejected this canon and declared that the original one was lost. Thus, there was a great urgency to devise new scriptures.
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THE MAHAJANAPADAS
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Ware); a glossy, shining type of pottery. This marked the beginning of the Second Urbanization in India. Haryanka Dynasty The Haryanka Dynasty was originally founded in 566 B.C. by the grandfather of Bimbisara, but the actual foundation in the true sense is credited to Bimbisara.
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From the 16th century onwards, the widespread use of Iron in eastern U.P. and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial states. The new agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce more and the extra produce was collected by princes to meet military and administrative needs. With this the ‘Janapadas’ started giving way to ‘Mahajanapadas’ and the land between the Himalayas and the Narmada was divided into 16 Mahajanapadas which are mentioned in the Buddhist literature ‘Anguttar Nikaya’. These are Kamboj, Gandhara, Kuru, Panchal, Chedi, Avanti, Matsya, Sursena, Koshla, Vatsa, Malla, Vajjis, Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Asmaka. Of these, Magadha, Kosala or Avadh, Vatsa and Avanti were more important. Some of these were ruled by hereditary monarch but others were republican or oligarchial states, ruled either by representative of the people as a whole or by nobility. Of the non-monarchial clans, the most important was the Vajjis confederacy of eight clans, the most powerful of which were the Lichchavis ruling from their capital at Vaishali. There were matrimonial relations between the rulers of Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti, but they did not prevent them from fighting with one another for supremacy. Ultimately the Kingdom of Magadha emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding in empire.
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Magadha Empire (6-4 B.C.)
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Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad and grew to be the leading state of the time. It’s success was attributed to its geographical position i.e. proximity to rich iron deposits which yielded effective weaponry and the benefits of the fertile Ganga soil. Also elephants were first used in war. Archaeologically 6th century B.C. marks the beginning of the NBPW (Northern Black Polished
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Bimbisara (544 B.C.-492 B.C.)
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A contemporary of Buddha, he conquered Anga (east Bihar) to gain control over the trade routes with the southern states. His capital was Rajgir (Girivaraja) and he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali and Modra (3 wives). The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called ‘Giriraja’ at that time. His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings of which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable. Ajatshatru (492 B.C.-460 B.C.)
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Bimbisara’s son who killed his father and seized the throne. Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was ruled by Prasenjit at the time. Udayin (460-444 B.C.)
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He founded the new capital of Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son. It is said that Udayin was among the five successor kings who had acquired throne by patricides; the people of Magadha finally outraged by this, deposed the last of the five in 413 BC and appointed Shishunaga, a viceroy of Benaras, as king. Shishunaga Dynasty
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Founded by a minister Shishunaga who was succeeded by Kalashoka. The dynasty lasted for two generations only. ANCIENT
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Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti and its final incorporation into the Magadhan empire. The most famous event was, the capital was shifted to Vaishali. Nanda Dynasty
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It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties. It was founded by Mahapadma Nanda who added Kalinga to his empire from where he brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. He claimed to be the Ekarat – the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. That the Nandas controlled some parts of Kalinga (Orissa) is borne out by the Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela, assigned to the middle of the first century B.C. Alexander attacked India during the reign of Dhana Nanda who was called Agrammesor Xandrammems by Greek writers, in 326 B.C. The Nandas were fabulously rich and extremely powerful; maintaining an infantry of 2,00,000 soldiers, 60,000 cavalry and 6,000 war elephants which supposedly checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha. They had developed an effective taxation system, built canals and carried out irrigation projects and had a strong army. Nandas are described as the first Empire builders in India. The first Nanda king is described in Puranas as the “destroyer of all Kshatriyas and a second Parasurama or Bhargava etc”. The Nandas were overthrown by the Maurya Dynasty under which the Magadhan empire reached the apex of its glory.
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Alexander was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 B.C. At that time North-west India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus), Ghandara, etc. Except Porus who fought the famous Battle of Hydaspas (on the banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted meekly. Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Taxila, submitted to Alexander in about the same time. Later, impressed by Porus, Alexander reinstated him in power. Then Alexander captured the tribal republic of Glauganikai (Glachukayanaka) with its 37 towns.
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When Alexander reached Beas his army refused to go further, forcing him to retreat. To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge stone altars on the northern banks of the Beas.
Foreign Invasions and Persian Conquests of India
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Herodotus, the famous Greek historian, considered as father of history, mentions Gandhara as the 20th satrapy or province, counted amongst the most populous and wealthy in the Achaemmenid Empirre. The Indian provinces provided mercenaries for the Persian armies fighting against the Greeks in the years 486-465 B.C. Alexander came to India in order to reach the easternmost parts of Darius’s empire, to the ‘problem of ocean’, the limits of each were a puzzle to Greek geographers and to add this fabulous country to his list of conquests. Herodotus mentions about a naval expedition dispatched by Darius under Skylax (517 B.C.) to explore the Indus. Herodotus says: “the population of the Indians is by far the greatest of all the people that we know; and they paid a tribute proportionately larger than the rest”. Xerxes utilized his Indian provinces to secure an Indian contingent to fight his battles in Greece. There were ‘Gandharians’ as well as ‘Indians’ in his contingent. The former bore bows of reed and short spears for fight at close quarters, while the latter, clad in cotton also bore similar bows and arrows tipped with iron. These Indian troops were the first Indians to fight in Europe. The Persian Empire set the model for Mauryas as far as Imperial pretensions are concerned. The prevalence in the North-West of Kharosthi script which is only a localized adaptation of Aramaic and written from the right was perhaps a vestige of Persian rule.
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During 6th century B.C. northwestern India had been isolated from the developments in the rest of India and closer connections with Persian Civilization, being politically a part of the Achaemenied Empire. A little before 530 B.C., Cyrus (the Achaemenid emperor of Persia) crossed the Hindukush mountains and received tributes from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara, and the trans-Indus region. During the lifetime of Buddha, the powerful Achaemenian emperor of Persia Darius I (522-486 B.C.) captured a portion of Punjab and Sindh. The Behistun Inscription of 519 B.C. states that Gadara (Gandhara) was a province which sent teak.
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But the immediate effect of this expedition was the destruction of tribes, which had survived from earlier times. The earliest instance of ‘Jauhar’ in recorded history occurred when Alexander encountered the Sibis (a rude tribe clad in skins) and the Agalassoi (Agrasrenis). The latter suffered terribly for daring to resist the invader. The people of one town to the number of 20,000 men, women, and children set their dwellings ablaze and threw themselves into the flames.
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Remaining in India for 19 months, Alexander finally died in Babylon in 323 B.C. Alexander’s invasion opened up four distinct lines of communication (3 by land and 1 by sea) thus exposing India to Europe. Due to this cultural contact, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara which was characterized by sensuous art and continued till the Gupta Age. It also paved the way for the unification of north India under Chandragupta Maurya by weakening the small states.
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THE MAURYANS
Rise of the Mauryans
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Closeness to the source of natural resources like iron ores enabled the Magadhan princes to equip themselves with weapons. Agricultural tools of iron, which increased production and added to royal taxation alongwith the alluvial soil of Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall which were very conducive for agricultural practices. Rise of towns and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce, which increased royal revenue. Use of elephants on a large scale in its war supplied by the eastern part of the country added to the military power. The unorthodox character of the Magadhan Society as a result of racial admixture. Historical Sources
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The history of Mauryas, unlike that of the earlier ruling houses, is rendered reliable by a variety of evidences drawn from such sources as the Buddhist and the Jain traditions; the Kalpasuta of Jains and the Jatakas, Dighanikaya, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa of Buddhists respectively. The Arthashastra of Kautilya, the Greek accounts, the first decipherable inscription of Ashoka (deciphered by James Princip in 1837) and the archaeological remains. The Puranas and Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadutta though belong to a later date, throw light on the history of the Mauryans alongwith Patanjali’s Mahabhashya. Chandragupta Maurya
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to Justin, a Greek writer, he overthrew Nandas between 325-322 B.C. According to Plutarch, he met Alexander in Punjab and implicitly invited him to attack Nandas but offended him by his boldness of speech. Chandragupta occupied Magadhan throne in 321 B.C. with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya). He had allied with a Himalayan chief Parvartaka. He defeated Seleucus Nicator, then Alexander’s governor in 305 B.C. who ceded to Chandragupta the three rich provinces of Kabul, Kandahar and Heart in return for 500 elephants. Seleucus probably gave one of his daughters to Chandragupta and sent his ambassador, Megasthenes to the Mauryan Court, who wrote an account (Indica) not only of the administration of the city of Pataliputra but also of the entire Mauryan Empire. The Greek writer Justin calls Chandragupta’s army as a “Dacoits gang”. According to the Jain work Parishista-parvan, Chandragupta converted to Jainism in the end years of his life and went to south near Sravanbelgola with his Guru Bhadrabahu. It is said that he starved himself to death here. According to the same text, Chanakya made Chandragupta enter into an alliance with Paravartaka (king of Himvatakuta) and the allied armies besieged Pataliputra. Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) and Debi Chandraguptam in 6th century A.D.
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan dynasty. Also known as Sandrocottus (kind towards friends) by Greek scholars. Brahmanical sources (Mudrarakshasa) say that the name Maurya was derived from Mura; a Shudra woman in the court of Nandas, and Chandragupta was son or grandson of the woman. Vishnu Purana also mentions him of low origin i.e. a Shudra. But the Buddhist and Jain sources ascribed him a Kshatriya status. His early career is shrouded in mystery. According
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Bindusara
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Bindusara was the son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghata (slayer of foes), besides the master of the land between the two seas – Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Succeeded Chandragupta in 297 B.C. He continued friendly links with Syrian king Antiochus I and is stated to have requested him for a present of figs and wine together with a sophist to which Antiochus sent figs and wine but replied that Greek philosophers were not for export. He also received a Greek ambassador Daimachos from Antiochus I. ANCIENT 26
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Ashoka’s Hellenistic contemporaries were Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia and Alexander of Epirus. These are mentioned in his thirteenth Rock Edict. Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions, which seem to be the earliest specimens of Prakrit language in India. They are mostly engraved on rocks and found not only in Indian subcontinent but also in Afghanistan. These inscriptions communicate royal orders. These inscriptions were composed in Prakrit and were written in Brahmi script throughout the greater part of the empire. But in the north-western part they appear in Aramaic and Kharoshthi script. In his inscriptions following languages have been used: Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic, Greek, etc. The Ashokan inscriptions were generally placed on ancient highways and threw light on the career of Ashok’s policies and the extent of his empire. Tarai pillars show Ashoka’s respect for Buddhism. Ashoka in his fifth rock edict mentions that he had several brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyavadana as Susima and Vuigatasoka, whom the Sinhalese chronicles, name as Sumana and Tishya. The former was step-brother of Ashoka. Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangi. Ashoka does not call himself by his personal name Ashoka in any of his inscriptions except two: these are Maski and Gujarra inscriptions. Ashoka died in 232 B.C. and with him departed the glory of Mauryan Empire.
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Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt also sent an envoy Dionysius to Bindusara’s court. History credits him with the suppression of a revolt and further for the redressal of grievances against the misrule of wicked bureaucrats (dustanatyas). According to Tibetan Lama Taranath and Jain legends, Chanakya was the minister of Bindusara. There was a council of ministers of 500 members in the court of Bindusara, which was headed by Khallatak. Bindusara did not make any territorial conquest and towards the time of his death he joined the Ajivika sect. Ashoka
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Ashoka (273-232 B.C.) had served as governor of Taxila and Ujjain previously. Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya and Ashok’ in Maski edict and ‘Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath inscription. He was also known as ‘Devampriya’ i.e. beloved of the Gods and ‘Piyadassi’ i.e. of pleasing appearance. His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal and extended over to Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south comprising of Kerela. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were also included and was the first empire to do so. Assam was not included in his dominion. The Kalinga War fought in 261 B.C. and mentioned in XIII Rock Edict changed his attitude towards life and he became a Buddhist. He inaugurated his Dharmayatras from the 11th year of his reign by visiting Bodhgaya. In the 14th year of his reign he started the institution of Dhamma Mahamatras (the officers of righteousness) to spread the message of Dhamma. During his reign the policy of Bherighosha (physical conquest) was replaced by that of Dhammaghosha (cultural conquest). In course of his second tour in the 21st year of his reign he visited Lumbini, the birth place of Buddha and exempted the village from Bali (tribute) and the Bhaga (the royal share of the produce) which were reduced to one eighth. He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine of Buddhism both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra and daughter Sangamitra to Ceylon) and other South-east Asian regions notably Thailand.
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Ashokan Edicts
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These are related to administration and ethics. 1st Rock Edict: It puts prohibition on animal sacrifices in festive gatherings. Interestingly, only three animals (2 peacocks and 1 deer) could be used for the royal kitchen as well instead of hundreds of them used earlier. 2nd Rock Edict: It mentions about the medical missions sent everywhere for both men and animals by Ashoka. It mentions Chola, Chera, Pandaya and Satyaputra and has also a list of herbs and trees to be planted in different areas. 3rd Rock Edict: In the 12th year of Ashoka’s inauguration the edict enjoins a quenquennial humiliation. 4th Rock Edict: In the 12th year of Ashoka’s reign ANCIENT
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officer will tour every five years to see that men are never imprisoned or tortured without good reason. The prince of Ujjain shall send out a similar group of officers, but at intervals not exceeding three years, similarly at Taxila. Second Separate Edict: Addressed to the prince at Tosali and the officials at Samapa, it states that the officers shall at all times attend to the conciliation of the people of the frontiers and to promoting Dhamma among them. • Minor Inscriptions Queen’s Edict: On the Allahabad pillar, the gift of the second queen, the mother of Tivara, Karuvaki for dispensing charity or any other donation.
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compares the past condition of the kingdom with that of the present. 5th Rock Edict: It, for the first time, mentions about the appointment of the Dhamma-mahamatras to look after propagation of Dhamma. They were appointed in the 13th year of Ashoka’s consecration. 6th Rock Edict: It shows his concern for the people’s grievances for round the clock consultations or any type of appeal and that the mahamattas should communicate to him all the matters concerning public business even if he is in his harem. It announces the appointment of pativedakas, custodies morum and criminal magistrates. 7th Rock Edict: It contains the kings desire to obliterate diversities of religious opinions and tells us that Ashoka, after ten years since his consecration, visited Bodhi tree, ended all pleasure tours and instead, concentrated on the Dhamma tours. 8th Rock Edict: It contrasts the carnal enjoyments of former rajas with the harmless enjoyments of the king – visits to holy places, almsgiving, respect to elders, etc. 9th Rock Edict: It shows the uselessness of all other ceremonies except the Dhamma as it includes ethical concepts within its fold. It basically continues the Dhamma discourse. 10th Rock Edict: In this edict, Ashoka shows the lack of any worldly desire except the desire to propagate Dhamma and to see people following it. 11th Rock Edict: It suggests to people that the gift of Dhamma is the best gift or the chiefest of charitable donations as it brings gain in this world and merit in the next. It is at Dhauli and Girnar. 12th Rock Edict: It expresses Ashoka’s concern for the well-being of all other sects. In this he prefers to advance the essence of all the doctrines. He also requests all the officers to internalize this basic philosophy behind propagation of Dhamma. 13th Rock Edict: In this edict, Ashoka shows his remorse for the devastation caused by his Kalinga War. The killing of so many families made Ashoka take resort to cultural conquest (Dhammavijaya) rather than even think in the future about any war and aggrandizement. It is incomplete. 14th Rock Edict: It states that this inscription of Dhamma was engraved at the command of the beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi. It exists in abridged, medium length and extended versions for each classes has not been engraved everywhere. It summarises the preceeding and is complete in itself. • Separate Edicts First Separate Edict (Dhauli and Jaugada): Addressed to officers of Tosali and Samapa. One royal © Chronicle IAS Academy
Barabar Cave Inscription:
(i) In 12th year the Banyan cave given to Ajivikas. (ii) In 12th year cave in Khalitika mountain given to Ajivikas. (iii) The king Piyadassi, consecrated since nineteen years. Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription: Greek version - king refrains from eating meat and his hunters and fishermen have stopped hunting. Aramic version - very few animals were killed by Ashoka. Fishing prohibited. Bhabru Inscription: The king of Magadha, Piyadassi shows deep respect for the faith in Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. This edict confirms Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism. Rummindei Pillar Inscription: In 20th year Piyadassi visited Lumbini and here exempted people from land tribute (udbalike) and fixed contribution at 1/8 (atthabhagiya). Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: On 14th year the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni was enlarged to double in size. Schism Edict: At Kaushambi (Allahabad pillar), Sanchi and Sarnath. All dissenting monks and nuns to be expelled and made to wear robes and the laymen and officials are to enforce this order on confession (upostha) days addressed to officials of Kausambi and Pataliputra. • Pillar Edicts
1st: On 27th regional year. His principle is to protect thorough Dhamma to administer according to Dhamma, to please the people with Dhamma to guard the empire with Dhamma. 2nd: Dhamma is good and what is Dhamma? It is having few faults and many good deeds: mercy, charity, truthfulness and purity. 3rd: One only notices one’s good deeds, does not ANCIENT 28
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Panyadhyaksha: Super-intendent of Commerce. Pautavadhyaksha: Super-intendent of weight and measures. Sulkadhyasha: Superintendent of tolls. Samsthadhyaksha: Super-intendent of market. Akaradhyaksha : Super-intendent of mines. Rajuka : Superintendent to look after Justice. Except the capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was divided into four provinces controlled by a viceroy either a prince or a member of the royal family. Provinces were sub-divided into districts and had three main officers. Pradesika responsible for the overall administration of the district. Rajuka was responsible for revenue administration and later judicial particularly in rural areas and was under Pradesika. Sub-district consisted of a group of villages numbering 5 to 10 and was administered by ‘Gopa’ (accountant) and ‘Sthanika’ (tax collector). The villages were administered by the village head man who was responsible to the Gopas and Sthanikas. The administration of capital Pataliputra has been described by six boards consisting of five members each being entrusted with matters relating to industrial arts, care of foreigners, registration of births and deaths, regulation of weights and measures, public sale of manufactured goods and the last with collecting toll on the articles sold, this being one tenth of the purchase price. Mauryans had a big army and there is no evidence of its reduction even by peace loving Ashoka. According to Pliny, Chandragupta maintained 600,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry and 900 elephants. According to Megasthenese, the army was administered by six committees consisting of five members each taken from a board of 30 members. The six committees or the wings of army were: the army, the cavalry, the elephants, the chariots, the navy and the transport. Spies operated in the guise of sanyasis, wanderers, beggars, etc. and were of two types ‘Sanstha’ and ‘Sanchari’. The former worked by remaining stationed at a public place and later by moving from place to place. These spies were integral to the Mauryan administration. They collected intelligence about foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous officers. The ‘prativedikas’ were the special reporters of the king. Land revenue was the main source of income of the state. Peasants paid ¼ of the produce as Bhaga and extra tax Bali tribute. According to Arthashastra,
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notice one’s wicked deeds, one should notice this and think. Cruelty, harshness, anger, pride and many are indeed productive of sin. 4th: In the 26th year, appointment of Rajukas over hundreds and thousands, with independent authority over judgement, there should be uniformity in judicial procedure and punishment. Men who are imprisoned or sentenced to death are to be given three days respite. 5th: In the 26th year, prohibition of killing specific animals and burning forest; cattle and horses are not to be branded. Twenty five releases of prisoners have been made. 6th: Mention of major rock edicts, which have been issued in 12th year, to honour all sects. 7th: Only in the Delhi-Topara pillar, Rajuka, Ajivikas and Nirgrantha (Jainas) were mentioned in this edict. Dhamma is better advanced by persuasion than by legislation.
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The Mauryan Empire after Ashoka
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Vishnu Purana gives the names of his seven successors but with no details, probably the empire was divided into two eastern and western parts. The western being ruled by Kunal and later for sometime by Samprati where Indo-Greeks began to make early inroads, and until 180 B.C. had virtually supplanted the later Mauryas. The eastern part being ruled by Brihadratha from Pataliputra. He was the seventh king in succession from Ashoka. He was killed by his commander in chief Pushyamitra Sunga, who ascended the throne in 187 B.C. The royal dynasty founded by him is known as Sunga Dynasty. Mauryan Administration
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the land belonged to the king, irrigation tax was also levied by the government. •
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Besides other taxes like Pindakara (assessed on group of villages), ‘Kara’ (levied on fruits and flower gardens), Hiranya (paid only in cash) were also collected. Industrial arts and crafts proliferated as a result of swift communication through a network of good and long roads and incentives given by the government. A striking social development was the employment of slaves in agricultural operation on a large scale.
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No banking system but usury prevailed. It seems that the punch-marked silver coins, which carry the symbols of peacock and hill and regent formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas.
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Megasthenes noticed the absence of slavery. But it is contradicted by Indian sources.
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Kautilya recommends the recruitment of Vaishyas and Shudras in the army, but their actual enrolment is extremely doubtfull. In addition to the four regular castes, he refers not less than five mixed castes by the general name Antyavasayin who lived beyond the pale of Aryan society.
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The position of Shudra improved somewhat for hitherto agricultural laborers and domestic slaves. They could now own land. In the Mauryan period, stone culture emerged as the principal medium of Indian arts. Tamralipti was one of the most important maritime trading centres during the Mauryan times. It was situated on the Eastern coast. The animals, which are carved on the Mauryan pillars, are: Bull, Lion, Elephant. According to Arthashastra, a man could be slave either by birth, by voluntarily selling oneself, by being captured in war or as a result of judicial punishment. Megasthenese did not find slaves in India. Puranas have called Kautilya as ‘dvijarshabh’ i.e. superior brahmana. Chanakya spent last days of his life doing meditation in the forests near Magadha. ‘Sishtas’ were learned men during Mauryan times. The trade links between India and Egypt were so developed that Ptolemy had established a port named Bernis on the Red sea. India exported turtle skin, pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, cotton and costly wood to Egypt.
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POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS The Age of the Sungas and the Satvahanas
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In eastern India, Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryans were succeeded by a number of native rulers such as the Sungas, Satvahanas, etc. In north-western India they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia.
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The Chetis of Kalinga The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Odisha) of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty gives information about the Chetis. Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the Godavari in the South. He was a follower of Jainism and patronized Jain monks for whom he Constructed udayagiri caves. The Satvahanas or the Andhras In Deccan and in central India the Mauryans were succeeded by the Satvahanas around first century B.C. and ruled for about 300 years with its capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad district. The Matsya Purana gives a list of 30 kings in the Satvahana line and states that their rule altogether lasted for 460 years. The Vayu Purana gives a shorter list of about 300 years of the Satvahana rule. Bana describes the Satvahanas as the ‘Lord of the three oceans- Trisamudradhipati Simuka was the first important ruler and founder and the greatest competitor of the Satvahanas was the Sakas. The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni, who defeated Sakas and set up the capital at Paithan. The name of the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 30-104) was Gautami Balasari. She has recorded in glowing terms in an inscription at Nasik the achievements of her son. It was a matrilineal society. Saka-Satvahana conflict was very frequent in these centuries and they fought with each other to have control over the important trade routes in north India. Trade particularly with Roman empire was very brisk, as is indicated by numerous Roman and Satvahana coins. The Satvahanas may have used gold as bullion, for they did not issue gold coins; they issued mostly coins of lead. They also used tin, copper and bronze coins. The Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmans. The called themselves
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The Sunga dynasty was founded by Puhsyamitra Sunga, a brahman of the Sunga family. His dominion extended up to Narmada river in the south and included cities of Patliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha.The capital was Patliputra Divyavadana and Taranatha depict Pushyamitra as a veritable enemy of the Buddhists. A short Sanskrit inscription from Ayodhya mentions two Ashvamedhas performed by Pushyamitra and one of his viceroys who was also his relative. He also defeated the Bactrian king Demetrius. The Sungas are mentioned by name in a brief inscription found at Barhut. In this they are clearly associated with the kingdom of Vidisa. Perhaps they inherited from the Mauryas a small part of their empire. The Yajnas marked the revival of Vaidika Dharma in India. The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, whose court was visited by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador. A Sunga king Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram. Patanjali’s classic Mahabhasya was written at this time. The last ruler of Sunga dynasty, Devabhuti was killed by his minister Vasudeva in 73 B.C.
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The Kanva Dynasty
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The Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva, a Brahman who killed the last Sunga king Devabhuti in 75 B.C. After a span of 45 years Kanvas were overthrowned by Andharas or Satvahanas of the Deccan. Susaraman was the last ruler.
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Central Asian Contact
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The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled much larger part of India than the Greek did. There were five branches of the Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. They were full-fledged independent rulers. Curiously enough called themselves Kshatraps, a sankritised form of Persian Satrap or Governor. The King of Ujjain in 58 B.C. is said to have defeated the Saka and styled himself Vikramaditya. An era called the Vikram Samyat is reckoned from the time of his victory over the Sakas. The most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman I (130-150 A.D.), who ruled in western India and is famous for repairing the Sudarshan Lake in Kathiawar, built during the regin of Chandragupta Maurya. It is recorded in the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit in Junagadh which was issued by Rudradaman and highlighted his achievements.
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Brahmans and worshipped gods like Krishna, Vasudeva, etc. and performed vedic rituals. However they also promoted Buddhism by making land grants to the monks. The two common constructions were the Buddhist temples that were called ‘Chaitya’ and the monasteries which were called ‘Viharas’. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in western Deccan. The districts were called ‘Aharas’ as in Ashoka’s times and similarly their officials were known as ‘Amatyas’ and ‘Mahamatras’. They started the practice of granting tax free villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The official language was Prakrit and the script was Brahmi as in Ashokan times. A Prakrit text Gathasaptasati or Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satvahana king Hala.
With the decline of Mauryan empire a series of invasions from Central Asia began around 200 B.C. The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo Greeks, who ruled Bactria. Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 B.C. and arrested considerable part of Mauryan dynasty in the north–west. The most famous Indo–Greek ruler was Menander (165–145 B.C.), who is said to have pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and reached Pataliputra. His capital was Sakala (Sialkot). Menander, who was also known as Milinda, was converted to Buddhism by famous scholar Nagasena (Nagarjuna). The conversation between the two is recorded in a book named Malindapanho (Questions of Milinda). The Greek introduced features of the Hellenistic art in north-west part of India which is also known as Gandhara art. They also introduced practice of military governorship. They appointed their governors called Strategos. The Greek ambassador called Heliodorous set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu at Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh). The term Horshastra used for astrology in Sanskrit had been derived from the Greek term horoscope.
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The Sakas were followed by Parthians. Special interest is attached to Gondophernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India to propagate Christianity and converted him to his faith. The Parthians originally lived in Iran and invaded in the beginning of the Christian era, from where they moved to India. In comparison to the Greeks and Sakas they occupied only a small territory in north-west India in the first century.
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The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas who were also called Yuchis or Tocharians. Wima Kadphises established the Kushana authority as far as Varanasi in the east, credited for issuing a large number of gold coins. Kanishka (78-144 A.D.) extended his empire from Oxus to the eastern borders of U.P (Benaras) and Bokhara in north to Ujjain in the south. He was a great patron of Buddhism and the 4th Buddhist council is said to have been held under his patronage. He patronised Asvaghosa, the writer of Buddhacharita, the biography of Buddha and Sutralankar and also patronised Charaka, the great authority in Medical Science who wrote Sasruta alongwith Nagarjuna who wrote Madhyamik Sutra. ANCIENT 32
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India received a huge amount of gold due to its Central Asian contacts that actually came from the Altai Mountains. The control of the silk route by the Kushanas in the first century of the Christian era was very significant from the point of view of the increasing prosperity of India in these centuries. Indian traders took great advantage of the Kushana control over the area through which the West Asia bound goods had to go through. The Central Asians introduced better cavalry and better technologies to be used by the Indians later. As is evident from the contemporary sources, the Sakas, Kushanas, etc. were excellent horsemen and thus Indians were familiarized with the use of toe stirrup, etc. The Jain Prakrit text the Kalakacharya kathanak states that the Saka kings used to be called Shahi. In the period between 2nd centuries BC to 2nd century A.D., craft working made great progress, and so did cloth making, silk weaving, making of arms, etc. Mathura was known for a special type of cloth called sataka. The Kushanas issued largest number of copper coins in north and north-west India. Most important town in this phase was Ujjain, as it was at the nodal point of two most important routes; one came from Koshambi and the other one from Mathura. Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins that can be directly attributed to kings or dynasties as before this the coins could not be attributed to any dynasty with surety. They were also the first to issue gold coins in India that increased in number during the period of the Kushanas.
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Purushpura (Peshawar) was the capital of Kushanas. Mathura seemed to be their second capital. Kanishka controlled the famous ‘silk route‘ in Central Asia, which started from China and passed through his empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia which formed the part of Roman empire. Kanishka started an era known as Saka Era which commenced from 78 A. D. The Kushanas were the first ruler in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta period. The Gandhra school of art received the royal patronage of Kushanas. There is a Buddhist story which says that the King of Pataliputra, unable to raise the large indemnity imposed on him by Kanishka, surrendered to him the alms-bowl of Buddha, the poet and philosopher Ashvaghosha, and a marvelous cock. According to a legend, the Buddhist philosopher Ashvaghosha was especially invited from Oudh to attend the fourth Buddhist Council for systematizing and codifying Buddhist texts. The fourth Buddhist Council was held under the patronage of Kanishka at the Kundalavana monastery in Kashmir, but there is another account, which locates it in the Kuvana monastery at Jallandhar. According to Hiuen Tsang, the council was summoned by Kanishka on the advice of the venerable Parsva and he made Vasumitra its President and Ashvaghosa its Vice-President. This council prepared an encyclopedia of Buddhist philosophy called the Mahavibhasha, which survives in a Chinese translation. The language employed was Sanskrit.
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Trade and Commerce
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The Greek sailor Hippalus discovered monsoons in the year 46-47 A.D. and this discovery proved a boon for South Indian merchants as it accelerated the trade activity of south India with the western world. Manu’s code, which is perhaps the most important code of conduct of the Hindus, belongs to these centuries of post-Mauryan phase only. The guild system was reaching its peak during these centuries due to opening of many trade routes for the merchants and also because of great demand of Indian products in the western world in these centuries. The kings also preferred to have deal with the guild heads, as that would permit the kings to have regular sources of income.
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The post Mauryan period is an epoch of great sculptural achievements that marks the freedom from the overpowering influence of the court in the history of the Indian art. The reliefs on the gateways of the Stupa at Bharhut were executed during the reign of the Sungas. Here, the Bodhisattvas were represented in the human forms according to the needs of the stories. But Buddha is represented only in terms of the symbols viz., Bodhi tree, the vajrayana, the footprints, the wheel, the parasol, etc. At Sanchi, the human figures become much more graceful and the power of the composition and the narration is more advanced than at Bharhut. The Sanchi sculptures include the Jataka stories and many historical themes like Bimbisara leaving ANCIENT
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The great period of the Mathura art also begins with the Christian era, and its most prolific reached its zenith under the Kushanas. It is at Mathura that we for the first time come across making of images of the various Indian divinities. The cult image gets introduced. It is the first art form in India that was quite dominant in its Indian ethos unlike the Gandhara art, which had a lot of influence from the Greeco-Roman features. The central Asian contact introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing. The Sakas and Kushans introduced turbans, tunics, trousers, heavy long coats, caps, helmets and boots used by warriors. In the religious field, the Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vasudeva near Vidisa in M.P.
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Rajagriha to meet Buddha, or Ashoka’s pilgrimage to the Bodhi tree, etc. The caryatids of Sanchi are among the finest renderings of the feminine figurines. The Barhut stupa, Amravati stupas were created during this phase. The stupa implied a place where the relic associated with Buddha was kept. The purpose of the Hathi-gumpha inscription was to record the construction of residential chamber for Jaina ascetics on the top of the Udyagiri hills. Semi-divine or divine status of the kings also occurs in these centuries. Kushanas introduced this practice. Both Gandhara schools of art and the Mathura school belong to this phase. The Gandhara art was completely influenced by the Greek and Roman styles while the Mathura art form had completely indigenous origins.
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EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA connection with South India comes into prominence.
Megalithic Culture and the Pre-Sangam Era The Neolithic-Chalcolithic amalgam which seems to have been round about 2000 B.C. continued upto about the middle of the first millennium B.C. It was then overlapped by the Megalithic culture inhabited by the megaliths builder. They are known not from their actual settlement which is rare but from their graves, these are called megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stones. About the beginning of the Christian era the Megalith culture in South India was overlapped by what has been called ‘Andhra culture’ on account of the occurrence of Andhra coins. This is the time when south India had a large volume of trade with Roman world. Again the culture and economic contacts between the north and the south paved the way for the introduction of material culture brought from the north to the Deep South by traders, conquerors, Jainas, Buddhist and some Brahaman missionaries. The Vindhya Range was recognized as the southern limit of the Aryan land. Manu states distinctly that the country between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas and between the eastern and western oceans comprised Aryavarta, the abode of the Aryans. The Suttanipatta of the Buddhist canon records that teacher Bavari left Kosala and settled in a village on the Godavari in the Assaka country in Dakshinapatha. His pupils are said to have gone north to meet Buddha and their route lay through Patitthana (Paithan) in the Mulaka country, Mahishmati (Mandhata) on the Narmada, and Ujjain. Bavari is said to have been learned in the Vedas and performed Vedic sacrifices. Kautilya speaks of the pearls and muslins of the Pandyan country. The name of the Pandyan capital Madura recalls Mathura of the North, and Greek accounts, as we have seen, narrate the story of Herakles (in the context, Krishna) setting his daughter Pandaia to rule over the kingdom bordering on the southern sea. In the Mahabharata, the story of Rishi Agastya’s
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In later Tamil tradition, Agastya’s southerly march is accounted for by the interesting legend that on the occasion of Shiva’s marriage with Paravati, Agastya had to be sent to the South to redress the balance of the earth which had been rudely disturbed by the assemblage of all the gods and sages in the North. In the Ramayana, as they are on their way to Agastya’s ashrama, Rama tells his brother Lakshmana how Agastya intent upon the good of the world, overpowered deadly demon, thereby rendered the earth habitable. A beam of Indian cedar found in the place of Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B.C.), the teak logs found in the temple of the Moon God at Ur at levels belonging to about the same age or a little later, and the Baveru Jataka which relates the adventures of certain Indian merchants who took the first peacock by sea to Babylon, all confirm the existence of active maritime intercourse between South India and its western neighbours. The Assyrian and Babylonian empires traded with India by sea from their ports on the Persian Gulf and continued to receive gold, spices and fragrant woods from India. In Chinese history, there are many references to maritime traders bringing typical Indian products to China as far back as the seventh century B.C. The Arthashastra of Kautilya gives some information of value about the trade between the North and the South in the age of the early Mauryan Empire. The kingdoms of South India, together with Ceylon, are mentioned in the second and thirteenth rock edicts of Ashoka. The list in the second edict is the more complete and includes the names of Chola, Pandya, Satiyaputa, Keralputa and Tambapanni (Ceylon). The short Damili inscriptions found in the natural rock caverns of the South have many features in common with the similar but more numerous records of Sri Lanka and are among the earliest monuments of the Tamil country to which we may assign a date with some confidence. The stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana
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were well-known to the Tamil poets, and episodes from them are frequently mentioned. The Tolkappiyam states that marriage as a sacrament attended with ritual was established in the Tamil country by the Aryans.
Sangam States
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1. Chera Kingdom The monarchies of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas were believed, at least in subsequent ages, to be of immemorial antiquity, and the poems of the Sangam attest the anxiety of all of them to connect themselves with the events of the Great War between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The first Chera monarch we hear of is Udiyanjeral (AD 130) who is said to have fed sumptuously both the armies of Kurukshetra, and thereby earned for himself the title ‘Udiyanjeral of the great feeding’. The son of Udiyanjeral was Nedunjeral Adan who won a naval victory against some local enemy on the Malabar cost, and took captive several Yavana traders whom for some time he subjected to harsh treatment, for reasons that are not clear, but subsequently released after obtaining a heavy ransom. He is said to have fought many wars and spent many years in camp with his armies. He won victories against seven crowned kings, and thus reached the superior rank of an Adhiraja. He was called Imayavramban –‘He who had the Himalaya for his boundary’- a title explained by the claim that he conquered all India and carved the Chera emblem of the bow on the face of the great mountain- an instance of poetic exaggeration not uncommon in these poems. His capital is called Marandai. He fought a war with the contemporary Chola king in which both the monarchs lost their lives and their queens performed Sati. Adan’s younger brother was ‘Kuttuvan of many elephants’ who conquered Kongu and apparently extended the Chera power from the Western to the Eastern sea for a time. Adan had two sons by different queens. One of them was known as ‘the Chera with the Kalangay festoon and the fibre crown’, the crown he wore at his coronation is said to have been made of Palmyra fibre and the festoon on it contained Kalangay, a small black berry. It was not altogether to be despised for the crown had a golden frame and festoons of precious pearls, but why the king had to wear such an extraordinary tiara is not explained anywhere. He is said to have won successes against the contemporary Adigaiman chieftain Anji of Tagaddur and to have led an expedition against Nannan whose territory lay to the North of Malabar, in the Tulu country. He too was an Adhiraja wearing a garland of seven crowns. The other son of Adan was Senguttuvan, ‘the
Righteous Kuttuva’ (c.180), celebrated in song by Paranar, one of the most famous and longest lived poets of the Sangam Age. Senguttuvan’s life and achievements have been embellished by legends of a later time of which there are no traces in the two strictly contemporary poems, both by Paranar - the decade on the king in the ‘Ten Tens’, and a song in the Purananuru. The only material achievement they celebrate is a victorious war against the chieftain of Mohur. Paranar also says that Senguttuvan exerted himself greatly on the sea, but gives no details. He was given a title for driving back the sea, and this is taken to mean that he destroyed the efficiency of the sea as a protection to his enemies who relied on it. If this is correct, he must have maintained a fleet. For the rest, we only learn that he was a skilled rider on horse and elephant, wore a garland of seven crowns as Adhiraja, and was adept in besieging fortresses, besides being a great warrior and a liberal patron of the arts. The epilogue to the decade adds a number of new articulars, the most important bearing on the establishment of the Pattini Cult, i.e., the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. The stone for making the image of Pattini, the Divine chaste wife, was obtained after a fight with an Aryan chieftain and bathed in the Ganges before being brought to the Chera country. All these events are narrated with numerous embellishments and in epic detail in the Silappadikaram, though whether this poem derives from the epilogue to decade, or the epilogue from the epic, is more than we can say. The antiquity and popularity of the story of Kannagi and Kovalan and the probable existence of other and earlier versions of the Kannagisaga which preceded the Silappadikaram are fairly well-attested, and it is not unlikely that Senguttuvan took the lead in organizing the cult of Pattini, and was supported in his effort by the contemporary rulers of the Pandya and Chola countries and of Ceylon as the Silappadikaram says. Altogether five monarchs of the line of Udiyanjeral belonging to three generations are mentioned in the Padirruppattu, the number of years they are said to have ruled totals 201, while another three monarchs of the collateral line are said to have reigned for a further 58 years in all. Their reigns surely cannot have been successive, and we must therefore postulate a very considerable degree of overlapping. The Chera Kingdom must have been a sort of family estate in which all the grown-up males had a share and interest what Kautilya calls kula-sangha, a family group, and considers a very efficient form of state organization. A similar clan-rule might also have prevailed in Chola and Pandya kingdoms in this period. Such an assumption for the Cholas would be the best means
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of explaining Senguttuvan’s interference in a war of succession in which nine Chola princes lost their lives, it would also furnish a natural explanation for the occurrence in the Sangam poems of so many royal names, all to be accommodated within four or five generations.
The fertility of the land, the strength of the hill, and the ruler’s liberality are praised in many charming poems, not only by Kapilar. Kapilar stood by Pari through thick and thin when his hillock was closely intercepted by the three crowned kings of the Tamil land. Kapilar’s intelligence went far to aid Pari’s heroism in prolonging the resistance, for instance, several other poets say that Kapilar trained a large number of birds (parrots according to one) to fly out from Pari’s beleaguered fortress into the open country behind the enemy’s lines and bring in corn to feed the city and the army for several months! But the inevitable end came, and in a short poem Pari’s two daughters thus bewailed the occurrence: ‘in those days we enjoyed the moonlight happily with father, and our enemies could not take our hill. Now, this day, in this bright moonlight, kings with victorious war-drums have captured the hill, and we have lost our father.’ The reference to the victorious drum is ironical, as Pari was not killed in open fight but by treachery. After Pari’s death, Kapilar took charge of his two unmarried daughters and tried without success to get them suitably married. Of what happened subsequently there are different accounts. A note at the end of one of the poems in the Purananuru records that Kapilar, after the death of Pari, left his daughters in the charge of Brahmins and committed suicide by starvation. The tradition recorded in a Chola inscription of the eleventh century, however, is very different, it mentions only one daughter who Kapilar had given in marriage to the Malaiyaman before the former entered the fire to attain heaven. And there exist many songs by Kapilar on Malaiyaman Tirumudikkari of Mullur, the excellence and easy defensibility of his country, and his liberal patronage of poets and minstrels. Whatever may be the truth about the marriage of Pari’s daughter or daughters, it is certain that Kapilar neither committed suicide by starvation nor by entering fire soon after the death of his friend and patron. In fact, he repaired to the court of the Chera Prince Selvakkadungo Vali Adan, the son of Anduvan, because he was reputed to possess all the great qualities of Pari. Kapilar celebrated Adan in song and was sumptuously rewarded for his effort. Adan’s son was Perunjeral Irumporai (c. 190) renowned for his overthrow of the stronghold of
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Contemporary Chera Rulers The heroes of the last three decades of the ‘Ten Tens’ and their ancestors must be taken to have ruled contemporaneously with the kings of the house of Udiyanjeral. The first to be heard of among them are Anduvan and his son Selvakkadungo Vali Adan, both praised by the poets in general terms for their valour and liberality, the father is said to have been a well-read scholar and the son performed many Vedic sacrifices. Famous among the minor chieftains who were their contemporaries were Ay and Pari, both celebrated in several poems by a number of poets. Ay was the patron of a Brahmin poet from Uraiyur, and Pari befriended and patronized another Brahmin, Kapilar, who repaired to the Chera court only after Pari’s death. There he was welcomed by Anduvan’s son whom he praised in the seventh decade of the ‘Ten of Tens’. Ay was one of the many Vel chieftains ruling in several parts of the Tamil country. The Vels claimed to have issued from the sacrificial fire pit legends of their connection with Vishnu and Agastya, and of one of their ancestors having shot down a tiger which was about to attack a sage in the midst of his penance legends, very similar to those of the Hoysalas in later times. The country he ruled lay round about the Podiya hill, the Southernmost section of the Western Ghats, and the Greek geographer Ptolemy says that one ‘Aioi’ was ruling in the country which included Cape Comorin and Mount Bettigo. Ay seems to have been a dynastic name borne by all the kings of the line as a prefix to their personal names. The patron of the Brahmin poet of Uraiyur was also called Andiran, a Sanskrit word meaning hero. His country is described as fertile and teeming with elephants, which he presented liberally to his cloth of very fine texture given to him by a Naga chieftain Nila. Andiran seems to have been a man of peace, while the excellence of his country and his liberality from the theme of a large number of poems, there is only one casual reference to his success in the battlefield when he is said to have once pursued the Kongar to the Western Sea. On his death, the poet says, Andiran was welcomed in the abode of the gods and the drum in Indira’s palace reverberated at his arrival. Pari, the life long friend and patron of Kapilar, was another Vel chieftain also noted for heroism and generosity. His principality lay in the Pandya country
round the hillock known as Kodungunram or Piranmalai. The fame of Pari’s liberality was echoed in a later age in the Shaiva saint Sundarmurti’s lament: ‘there is no one ready to give, even if an illiberal patron is exalted in song to the level of Pari’. Pari’s country is said to have comprised three hundred villages round the fortified hill at the centre.
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have brought to the ancient city of Vanji much booty from these campaigns. The mention of the Vani River flowing near the Chera capital shows that Karuvur was in fact Vanji. The discovery of Chera inscriptions near Karur, and of thousands of Roman coins in Karur and its neighbourhood and Ptolemy’s statement that the inland city of Korura was the Chera capital also point to the same conclusion. The recent arch aeological excavations at this site, especially the find of Roman amphorae pieces conclusively prove the identity of modern Karur with the Vanji of the Sangam Age. The attempts to locate it in at Tiruvanjaikkalam in Kerala may now be discarded. Another Chera prince deserving mention is ‘Sey of the elephant look’ who had also the title Mandaranjeral Irumporai (c. A.D. 210). After one battle, he was captured by his contemporary Pandya ruler Nedunjeliya, the victor of Talaiyalanganam, but regained his freedom in time to prevent his enemies at home from deposing him.
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Tagadur (Dharmapuri in Salem District), the seat of the power of the Adigaiman chieftains. He is also said to have subjugated a rebellious shepherd leader named Kaluvul and captured his fortress. He was learned, performed many sacrifices and begot heroic sons worthy of succeeding him. His wise and righteous conduct was such as to induce his Purohit to renounce the things of the world and retire to a life of asceticism. Adigaiman, also called Neduman Anji, the opponent of Irumporai and Lord of Tagadur, was one of the ‘seven patrons’ and the supporter of the celebrated poetess Auvaiyar who has left many songs about him and some about his son Pogutteline. Evidently patron and poetess did not get on well at first start, for one poem gives expression to Auvaiyar’s vexation at having waited a long time for a present. Soon, however, a perfect understanding grew up between them, the poetess is all praise for the hero and his achievements in the field, and undertakes a diplomatic mission to the Tondaiman on his account. On his side, Anji showed his devotion by many valuable presents, including a rare myrobalan fruit believed to prevent the ailments of old age and to assure longevity. According to Auvaiyar, Adigaiman was born of a family, which honoured the gods by puja and by sacrifices, which introduced into the world the sweet sugarcane from heaven, and ruled the world with great ability for a very long time. Adigaiman fought with success against seven opposing princes and destroyed amongst other rebellious strongholds that of Kovalur. The Chera invasion of Tagadur, however, is not mentioned by Auvaiyar in her poems, evidently because she did not like to advert to the misfortunes that befell her patron, the event formed the theme of a poem of later times, the Tagadur Yattirai, now known only from quotation in other works. Adigaiman was aided by the Pandya and Chola monarchs against the Chera, but their help made no difference to the result. The war led to Adiaman’s acknowledgement of the suzerainty of the Chera on whose behalf he subsequently led an expedition against Pali, the capital of Nannan, where, after inflicting great losses on Nannan, known as Nimili or Minili. Auvaiyar laments his death without mentioning its occasion, and bewails the desolation of the days that remained to her after Adigaiman had earned his title to a hero-stone, a clear statement that he fell on the battlefield. The last Chera prince mentioned in the extent portions of the ‘Ten Tens’ is Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai (c. A.D. 190), a cousin of the victor of Tagadur. He is said to have fought a battle against ‘the two big kings’ (Pandya and Chola) and Vicci, to have captured five stone fortresses, to have defeated the big Chola who ruled at Potti and the Young Palaiyan Maran, and to © Chronicle IAS Academy
2. Chola Rulers Among the Cholas, Karikala ( A.D. 190) stands out pre-eminent. He is described in a poem as the descendant of a king (not named) who compelled the wind to serve his purposes when he sailed his ships on the wide ocean-possibly a reference to the early maritime enterprise of the Cholas. Karikala’s father was Ilanjetceni ‘of many beautiful chariots’, a brave king and a hard fighter. Karikala means ‘the man with the charred leg’, a reference to an accident by fire, which befell the prince early in life. Other explanations for the name were invented in later times, however, and it has also been taken to be a compound word in Sanskrit meaning either ‘death to kali’ or ‘death to (enemy) elephant’. Early in life he was deposed and imprisoned. The plucky war in which Karikala escaped and re-established himself on the throne is well portrayed by the author of Pattinappalai, a long poem on the Chola capital Kaveri-Pattinam, in the Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls). One of his early achievements was the victory in a great battle at Venni, modern Kovil Venni, 15 miles to the east of Tanjore. This battle is referred to in many poems by different authors. Eleven rulers, velir and kings, lost their drums in the field, the Pandya and the Chera lost their glory. The Pandyan ruler was wounded severely on his back which was the greatest humiliation for a warrior, and from a sense of profound shame he sat facing the north, sword in hand, and starved himself to death. Venni, thus, marked a turning point in the career of Karikala. His victory meant the breaking up of a widespread confederacy that had been formed against him. Another important battle he fought was at Vahaip- parandalai, ‘the field ANCIENT 38
There is no hint anywhere of his being related to Karikala or of his political subordination to the Chola power. Nor is it clear whether it was to him or to some other member of his line that Auviaiyar went as Adigaiman’s ambassador. Ilandiraiyan was himself a poet, and there are four extant songs by him, one of them on the importance of the personal character of the monarch in the promotion of good rule. This understanding of the political conditions of the Sangam age may not be closed without the mention of two other Chola rulers, both opponents of the Cheras in war. One was Ilanjetceni of Neydalanganal who captured two fortresses from the Cheras known by the names of Seruppali and Pamalur. Another was Senganan, the Chola monarch famed in legend for his devotion to Shiva, figures as the victor in the battle of Por against the Chera Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner, asked for drinking water when he was in prison, got it rather late, and then, without drinking it, confessed the shame of his position in a song. Subsequently, Poyagaiyar, a friend of the Chera monarch, is said to have secured his release from the Chola prisons by celebrating the victory of Senganan in a poem of forty stanzas the Kalavali. According to this poem, the battle was fought at Kalumalam, near Karuvur, the Chera capital. Senganan became the subject of many pious legends in later times. It is possible that this monarch who, according to Tirumangai, built 70 fine temples of Shiva, lived somewhat later, say in the fourth or fifth century A.D.
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of vahai trees’, where nine minor enemy chieftains lost their umbrellas and had to submit. As a result of his victorious campaigns, says the poet of Pattinappalai ‘the numerous Oliyar submitted to him, the ancient Aruvalar carried out his behests, the Northerners lost splendour, and the Westerners were depressed conscious of the might of his large army ready to shatter the fortresses of enemy kings, Karikala turned his flushed look of anger against the Pandya, whose strength gave way the line of low herdsmen, was brought to an end, and the family of Irungovel was uprooted’. The Aruvalar were the people of Aruvanad, the lower valley of the Pennar, to the North of the Kaveri delta. Karikala is said to have prevented the migration of people from his land to other regions evidently by offering them inducements to stay. Karikala’s wars thus resulted in his establishing a sort of hegemony among the ‘crowned kings’ of the Tamil country and in some extension of the territory under his direct rule. The description of Kaveri-pattinam and its foreshore, which takes up so much of the Pattinappalai, gives a vivid idea of the state of industry and commerce at this time. Karikala also promoted the reclamation and settlement of forestland, and added to the prosperity of the country by multiplying its irrigation tanks. The poems also bear evidence that the king, who was a follower of the Vedic religion, performed sacrifices and lived well, enjoying life to the full. In later times, Karikala became the centre of many legends found in the Silappadikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of whole of India upto the Himalayas and the construction with the aid of his feudatories of the flood banks of the Kaveri. The famous scholar Naccinarkkiniyar, probably follows a correct tradition when he says that Karikala married a Velier girl from Nangur, a place celebrated in the hymns of Tirumnagai Alvar for the heroism of its warriors. More open to suspicion is the story in the Silappadikaram about a supposed daughter of Karikala’s, named Adi Mandi, and her husband, a Chera prince called Attan Atti. Earlier poems which mention their names and some of the incidents attest only the relation between Adi Mandi and Atti, but not that between her and Karikala, nor the Chera descent of Atti. Both husband and wife were, according to the early testimony, professional dancers. Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan, who ruled at Kanchipuram was a contemporary of Karikala and is also celebrated by the poet of the Pattinappalai in another poem in the ‘Ten Idylls’. Ilandiraiyan is said to have been a descendant of Vishnu and belonged to the family of Tiraiyar given by the waves of the sea. © Chronicle IAS Academy
3. Pandyan Kings
The Pandya king Nedunjeliyan distinguished by the title ‘he who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam’ may be taken to have ruled about A.D. 210. This ruler was celebrated by two great poets Mangudi Marudan alias Mangudi Kilar and Nakkirar, each contributing a poem on the monarch to the ‘Ten Idylls’ (Pattuppattu) besides minor pieces in the Puram and Abham collections. From the Maduraikkanji of Mangudi Marudan and elsewhere, we learn something of three of Nedunjeliyan’s predecessors on the Pandyan throne. The first is an almost mythical figure called Nediyon (‘the tall one’), whose achievements find a place in the ‘Sacred Sports’ of Shiva at Madura and among the traditions of the Pandyas enumerated in the Velvikudi and Sinnamanur plates. He is said to have brought the Pahruli River into existence and organized the worship of the sea. The next is Palsalai Mudukuduni, doubtless the same as the earliest Pandya king named in the Velvikudi grant and about whom there are several poems. He is a more life like figure than Nediyon, and is said to have treated conquered territory harshly. He ANCIENT
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brother of Nalangilli. In one poem, Kovur Kilar says that if he claimed to be virtuous, Nedungilli should open the gates of the fort or if he claimed to be brave, he should come into the open and fight. He did neither, but caused untold misery to the people of his beleagured city by shuting himself up in a coward manner. Another poem dealing with the siege of Uraiyur by Nalangilli himself, once more Nedungilli being the besieged, is more considerate and impartial, it is addressed to both princes and exhorts them to stop the destructive war, as whoever loses would be a Chola, and a war to the finish must necessarily end in the defeat of one party. A third poem relates to a somewhat piquant situation. A poet, Ilandattan by name, who went into Uraiyur from Nalangilli, was suspected by Nedungilli of spying. As he was about to be killed, Kovur Kilar interceded with his song on the harmless and upright nature of poets and thus saved him. Another poem hints at internal dissensions in the royal family at Uraiyur, which induced Nalangilli’s soldiers to rush to war in utter disregard of women. Civil war seems, indeed, to have been the bane of the Chola kingdom in this age: Senguttuvan, as we have seen, was called upon to intervene in another war at an earlier time. A thorough change in the political map of South India and the definite close of an epoch seem to be clearly implied in the Sirupan-arruppadai by Nattattanar, one of the Pattupattu (‘Ten Idylls’). The poem has Nalliyakkodan for its hero and he may be taken to stand right a territory, which included Gidangil, a village near Tindivanam. We may assign to him a date about A.D. 275, and in his day the poet says that charity had dried up in the capitals of the three Tamil kingdoms, and all ancient patrons of learning and the arts were no more! There may well be some exaggeration here, but clearly Vanji, Uraiyur and Madura must have passed the meridian of their prosperity and entered on a period of decline.
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also performed many sacrifices, whence he derived his title Palsalai meaning ‘of the many (sacrificial) halls’. It is not possible to say what distance in time separated these two kings from each other or from their successors. The third ruler mentioned in the Madduraikkanji was another Nedunjeliyan, distinguished by the title ‘he who won a victory against an Aryan (i.e., North Indian) army’. The tragedy of Kovalan’s death at Madura occurred in his reign, which according to the Silappadi-karam caused the king to die of a broken heart. A short poem ascribed to this king puts learning above birth and caste. Nedunjeliyan of Talaiyalangam came to the throne as a youth and soon after his accession, he proved himself more than equal to a hostile combination of his two neighbouring monarchs and five minor chieftains. There exists a simple poem of great force and beauty in which the youthful monarch swears an oath of heroism and victory in the ensuing fight. Despising his tender years and hoping for an easy victory and large boot, his enemies invaded the kingdom and penetrated to the heart of it, but, nothing daunted, Nedunjeliyan readily took the field, pursued the invading forces across his frontier into the Chola country and inflicted a crushing defeat on them at Talaiya-langanam, about eight miles North- West of Tiruvalur in theTanjore district. It was in this battle that the Chera king ‘Sey of the elephant eye’ was taken captive and thrown into a Pandyan prison. By his victory Nedunjeliyan not only made himself secure on his ancestral throne, but also gained a primacy over the entire state system of the Tamil country. He also conquered the two divisions (Kurram) of Milalai and Mutturu from Evvi and a Velier chieftain and annexed them to his kingdom. The Madduraikkanji contains a full-length description of Madura and the Pandyan country under Nedunjeliyan’s rule. The poet gives expression to his wish that his patron should spread the benefits of his good rule all over India. He makes particular mention of the farmers and traders of a place called Muduvellilai (unidentified) as among his most loyal subjects for many generations. He also refers to the battle of Alanganam, calls his patron Lord of Korkai and the warlord of the Southern Paradavar hinting that the people of the pearl- fishery coast formed an important section of his army. Passing over the many contemporaries of Nedunjeliyan-Pandya and Chola princes and the poets who mention them and their achievements, we must now notice a rather protracted civil war in the Chola kingdom mentioned by Kovur Kilar and other poets. This war was between Nalangilli (also called Sectcenni) and Nedungilli. The latter shut himself up at Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, the younger © Chronicle IAS Academy
Sangam Polity Hereditary Monarchy: Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed successions and civil wars were not unknown, as we have seen, and sometimes caused grave misery to the people. The king was in all essential respects an autocrat whose autocracy, however, was tempered by the maxims of the wise and the occasional intercession of a minister, a poet or a friend. The sphere of the state’s activity was, however, limited, and in a society where respect for custom was deep-rooted, even the most perverse of autocrats could not have done much harm, indeed it must be said that the general impression left on the mind by the literature of the age is one of containment of the part of the people ANCIENT 40
religious complex of village life was the Manram. Each village had its common place of meeting, generally under the shade of a big tree, where men, women and children met for all the common activities of the village, including sports and pastimes. There may also have been a political side to these rural gatherings, the germ out of which grew the highly organized system of village government, which functioned, so admirably in later Chola times. Revenue System: Land and trade were the chief sources of the royal revenue. The Ma and Veli as measures of land were already known. Foreign trade was important and customs revenue occupied a high place on the receipts side of the budget. The Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of the activity of customs officials in Puhar (Kaveri-Pattinam). Internal transit duties on merchandise moving from place to place were another source of revenue, and the roads were guarded night and day by soldiers to prevent smuggling. Moderation in taxation, however, was impressed on the rulers by many wise saying of the poets. If their word may be trusted, booty captured in war was no inconsiderable part of royal resources. The king’s share of the produce of agriculture is nowhere precisely stated. War Policy: The streets of the capital cities were patrolled at nights by watchmen bearing torches, and the prison formed part of the system of administration. Each ruler maintained an army of well-equipped professional soldiers who no doubt found frequent employment in those bellicose times. Captains of the army were distinguished by the title of Enadi conferred at a formal ceremony of investiture where the king presented the chosen commander with a ring and other insignia of high military rank. The army comprised the traditional four armschariots (drawn by oxen), elephants, cavalry and infantry. Swords, bows and arrows, armour made of tiger skins, javelins, spears and shields (including a protective cover for the forearm) are among the weapons of offence and defence specifically mentioned. The drum and the conch were employed on the field for signaling and the former to summon soldiers to arms. Each ruler and chieftain certainly had a war drum among his insignia. Not only was it carefully guarded, but also it was bathed periodically and worshipped with loud mantras. The occasions for war were numerous, but we need not suppose that the refusal of one king to give his daughter in marriage to another was as a frequent cause of the war as capturing enemy’s cattle. Brahmin messenger might be sent with a formal declaration before hostilities started. The military camp was often an elaborate affair, with streets and roads and a separate section for the king guarded by armed women. In this camp the hours
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who were proud of their kings and loyal to them. As the people took the king for their model, it was his duty to set up a high moral standard by his personal conduct. In many poems he was exhorted to keep a strict mastery over his passions in order to rule successfully. He was to be liberal in his patronage of religion, arts, and letters. He was to show paternal care for his subjects and to be impartial as among different sections of them. He held a daily durbar (nalavai) at which he heard and set right all complaints. The onerous character of the royal task is emphasized by a poet who compares a king to a strong bull, which drags a cart laden with salt from the plains to the uplands, another affirms that the king, much more than rice or water, is the life of the people. Brahmins were assigned an important role in the state. They were the foremost among those (surram) on whose assistance the king relied in his daily work, and the highest praise of a monarch was to say that he did nothing, which pained the Brahmins. Agriculture was the mainstay of polity and the basis of war, and a good king was believed to be able to command the course of the seasons. The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (vijigishu) was accepted and acted on. Victory against seven kings meant a superior status, which the victor marked by wearing a garland made out of the crowns of the seven vanquished rulers. The most powerful kings were expected to undertake a digvijaya, which was a conquering expedition in a clockwise direction over the whole of India. The idea of a Chakravarti, ‘wheel-king’, whose digvijaya was led by the march of a mysterious wheel of gold and gems through the air, is mentioned in one of the poems in the Purananuru. Another poem in the same collection mentions the companions of a king who committed suicide when the king died-an early anticipation of what later became a widespread institution under such names as Companions of Honour (Abu Zayd), velaikkarar, garudas, sahavasis, apattudavigal and so on. General Administration: The Sabha or Manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The sons of Malaiyaman were tried and sentenced, and later released by the intercession of Kovur Kilar, in the Manram of Uraiyur, and Pottiyar, after the death of his friend Kopperunjolan, could not bear the sight of the same Manram bereft of him. The elders were doubtless expected to have laid aside their personal quarrels when they attended the sabha to help in the adjudication of disputes. We may infer that the assembly was used by the king for purposes of general consultation as well. The Kural, clearly a post Sangam work, definitely regards the Sabha as a general assembly dealing with all affairs. Even less specialized, and more entangled in the social and © Chronicle IAS Academy
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dia and made their way into the South during the period of its Aryanization and later. It is doubtless that there was a profound fusion or cultural synthesis between the Sanskritic culture of the North and the Tamil Culture of the South in this period. The contemporary literature affords unmistakable evidence of the friendliest reception accorded in the Tamil country to the rich and varied culture of the North. The fertility of the lands watered by the river Cauvery is a recurring theme in the Tamil poetry. The literary text ‘Purananooru’ retains the trace of the society before it was Aryanized. It says that there were no other Kudis (Tribes) than the four viz., Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan and Kadamban, and no God worthy of worship with the offering of paddy. The stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were well-known to the Tamil poets and episodes from them are frequently mentioned. The claim of each of the three Tamil kings to feed the opposing forces on the eve of the Great Battle has been noted already. The destruction of the three metallic forts of the Asuras (Tripura) by Shiva, King Sibi giving away the flesh of his body to save a dove that was pursued by a vulture, and the struggle between Krishna and the Asuras for the possession of the Sun are among other legends alluded to by the authors. The presence of a great fire underneath the ocean, Uttara-Kuru (the Northern country) as a land of perpetual enjoyment, Arundhati as the ideal of chastity, the conception of the threefold debt- Rinatraya with which every man is born, the beliefs that the cakora bird feeds only on raindrops and that raindrops turn into pearls in particular circumstances, are instances of other Sanskritic ideas taken over bodily into the literature of the Sangam period. The Tolkappiyam is said to have been modelled on the Sanskrit grammar of the Aindra School. • Forms of Marriage: The Tolkappiyam states that marriage as a sacrament attended with ritual was established in the Tamil country by the Aryans. It is well-known that the earliest Dharmashastras mention eight forms of marriage as part of the Aryan code itself, the result of a blend between Aryan and preAryan forms that prevailed in the North. These eight forms are mentioned in the Tolkappiyam and other works and much ingenuity is spend in accommodating them to Tamil forms. The Tamils had a relatively simple conception of marriage, they recognized the natural coming together of man and woman, and the natural differences in the manifestations of love, possibly due ultimately to differences in the physical conditions of the different parts of the country. Natural love between a man and a women, along with its different forms of expression was designated as the five tinais. They
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of day and night were announced by watchers of water clocks, the gnomon was employed to indicate midday and a drum beaten early morning. Campfires kept off the cold when necessary, and there were towers at important points from which a regular watch was maintained against surprise from the enemy. Death in battle was welcome to the soldier and even to his mother, for it was held to lead him straight to heaven. To the warrior, a peaceful death in bed was looked upon as a disgrace, and in the families of ruling chieftains the body of a man who died otherwise than in war was cut with the sword, and laid on darbha grass, and mantras were chanted to secure him a place in the warriors, heaven (virasvarga). Soldiers who fell in war were commemorated by hero-stone which bore inscriptions detailing their names and achievement, these stones were often worshipped as godlings. Wounded soldiers were carefully attended to, their wounds being cleaned and stitched where necessary. Kings often took the field in person and delighted to rejoice with the common soldiers in their successes. On the other hand, if a king was killed or even seriously wounded in the midst of the fight, his army gave up the struggle and accepted defeat. The vanity of the victor often inflicted deep personal humiliations on his vanquished foe, the memory of which rankled and brought on further strife. The crown of defeated kings furnished the gold for the anklets of the victor, while a woman’s anklet and a garment of leaves were forced on the defeated party who was compelled to wear them, his guardian tree was destroyed and its trunk converted into a war-drum for the victor. The conquered country was at times ruthlessly laid waste, even cornfields not being spared. The Kalavali is one of the most detailed descriptions we possess of a battlefield in the Tamil country, and the poem supplies in a casual way much interesting information of military affairs. The soldiers, infantry and cavalry alike wore leather sandals for the protection of their feet. The nobles and princes rode on elephants, and the commanders drove in pennon chariots. The poet says that women whose husbands were killed bewailed their loss on the field of Kalumalam, unless this is more rhetoric, we must suppose that women, at least of the higher orders, sometimes accompanied their husbands to the fields. Society & Economy • Cultural Fusion : The most striking feature of this age was its composite character, it is the unmistakable result of the blend of two originally distinct cultures, best described as Tamilian and Aryan, but it is by no means easy now to distinguish the original elements in their purity. Some of them may be recognized, however, to have clearly originated in Northern In© Chronicle IAS Academy
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betel leaves with lime and areca nut perhaps came into use only after the Sangam Age. • Position of Widows: Women are said to have given up eating greens and bathing in cold water when their husbands fell in battle. The lot of widows was a hard one; they had to cut off their hair, discard all ornaments, and only eat the plainest food. No wonder, perhaps, that some wives preferred to die with their husbands and earn fame as satis. The tonsure of widows, it may be noted by the way, like the tying of the tali and the marriage ceremony, was obviously a pre-Aryan Tamil custom taken over and perpetuated into later times. The heroism and devotion of the sati were doubtless applauded by public opinion, but the practice was certainly not encouraged, much less enforced. The perfect wife was held to be one who, at the death of her husband, entered the burning pyre with as little concern as if she were entering cool water for a bath. • Other Social Activities : In the sphere of religion and ethics the influence of Northern ideas is most marked. The practice of walking some distance to escort a departing guest was observed by Karikala who went on foot for a distance of ‘seven steps’ (saptapadi) before requesting him to mount a chariot drawn by four milk-white steeds. The slaughter of a cow, the destruction of a foetus, and the killing of a Brahmin were accounted heinous offences, though ingratitude, according to the established code, was held to be even worse. • Funeral Rituals: No single method was adopted for the disposal of the dead; both cremation and inhumation with or without urns are freely mentioned. A widow offered a rice-ball to her dead husband on a bed of grass (darbha) and the pulaiyan had a part to play in this funeral ritual. Sati was fairly common though by no means universal. • Life Style & Culture: The richer classes dwelt in houses of brick and mortar, the wall often bore paintings of divine figures and pictures of animal life. Royal palaces were surrounded by gardens tastefully laid out. Houses and palaces were constructed according to rules laid down in the shastra, care being taken to start at an auspicious hour carefully determined before hand. The Nedunalvadai, one of the ‘Ten Idylls’, contains a detailed description of the women’s apartments in the palace of Nedunjeliyan, their walls and pillars and artistic lamps manufactured by the Yavanas. This is followed by an account of the equipment of the bedroom in the palace, its ivory bedsteads and superior cushions. High life even in those early days was thus no stranger to refined luxuries. The wife was highly honoured and was held to be the light of the family. The common folk dwelt in humbler structures in the towns and villages,
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had also names for unilateral love, Kaikkilai and improper love, perundinai. Although the people of South India were fully acquainted with eight forms of marriage, yet they did not paid special attention to Vedic rituals and sacrements. Monogamy was the approved form that a common man had to follow. However, persons of prosperous status could marry and keep more than one wife. Tamil damsels enjoyed the liberty to marry persons of their choice. • Social Groups: Differences in status and economic conditions were accepted by all as part of the established order, and there is little evidence of any tendency to protest or revolt against them. The poets describe with equally intimate touches the unlettered Malavar who thrive on robbery in the Northern frontier of the Tamil land, the hunters (eniyar) with their huts full of bows and shields, the homes of shepherds who produced full quantities of curds and ghee for sale, and those of learned Brahmins versed in the Vedas and performing their daily ritual duties, including the entertainment of guests. Apparently, Brahmins ate meat and drank toddy without incurring reproach. One poem in the Purananuru affirms that there are only four castes (kudi), viz. tudiyan, panan, paraiyan and kadamban, and only one god worthy of being worshipped with paddy strewn before him, namely the hero-stone recalling the fall of a brave warrior in battle. These castes and this worship were of very great antiquity, perhaps survivals from pre-Aryan times. The practice of erecting hero-stones and of offering regular worship to them continued throughout the Sangam Age and many centuries after. Foreigners (Yavanas) were numerous in the ports on the seacoast like Tondi, Musiri and Puhar (Kaveri-pattinam), which they visited for trade. Although unable to speak Tamil, they were employed as palace-guards in Madura and on police duty in the streets. Curiously, wrought lamps and wine in bottles figure prominently among the articles of trade brought to India by the Yavanas. • Food & Beverages: No occasion was lost for holding feast and the poets are most eloquent in their praise of the sumptuous fare to which they were so often asked. One poet declares to his patron: “I came to see you that we might eat succulent chops of meat, cooled after boiling and soft like the carded cotton of the spinning women, and drink large pots of toddy together.’ Another speaks of wine poured into golden goblets by smiling women decked with jewels in the court of Karikala. Among drinks particular mention is made of foreign liquor in green bottles, of munnir (‘triple water’) a mixture of milk from unripe coconut, palm fruit juice and the juice of sugar-cane, and of toddy, well-matured by being buried underground for a long time in bamboo barrels. The habit of eating © Chronicle IAS Academy
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India and the Roman Empire. He mentions the ports of Naura (Cannanore), Tyndis – the Tondi of the poems, identified with Ponnani – and Muziris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Nelcynda very near Kottayam, as of leading importance on the west coast. Muziris abounded in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia and by the Greeks. Nelcynda was part of the Pandyan kingdom. Bacare (Porakad) was another port on the same coast. This trade increased in volume after Hippalus, an Egyptian pilot showed the possibility of large ships sailing with the monsoon straight across the ocean instead of small vessels hugging the coast and exposing themselves to many risks. Other ports of South India mentioned by the author in order are Balita (Varkalai), a village by the shore with a fine harbour (Korkai) where were the pearl fisheries of the Pandyan kingdom worked by condemned criminals; Camara (Kaveripattinam), Poduca (Pondi-cherry, Arikamedu) and Sopatma (Markanam). There were three types of craft used on the east coast, ships of the country coasting along the shore, other large vessels made of single logs bound together, called sangara, and those which made the voyage to Chryse and to the Ganges which were called Colandia and were very large. He mentions Argaru (Uraiyur) as the place to which were sent all the pearls gathered on the coast and from which were exported muslins called Argaritic. About the ports on the east coast he adds: ‘There are imported into these places everything made in Damirica, and the greatest part of what is brought at any time from Egypt comes here.’ He notes further that a great quantity of muslins was made in the region of Masalia (Andhra country), and ivory was a special product of the country further North, Dosarene (i.e. Dasarna, Odisha). The large quantities of gold and silver coins struck by all the Roman emperors down to Nero (A.D. 54-68) found in the interior of the Tamil land testify to the extent of the trade, the presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil country, and the periods of the rise and decay of this active commerce. Its beginnings may be traced to the reign of Augustus, if not to an earlier time, as a phenomenally large number bearing his stamps (and that of Tiberius) have been found. In that reign, despite ‘emphases’ from the Pandya ruler, this commerce was by no means extensive or economically important. Soon, however, it assumed new and unexpected proportions and ceased to be a mere trade in luxuries. After the death of Nero, the trade was not so much confined to the Tamil land as before, but spread more evenly along the Indian coasts, and was conducted by barter rather than with money, the emperors subsequent to Nero not being so well represented in the coin finds.
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while outcastes and forest tribes lived in huts of sorts, which are also described in the poems. The making of rope charpoys by Pulaiyans and the use of animal skins as mats for lying on deserve to be noted. The Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of the life of the fisher folk of Puhar, the Paradavar, including some of their holiday amusements. Valuable hints on popular beliefs and customs are scattered among the poems. There was much faith in omens and astrology. One song mentions the portents, which preceded the death of ‘Sey of the elephant look’. A woman with disheveled hair was a bad omen. There were fortunetellers who plied a busy trade. Children were provided with amulets for warding off evil, and rites were practiced which were supposed to avert the mischief of demons (pey), to bring about rain, and produce other desired results. The banyan tree was considered to be the abode of gods, while eclipses were held to be the result of snakes eating up the Sun and the Moon. Crows were believed to announce the arrival of guests, and particularly the return of the absent husband to his lonely wife, and were fed regularly in front of royal palaces, as well, perhaps, as in every household. Mass feeding of the poor was also known. • Trade & Commerce: Trade, both inland and foreign, was well organized and briskly carried on throughout the period; Tamil poems, classical authors and archaeological finds in South India all speak with one voice on this subject. The great port-cities were the emporia of foreign trade. Big ships, we are told, entered the port of Puhar without slacking sail, and poured out on the beach precious merchandise brought from overseas. The extensive bazaar of the great city was full of tall mansions of many apartments each with doorways, with verandahs and corridors. The family life of the rich merchants were carried on in the upper floors, while the lower ones were set apart for business. Besides the flags waving on the masts of ships in harbour, various other kinds of flags advertised the different kinds of merchandise as well as the fashionable grog-shops. Saliyur in the Pandya country and Bandar in Chera are counted among the most important ports in the poems. Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom, and elsewhere. The repairing of merchants ships after their voyages are mentioned, as also lighthouses. People from different countries gathered in the ports, and life in them was truly cosmopolitan. The Yavanas sailed their large ships to Musiri (Cranganore) bearing gold, and returned laden with pepper and ‘the rare products of the sea and mountain’ which the Chera king gave, so far the evidence of the poems. The author of the Periplus (75 A.D.) gives the most valuable information about this trade between © Chronicle IAS Academy
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not shun manual labour, but worked on their own small farms, as do the peasantry everywhere. Spinning and weaving of cotton, and perhaps also of silk, had attained a high degree of perfection. Spinning was then, as always, the part-time occupation of women. The weaving of complex patterns on clothes and silk is often mentioned in literature and, according to the Periplus, Uraiyur was a great centre of the cotton trade. The poems mention cotton cloth as thin as the slough of the snake or a cloud of steam, so finely woven that the eye could not follow the course of the thread. Scissors and needles were known and employed in cutting hair and in dressmaking; a kind of hair pomade (tagaram) is mentioned also.
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Towards the end of the second century A.D. the direct trade between the Egyptian Greeks of the Roman Empire and India declined, the traffic passing into the hands of the Arabians and, still more, the Auxumites of East Africa. A new era commenced with the rise of Constantinople in the fourth century A.D. Roman coins reappeared in South India, and embassies were received by Constantine from the people of the Maldives and Ceylon among others. Ceylon was becoming important in the trade of the Indian Ocean at this time, but the activities of the Byzantine period bear no comparison with those of the earlier age, which had drained the Roman Empire of much of its treasure and evoked protests from the financiers of the empire as well as its moralists. The trade of the early Roman Empire had wide ramifications and was bound up with much exploration and colonization on the part Greeco-Romans and Indians. When, after a long eclipse, the power of the Chola kings revived in the tenth and eleventh centuries, the seafaring instincts of the people had not deserted them and that, in the favourable conditions then obtaining, they attempted tasks more venturesome than anything they had achieved in the earlier age. Internal trade was also brisk. Caravans of merchants with carts and pack animals carried their merchandise from place to place and from fair to fair. Salt was an important commodity of trade and salt merchants moved with their families in carts provided with spare axles against contingencies. Barter played a large part in all transactions. • Cultivation & Crafts: The land was fertile and there was plenty of grains, meat and fish; the Chera country was noted for its buffaloes, jackfruit, pepper and turmeric. The little principality of Pari abounded in forest produce like ‘bamboo-rice’, jackfruit, valli root and honey. Many rural activities like the cultivation of ragi and sugarcane and the harvesting and drying of grain are described in the Sangam poems in a vivid and realistic manner. Agriculture was the mainstay of the national economy, and most of its operations were carried on by women of the lowest class (kadaisiyar) whose status appears to have differed little from that of the slave. The bulk of the land was owned by Vellarar, the agriculturists par excellence, who commanded a high social rank. The richer among them did not plough the land themselves, but employed labourers to do it. Besides owning land, they held official posts in the civil and military administration, and the titles vel and arasu in the Chola country and Kavidi in the Pandya were applied to them. They not only enjoyed the jus connubi with royal families, but also shared with the king the duties of war and the pleasures of the chase and of the table. The poorer vellalars did © Chronicle IAS Academy
Religious Beliefs
The Vedic religion had struck root in the South must have become clear from the references to the costly sacrifices performed by the monarchs of the age. Brahmins devoted to their studies and religious duties held a high position in society, and a song of Avur Mulam Kirar portrays in much detail the life of Vinnandayan, a Brahmin of the Kaundinya-gotra who lived in Punjarur in the Chola country. The followers of the Veda had often to engage in disputations with rival sectaries, and many are the references to such disputations proclaimed by the flying of flags and carried on with much gesticulation of the hands. The rival sects are not named, but they were doubtless Jainism and Buddhism, which became more prominent in the succeeding age. From all, Hinduism was the dominant creed in this age. The worship of Subramanya (Murugan) and the legendary achievements of that deity are often alluded to. Other members of the pantheon were Shiva, Balarama, Vishnu, Krishna, Ardhanarisvara and Anantasayi. The details of Vishnu worship with tulasi (basil) and bell are set forth in the Padiruppattu, and the custom is mentioned of people starving in the temple to invoke the grace of the god. Women went with their children to offer worship in the temples in the evenings. Asceticism was honoured and tridandi (triple staff) ascetics are particularly mentioned. The worship of Murugan was of ancient origin and embodied some indigenous features like the velandal, an ecstatic dance in his honour. Indra also came in for special worship on the occasion of his annual festival held in Puhar. The epic poems of the post-Sangam period show that music and dancing were intermingled with religious rites from early times, the worship of Korravai by the hunters, of Krishna by the shepherdesses and of Murugan by the Kuravas being the most striking instances of this. A temple of Sarasvati is mentioned in the Manimekalai, which also alludes to the Kapalikas, as austere class of Shaiva ascetics. ANCIENT
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THE GUPTA PERIOD
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After the breakup of Mauryan empire, the Satavahana and Kushana emerged as two large Political Powers. The Satavahana acted as a stabilizing factor in the Deccan and south to which they gave political unity and prosperity. The Kushanas performed the same role in the north. Both these empires came to an end in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. Kushana power in North India came to an end in about 230 A.D. and after that, a good part of central India fell to Murundas who continued to rule till 250 A.D. The Guptas finally overthrew Kushanas in about 275 A.D. On the ruins of the Kushana empire arose a new empire which established its way over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushanas and the Satavahanas. This was the empire of the Guptas who may have been of vaishya origin. Little is known of the early Guptas; first known ruler was ‘Sri Gupta’ probably ruling over a small portion of north Bengal and South Bihar. He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha. Both adopted the title of Maharaja. He married a Lichchavi princes Kumara Devi and had her portrait engraved on his coins.
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Chandragupta I (319-335 A.D.)
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Chandragupta was the first Gupta king who minted silver coins after defeating Saka satraps of Ujjain and also in the name of his queen and the Lichchhavi nation. Chandragupta I seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started Gupta Era in A.D. 319-20 which marked the date of his accession. He emphasized his power and prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, Princess of the Lichchhavi nation of Nepal. He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj. Samudragupta (335-375 A.D.)
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of India’ by Vincent Smith, enlarged the Gupta Kingdom enormously. The Allahabad pillar inscription composed by Harisena, his court poet enumerates the people and countries that were conquered by Samudragupta, which had been divided into 5 groups. 12 Kings were defeated in course of Samudragupts’s dakshinapath campaign, who reached as far as Kanchi and Pallava ruler Vishnugupta was compelled to recognise his suzerainty. But he reinstated all the 12 kingdoms as tributary states. Virasen was the army commander in the famous Southern campaign of Samudragupta. In Allahabad inscription Samudragupta describes him as the hero of hundred battles. In one of his coins he called himself ‘Lichchhavi duhitra’ (daughter’s son of the Lichchhavis). He performed Asvamedha Yajna to claim imperial title and struck gold coins of yupa type to commemorate the occasion. He maintained the tradition of religious toleration, granted permission to Buddhist king of Cylon, Meghavarman to build a monastry at Bodh Gaya; so, he was called ‘Anukampavav’. He was a great patron of art, adopted the title of ‘Kaviraja’. Poets like Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court; on some gold coins he was shown playing the Veena. On one of the coins Samudragupta is represented as playing flute. He also patronized the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and studied Buddhism under him. Though a follower of the Brahmannical religion and follower of Vasudeva, he was tolerant towards other faiths. He received a missionary from the ruler Meghavarman of Sri Lanka, seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he granted.
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Samudragupta (335-380 A.D.), called the ‘Napoleon
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Chandragupta II (380-413 A.D.)
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Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi. Chandragupta II was also a great conqueror like his father and his reign saw the high water mark of the Gupta empire. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription ANCIENT 46
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Kumargupta performed Asvamedha sacrifices, but we do not know of his any military success, though he maintained the vast empire intact. Towards the close of his reign, the empire was attacked by the Pushyamitra tribe. By 485 A.D. the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa and a good portion of Central India. Although the Huna power was soon overthrown by Yasodharman of Malwa, the Malwa prince successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of Northern India. Skandagupta (455-467 A.D.)
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claims his authority over North- Western India and a good portion of Bengal. Chandragupta II’s daughter Prabhavati was married to the Vakataka King, Rudrasena II who died very soon. The sea-borne trade with Europe brought Chandragupta II in close contact with Europe through Egypt. Chandragupta is represented as killing a lion on his coins unlike his father who is shown killing a tiger. Though Fa-hien (the Chinese pilgrim) travelled extensively in Chandragupta’s empire and records the prosperity during this time, it is interesting to note that the Chinese pilgrim never recorded the name of the king because he was totally preoccupied with the study of Buddhism. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya was the first among the Gupta kings to issue gold coins. These coins were modelled on the silver coins issued by the Sakas of western and central India. Virasena’s Udyagiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world. He defeated the last of the Saka ruler Rudra Simha III and annexed the territories of western Malwa and Gujarat. He was also called ‘Vikramaditya’. He also took the title of Simhavikrama. Chandragupta II made Ujjain the second capital of the empire. He strengthened the empire by matrimonial alliance, married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka Prince Rudrasena II, he himself married a Naga princes ‘Kuber Naga’. He was also a man of art and culture, his court at Ujjain was adorned by ‘Navratna’, including Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Fa-hien, Acharya Dinganaga, etc. Virasena was the Court Poet and Minister of Chandragupta II. Fa-hien, the Chinese traveller, came during the time of Chandragupta II.
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Kumaragupta I (413-455 A.D.)
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He assumed the title of Mahendraditya. Founded the Nalanda University. He was a worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva). Kumargupta I introduced a new type of coins of gold. One of them figures the God Kartikeya ridding on his peacock on the reverse, and the king feeding a peacock on the obverse. The first Huna attack took place during Kumargupta I. He was very old that time. The aged Kumargupta died when the crown prince was still in the field in A.D. 454 or 455.
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One of the gold coins of the king Skandagupta depicts the king as standing with a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other with a Garuda standard in front of him. To his right is Goddess Laxmi facing the king with a lotus in her hand. He restored the Sudarshana Lake. Skandagupta repulsed the ferocious Hunas twice, this heroic feat entitled him to assume the title of Vikramaditya. Sakandagupta’s successors proved to be weak and could not resist the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and possibly used stirrups made of metal. Fall of the Gupta Empire
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The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power and feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, M.P., Vallabhi, etc. Mihirkula was the most famous Huna King. Hieun Tsang mentions him as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism. He was defeated by Yashodharman, one of the feudatories of the Guptas in Malwa. Later Guptas of Magadha established their power in Bihar, alongside them the Maukharies rose to power in Bihar and U.P. with their capital at Kannauj, the Maitrakas of Vallabhi established their authority in Gujarat and Western Malwa. In North India the Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar established their power in Haryana and they gradually moved to Kannauj. The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army on account of the growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, which was bound to reduce their revenues. Their income may have further been affected by the decline of foreign trade. Loss of Western India deprived the Guptas of rich revenues from trade and commerce and crippled them economically. ANCIENT
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The migration of a guild of silk weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473 and their adoption of non-productive professions show that there was not much demand for silk. Decline of trade led to decay of towns, the postGupta period witnessed the ruin of many old commercial cities. The later Guptas, though they ruled in Magadha till about the eight-century, were not genealogically connected to the Imperial Guptas. Trade and Economy
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Kalidasa gives good description of the market towns. The volume of trade with China greatly increased during Gupta period and the Chinese silk was called ‘Chinansuka’ in India. Indian muslin was said to have created a great demand in the city of Rome. At Kaveripattinam, the Yavana section of the city overflowed with prosperity. At Arikamedu, a sizeable Roman settlement and a Roman factory was discovered (it was known for Muslin). Barygaza or Broach was the largest port on the western coast. Glass production started in the Gupta period. Indian embassies visited the Roman Empire in the reigns of Aurelian, Constantine, Julian, and Justinian, and Alexandria became an important meeting place for the inhabintants and traders of India and Rome. Varahmihira paid tribute to Greek astronomers by saying that they deserve as much respect as our own rishis. Indians were the first in the world to advocate the internal use of mercury. It is mentioned by Varahmihira along with iron. The Indian surgeon performed lithotomy and could remove the external matter accidentally introduced into the body e.g. iron, stones, etc. Gold coins were called Dinars and silver coins were called Rupyakas. Political Organization
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Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture. Council of ministers existed; evidence of one man holding several posts like Harisena and posts becoming hereditary. The most important officers were Kumaramatyas. The empire was divided into ‘Bhukti’ placed under the charge of an ‘Uparika’. Bhuktis were divided into districts placed under the charge of ‘Vishaypati’. The sub-districts were called ‘Peth’ and the villages were under ‘Gramika’ or ‘Mahattar’. The Guptas did not maintain a vast bureaucracy like that of the Mauryas. ‘Kumaramatyas’ were the most important officers who were appointed by the king in the home provinces. Chariots receded into the background and cavalry came to the forefront. In judicial system, for the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly defined and demarcated. The most salient feature of the Gupta rule is personal liberty. The people were left largely to follow their own ideas and pursue their own intentions. The Vakataka empire in the Deccan was more centralized and united than the Satavahanas, though the Vakatakas continued the same administrative system and practices as it was during the Satavahanas. In the Gupta period land taxes increased in number, and also those on trade and commerce. A large part of the empire was administered by feudatories, many of whom had been subjected by Samudragupta. The second important fedual development in administration was the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators. Salary was not paid in cash. Religious functionaries were granted land called ‘Agarhara’, free of taxes for ever, and they were authorised to collect from peasants all taxes, which could have otherwise gone to the emperor. Land revenue was about 1/7 of the produce payable either in cash or kind.
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In contrast to the Mauryas, the Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as ‘Parmeshwar’ ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and ‘Param-bhattaraka’ which signify that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire. Element of divinity in kingship; kings compared with different gods and were looked upon as Vishnu, the protector and preserver.
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The Aryan pattern of society based on ‘Varnashram Dharma’ made its final assertion. Land grants to Brahmanas suggest Brahaman supremacy. Caste proliferated into numerous sub-castes, firstly, as a result of assimilation of a large number of ANCIENT 48
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Buddhism no longer received royal patronage in the Gupta period. Fa-hien has given the impression that this religion was in flourishing state. But really it was not so important in the Gupta period as it was in the days of Ashoka and Kanishka. Science and Technology
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Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy. Brahmagupta in 7th century developed rules foroperating with zero and negative quantities, he began to apply algebra to astronomical problems. He wrote Brahmasphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the law of gravitation. Prominent astronomers were Aryabhatta and Varahamihira. Aryabhatta was the first astronomer who wrote Arya-bhattiyam, found the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, calculated the circumference of the earth in Suryasiddhanta, which is still almost correct. Aryabhatta described the value of first nine numbers and the use of zero in Aryabhattiyam. He also calculatd the value of pie and invented Algebra. He was first to reveal that the Sun is stationary and the earth revolves round it. Varahamihira’s well-known work was ‘Brihatsamhita’, it stated that the Moon rotates round the Earth and the Earth rotates round the Sun. He also wrote ‘Panch Siddhantika’ which gives the summary of five astronomical books current in his time. Romaka Siddhanta, a book on astronomy was also compiled and was perhaps influenced by Greek ideas. Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician of the ayurvedic system of medicine. Palakapya wrote Hastyagarved, a treatise on the diseases of elephants. Dhanvantri was famous for Ayurveda knowledge.
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foreigners into Indian society, and secondly due to absorption of many tribal people in Brahmanical society through process of land grants. Though women were idealized in literature, mother goddesses were worshipped, but in reality they were accorded lower postion viz. pre-puberty marriage, denial of education, treated as an item of property, etc. Though they were allowed to listen to the Epics and the Puranas, like the Shudras. The position of the Shudra somewhat improved but number of untouchables and the practice of untouchability increased. The first example of Sati came from Eran of 510 A.D. Sati system was very rare in the Gupta period, almost the only recorded instance in the age being that of the Goparaja’s wife in A.D. 510. came to light from Eran (M.P.). The Vakataka period (roughly from about A.D. 250-250) coincided with the most creative period of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna established the Shunyavada philosophy, he infused a new life into Buddhism and helped the eventual development of the Advaita school in the Hindu Vedanta. It is very likely that Kaildasa lived for some time in the Vakataka court, as a part of the ‘Meghadduta’ must have been composed there. Patanjali tells us that the maidservant and the shudra women were meant for satisfying the pleasure of upper classes.
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Religion Many legal text books were written during this period such as the Bhagwad Gita, Yajnavalkaya Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, etc. Hinduism acquired its present shape, Brahma, Vishnu & Mahesh emerged as the supreme deity. Devotional Hinduism got perfection and Bhagvatism became more popular, centred round the worship of Vishnu or Bhagvat. History was presented as a cycle of 10 incarnations of Vishnu. Theory of Karma and idea of Bhakti and Ahimsa became the foundation of Bhagvatism. Idol worship in the temples became a common feature. Concept of incarnations or Avatara of Vishnu preached. Various female deities such as Durga, Amba, Kali, Chandi, etc. came to be regarded as mother goddesses. Four ends of life were enumerated-Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, first three collectively called ‘Triverga’ Six schools of philosophy were perfected.
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Sanskrit language and literature made much headway during this period. This was the language of scholars. From this time onward we find greater emphasis on verses than prose. Although we get a good deal of Brahmanical religious literature, the period also produced some of the earliest pieces of secular literature. ANCIENT
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The greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of the Gupta age was Kalidasa, his important works were-Meghdutam, Abhijana Shakuntalam, Kumarsambhava, Raghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Malvikagnimitra, etc. Vishakhadatta produced the ‘Mudrarakshasa’ and the ‘Devichandraguptam’. Apart from Kalidasa others were Sudraka who authored Mrichchakatikam, Bharavi wrote Kiratarjunia, Dandin’s Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita. To this period belong the 13 plays written by Bhasa. Most famous was Charudatta. Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchatantra and Hitopdesh. All the literary works of this period were comedies and character of higher and lower classes did not speak the same language: women and shudra featuring in these plays used Prakrit. Both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with various Puranas and Smrities were finally compiled. Amarsimha wrote ‘Amarkosha’.
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This period marks the beginning of temple architecture. Dasavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi is the finest square temple with a low and squat shikhara (tower) above. The temple at Bhitargaon near Kanpur is made of brick. Phenomenal development in sculptural representation of divinities at its best. Best example is provided by the stone sculpture of Naranarayan from Dasvatara temple, Deogarh. Metal sculpture of a high degree is testified by the over two metre high bronze image of Buddha recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. Gupta stone sculptural art was related to the Mathura school. Painting reached its zenith with regard to aesthetic and technical standard as is furnished by the Ajanta Painting. Their themes were borrowed from Jataka stories i.e. previous incarnations of Buddha and from other secular source— ‘dying princes’, ‘Mother and Child etc. Buddha sitting in Dharma Chakra mudra belongs to Sarnath and the Buddha images of Bamiyan, Afghanistan belong to the Gupta period. Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods featured for the first time in this period. The Ajanta painters excelled in the depiction of human and animal figures.
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Art and Architecture The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. Several bronze images of the Buddha were produced. In the case of iron objects, the best example is the famous Iron pillar found at Mehrauli. It has withstood rain and weather for centuries without rusting.
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LATER GUPTAS (7-12 CENTURY) Varman, who firmly established Maukharis supremacy in Madhya-desha. The next famous ruler of this dynasty was Graha Varman, who married Rajyashri of the Pushyabhuti family of Thaneshwar. The wicked king of Malwa killed Graha Varman and imprisoned Rajyashri. The kingdom of Kannauj was combined with that of Thaneshwar of Harsha Vardhan.
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By the middle of the 6th century a line of Gupta rulers with the same surname, but not connected in the official geneology with the line, ruled in Magadha. In fact, the name ending “Gupta” may have been chosen and cherised by the Later Guptas in an attempt to bring the family closer, in the eyes of the people, to well-established Imperial Gupta dynasty. Krishna Gupta (480-502 A.D.), the founder of the dynasty, and his two successors, Harsha Gupta and Jivita-Gupta may be regarded as feudatories of the main Guptas. The dynasty came into its own with the accession of Kumar Gupta, who made his kingdom more than a mere principality. Malwa was the chief centre of Later Guptas until the rise of Harsha. Mahasena Gupta was the most famous ruler of this dynasty, probably, he defeated the Maukharis. He associated himself with the rising Pushyabhuti dynasty and giving in marriage his sister to Aditya Vardhan, the grand father of Harsha. Thus, Mahasena Gupta, with the help of Pushyabhuti, recovered his kingdom and got victory over Kamarupa (Assam). Mahasena Gupta’s two sons were sent to Thaneshwar to be companions of Harsha and the third son remained at Malwa. Harsha’s empire included Magadha which he entrusted to the Madhava Gupta, the first son of Mahasena Gupta. Thus, actually two lines of Later Guptas came into existence. The Guptas of Magadha continued to prosper. But the story of Malwa is different. The Gupta ruler of Malwa Deva Gupta attacked Maukhari king Graha Varman and killed him. Graha Varman had married Rajyashri, the sister of Rajya Vardhan and Harsha Vardhan. Rajya Vardhan marched to Malwa, killed Deva Gupta and annexed the territory to his dominions. Thus, the Malwa branch of the Later Guptas came to an end.
The Maukharis
In the second half of the sixth century, Kanyakubja (Kannauj) rose to the prominence as the capital of the Maukharis. The first three kings of this dynasty are given the simple title of Maharaja. The fourth king Ishana-Varman (550-560 A.D.) took the title of Maharajadhiraja. He followed an aggressive expansionist policy. After defeating the Andhras, the Sulivas and the Gauda, he came into conflict with the Later Guptas of Magadha. He was succeeded by Sri Sarva © Chronicle IAS Academy
The Pushyabhutis
The first three rulers of this dynasty i.e. Nara Vardhan, Rajya Vardhan and Aditya Vardhan are given the simple title of Maharaja. It shows that these rulers were initially feudal-lords under Gupta Kingdom and subsequently the Huna kings. Aditya Vardhan’s son Prabhakara Vardhan (A.D. 583-605) was the first ruler of the dynasty to assume the title Param Bhattarak Maharaja–dhiraja. He defeated Hunas, Sindhu kings, Gurjaras, the Lord of Gandhara and the kings of Malwa. His desire for conquest was eventually carried out by his younger son Harsha Vardhan. Prabhakar Vardhan had made a matrimonial alliance with the Maukharis by giving in marriage his daughter Rajyashri to Graha Varman. As a result of this engagement, the Maukhari nobles, on the death of their last king Graha Varman, requested Harsha, the reigning Pushybhuti king to unite his kingdom with the Maukhari kingdom and rule from Kannauj. Prabhakar Vardhan was succeeded by his elder son Rajya Vardhan, but shortly he was killed in a battle with Shasanka of Gauda (Bengal). He was succeeded by Harsha Vardhan, his younger brother who was actually elected to the throne by the Mantri parishad.
Harsha Vardhana (606-647 A.D.)
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Hieun-Tsang informs us that Harsha was reluctant to take the responsibilities of kingship. He belonged to the Pushyabhuti family and was the son of Prabhakar vardhan, originally the feudatories of the Guptas. Rajyavardhan succeeded Prabhakaravardhan. Grahavardhan, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyasri (daughter of Prabhakara) was murdered by Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa ANCIENT
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Puranavarman of Magadha, the last of the race of Ashoka, was one of the vassals of Harsha. He is reputed to have brought back to life the bodhi tree, cut down to its roots by Shashanka, by watering its roots with the milk of hundred cows. Harsha’s brother and sister were ardent Hinayana Buddhists and he himself developed strong leanings towards Mahayana Buddhism after he came in contact with Hieun-Tsang. Though the Chinese traveller Hieun-Tsang counted nearly 200,000 Buddhist monks, yet it is clear that Buddhism was clearly on the path of decline against the resurgent Puranic Hinduism. In Harsha’s time, Jainism was prevalent only in the places like Vaishali and eastern Bengal. In spite of losses due to accidents and robbery, Hieun-Tsang took with him to China 150 pieces of Buddha’s bodily relics; many images of teachers in gold, silver and sandalwood and 657 volumes of manuscripts, carried upon 20 horses. In this period, Tantricism in both Hinduism and Buddhism came to the forefront.
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prevalent all over North India. Harsha relied more on personal supervision than on an organized bureaucracy. There seems to have been a council of ministers, which wielded real power on occasions. According to Hieun-Tsang, the officers received their salaries in kind, in grants of land, and were paid according to their work. Treason against the king was punished by lifelong imprisonment. Taxation was light and 1/6 was the royal share of the land revenue from the people. The existence of a department of records and archives shows the enlightened character of the administration. Harsha governed empire on the same line as the Guptas did except that his administration had become more feudal and decentralised. Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state. In addition Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the officers by charters as in case the Agrahara lands. The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang informs us that the revenues of Harsha were divided into four parts. One part was earmarked for the expenditure of the king, a second for scholars, a third for the endowment of officials and public servants and a fourth for religious purpose. He also tells us that ministers and high officers of the state were endowed with land. The feudal practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seems to have begun under Harsha. This explains why we do not have too many coins issued by King Harsha. In the empire of Harsha, law and order was not well-maintained. The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang, about whom special care may have been taken by the government, was robbed of his belonging, although he reports that according to the law of the land severe punishments were inflicted for crime. Robbery was considered to be a second treason for which the right hand of the robber was amputated. But it seems that under the influence of Buddhism, the severity of punishment was mitigated and criminals were imprisoned for life. Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country. His authority was limited to North India, except Kashmir-Rajasthan, Punjab, Utter Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control, but his sphere of
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who in alliance with Sasanka, ruler of Gauda and Bengal occupied Kannauj and imprisoned Rajyasri. Rajyavardhan undertook a campaign against Devagupta and killed him but was deceived and killed by Sasanka. Harsha now succeeded his brother at Thaneswar. He brought most of north under his control and assumed the title of ‘Siladitya’. Originally belonged to Thaneswar, but shifted to Kannauj which after his death was won from his successors by the Pratiharas. Brought ‘5 Indies’ under his control – Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag, Allahabad at the end of every 5 years. He was a great patron of learning and established a large monastery at Nalanda. Banabhatta, who adored his court wrote Harshacharita, Parvatiparinay and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote 3 plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.
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Nothing is known of the city of Kannauj after the death of Harsha until A.D. 730, when Yasovarman, who may have been a Maukhari king, was ruling there. Yasovarman was a famous monarch who sent an embassy to China in A.D. 731. Samanta system emerged in the post-Gupta period and by the time of Harshvardhan, it was widely
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beneficiaries, often with administrative rights. The recipients of land grants in north India were empowered to punish thieves and other criminals; in central and western India from the fifth century onwards, they were also given the right to try the civil cases. • The transfer of magisterial and police powers together with fiscal rights to the donees not only weakened the royal authority, but also led to the oppression of peasants and inhabitants of the gift villages who were asked to obey their new masters and carry out their orders. • Several inscriptions indicated the emergence of serfdom, which meant that the peasants were attached to their land even when it was given away. Perhaps this began in South India in the earlier period because a third century Pallava grant informs us that four sharecroppers were asked to remain attached to their land which was given to the brahmanas. Hieun-Tsang’s Account •
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influence spread over a much wider area. It seems that the peripheral states acknowledged his sovereignty. Harsha was unable to extend his power in eastern and southern India. In eastern India he faced opposition from the Shaivite king Shashanka of Gauda, who cut off the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya. But Shashanka’s death in 619 put an end to this hostility. Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada river by the Chalukyan king Pulkesin II in 620 A.D., who ruled over a great part of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra with his capital at Badami in the modern Bijapur district of Karnataka. Pulskesin II bestowed the title of ‘the lord of the entire north’, on him. Events towards the end of Harsha’s reign are described in Chinese sources. T’ang Emperor of China Tai-Tsung sent an ambassador to Harsha’s court in 643 and again in 647. On the second occasion the Chinese ambassador found that Harsha had died and that the throne had been usurped by an undeserving king. The Chinese ambassador rushed to Nepal and Assam and raised a force with which the allies of Harsha defeated the usurper, who was taken to China as a prisoner. The kingdom of Harsha Vardhan disintegrated rapidly into small states after his death. The three border states of Assam, Nepal and Kashmir resumed their independence. Northern India was divided among several Rajput States. Village was divided into groups of 10 for the purpose of assessment in the Deccan and in the groups of 12 or 16 in the northern region. The power and privileges of the feudatories were clearly on the rises in this period and the biggest casualties were the lower classes and women. The relationship between the village authorities and the feudatories was clearly defined. Brahmanas were granted tax-free lands as well as many privileges along with it. The beginning of the practice of making religious grants roughly synchronizes with the date of the earliest epic and the Puranic description of the Kaliyuga or the age of social crisis. Grants of land were made to the priests and the temples, and later to royal officers, along with fiscal and administrative immunities, which undermined the authority of the state. The fiscal concessions accompanying the land grants included the royal right over salt and mines, which were royal monopolies in the Mauryan period and evidently signs of sovereignty. Now, villages were granted in perpetuity to the
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Hieun-Tsang (or Yuan Chwang) was the most celebrated of all the Chinese pilgrims who came to India. He visited India in the first half of the seventh century A.D. and spent about 15 years (630-645) in the country. During this period he travelled all over the country and observed everything very minutely. No doubt he came to this country with the chief aim of collecting the Buddhist scriptures and visiting all those places connected with the Lord, but his clever eyes left nothing unnoticed. He retuned to his country with a lot of material concerned with the Buddhist faith (such as Buddhist relics, images of Buddha and about 657 volumes of manuscripts), but above all he carried with him the memories of this land. After reaching his homeland, he translated all his memories in the book-form entitled ‘Si-yu-Ki’ or the Records of the Western world. This book is an invaluable source of information regarding Harsha and the political, social, religious and economic conditions of India during his reign (or in the first half of seventh century A.D.). According to Dr. V.A. Smith, this book is a treasure house of accurate information, indispensable to every student of Indian antiquity and has done more than any archaeological discovery to render possible the remarkable re-association (revival) of lost history. From Hieun-Tsang’s account, the following important information is derived regarding Harsha and the condition of India during his time: • Kingdom of HarshaVardhan: Hieun-Tsang spent about eight years in Harsha’s court and consequently he had written in detail about his character and personality. According to Hieun-Tsang, Harsha was a very generous king who used to give a major porANCIENT
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events were recorded and instances of public calamity and good fortune are set forth in detail. HieunTsang says that Harsha had maintained a powerful and well-equipped army which was over two lakhs. It was comprised of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 elephants and 100,000 horsemen. • Socio-economic Condition: From certain casual remarks of Hieun-Tsang, we can form an idea of the social and economic conditions of India during Harsha’s reign. About the dress and general appearance of the people, he writes that they wore simple dress comprising inner clothing and outward garment which did not involve any tailoring work. They were, however, very fond of ornaments. Again, he writes that most of the people go bare-footed and shoes are rare. The food of the people was very simple and pure. They generally took milk, ghee, rice, grain and vegetables. Onions and garlics were rarely used and the use of meat was not so common. About the architecture or house planning of the people, Hieun-Tsang writes that their walls were generally built of brick, and often coated with chunam. The roofs were sometimes made of thatched reed matting but generally there were wooden flat roofed rooms which were often covered with tiles, burnt and unborn. Their floors were purified with cow dung and strewn with flowers of the season. Their houses, in short, were ‘sumptuous inside and economical outside.’ According to Hieun-Tsang, the architecture of public building and Buddhist monasteries was very remarkable. The people in those days had a high sense of cleanliness. According to Hieun-Tsang, “They are pure on their own accord and not from any compulsion. Before every meal they must have a wash, the fragment and remains are not served up again. The food utensils are not passed on.” Persons who followed unclean or disreputable occupations (like butchers, fisherman, executioners and scavengers) had to live outside the city. The people also led a high moral life. They were hospitable, honest, generous and charitable. They were afraid of doing any thing wrong and sinful. According to Hieun-Tsang, they are of pure moral principle. Hieun-Tsang has thrown a good deal of light on the social customs of the people. The caste-taboos had become very rigid and usually the people married within their castes. According to him, ‘Relations whether by the father’s or mother’s side do not inter marry.’ The accursed purdah-system did not exist but the practice of sati was, however, practiced by the people. Harsha’s own mother Yasomati died as a sati. The chief occupation of the people was cultivation of land, domesticating animals, adopting various other
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tion of his revenue in alms to the poor, the needy and religious men. He had built a large number of rest houses, hospitals, stupas, monasteries, and other works of public utility. He was a very dutiful king who never felt tired while serving his people. In the very words of Hieun-Tsang, “He was indefatigable and forgot sleep and food in the discharge of his duties.” Again, “the day was too short for him. He was the busiest of men and devoted all his time to promote the welfare of his people.” About Harsha’s religious views, he writes that in the beginning he was a worshipper of Shiva and the Sun and later on he became a follower of Buddhism. Then, he devoted all his energies for the spread of his faith. Hieun-Tsang writes that Harsha led a very luxurious life and often bathed in vessels of gold and silver. Harsha’s capital Kannauj was known all round for its lofty structures, beautiful gardens, tanks to clear water and museum of varieties collected from strange lands. It was a great cosmopolitan town with one hundred Buddhist monasteries and about two hundred deva temples; it had greatly grown in its importance under Harsha. • Political Condition and Administration: HieunTsang has written in detail about Harsha’s administration and the political condition of India during his times. He has every praise for Harsha’s administration. Harsha fully knew that in order to make the life of his subjects happy, a good deal of personal supervision was most essential, from time to time he himself used to go from place to place in order to punish the evil-doers and reward the good. Harsha’s government was based on benign and generous principles. Hieun-Tsang further writes, “The government is generous, official requirements are few, families are not registered and individuals are not subject to forced labour-contribution”. Taxes were very light. The source of income was the landtax which was 1/6 of the total produce. The royal income was spent in a very systematic way. Its onefourth part was spent on government, one-fourth on the maintenance of the public servants, one fourth to reward the learned and the rest portion was reserved for distributing gifts among holymen. The penal code was very severe and sometimes hands, ears or nose were also cut off. Fines were also inflicted and trial by ordeal was also known, though it was awarded very rarely. Hieun-Tsang, however, writes that roads were not so safe as he himself was thrice looted and once even his clothes were snatched away from him. According to Hieun-Tsang, there was a special department of keeping records of all the important events of the state. In these records, good and bad © Chronicle IAS Academy
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from various foreign countries usually came here for study. There were about 1,510 Professors in all who imparted knowledge to about 10,000 students. No fees were charged from the students and even food, accommodation and clothes were provided free of cost to them. The expenditure of this university was met by the rich donations made by many Indian rulers and rich people. Moreover, about 100 villages and their revenues were attached with this university for meeting out its expenses. Harsha is also said to have made rich endowments to this university. Such a university perhaps did not exist any where else on the surface of the world. • Harsha’s Assemblies: Hieun-Tsang has given a vivid description of Harsha’s assemblies. Harsha called a special assembly at Kannauj to honour Heiun-Tsang and to give wide publicity to the doctrines of the Mahayana faith. In this assembly a heated discussion took place between the Brahmans and Hieun-Tsang. In the end, Hieun-Tsang won the day and a special procession was organized to honour him on his success. Again Hieun-Tsang writes that Harsha used to distribute alms among the learned, religious men, the poor and the needy on a large scale. One of such assemblies was held in 643 A.D. which was attended by Harsha himself. On the first day, Harsha worshipped Buddha, on the second day the image of Sun and on the third day adoration was offered to Shiva. After these adorations to various deities Harsha began his work of distributing wealth and offering gifts to the Buddhist monks, Brahman heretics, and the poor, the orphans and the destitute. He exhausted all his treasury so much so that he had to borrow his personal clothes from his sister Rajyashri.
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occupations including industries, trade and commerce. Trade was carried on both by sea and land-routes with many neighbouring countries, such as China and Persia. The medium of exchange comprised not merely gold and silver coins, but also cowries and small pearls. • Religious Condition: Hieun-Tsang was a religious pilgrim and so he wrote in detail about the religious condition of India in the first half of the seventh century A.D. There were three religions-Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism that were flourishing side by side in India in the seventh century A.D. About Buddhism, Hieun-Tsang nowhere writes that it was on the decline, but from his account that ancient seats of Buddhism like Gaya and Kapilvastu were ruins, historians have derived the conclusion that Buddhism was declining day by day. But still in every big town there were many monasteries where about 10,000 monks lived. There were many Indian rulers (like Harsha) who patronized Buddhism. In addition to the two main sects-the Hinayana and the Mahayana-Buddhism had further been split up into 18 different sub-sects. About Hinduism, Hieun-Tsang writes that it was gaining strength. India was known in China as ‘the country of the Brahmans.’ Hinduism had greatly regained its superior status since the day of the Imperial Guptas. The predominance of Hinduism was further demonstrated by the popularity of Sanskrit which, according to Hieun-Tsang, had begun to be commonly used both in speaking and writing. The Buddhist teacher had also developed a great fondness for this language of the gods. Though Indian people followed different religions according to their likings, yet they practiced complete religious toleration. The followers of different faiths lived peacefully. Harsha, no doubt, had become a Buddhist, but he did not become a religious persecutor. While showering favours and distributing money, he never made any distinction between a Buddhist monk and a Brahman priest. • Educational System: From Hieun-Tsang’s account, we come to know that there was well-organised system of education during the reign of Harsha. Elementary education was given in temples and monasteries where students resided with their teachers. The higher education was provided by some well-known centres of education which resembled more or less the modern universities. Some of the well-known universities then existing were those of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. The most important university was that of Nalanda which had its own six-storyed building. It was a university of international fame and students © Chronicle IAS Academy
The Vakatakas
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The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti. The most important king was Pravarasena I who performed 4 Ashvamedha yagnas. He was succeeded by Rudrasen I, Prithvisen I and Rudrasen II respectively. Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to the vakataka king Rudrasen II. Rudrasen II was succeeded by Divakarasena, Damodarasena or Pravarasena who composed a Prakrit work titled Setubandha in glorification of Rama, though he was a devotee of Shiva. The Abhiras
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The Shakas of Mahishaka It was founded by Mana after the decline of the Satvahanas in the Deccan. The Traikutakas Appear to be the feudatories of Abhiras at first. First ruler was Indradutta, who was followed by Dahrasena, Vyaghrasena and Madhyamsena. Aniruddhapura was the capital of this kingdom. Vikramsena was the last known king of this dynasty.
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Krishnaraja, the earliest known chief of this dynasty was succeeded by his son Buddharaja. The Gangas Also called Chedagangas of Orissa. Their King Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun temple at Konark. Their King Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri. Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa befor Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar. The Palas of Bengal In the middle of the 8th century, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its founder was Gopala (750 A.D.) who was elected to the throne as he had proved his valor and capability as a leader. Suleiman, an Arab merchant had termed the Pala kingdom as Rumi. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist. He was succeeded by Devapala. He extended his control over Pragjoytishpur (Assam). He was a Buddhist. Balaputradeva, a King of Buddhist Sailendras ruling Java asked Devapala for grant of 5 villages to endow a monastery at Nalanda. He granted the request and appointed Vikramaditya as Head of Nalanda monastery. Devapala’s court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vijradatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka.
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Ishvarasena established himself in northern Maharashtra. He started an era in A.D. 249. It is known as Kalachuri-Chedi or Abhira era. According to Puranas there were 10 Abhira kings. From an inscription it seems that Kathika was the family name of the Abhiras.
The Rashtrakutas Founder was Dantidurga. Originally district officers under Chalukyas of Badami. Their king Krishna I is remembered for constructing the famous rock-cut Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures. Their King Amoghvarsha is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of letters. He wrote the first Kanadda poetry named Kaviraj marg and Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as their capital. Their king, Krishna III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram after defeating the Cholas. Rashtrakutas are credited with building the cave shrine of Elephants. It was dedicated to shiva, whose image as Mahesh (popularly known as Trimurti) counts among the most magnificent art creations of India. The three faces represent Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer, and only Shiva is represented in 3 faces and not Brahma, Vishnu, etc. Kalachuris In early period the Kalachuris were known as Haihayas with Mahishmati as their capital.
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The Senas They ruled Bengal after the Palas. Its founder was Samantasena. His grandson Vijayasena (son of Hemantasena) brought the family into limelight. The famous poet Sriharsha composed the Vijataprasasti in memory of Vijayasena. He was succeeded by Ballalasena. He wrote Danasagara and Adbhutsagara. He was succeeded by Lakshmanasena, Jayadeva. The famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and the author of Gita Govinda lived at his court. His reign saw the decline of Sena power. The invasions of Bakhtiyar Khalji gave it a crushing blow.
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POST-GUPTA PERIOD IN SOUTH INDIA north. Uttama, son of the previous Chola king Gandaraditya forced Sundara Chola to declare him heir apparent. Uttama Chola’s reign was conspicuous for the lack of any major initiatives and he was replaced by the great Rajaraja Chola in 985 C.E.
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From the middle of the sixth century A.D., the history of South India is virtually the story of mutual conflicts among three powers, each seeking constantly to extend its empire at the expense of its neighbours. This went on for about three hundred years. The three powers were the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai. All of them rose into prominence in the sixth century, but the Chalukyas quit the stage about a century earlier than the two other powers, their place on the political map being more or less exactly filled from the middle of the eighth century by their successors, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Malkhed). Besides the main house of Badami, the Chalukyas established themselves in two other branches, more or less independent of the main line: the Chalukyas of Lata and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Together with the Gangas of Mysore, the Eastern Chalukyas took sides in the conflicts of the three kingdoms, sometimes with decisive results. The Cholas of the Tamil country had practically disappeared except that a line of Telugu rulers bearing their name and claiming a traditional connection with their capital at Uraiyur ruled in the area now known as Rayalaseema. Political conflict was, however, no obstacle to cultural growth. A vast and many-sided Hindu revival checked the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, created a great volume of soul-stirring devotional literature and advanced philosophic speculations. Under the stimulus of this religious impulse, remarkable advances were registered in architecture, sculpture, painting and music. All these influences overflowed into the numerous Hindu colonies across the sea. Imperial Cholas Vijayalaya Chola, who was probably a Pallava Vassal, rose out of obscurity during the middle of the 9th century C.E. Making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas, Vijayalaya rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur in 848 C.E.
Sundara Chola The Chola power recovered during Sundara Chola’s reign. The Chola Army under the command of the crown prince Aditya Karikala defeated the Pandyas and invaded up to Tondaimandalam in the © Chronicle IAS Academy
Rajaraj Chola Although the early Chola monarchs had captured parts of Tondai-nadu, Kongu-nadu and Pandi-nadu, the empire had shrunk to the area around the Kaveri Delta in the year 985, when the 7th Chola monarch, Rajaraja, born Arulmolivarman, assumed the throne. Rajaraja immediately embarked on a campaign of territorial expansion and captured Pallava and Pandya territory. He successfully fought the Chera rulers of Kerala and extended his rule over parts of modern Karnataka. He captured the island of Sri Lanka as a province of the Chola empire; it remained under direct Chola rule for 75 years. Rajaraja built temples in his own name in all these areas. He conquered the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean and sent missions to the Indonesian Shrivijaya empire. He encouraged the Shailendra monarch of Java to build a Buddhist monastery at the Chola port of Nagapattinam. Rajendra Chola Rajaraja’s son Rajendra (r. 1012-1044) further consolidated Chola power. He created a Chola viceroyalty in Madurai, appointing his son as the first CholaPandya viceregal prince. Rajendra next attacked the Western Chalukyas and their allies. Rajendra’s reign was marked by his expedition to the river Ganges (c. 1019 C.E.). The Chola army dashed through the kingdoms north of Vengi and engaged the Pala king Mahipala and defeated him. The victorious Chola army returned with the waters of the holy Ganges. In a series of campaigns he marched to north as to the river Ganga (Ganges). He brought back some of its sacred water in golden pots, emptied these into into a tank named Chola-ganga and adopted the title of Gangai-konda (Capturer of the Ganges). However, he did not assume control over the Ganges region. The relationship with Shrivijaya deteriorated to the point that Rajendra sent a naval expedition against the kingdom in order to enforce acknowledgement of Chola suzerainty. He sent two diplomatic missions to China. ANCIENT
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the Brahmanas and of the and was restricted to the Brahmans of the villages. 3. Nagaram was found in trading centres alone. The ‘Uttaramerur’ inscription (10th Century) describes how the local Sabha functioned. There was a close contact between the Central authority and the village assemblies. The Chola officials had only a supervisory role over these assemblies. The Mahasabha possessed the proprietary rights over community lands and controlled the private lands within its jurisdiction. The judicial committee of the Mahasabha, called the ‘nattar’ settled both civil and criminal cases of dispute. Famous committees of the Mahasabha: Variyam: Executive Committee of Sabha Tottavariyam: Garden committee Pon-Variyam: Gold committee Eri-Variyam: Tank Committee Alunganattar: Executive Committee of Ur Nyayattar: Judicial Committee Udasin-Variyam: Committee of Ascetics Samstua-Variyam: Annual Committee
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In 1070, after three of Rajendra’s sons and one grandson had succeeded him, a new line of ChalukyaCholas was established when the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra II (r. 1070-1125) ascended the throne. His mother and grandmother were Chola princesses. Rajendra II assumed the title of Kulottunga (Star of the Dynasty). During his reign, Sri Lanka gained independence from the Chola rule. However, trade flourished with Southeast Asia. Another Chola embassy was sent to China, together with 72 merchants. Trade with Shrivijaya was active too. The reign of Rajendra II was one of peace and prosperity. The Chola empire held together well until the end of the reign of Kulottunga III in 1216. However, it was not as extensive as in the days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. As the Pandya monarchs to the south increased in strength and a group of feudatory chieftains aggressively pursued power in the 13th century, the Chola Empire shrank to the region around Thanjavur. The Chola dynasty came to an end in 1279 when Rajaraja III died and the Chola territory was easily absorbed into Pandya rule.
Chola Chalukya Wars The History of Cholas from the period of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split in to two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas. Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. Stemming from this Cholas had a filial interest in the affairs of Vengi. Western Chalukyas however felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their natural sphere of influence. Several wars were fought and neither could claim mastery over the other. Cholas never managed to overwhelm the Kalyani kingdom and the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River. These wars however resulted in a lot of bloodshed and the death of at least one monarch (Rajadhiraja Chola).
Administration The whole empire was divided into ‘Mandalam’(province) and these in turn into’Valanadu’ or Kottam and Nadu. Village was the basic unit of administration. The cholas are best known for their local self-government at village level. Each village had an assembly to look after the affairs of the village. The general assemblies were of three types: 1. Ur- a general assembly of the village consisting of tax paying residents. 2. Sabha or Mahasabha – consisted of a gathering of the adult men in the Brahmana villages called ‘Brahmadeya’ and agarhara village granted to © Chronicle IAS Academy
Chalukyas of Vatapi/ Badami
This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan from the 5th to the 8th century AD and again from the 10th to the 12th century AD. They ruled over the area between the Vindhyachal and the Krishna River. The Chalukyas were the arch enemies of the Pallavas, another famous dynasty of the south. Pulakesin I A prominent ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. He founded the city of Vatapi (modern Badami in Bijapur district of Karnataka) and made it his capital. He is said to have performed Ashwamedha Yagna to attain supremacy as a ruler. The kingdom was further extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa who waged many wars against the Mauryan rulers of the neighbouring Konkan region. The best known specimens of Chalukyan art are the Virupaksha temple, (built by Queen Lokamahadevi in 740 AD to commemorate her husband’s victory over the Pallavas), and the Mallikarjuna temple both at Pattadakal, Karnataka. Pulakesin II
Pulakesin II, son of Kirtivarman was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty, who ruled for almost 34 years. During his long reign, he consolidated his powers in Maharashtra and conquered parts of the Deccan stretching from the banks of the Narmada to the region beyond the Kaveri. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against ANCIENT 58
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received one from him. The reception given to the Persian mission is, in fact, depicted in one of the famous Ajanta cave paintings. Visit of Hiuen Tsang – the description given by this Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin is quite useful in knowing the social and economic conditions under the Chalukya rulers of Badami.
Chalukyas of Kalyani Another branch of the Chalukyas established their supremacy under their ruler Tailpa II (973-997 A.D.), who was probably a feudatory of the Rastrakutas. He fought successful wars against the Latas of Gujarat, Kalchuries of Chedi, Parmars of Malwa and the Cholas of the South. The Parmara ruler Munja died fighting him. Tailpa II died in about 997 A.D. His two immediate successors Satyasraya (997-1008 A.D.) and Vikramaditya V (1001-1016), however, suffered defeats at the hands of Rajaraja Chola and Bhoja Parmara respectively. The next Chalukya ruler Jayasimha II (1016-1042 A.D.) routed Bhoja Parmara but was in turn defeated by the Chola ruler Rajendra Chola I at the battle of Musangi. It was Somesvara who laid the foundation of a new town of Kalyani which henceforth became the capital of the Chalukyas. Vikramaditya VI won a great name for his dynasty by his allround conquests and cultural activities. He defeated the Hoyasala King (Vishnuvardhana) of Mysore and Rajendra Chola II and recovered some of the lost territories of his dynasty. The famous poet Bilhana and Vigyanesvara, the author of the well known work “Mitakshara” flourished during his reign. After Vikramaditya VI’s death in about 1126 A.D. the Chalukya power began to decline rapidly. Many feudatory chiefs asserted their independence and in about 1190 A.D. Somesvara IV, the last ruler of this dynasty, was overthrown by the Yadavas of Devagiri.
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Harshavardhan (A north Indian emperor with his capital at Kannauj) in the year 620 AD. In 641 AD, the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, visited the kingdom and paid glowing tributes to the king for his efficient and just rule. Pulakesin II was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642 AD. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed. Pulakesin was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya who was also a noble and just ruler. He renewed the struggle against his enemies and managed to restore the former glory of his dynasty to a certain extent. The Chalukyas were ousted by a chieftain Dantidurga, who laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta dynasty. Considered the greatest of the Chalukya rulers of Badami not only because of the problems he had to face while coming to the throne, but also because of his subsequent military as well as diplomatic achievements. • He had to wage civil war against his uncle, Mangalesa, who refused to hand over the power. • Though Pulakesin succeeded in defeating and killing his uncle, this civil war shook the young kingdom and rebellions began to appear on all sides. But he was quite successful in the suppression of these rebellions. He defeated the rebel feudatory, Appayika, and pardoned his confederate, Govinda, when the latter offered his submission. • Establishment of his suzerainty over the neighbours such as Kadambas of Banavasi, the Alupas of south Kanara, the Gangas of Mysore, and the Mauryas of north Konkan. Apart from the above rulers, the Latas, Malwas and Gurjaras also offered their submission to him because of their fear of Harshavardhana of Kanuaj. • His clash with Harsha, in which he was able to check Harsha’s design to conquer the Deccan. • Conquests in the eastern Deccan-southern Kosala, Kalinga, Pistapura and the Banas of Rayalaseema offered their submission after their defeat at the hands of Pulakesin. • Conflict with the Pallavas of Kanchi-his first expedition against the Pallav kingdom, which was then ruled by Mahendravarman I was a complete success, and he annexed the northern part of the Pallava kingdom. But his second expedition against the Pallavas, however, ended in complete disaster for himself as well as his own kingdom. The then Pallava ruler, Narasimhavarman I, who succeeded Mahendraverman, not only drove back Chalukya armies, but also invaded the Chalukya kingdom, killed Pulakesin II and captured Badami. • Diplomatic achievement-he sent an embassy to the Persian king, Khusrau II, in AD 625 and also © Chronicle IAS Academy
Contribution of the Chalukyas
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They developed the Deccan or Vesara style in the building of structural temples, which reached culmination, however, only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoyasalas. • It was the Chalukyas who perfected the art of stone building, that is, stones finely joined without mortar. • Under their auspices, the Buddhists, the Jainas and the Brahmins competed with each other in building cave temples. • Though the cave frescoes began earlier, some of the finest specimens belonged to the Chalukya era. The murals that were executed on the walls dealt with not only religious themes but also with secular ANCIENT
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of these Pallavas who ruled form different quarters such as Badami or Vatapi, Ellora and Kanchi. The most powerful dynasty of the Pallavas was the one which had its capital at Kanchi. The earliest Pallava ruler about whom we have some reliable information was Vishnugopa of Kanchi. With Simha Vishnu (575-600 A.D.) begins the most glorious epoch of the Pallava history. He is said to have defeated rulers of the three Tamil States of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas and also the ruler of Ceylon. Mahendra Varman (600625 A.D.) had to fight a deadly and long drawn battle with the Chalukyas. Mahendra Varman was a great patron of art and literature. Formerly he was a Jain by faith but later on he was converted to Shaivism and then he built a large number of rock cut temples at various places (Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Vallam, etc.) in honour of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. Mahendra Varman was succeeded by his son Narasimha Varman (625-645 A.D.) in about 625 A.D. He is perhaps the most important ruler of the Pallava dynasty. He defeated the Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II in about 642 A.D. and took hold of his capital Badami or Vatapi. He also fought successful wars against the Cheras, Cholas and the king of Ceylon. It was during his reign, that the celebrated Chinese pilgrim Hieun-Tsang visited Kanchi in about 642 A.D. and stayed there for sometime. Narsimha Varman was a great builder like his father. He built many rock-cut temples and laid the foundation of a new city, which was known as Mahabalipuram. He beautified this city with many wonderful shrines, the chief among them was the Dharmaraja Ratha. After the death of Narsimha Varman in about 645 A.D. the Pallava empire began to fall with a rapid speed. The successors of Narasimha Varman continued their rule upto the end of 9th century A.D. when under Aparajita Varman (876-895 A.D.) their territory was annexed by the Cholas in about 895 A.D. The Pallavas with their capital at Kanchipuram were a hereditary Hindu dynasty. They ruled between the 4th and the 9th Century. Under the Pallavas, their vast kingdom was exposed to increased influence of Sanskrit and the culture associated with it. During this period the cults of Shavism and Vaishnavism became deeply embedded in the Tamilian culture.
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ones. In the first monastic hall at Ajanta, we notice a painting depicting the reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II. Temples: The temple-building activity under the Chalukyas of Badami can be broadly divided into two stages. The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami. Aihole is a town of temples and contains no fewer than 70 structures, of which four are noteworthy. • Ladh Khan temple is a flat roofed building. • Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist chaitya to a Brahmanical temple. • Hucimaligudi is very similar to the Durga temple, but smaller than it. • The Jaina temple of Meguti shows some progress in the erection of structural temples, but it is unfinished. Of the temples at Badami, the Melagitti Sivalaya is a small but finely proportioned and magnificently located temple. A group of four rock-cut halls at Badami (three of them Hindu and one Jaina) are all of the same type. The workmanship in the caves is marked by a high degree of technical excellence. Though the front is very unassuming, the interior is treated with great skill and care in every detail. The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal. There are about ten temples here, four in the northern style and six in the southern style. In the Deccan both styles were used. There was even a tendency to combine the feature of the two styles. • The Papanatha temple is the most notable among the temples of the northern style, it also reveals attempts to combine northern and southern features in one structure. • The Virupaksha temple was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II. Workmen brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction. Hence it is a direct imitation of the Kailasanatha temple which had come into existence in Kanchi some decades earlier. • The Sangamesvara temple, which was built some years before the above one, is more or less in the same style. Pallavas of Kanchi The Pallavas were the first well-known dynasty which came into power in the South after the fall of the Andharas. But nothing definite is known about their origin. For about two hundred years from 550 to 750 A.D., the Pallavas were the dominant power in the South. Their rule extended over a vast region including the modern territories of Madras, Arcot, Trichnopoly and Tanjore but the whole of the South was under their influence. There were several branches © Chronicle IAS Academy
Art and Architecture The development of temple architecture, particularly Dravida style, under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages. Mahendra Group: The influence of the cave style of architecture is to be seen in this group. Examples; are the rock-cut temples at Bhairavakonda (North Arcot district), and Anantesvara temple at Undavalli (Guntur district). ANCIENT 60
Narasimha Group: They comprise the rathas or monolithic temples, each of which is hewn out of a single rock-boulder. These monolithic temples are found at Mamallapuram. The rathas, popularly called the Seven Pagodas, are actually eight in number. They are (1) Dharmaraja, (2) Bhima, (3) Arjuna, (4) Sahadeva, (5) Draupadi, (6) Ganesa, (7) Pidari and (8) Valaiyankuttai.
Early Pandya Kingdom The Pandya kingdom started its career about the same times as the Pallava or a little later, but we know little of the history of its first two monarchs, Kadungon (560-90) and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani (590-620). There is no doubt, however, that they put an end to Kalabhra rule in their part of the country and revived the Pandyan power. The third, Sendan or Jayanta Varman, imposed his rule on the Chera country and adopted the title of Vanavan. The rock-cut cave temple at Malaiyadikurichi in Tirunelveli district was excavated by him. His son was Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (650-700), whose inscription has been recently found in the Vaigai bed at Madurai, which points to his long and prosperous rule. He is identical with Nedumaran, the victor of Nelveli, celebrated in Tamil literature. A great soldier, he fought many battles for the extension of Pandya power, among which his conquest of Nelveli is specially mentioned in epigraphs.
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Rajasimha Group: There are five examples of this group – at Mahabalipuram (Shore, Isvara and Mukunda temples), one at Panamalai in South Arcot, and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. Among all these, the most mature example is the last one.
Education and Learning Education in the early days was controlled by the Jainas and Buddhists. The Jaina institutions were located at Madurai and Kanchi. But soon Brahmanical institutions superseded them. Ghatikas or Brahmin institutions were attached to the temples and mostly confined to advance study. In the eighth century AD the maths also became popular. A math was an omnibus institution because of its being a rest-house, a feeding centre and also an education centre. In all these institutions, Sanskrit was the medium of instruction, because it was also the official language.
Nandivarman Group: This group mostly consists of small temples except the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchi and in no way forms an advance on the achievements of the previous age. But they are more ornate, resembling the Chola architecture. The best examples are the temples of Muktesvara and Matangesvara at Kanchi, the Vadamalisvara at Orgadam (near Chingalput), and the Parasuramesvara at Gudimallam (near Renigunta). The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture in south India. The Pallava sculpture largely is indebted to the Buddhist tradition. It is more monumental and linear in form, thus avoiding the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The best example is the ‘Descent of the Ganga’ or ‘Arjuna’s Penance’ at Mahabalipuram.
Religion The Pallavas were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their patronage was responsible for the great reformation of the medieval ages. Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Shiva, the exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman who were worshippers of Vishnu. Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by the famous Saivite saints of the age. Besides worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other Hindu gods. Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. However, some of the sects like Buddhism were losing their former glory to Saivism. The Vedic tradition in general bossed over the local tradition. Sankaracharya in fact gave this stimulus to Vedic tradition. Tamil saints of the sixth and seventh centuries AD were the progenitors of the bhakti movement. The hymns and sermons of the Nayanars (Saivite saints) and Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) continued the tradition of bhakti. Saivite saints were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, and others. Most remarkable thing about this age was the presence of women saints such as Andal (an Alvar). © Chronicle IAS Academy
Political History Arikesari Parankusa was succeeded by his son Koccadaiyan, also called Ranadhira (c. 700-30). This monarch waged aggressive wars against his neighbours and extended the Pandya power into the Kongu country. He also suppressed a revolt of the mountain chieftain Ay who occupied the hilly country between Tirunelveli and Travancore. His reign ended about 730, and his son Maravarman Rajasimha I succeeded him. Early in his reign Rajasimha formed an alliance with Chalukya Vikramaditya II, espoused the cause of Chitramaya, and after inflicting a number of defeats on Nandi Varman Pallavamalla besieged him in a place called Nandigram, i.e., Nandi-puram, near Kumbakonam. The able Pallava general Udayachandra, who encountered the Pandya forces in many battles, raised the siege of Nandigrams, beheaded Chitramaya, and thus made the Pallava throne secure for his monarch. He also dealt with other enemies of Pallavamalla like the Sabara king Udayana and the Nishada chieftain Prithivivyaghra who were probably acting in collusion with the Chalukya, Vikramaditya II. ANCIENT
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Tungabhadra in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Two famous sages Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana became the main source of inspiration for the foundation of a Hindu empire in the region. Harihar became the first king of the newly founded empire. After his death Bukka succeded him. Bukka sent an emissary to China in 1374 as a diplomatic move. After Bukka’s death, Harihara II (son of Harihar) ascended the throne. He expanded his domains by conquering almost the whole of southern India, including Mysore, Kanara, Chingalpet, Trichinopally and Kanchivaram (modern Kanchipuram). A staunch worshipper of Lord Shiva, Harihara II was fairly tolerant towards the followers of other faiths too. He became the first king of the Vijayanagara empire to assume the title of Maharajadhiraj Rajaparmeshwara (the mighty, sovereign, king of kings). In 1486, Vir Narasimha of Chandragiri, (who belonged to the Tuluva dynasty) took over the reigns of the Vijaynagar empire. His son Krishanadev Raya has been acclaimed the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara and one of the most famous kings in the history of India. A great warrior, he almost invariably won the wars which he waged throughout his period of kingship. He was known to have treated even his vanquished foes with honour. During the period 1511-1514, he captured southern Mysore, Shivasamudram fortress and Raichur (Karnataka), defeated Gajapati, the erstwhile king of Orissa and captured Udaigiri (Orissa), in that order. Still later, he captured Vishakhapatnam and abolished the authority of the rulers of Orissa. His most outstanding achievement was the defeat inflicted on one of the Bahamani rulers, Ismail Adil Shah on 19th March 1520. This landmark event put an end to the Muslim dominance in the southern part of the country. During his later years, Krishnadeva Raya strongly focused on the organization of his empire and improving its administration. In order to maintain friendly relations with foreign powers (who were beginning to gain a foothold in India) particularly the Portuguese, he granted some concessions to the Portuguese governor Alphonsde de Albuquerque. The reign of Krishanadev Raya also witnessed tremendous growth and development in the spheres of literature, music, art and culture. Raya himself was an accomplished poet, musician, scholar and extremely well-versed in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada. He patronized many poets and authors notably the Ashtadiggajas (literally: poets of a gigantic stature) of Telugu language. The famous scholar and wit Tenali Rama adorned his court. During this period there was also a spurt in art and architecture. The famous Vithalswami
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Rajasimha I was succeeded by Nedunjadaiyan, popularly known as Varaguna Maharaja I, in the year 765 A.D. He gave a crushing defeat to Pallava ruler Nandi Varman II and his allies. He had the credit to annex the whole of the Kongn country. He also defeated Adigaiman of Tagadur or Dharmapuri and sent him into confinement at Madura. He fixed his camp at Idavai in the heart of the Pallava kingdom. Varaguna I had still other successes to his credit. He led an expedition into Venad, South Travancore, attacked the strongly fortified port of Vilinam and brought the country under his rule. He also waged successful war against the Ay chieftain of the intervening mountainous country who had perhaps been friendly to the ruler of Venad. As a result of these wars, Pandya sway extended well beyond Tiruchirapalli into the Tanjore, Salem and Coimbatore districts, and all that lay South was under him. The expansion continued under his son and successor Srimarra Srivallabha (815-62) who invaded Ceylon in the reign of Sena I (831-51), ravaged the Northern province and sacked the capital. Eventually Sena made terms with the conqueror and the Pandya forces quit the island. Srimara had next to deal with a formidable combination formed against him again under the leadership of the Pallavas. But he was defeated on the bank of the River Arisil. Srimara’s defeat at Arisil was, however, not an isolated event. His aggressive campaigns which had earned for him the title Parachakrakolahala (Cofounder of the Circle of his Enemies) naturally roused the hostility of his neighbours. Sena II (851855) of Ceylon, nephew and successor of Sena I, had allied himself with the Pallavas and a Pandya prince who sought his aid. This prince was probably Srimara’s son whose claim to the throne had been overlooked when his step-brother Viranarayana was made yuvaraja (c.860). Sena sent an expedition into the Madura kingdom at about the same time as the battle of Arisil and the invasion was a complete success. The capital was sacked, Srimmara died of his wounds, and his son Varaguna Varman II was enthroned in his place by the Simhalese commander in chief (862). Varguna II had to acknowledge the overlordship of Nripatunga.
Vijaynagara Empire This was the most famous empire in the history of southern India. The Vijayanagara empire lasted for three centuries, thus indirectly checking the expansion of Islamic powers in the region. According to legends as well as historical sources, two brothers named Harihara and Bukka (Sons of Sangama, a chieftain at the court of the Hoysala rulers) had founded city of Vijayanagara on the southern bank of the river © Chronicle IAS Academy
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temple and the Hazara temple (literally a thousand) both at Hampi built during his reign are magnificent specimens of Hindu Temple architecture, executed in the Vijaynagar style of architecture. The Vijayanagar empire witnessed the arrival of European traders (especially the Portuguese) in India. Krishnadeva Raya encouraged foreign trade which necessitated the use of currency. The coins of the Vijayanagara Empire were chiefly made with gold and copper. Most of the gold coins carried a sacred image on one side and the royal legend on the reverse. Some gold coins bore the images of Lord Tirupatis.
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Bahamani Kingdom
One of the major problems faced by Gawan was the unending dispute among the Bahamani nobles, who were divided into Deccanis (old timers) and Afaqis or Gharibs (newcomers). Since Gawan himself was a newcomer (of Persian origin), he failed to win the confidence of the Deccanis. His policy of conciliation failed to stem the ongoing strife amongst the noblemen. In 1482, Gawan,a septugenarian was executed by Sultan Muhammad Shah, the last ruler of the undivided Bahamani Empire. After Gawan’s death, the raging internal factions grew more intense and various governors declared their independence. The kingdom finally got fragmented into five parts--- the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the Qutub Shahis of Golconda, the Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar, the Barid Shahi of Bidar and lastly the Imad Shahis of Berar. The five kingdoms came together to wage a war against the mighty Vijayanagara Empire and inflicted a death-blow to it in 1565. A few years down the line, the Imad Shahi kingdom was conquered by Nizamshahis in 1574 AD; the Barid Shahi kingdom was annexed by Adil Shahis in 1619 AD.
According to historical records, a rebel chieftain of Daulatabad, near Ellora, Maharashtra, which was under Muhammad Bin Tughalaq, founded the Bahamani kingdom. This chieftain, Allauddin Hassan, who was a man of humble origins, assumed the name of Gangu Bahamani, in memory of his Brahmin mentor. His kingdom comprised parts of present day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. South of his kingdom lay the Vijayanagara Empire against which it had to fight continuous wars for political reasons. The most remarkable ruler of the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani (1397-1422 AD), who fought three major battles against the Vijayanagara Empire without any tangible results. He was a great scholar, well-versed in religious and natural sciences. He wanted to make the Deccan the cultural centre of India. According to his court poet Ferhishta, Firuz Shah was a true Muslim in spirit, notwithstanding his vices - fondness for wine and music, both strictly forbidden by Islam. Firuz Shah was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah I, who successfully invaded Warangal and annexed most part of it to his empire. The conquest of Warangal proved to be a shot in the arm of the Bahamanis. The kingdom gradually expanded and reached its zenith under the prime ministership of Mahmud Gawan (1466-1481 AD). Mahmud Gawan arrived and settled down in Bidar from Persia in the year 1453. A great scholar of Islamic cultural traditions, he established and funded a Madarassa (college) which was modelled along the lines of the universities of Samarkand and Khorasan (both in Central Asia).
Shahi kings These kingdoms continued to play a dominant role in the politics of the region till they were eventually merged in the Mughal empire in the 17th century. After the death of Shivaji, Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor, marched southwards, finally annexing Bijapur in 1686 A.D and Golconda in 1689 A. D; this sounded the death knell of the Bahamani kingdom. The Bahamani period witnessed the upsurge of secularism and communal harmony. Hazrat Banda Nawaz (1321-1422 A.D) the great Sufi saint was patronized by the Bahamani kings and his Dargah located at Gulbarga in Karnataka, is a famous pilgrimage for both Hindus and Muslims alike. In the field of architecture, the Bahamani rulers evolved a distinct style by drawing heavily from Persian, Turkey, and Arabic architectural styles and blending it with local styles. One of the largest and most famous domes in the world, the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the majestic gateway Charminar at Hyderabad and the Golconda Fort near Hyderabad are the hallmarks of Bahamani architecture. The main source of income of the Bahamanis was the cultivated land, with the administration revolving around the assessment and collection of land revenue. The Bahmanis of the Deccan ultimately left behind a rich, composite cultural heritage of Indo-Islamic art, language, besides Islamic faith and traditions.
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ART & ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA parent garments. It is marked by the representation of thick drapery with large and bold foldings. It is also known for rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism. The images of the Buddha were so beautifully made that they look like the image of Apollo, the Greek god of beauty. Now the majority of the scholars believe that the Mathura School stands higher than the Gandhara School and that it was free from the influence of Gandhara Art. Yet the Gandhara School of art has been recognised as one of the best school of Indian sculpture and the images of the Buddha which were built under its patronage are among the best possessions of Indian art. Dr. A.L. Basham comments “The Buddhas of Gandhara School though perhaps lacking in the spirituality of those of the Gupta period, are gentle, graceful and compassionate, while some of the plaques are vivid and energetic.”
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Art of sculpture Ancient India witnessed remarkable progress in the art of sculpture. The three important schools namely- Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati grew and progressed during ancient India. Each of these schools has occupied a commanding place in the field of Indian sculpture and has contributed towards its growth and fulfilment.
Gandhara School The Gandhara Art (50 B.C. - 500 A.D.) has been called by several other names, i.e., Greeco-Roman, Greeco-Buddhist, Indo-Greek etc., because it clearly exhibits the influence of Roman, Greek or Hellenistic art. The patrons of this art were not the Greeks but the Shakas and the Kushanas, who carried on and protected the traditions and culture of their Hellenistic predecessors in this region. The art flourished in the North Western frontier of India, the region called the Gandhara Pradesh and therefore, it has been named as the Gandhara School of Art. And as the Hellenistic influence on this art is undeniable, it has been called the Greeco-Roman or Indo-Greek Art. Besides as it was inspired by Buddhism, it has also been called Greeco-Buddhist Art. Thus the impression of this art was primarily Buddhism and its creators were mostly Indians, though it was influenced by foreign art. The art pieces of Gandhara School have been found at Bimaran, Hastnagar, Sakra Dheri, Shah-ji ki dheri, and at the various sites of Taxila. Most of them have been kept in the museum of Peshawar and Lahore. Amongst these art pieces the image of the Buddha are the best specimens. The other earliest specimens are the headless standing image of Buddha and standing Hariti figure. They were executed in stone, stucco, terracotta and other types of day, and appear to have been invariably embellished with gold leaf or paint. Viewing them from a critical point, it is concluded that the Gandhara School progressed during 150 years of its beginning; it deteriorated in the second century A.D. In its later stage it was affected by the Mathura school and, when finally grown up, it affected the art of sculpture in China and Central Asia. Its chief characteristic is the realistic representation of human figures, distinguished muscles of the body and trans© Chronicle IAS Academy
Mathura School The school of art that developed at Mathura (U.P.) has been called the Mathura School (150-300 A.D.). Its origin has been traced back to the middle of the second century B.C., but it was only in first century A.D. that its genuine progress began. It flourished here for centuries and acquired the highest position in the field of sculpture. It was so popular that at a later stage the images, which were built here, were exported to Taxila and even Central Asia in the West and to Shravasti and Sarnath in the East. It also provided the basis for further progress of the art of sculpture. The art of sculpture of the Gupta Age, has been accepted as a developed form of the Mathura School. The Mathura School was somewhat influenced by the Gandhara School in the first half of second century A.D. The images of the Buddha of the Gandhara Art were copied here but in a more refined way. The Gandhara composition is also evident in certain reliefs and decorative motifs. In turn, it also influenced the Gandhara School of art. The school was directly influenced by Roman art as well because of its direct links with the Roman Empire by sea route. But whatever foreign influence it had, it was slowly given up by the coming of the Gupta Age. It was perfectly free from it. A standing female figure of Amohini, the standing ANCIENT 64
school exerted great influence not only on the later South Indian sculpture but as its productives were carried to Ceylon and South-East Asian countries, it also influenced sculptural art of those countries. The Amravati School serves as a link between the earlier arts of Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi on the one hand and the later Gupta and Pallava Art on the other. Accepting freely the principle of art for the sake of art, the craftsmen of Amravati School created beautiful human images, of course, images of the Buddha were built and the great stupa of Amravati was adorned with limestone reliefs depicting scenes of the Buddha’s life and surrounded by free standing figures of Buddha, but figures and statues of males and females exceed them in number and quality. The same way, though this school successfully depicted lone, compassion, devotion and sacrifice yet the physical beauty and the sensual expression commanded its art. The figures and statues carved under this school have been regarded as the best among the contemporaries not only from the point of view of their size, physical beauty and expressions of human emotions, but also from the point of view of composition. The figures and images are so composed that they seem to be inter-linked with each other and present before an onlooker not distinct figures and images but a well composed painting depicting a scene or an event. The art of Amravati is frankly naturalistic and sensuous. The female figures in different moods and poses (standing, sitting, bending, flying, dancing etc.) are its best creations. The forms of Yakshinis and the dancing girls have full breasts, heavy lips and living flesh and they exhibit infinite love, grace and beauty. Even men, animals and vegetations have been treated elegantly. And images and figures of even more than sixteen feet in height were built here. Here feminine beauty has been depicted more successfully than compared to Mathura. Its main centres were Amravati, Nagararjuna Konda and Jaggayapeta. Its artists mainly used white marble for the construction of figure and images. The school of Mathura and Amravati closed that chapter in the art sculpture which had started at Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi. The school of Mathura accepted a human being as a distinct entity and emphasis was laid on the depiction of physical beauty through art. The Amravati school forged ahead it. While the Mathura school failed to exhibit sensuous desires markedly, the Amravati School succeeded in that. Thereby, for the first time, Indian Art of sculpture came closer to the physical and emotional need of man. By now, Indian Art had reached in a new stage in which physical, sensual and emotional elements found expression. Hence, the primary aim of the art no longer served religion but human beings. Art is the mirror of any society. The change
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statue of Kanishka kept in the museum of Mathura, the statue of a slave girl kept in the museum of Benaras and a large member of figures and images in stone of the Buddha and Boddhisattavas, Yakshas and Yakshinis, males and females found at Mathura and its nearby region, have been regarded as the finest piece of the art of sculpture. In the early stages the school was inspired by Jainism. Afterwards the images of the Buddha replaced them, which clearly exhibits the influence of Buddhism on it. Not only were statues of emperors prepared by sculpture, but the great majority of their creation consisted of nude or seminude figures of female Yakshinis or apsaras in erotic attitudes. The Mathura artists also carved out images of Brahmanical divinities. Popular Brahmanical gods, Shiva and Vishnu were represented alone and sometimes with their consorts, Parwati and Laxmi respectively. Images of many other Brahmanical deities like Brahma, Surya, Balram, Agni, Kartikeya, Kubera etc. were also executed in stone. The distinguishing feature of the Mathura School was that the stone which the craftsman used was mostly spotted red sandstone found at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The royal statue of Kushana kings were found near Mathura exhibit foreign influence. The most striking statue is that of emperor Kanishka, though it lacks its head. It is drapped in the dress of central Asia, a long coat and quilted boots. It is grand and solid from the physical point of view, though technically it lacks a sense of depth. The same way, the early Buddha and Bodhisattavas of Mathura School are fleshy figures and possess no expression of spirituality. But, afterwards, religious feeling and spirituality were exhibited in them. Then the images exhibited not only a firm, masculine and energetic body, but also one with grace and religious feeling. The attempt to display spiritual strength by a circle behind the faces to the images began with Mathura School. Yet the most remarkable piece of the Mathura Art are its beautiful female figures. Most of these figures are nude or semi nude, have full round breasts, full heavy lips and slender waists. Besides, posture of their body, head and hands and legs are definitely erotic. Thus, their aim is frankly sensual.
Amravati School In the region between the lower valley of the rivers Krishna and Godavari in the South are the districts of Amravati and Guntur where another school of sculpture called the Amravati School (150-400 A.D.) flourished. The region had become an important centre of Buddhism as early as 2nd century B.C. and it provided the first incentive to this school. By the middle of the 2nd century A.D. the school matured itself and beautiful sculptural pieces were created. The © Chronicle IAS Academy
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of attitude in art was a part of change in attitude of society in general. Cave Architecture
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Ajanta Caves Concurrent with the emergence of the production of Hindu structural temples throughout the Gupta domains, Mahayana Buddhists entered into an extraordinarily active period of cave excavation at a number of sites, primarily in the Western Ghat mountains of the Deccan. The initial resurgence of cave monastery excavations occurred under the Vakatakas. Under their ambitious and successful King Harisena (c.460-478), these princelings of Central India became powerful contenders in the constant struggle for political supremacy. The king was probably not a Buddhist and it is not known whether or not he actively patronized the creation of monastic establishments, but his ministers and some of his feudatory princes were devoted followers (upasakas) who lavishly provided for the sangha. Harisena, having secured much of the Western Deccan, established a peaceful set of conditions for a brief but spectacular florescence at the site of Ajanta, where more than twenty caves, many of them major achievements of architecture, sculpture and painting in their own right, were excavated during the Vakataka period. Dramatically cut into the curved mountain wall above the Waghora River, the caves constitute virtually complete monastic entities, including living quarters, devotional areas and assembly halls. Although the ephemeral objects used by the monks in their daily lives are gone, the caves provide important insights into Buddhist theory, practice and religious expression in art of the period. Except for the few caves belonging to an early phase of activity, all the caves belong to the Vakataka period. Walter Spink, the leading authority on Ajanta’s later phase, argues convincingly that other writers are erroneous in their contention that such extraordinary achievements must have taken many decades, if not centuries, to produce; instead, he suggests that a brief intense period of fervent activity corresponding primarily to the relatively short span of Harisena’s reign accounted for the production of all the later caves. In general, the earliest Vakataka artist activity occurred near the centre of the site (the pre-Vakataka nucleus) and the latest activity took place towards the two extremes. Only two Chaitya halls were excavated during the Vakataka phase at Ajanta. Since one of them, cave 19, was primarily completed towards the beginning of the Vakataka resurgence and the other, Cave 26, towards the end, they may be used to demonstrate the general artistic direction during this brief span
of time. Cave 19 is fairly securely dated to the first part of the Vakataka florescence on the basis of an inscription on the veranda of Cave 17 that refers to gandhakuti (fragrant hall) to the west of it, which must be Cave 19. The Cave 17 inscription also refers to Harisena as the ruling prince, clearly indicating that the excavations were carried out while he was in full power, in contrast to the inscription in the later apsidal chaitya hall, Cave 26, which suggests that Harisena’s position was considerable weakened. The epigraph further describes the donor’s lavish expenditure on Cave 17 as “such that little should men (the poor?) could not even grasp in their imaginations, “ and indeed, this statement might be used in general to describe the munificent patronage that Ajanta enjoyed during the latter half of the fifth century. Cave 19 consists of a courtyard with accompanying cells as well as the chaitya hall itself. Its elaborate façade contains a single entrance into the cave, marked by a pillared portico that projects from the wall of rock. The large circular window above the portico with its rock-cut rafters reveals the heritage of early chaitya halls that had been based on wooden proto-types, Cave 9 at this very site must have served as a model. However, the decoration around the opening, with its ornamented crest and the “flaps” at the side, reveals that the window is in the form of the fully developed chandrasala seen frequently on Gupta temples. Little trace of the earlier Chaitya hall façade is visible on the rest of the exterior, however, for its decorated pilasters, cornices and other architectural features create a kind of grid within which are numerous sculptures, primarily of Buddha figures. Symmetrically placed attendants flank the arched window. Delicately posed and beautifully dressed, the figures suggest the highest achievements of fifth century art. Below, two panels to each side of the door are created by carved pilasters, the two inner compartments and two outer niches containing comparable but not identical subjects. Nearest the entrance the cave on the right, a large representation of Sakyamuni Buddha offers his rightful inheritance (that is, the promise of Buddhahood) to the small figure of his son, Rahul. To the left of the door, a comparable Buddha makes a similar gesture, again offering the promise of Buddhahood. However, in this case, the identity of the scene is not certain. It may depict the Buddha’s descent from Trayastrimsa, and thus the promise of Buddhahood to Utpali, the female nun turned male devotee who was the first to greet the Buddha upon his descent. Or, it might represent Dipamkara Buddha, a Buddha of the remote past who predicted to the future Sakyamuni, then a youth named Sumedha, that he
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carved with foliated and architectural motifs. All of these were originally fully polychromed, as was the entire interior of the cave. The decoration of Cave 26 demonstrates the final burst of exuberance at Ajanta. An inscription identifies the donor of the cave as the Bhikshu Buddhabhadra who dedicated it to the deceased Bhaviraja, a Minister of the Asmaka feudatories of the Vakatakas. The reference to the Asmakas in the inscription and the lack of mention of the Vakatakas suggest that while these ambitious rivals had perhaps not yet overthrown the Vakatakas, they were on the brink of doing so, thus putting the date of the dedication of this cave very near to the end of Ajanta’s florescence. Much larger and more elaborate than Cave 19, Cave 26 anticipates the Buddhist and Hindu monuments that were created later in Western India during the sixth century with their colossal scale and dramatically ambitious schemes. Sprink has shown that the cave itself was only part of a much grander conception, for it served as the focal point of a scheme that included two upper wings and two lower wings. The façade of Cave 26 has suffered considerable damage, but it is still possible to reconstruct something of its original appearance. Instead of a portico like that at Cave 19, a series of steps leads upto a low plinth and what would have been a covered veranda (now largely destroyed) serving as a transition between the courtyard preceding the cave and the chaitya hall itself. A chandrasala window and rows of carved figures decorate the façade and are similar to those elements of Cave 19. The interiors of the two caves also reveal major differences. Scale alone creates a vastly granduer impression on the visitor to Cave 26, while the treatment of the pillars, carved frieze, and beamed ceiling are highly reminiscent of similar features in Cave 19; the grander scale permitted even greater richness. Carved representations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas and architectural features decorate the stupa, in contrast to the plain (but perhaps once painted) surfaces of the stupa in Cava 19. The Buddha on the front of the stupa sits in pralambapadasana, the so-called “European pose” characterized by the pendant legs. This pose seems to be associated with the figures carved towards the end of the Vakataka phase at Ajanta, although the reasons behind the introduction of this form remain unclear. It is possible that such figures are depictions of Maitreya, the future Buddha, who is characteristically shown in this pose when serving as a major icon. An examination of the frieze above the pillars confirms the greater elaboration and detail of this cave as compared to that of Cave 19. A relative reduction in the scale of the Buddha figures and
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would attain Buddhahood in a future life. In either narrative, the underlying message in the promise of Buddhahood, a poignant message to the monk worshipper whose life was devoted to attain the state. In their positions flanking the door and facing inward, the figures seem to offer the same gift the right to Buddhahood to the devotee entering the cave. A crown held above the head of each of the two Buddhas indicates their nature as manifestations of the Universal. The figures themselves are gracefully posed in relaxed attitudes of the type seen in Gupta formulations of approximately the same date at other sites. Like Buddhas at Sarnath and Mathura, they wear clinging, diaphanous garments revealing the forms of the bodies beneath. Huskier and fuller bodied than their north Indian counterparts, however, these figures reflect a Western Deccan convention and figure type. Next to these compositions are reliefs that also portray comparable although not identical subjects. The scene to the right of Rahula’s inheritance shows a similar architectural construction containing another standing Buddha, but in this case, instead of rounded from the stupa above, there is a seated Buddha. This interchangeability or equivalency between the Buddha and the stupa was seen in Andhra Pradesh at Nagarjuna-konda, where paired chaitya halls contained respectively a Buddha and a stupa. The interior of the cave appears lavish compared to the stark interiors of early Chaitya halls. Thick pillars, closely set and carved with vertical or diagonal flutes, crowd the interior, while above sculpted panels showing Buddha figures rim the hall. Rafters, still suggestive of the structural prototypes of the rock-cut halls are carved in the ceiling above. The main objective of veneration, the stupa, differs greatly in form from those of earlier periods, which where generally simple domes atop a one-or-two-stepped drum. Much more vertical in appearance and with an almost spherical dome, the stupa rests on a base with offset sides. At the front, a pilastered torana encloses a sculpted representation of a standing Buddha, while the remaining surface of the stupa is carved into units that may have once contained painted representations. Above the dome, the harmika contains a depiction of seated Buddha and above are three chattras that in turn support a miniature stupa. Around the hall, the Buddha figures in the frieze and in the centre of the bracket capitals of the pillars may represent some of the Buddhas of the various buddhalokas (Buddha worlds) presumed by Mahayanists to exist throughout the universe. Orderly in their arrangement, the figures are part of a highly decorative scheme, elaborately © Chronicle IAS Academy
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windows, doors, beautiful picture-galleries, ledges, statues of the nymphs of Indra and the like, which is ornamented with beautiful pillars and stairs, and has a temple of the Buddha inside, [Resembles] the places of the lord of gods [Indra] and is similar to a cave in the lovely Mandara mountain. The comparison of the vihara to a palace, especially that of Indra, which is located significant, for the paradisiacal metaphor of the viharas is carried out in their decoration, especially in painted ceilings.Even within the brief period of the Vakataka florescence at Ajanta, the vihara underwent a number of modifications. Cave 17, approximately contemporary with Cave 19 on the basis of the Cave 17 inscription and the internal evidence of style, is a standard Mahayana vihara, having a pillared veranda as a transition between the exterior and the interior and a squared central space surrounded by cells. The slight irregularity of the disposition of the monk’s cells seems to reflect the cave’s chronological position at the start of Ajanta’s Vakataka phase, as does the fact that the enshrined Buddha is completely detached from the walls so that it could be circumambulated. While essentially similar to Cave 17, the plan of the later Cave 2 demonstrates the modifications that took place during this brief but active period. Here, the arrangement of the walls has become standardized and the Buddha in the main shrine is now set against the rear wall of that chamber, precluding circumambulation. Growing complexity, perhaps associated with the religious functions, is also seen in the multiplication of cells at the front of the cave where double-chambered shrine areas are created in place of the single cells as in the Cave 17. The culmination of these developments is visible in the plan of the upper storey of Cave 6, which has the essential features of Cave 2, note the increasing ritualism in religion had led to the creation of shrine areas, complete with antechamber and interior cell, in the of the side walls. Other cells have also been converted into shrines, such as at the right front and right rear of the hall where sculpted Buddha groups have been added to the cells although there is no doubling up of cells. The increased complexity of the religious message is also visible in the main shrine of this cave where, in addition to the central Buddha image and his bodhisattvas and other attendants, representations of the six manusi Buddhas who preceded Sakyamuni in his final incarnation are now placed along the side walls of the interior of the shrine so that the devotee is virtually surrounded by large Buddha figures. An interior view of Cave 2 shows the general
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their niches allowed for greater multiplicity of the figures as well as increased ornamentation of the surrounding elements. The walls of the ambulatory passage around the perimeter of the cave are also resplendent with numerous carvings, many of which probably constitute votive offerings by individual donors. The most impressive sculpture in the pradaksinapatha is a reclining figure showing the Buddha’s great decease (parinirvana) extending for seven meters along the left sidewall. This colossus, surrounded by mourners, has a profound effect on the visitor to the cave and anticipates the increasingly grand scale that dominates cave architecture of subsequent centuries. Another impressive scene from the life of the Buddha in the ambulatory passage is a depiction of the Maravijaya. In contrast to the more simple compositions seen at Cave 19, this scene is filled with numerous subsidiary details. Mara’s hosts surround the central Buddha figure, who is, curiously, depicted with his right hand in varadamudra, not the expected bhumisparsa. Undoubtedly more costly than Cave 19, Cave 26 with its ubiquitous carving and plentitude of detail is indicative of the final phase at Ajanta, which was brought to a close due to the declining fortunes of the Vakatakas and clearly not a diminution of vigor in the art. Like the chaitya hall, the vihara was transformed during the Vakataka phase at Ajanta. In contrast to early Buddhist viharas, the later examples display a wealth of sculptural and iconic forms. The most notable addition to the vihara concept is the creation of shrine areas at the rear of the viharas that contain impressive images of Buddha figures. The incorporation of the Buddha shrine into the vihara format transforms the excavation from a mere dwelling place for monks into a metaphor for a Buddhist paradise in which a Buddha preaches the dharma to the resident bodhisattvas who are in the process of attaining perfection and are awaiting their final rebirths. In Mahayana Buddhism monks take the vow of a bodhisattva (relinquishing their own attainment of Buddhahood until all sentient beings are saved) and progress through the various stages of bodhisattvas (which they have become through the process of taking the vows), reside listening to the teachings of the Buddha. This interpretation is supported by certain passages in the veranda inscription of Cave 16, a vihara, which states that Varahadeva, the minister of Harisena, realizing that life, youth, wealth and happiness are transitory. For the sake of his father and mother, caused to be made this excellent dwelling to be occupied by the best of ascetics (the dwelling) which is adorned with © Chronicle IAS Academy
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than indicating that the painting was done at different periods, however, the variety of styles suggests individual hands of artists. In general, significant differences exist between ceiling paintings and wall paintings in format, coloration and even technique. The central spaces of the vihara ceilings that have survived are painted in grid-like patterns containing floral and abstract motifs as well as some animal and human scenes. The stylized format is probably a reference to the paradisiacal realms, laid out in garden-like divisions. White is abundantly used in the ceilings, although not on the walls, and this may have been to help reflect light in the dim interiors. In contrast to the predominance of earth tones used in the wall paintings, the ceilings are more brightly coloured. The animal and plant forms depicted on the ceilings are frequently painted in a flat manner, with little modeling or shading, and the forms thus appear almost as silhouettes against the background. Directly above important images, in antechambers, and at certain other specified locations round mandalic patterns with concentric bands of foliated and floriated patterns are found. An especially fine example from Cave 2 bears pairs of vidyadharas at the four corners. The programs of wall paintings include, in various caves, scenes of Buddhas, attendants and jataka tales. In general Buddhas are represented in or near the ante-chamber to the shrines, while Jatakas occur in the main hall. A scene showing Buddhas with groups of devotees located in the antechamber to the shrine in Cave 17 suggests a strict hierarchic arrangement created by the use of three registers like divisions. The Buddhas may be identified as forms of Maitreya: in the top register, he is shown preaching in his heavenly paradise, Tusita, in the centre, he is depicted descending from Tusita and welcoming his de votees into his earthly paradise, Ketumati; below, he is seen preaching in Ketumati. As in other ante-chamber paintings, this composition appears more formal than those of the more free-flowing Jataka scenes of the main cave area, a feature that may relate to their greater iconic rather than narrative function. Light coloured figures are silhouetted against the dark background and a separation between the Buddha’s space and that of the attendant figures is maintained. An interesting feature visible here and in numerous other painting at Ajanta is the treatment of landscape, especially mountain forms, in crystalline, cubical shapes similar to those seen approximately contemporaneously in sculpture. These, however, seem to project into the viewer’s space rather than recede behind the picture plane, creating a dynamic relationship between the viewer and the painted world. In contrast to the more formal arrangement of the
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appearance of a Mahayana vihara at Ajanta. Lavishly carved pillars and doorways decorate the interior and carry out the iconographic message. All architectural features, including walls, ceilings and pillars were fully painted. The shrine doorway, carved with panels containing mithuna couples, ressembles in format those found on contemporary Hindu temples, even to the presence of river goddesses at the top of each jamb. The enshrined Buddha sits in vajraparyankasana and displays. The specific form of the mudra has the thumb and forefinger of the right hand forming a circle that joins the little finger of the left hand. By analogy with mudras of a slightly later date, it may be suggested that the little finger on the left hand pointing to the circle formed in the right indicates the fourth, or most esoteric, level of the teachings. Like other Buddhas from Ajanta’s late phase, the figure suggests ties to Gupta modes at Sarnath, Mathura and other sites, but has the very full, rounded body proportions typical of the Central Indian and Western Deccan modes. An interesting feature of Cave 2 is the presence of sculpture groups in the shrines flanking the main Buddha shrine along the rear wall of the cave. The shrine at the right rear of the cave bears large sculpted images of Pancika and Hariti, while that to the left contains figures of two male yakshas. These small shrines demonstrate the complete integration of the architectural, sculptural and painted realms at Ajanta, for not only were the carved images fully polychromed with the same paint used in the murals on the side walls, but the murals themselves depict subjects that complement the sculptured forms. In this case, the painted figures on the sidewalls seem to approach the central carved figures. This somewhat illusionist use of the painted walls creates a dramatic effect on the human visitor to the shrine, who feels himself an active participant in the drama being portrayed by the painted and sculpted forms. Nowhere is it more clear that paint served a vital role in completing the iconographic programs and decorative schemes of South Asian monuments, in spite of the fact that it has rarely been preserved. Because of the preservation of its paintings, Ajanta is a virtually unique document in the history of pre-Muslim Indic art. Enough painting remains in many of the caves to indicate that the iconographic program of the paintings was systematic and an integral part of the overall scheme of the cave and not simply decorative. A number of styles of painting may be discerned in the caves, demonstrating that a variety of techniques and methods were employed by the artists. Rather © Chronicle IAS Academy
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arched brows and elongated lotiform eyes, resemble the treatment of the bodhisattva at the rear of the cave and may reflect an ideal based on contemporaneous concepts of beauty. The forms of the body are outlined with a darker chroma of the same hue as the body itself. The animated positions and stances of the figures lend liveliness to the composition, typical of the Jataka representations at Ajanta in general. Often, scenes at Ajanta take on an almost secular character, although all may be justified as being part of a Jataka or other Buddhist context. A woman on a swing in Cave 2 belongs to a depiction of the Vidhurapandita Jataka and may be identified as Irandati, the Naga princess central to the story. Here, the highlighting technique used freely at Ajanta creates the impression of a glow over the surface of her skin. The narrow waists, full breast and hips of the women in the composition display the same feminine ideal that is found throughout most periods and styles of Indic art. As is true throughout most of the Ajanta paintings, the three quarter facial view is preferred in this composition, creating a suggestion of depth and volume for the forms. The brownish red back ground strewn with flowers serves as a conventionalized landscape in this and other scenes, but as in most of South Asian art, the artist depends on the figures to tell the story, to create a sense of life, and to carry the mood; architectural and landscape elements are employed only to add a setting or structure to the scene, not to create an ambience or to stimulate the physical world. In addition to walls and ceilings, virtually every portion of the caves was painted, including doorframes and pillars. Flat surface without carving were often completed in paint, which, when lost, leads us to forget that these portions were important parts of the decorative scheme. A Pillar from Cave 17 shows a pair of music making dwarves inhabiting the square base. Different in treatment from the figures already discussed, these dwarves are created by the use of a prominent black outline that defines the contours and details of their forms. Such line drawings are found throughout the Ajanta paintings, sometimes appearing in compositions that make use of the shading and highlighting techniques and thus it seems that such a method was simply one of the techniques available to artists to use as they chose. The skill of the Ajanta artist as draftsmen is evident in compositions such as this. As vital documents of Buddhist art, the Ajanta caves can hardly be overestimated. In a short burst of incredible artistic activity, the patrons, together with the sculptors, painters and iconographers, provided a concise illustration of the general tendency
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ceilings and antechambers, the walls of the main halls are alive with very free flowing compositions and figures arranged in asymmetrical, crowded groupings. Earth tones, many of which were derived from local minerals found in the region around Ajanta, harmonize the forms and provide the main totality. Several means of creating form seem to have been available to the Ajanta artist. For example, the body of the bodhisattva to the right of the entrance to the antechamber to the main shrine in Cave I, is created primarily by the use of modulation of colours rather than through use of line. Highlighting of certain areas, such as the nose or brow, helps to bring forth the form of the dim interior although light and shadow are not used in what might be called a scientific manner or to elucidate three-dimensionality. That is, shading and highlighting were used at will by the artists to enhance their creations without regard for light as a phenomenon of the physical world, subject to certain empirical laws. Even the forms of the bodhisattva’s body are beyond the rules of the material world, and indeed, by freeing the figures from such regulation, the artists seem to capture the essence of the Buddhist religion, with its skepticism toward phenomenal existence. While clearly human in inspiration, the part of the bodhisattva’s body are likened to other objects; his brow, for example, takes the shape of the archer’s bow, his eyes are like lotus petals, and his torso is shaped like that of a lion. Such metaphors appear in textual descriptions and were often quite literally translated into visual terms. Similar metaphors are sometimes used in the creation of parts of the body of Buddha figures. Numerous Jataka tales are represented on the walls of the Ajanta caves. Some, which must have been important in the specific sectarian beliefs of the monks in residence, are repeated a number of times in the various caves and many of them treat human rather than animal incarnations of Shakyamuni Buddha. Often, several episodes from specific stories are shown, although these are generally not arranged in sequence on the walls. A detail from the Mahajanaka Jataka depicted in Cave I shows Prince Mahajanka surrounded by a bevy of beautiful women, crowned and bejewelled and thus representing the epitome of princely life and possibly reflecting contemporary patterns of dress and life during Gupta and Vakataka times. However, the Buddhist message of the story is clear, since Mahajanaka relinquishes his princely life in favour of the life of a recluse. With his hands in gesture of discourse similar to Dharma-chakara mudra, he is depicted announcing his intention to give up his kingdom. The facial features of the figures, with the highly © Chronicle IAS Academy
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in Indic art towards embellishment and elaboration of the highest quality.
Kanheri Caves During the late fifth and sixth centuries, artistic activity at Kanheri was resumed. A number of old caves were modified and many new excavations were begun, bringing the total number of caves at the site to over one hundred and making Kanheri the most extensive caves site in India. It is likely that the resurgence of artistic activity was initiated due to patronage by the Traikutakas, who came into control of the region upon the collapse of their former overlords, the Vakatakas, as a copper plate inscription found in front of Cave 3 and datable to around 494 A.D. suggests. A pair of colossal Buddhas, one at either end of the verandah of this great second century chaitya hall, was part of the refurbishing of that cave during the late fifth century, a date suggested by the style of the images as well as the paleography of an associated inscription referring to one such dedication. More than seven meters in height, each figure stands in an arch with vidyadharas bearing garlands above, and each displays veranda mudra, the gesture of gift bestowal or offering, which may be interpreted as an invitation to enlightenment. Stylistically, the figures reflect the massive, full form of Ajanta representations and it is possible that artists who had worked at Ajanta, or their descendants had moved to Kanheri to begin work there. While architecturally many of the new caves excavated during this phase at Kanheri are rather plain, a number of extremely important images were produced, serving as vital documents of developments in the Buddhist religion. Cave 90, a monument of perhaps the early to middle sixth century is a simple, single, chamber abundantly carved with sculptures and could have been donated for merit rather than as a hall for initiations or rituals. The original shrine images are lost, but on the side walls two important sculptures show in graphic form arrangements that had been developing for a long time. On the viewer’s left wall is a Buddha scene, while on the right wall is a depiction of Avalokitesvara as protector of the faithful. As an iconographic statement, each marks a significant departure from earlier examples. Properly speaking the composition of the Buddha scene is a specific schematization through which the religious practitioner achieves both understanding
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Bagh Caves A closely related and contemporaneous group of cave at Bagh provides further evidence of Mahayana cave architecture. Although some distance away in the Narmada Valley, architectural, sculptural, and painting affinities, with the caves at Ajanta are probably much more than purely coincidental since, according to the Dasaku-maracharita (the ten princes) written by Dandin in the seventh century, the Vakataka King Harisena had a son who ruled over the Bagh region. Spink claims that this son must have ruled prior to 480 A.D., for by that time, one Maharaja Subandhu, who is known from a copper plate inscription found at Bagh, was ruling the region and the Vakataka line had collapsed. Spink estimates period of florescence at Bagh to have occurred between 470 & 480 A.D. Much ruined due to water seepage and rock falls affecting the soft, friable sandstone, the caves preserve little of their former beauty. In plan, Cave 2 greatly resembles Mahayana viharas at Ajanta, although four central pillars are present, undoubtedly included for structural purposes due to the weakness of the rock. The central pillars, much more massive appearing than pillars at Ajanta, are treated differently from others in the cave, having a spiraled fluting and being round rather than being square or consisting of square and round sections. The specious antechamber to the shrine bears sculptures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas on the side and rear walls. In style, these figures are part of the broadly defined Gupta mode, but differ from their Ajanta counterparts in their more slender bodies and more attenuated appearance. Instead, they seem more closely allied to northern and north-central Indian styles of the Gupta period. This is not surprising considering Bagh’s location nearer to the epicentre of the Gupta art traditions. A very important characteristic of this and other caves at Bagh is the presence of a stupa rather than a Buddha image as the main object of veneration in the shrine. This feature has led some scholars to conclude that the Bagh excavations predated those at Ajanta and that they represent a state of transition between the use of a stupa and that of a Buddha image as an object of veneration. However, it is clear from images such as that in the shrine of Cave II at Ajanta, where a representation of the Buddha is part of a stupa, that the symbols are identical and interchangeable and do not necessarily have chronological implications, at least by this date, when both Buddhas and stupa’s abundantly survive as part of the standard, artistic vocabulary. The paintings at Bagh, known today only in frag-
ments and from copies, bear a great deal of resemblance to their contemporary counterparts at Ajanta. Indeed, Subandhu’s inscription found in the debris of Cave 2 calls the monastery Kalayana (Abode of Art), suggesting something of the original splendour of the site.
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numerous subsidiary figures. Above the head of the central figure is the primo generic source of the entire icon, the dharmakaya, in this case Vairocana, attended by two bodhisattvas. Avalokitesvara is flanked by his two female consorts, Tara (to his right) and Bhrkuti (to his left). Tara, whose name means “star,” and the North Star implicitly, represents the fixed point of universality towards which the devote progress, while Bhrkuti name, ‘abundantly full hall,’ refers to the achievement of the fully enlightened mind. In this litany, Avalokitesvara offers the devotee promise of salvation from the various perils depicted on the sides of the composition, including attack by elephants, lions, robbers and similar disasters. While the lay worshiper might accept these perils in a literal sense and invoke Avalokitesvara for protection against the specific threat, an advanced practitioner would understand these on a metaphorical level, each danger representing a potential hindrance on his path to Buddhahood. The wild elephant, for example, would be seen as the wild mind in need of taming, that is, the mental discipline necessary to achieve the Buddhist goal. Such litany scenes served as proto-types for examples found in Inner Asia, China, Japan, and the Himalayan regions. A representation of a highly unusual form of Avalokitesvara attending a seated Buddha in Cave 41 indicates advanced and esoteric Buddhist practices at Kanheri. Dating from approximately the late fifth or early sixth century, the images show the bodhisattvas in an eleven headed (ekadasamukha) form which while found frequently in later Buddhist art outside of South Asia as in Nepal, Tibet, China and Japan, is not known in the Indic realm except at a rather late date in Kashmir and the eastern regions. This image is thus the only artistic documentation for the view that this iconographic type originates in India. It may be inferred from art as well as literature that the eleven heads, consisting of ten bodhisattva heads topped by a Buddha head, represent the dasabhumikas, or the ten stages of achievement of the bodhisattva along with the final attainment of Buddhahood.
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and reintegration with the Universal. In this case, the central figure demonstrates the dharmakaya aspect of Buddhahood, the Universal, and is perhaps properly called Sarvavid (universal knowledge) Vairocana. This identification does not negate the interpretation of this figure as the historical Buddha Sakayamuni as well, since the two are identical in the ultimate sense. In the four corners of the composition, four smaller images identical to that in the centre represent the four Jinas who, together with the central Buddha, comprise of the five Jina mandala (panchajina). These Buddhas are the personifications of the essence of the Universal (jnana) who emerge from the four quarters (that is, all directions) to impart knowledge to the initiate. They represent the so-called sambhogakaya (or bliss body), which together with the nirmanakaya and the dharmakaya comprise the three kayas of the Buddhist trikaya system. As imparters of knowledge, they represent the teaching modality of Buddhism. These Buddhas, in later art differentiated by specific mudras and vahanas, are Aksobhya (east), Ratnasambhava (south), Amitabha (west), and Amoghasiddhi (north), each shown here in dharmachakra mudra and pralambapadasana. Along each vertical side of the composition is a row of four Buddhas, together representing the eight manusi Buddhas, the nirmanakaya, who are charged with the responsibility of teaching the Buddhist religion to the beings of the mundane world. Beneath the central figure, attending the stalk upon which his lotus pedestal reset, are depictions of Indra and Brahma with female consorts, and nagas and nagins below, both groups shown as essentially subordinates of the main figure. Flanking the Buddha is a pair of bodhisattvas, each also having a female companion. By the sixth century, female images had emerged as an important part of Buddhist Mahayana iconographic conceptions, at Kanheri as well as at numerous other sites in South Asia. In Buddhist theory, the female personifies the concept of prajna, or transcendental knowledge, while the male denotes upaya, the practice necessary to lead the practitioner to the attainment of that knowledge. The combination of two is the Buddhist enlightenment, symbolized in later Buddhism by yuganaddha (sexually joined) couples. Thus, the concept of mithuna, which had long been a motif in Buddhist art, is integrated into an expression of one of the most essential and fundamental beliefs in the religion. The icon of Avalokitesvara as protector of the faithful is of a type that occurs widely in the western caves in a similar format. However, this version is unique in that it depicts Avalokitesvara as protector against ten perils (rather than the usual eight) and includes © Chronicle IAS Academy
Aurangabad Caves Not far from Ajanta, at Aurangabad, a number of Buddhist caves were carved during different periods, while two of these caves (1 and3) belong to the Vakataka period and were excavated contem-poraneously with the late Mahayana phase at Ajanta, others were created in the latter half of the sixth century and thus represent a stylistic and iconographic advancement from the earlier monuments. Spink suggests that these caves (6,7 and 9) were carved when the ANCIENT 72
It may be noted that the vidyadharas are set against clouds that are indicated by a scalloped form that is seen widely throughout the Deccan in the sixth century and is especially a characteristic of Early Western Chalukya sculptures. In some respects, the female figures are also very close to those seen in Early Western Chalukya Art. The presence of prominent female imagery, especially females as attendants to bodhisattvas or Buddhas, demonstrates the growing importance of sexual symbolism in Buddhism, associated with Tantric or Vajaryanic sects. The group to the left of the central shrine door shows Tara, the principal consort of Avalokitesvara, accompanied by two female reflections or aspects of her who are in turn accompanied by dwarves. The dwarf at the left is very similar to the Saivite dwarves attending the Maheshvara image at Elephanta reinforcing the suggestions of the approximate contemporaneousness of two monuments. This figure, the only male in the entire composition, has a hair arrangement consisting of five topknots that represent the five bijas (sound essences) of the panachajina mandala (the mandala of the five Buddhas). In both his maleness and his ascetic quality, he represents upaya, the action necessary to attain Buddhahood, and the other dwarf, a female to Tara’s left, personifies prajna (wisdom), which is part of jnana, the knowledge needed for Buddhahood. The image thus reiterates the basic Mahayana concept, but it is one step further removed, since the practitioner must unite Tara with Avalokitesvara to achieve karuna, and only then can he integrate Avalokitesvara with Vajrapani to reach bodhi. In another sense, the central figure of Tara is not different from a Buddha, with garland bearing vidyadharas above and personifications of knowledge and compassion at her side. The spectacular female group consisting of a dancing woman accompanied by six female musicians on the left wall of the main shrine is dramatic evidence for female and sexual symbolism in Buddhism. The shrine is based on the type that was developed in the last phase at Ajanta with the central Buddha figure accompanied by sculpted depictions of the six manusi Buddhas, but goes beyond the earlier formulation with the addition of this important panel and the figures on the opposite wall consisting of a Bodhisattva, his female companion and a dwarf. In one accepts the musicians in the group on the left wall at face value, as accompanists to the dancer, the main figure that needs interpretation is the dancer herself. Bharatnatyam, the classical form of Indian dance was in advanced stages of development by the sixth
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region had come under the control of the Kalachuris, who, he believes, were also responsible for the major Hindu excavations at Jogesvari, Manda¬-pesvara and Elephanta. Cave 7, dating from around 560, seems to combine the ritual need for circumambulation seen in the early Vakataka phase at Ajanta with the preference for placing the shrine Buddha against the rear wall of the chamber by creating an ambulatory passage around the entire shrine. The sidewalls of the passage-way open into a series of cells while the rear wall contains two subsidiary shrines. The ground plan suggests that the principal shrine had simply been moved forward into the main hall of a typical Mahayana vihara, although this may not in fact be the way in which this form evolved. The shrines at the rear of the prakadsinapatha, as well as the primary shrine, each contain a sculpture of a Buddha seated in pralamabapadasana and displaying dharmachakara mudra. The caves of the post-Vakataka phase carry out the iconographic program and larger monumental figures. The front wall leading into the circumambulatory passage from the veranda, for example, bears a sizable panel of a litany of Avalokitesvara to the left of the central door of another bodhisattva to the right. These figures demonstrate a stylistic departure from the earlier Vakataka style, having a new tautness to the contours of their bodies, fuller shoulders and swelling hips. They are best compared to figures such as the dvarapalas from Mandasor, the sculptures at Elephanta or others of the sixth century. The hair style of Avalokitesvara, with its tendril like curls and high piled up appearance, is characteristic of sixth century conventions, further showing departure from Gupta and Vakataka trends, in addition, the treatment of the lintel of the doorway with its multitude of miniature shrines anticipates the architectural elaboration seen in several later North Indian regional styles. Similar stylistic developments may also be seen in the treatment of female figures, as in the important panel of the left of the door to the central shrine or the figure group inside the shrine, along the left wall. The voluptuous figures are full breasted, round hipped and have swelling thighs. In the group inside the shrine, the figures seem life-like, a feeling enhanced by the suggested movement and animation of their poses, which marks a departure from the quietude of figures in the Gupta and Vakataka periods and anticipates the active, dynamic figures of subsequent centuries. The elaborate coiffures are again characteristics of the sixth century. © Chronicle IAS Academy
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Chalukyas had achieved supremacy in the Deccan, though not necessarily in this region. A number of the Buddhist caves at Ellora seem to recapitulate some of the basic architectural and iconographic formats found at other sites, but others suggest innovative and advanced Buddhist thinking. Cave 5, the earliest Buddhist cave at Ellora, is a large rectangular hall, about thirty-five meters in length, with surrounding small cells, a shrine in the centre of the rear wall, and two other shrine areas in the centres of the side walls. The expansion of the two side shrine areas may be seen as further development of the plan of Cave 6 (upper) at Ajanta, although here the main hall has become elongated. Both the rectangular, axial format and the addition of cross-axis shrines are features that developed in Hindu monuments of the preceding century, such as the Shiva cave at Elephanta. The treatment of the pillars with their cushion capitals further suggests such a connection. A key feature in this cave (found also in a similar cave at Kanheri, but preserved nowhere else in South Asia) is the double row of stone benches extending almost the full length of the hall, within the rectangle of pillars. Such benches are typical of the seating pattern used in ritual recitation in later Tantrism and Zen Buddhism outside of India and suggest that benches made of ephemeral materials might possibly have been used in vihara and chaitya type caves or free standing buildings for centuries, but that their memory is preserved only in the rockcut examples at Ellora and Kanheri. The vast scale and ambitiousness of the later Buddhist caves is seen in Cave 12, the so-called Tin Thal, a three storey excavation, each floor of which is larger than any single cave at Ajanta. Its plain and austere façade belies the richness of sculptural decoration within. This cave complex, one of the last Buddhist excavations to be carried out at Ellora, may have been created in the late seventh or even the early eighth century. It is entered through a rock-cut gateway that leads to a spacious courtyard preceding the cave. Each floor of the cave is different in plan and format. The first floor consists of a rectangular pillared hall entered on the long side with a large pillared antechamber and shrine extending on axis with the entrance to the rear. Small cells are placed at the sides and rear of the main hall. While the second storey is essentially similar in concept (although not in details such as the number of pillars or cells), the cross-axis leading from the front centre of the cave to the shrine at the rear is emphasized by the treatment of pillars and the addition of an extension of that axis towards the façade side of the cave. A veranda has also been
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century and already included an extensive vocabulary of gestures, each with a relatively explicitly meaning to be interpreted by the audience. According to Bharatnatyam literature, the gesture made by the left hand of the Aurangabad dancer is ardha pataka, ‘half flag,’ with the palm upwards, a sign that has a dual meaning: at one level, it represents two, both, or any sort of duality, but on another, it symbolizes a long or tall, slender object that would be known from the context of the story line being portrayed in the dance. Since the gesture is directed towards the genital area, it may be intended to suggest the male member and perhaps the sexual act itself. In light of this and other evidence at the site, it is clear that tantric forms of Buddhism were in practice at Aurangabad in the sixth century. Sexual imagery, which eventually culminates in the representation of figures in inter course (yuganaddha) was long misunderstood by scholars as a degeneration of Buddhist ideals. However, the total emotional and physical involvement of the individual with the partner during sexual activity is a metaphor in Indic religious thought for the mystical union with the Universal; the combining of the male and female into a totally integrated unity was seen to symbolize the active path to enlightenment. In practice, sexual activities did become part of the religious rituals of certain Buddhist and Hindu sects, but these were kept secret and were restricted to esoteric practices since it was feared that imitations would lack understanding and might misinterpret the activities as simple orgiastic pleasure seeking. Indeed, it was recognized that one of the pitfalls of the path of yuganaddha was to sink into a lustful quest for pleasure. It is appropriate that the female figure is dancing, since, in Indic thought, dancing is one of the arts necessary for the accomplished sexual partner and constitutes one aspect of sexual foreplay. The full-fledged forms of the females suggest their desirability, the intensity of desire being likened to the fervor with which the religious goal should be pursued. In texts, the female partners are described as being sixteen years of age and in the full bloom of youth. It is evident that the artists attempted to convey such a notion in their sculpture. Ellora Caves The final phase of development of Buddhist caves in Western India is seen at Ellora, a site near Ajanta and Aurangabad that had already become an important Hindu centre in the last half of the sixth century. Although the specific patronage of the Buddhist caves is not known, they were probably excavated during the seventh century, when the Early Western © Chronicle IAS Academy
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One example shows a typical figure, deeply carved so that it is almost in the round, surrounded by a tableau of figures, including bodhisattvas and vidyadharas. Increasingly, after the painted caves at Ajanta, sculpture was used to create a greater effect on the devotee who was literally surrounded by human size and much larger religious images as he moved through such caves. To either side of the entrance to the shrine antechamber are representations of the manusi Buddhas. In contrast to the earlier Vakataka depictions, these figures have a stiff, dry, inanimate quality characteristic of much of the later Mahayana sculpture at Ellora, thus representing the crystallization of form that characterizes many post-Gupta artistic idioms, and indicating that perhaps something had been sacrificed in the fervor to achieve gigantic scale.
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included along the front of the cave to provide access from the staircase at the front left to the centre of the cave for proper entrance. The top floor has pillars arranged in a transverse manner, lacks subsidiary cells, and has a relatively small antechamber preceding the shrine. The main shrine on each floor contains the now familiar set of images, a Buddha attended by two bodhisattvas (Avalokitesvara on his right and Vajrapani or Manjuvajra, a form of Manjusri, a bodhisattva who personifies wisdom, who carries a vajra on a lotus, on his left). But in addition, the eight bodhisattvas often grouped together in a configuration known as the eight-bodhisattva mandala (astabodhisattva mandala) also appear in the shrines, four on each side on the central Buddha. Each bodhisattva is clearly identified by the attribute held in his left hand. Other representations of the eight bodhisattvas, identical in meaning, but taking on a much more mandalic appearance, are found in other locations in the cave. In these, the eight bodhisattvas surround a central Buddha in a nine square diagram. The presence of three storeys or levels is one of the most significant features of this cave. While earlier excavations in the Western Deccan might have had multiple storeys, these were not necessarily harmonized into a single scheme. Cave 6, at Ajanta, for example, consists of two separate excavations that are different in date and may have had little inherent unity. In Ellora Cave 12 and its neighbour Cave 11 are the result of single, unified, pre-planned arrangements, possibly related to Buddhist practices in which three stages might be identified: an initiation or introductory phase, as more advanced practice, and finally, the stage for the true acharyas, or highly developed spiritual masters. Such use of levels in architecture is found in Nepali Buddhism, and it is probable that the Nepali practice was based on an Indic precedent such as this. The full range of the iconographic program that is richly carved on all three levels of the cave can only be sampled in a brief survey such as this; the complexity and richness is an indication of the late phase of Mahayana cave architecture and developments that had been occurring in the Buddhist religion. For example, the upper story of Cave 12 has large images of Buddhas along the side walls representing the Buddhas of the ten directions (four cardinal directions, zenith, nadir and the four intermediate points) a standard reference in Buddhist literature to the universality of Buddhahood- who comes to an initiate during abhisheka (“head sprinkling,” or initiation) to confer jnana on him. © Chronicle IAS Academy
Temple Architecture
Stone Temples As part of the growing popularity of Hinduism, temples dedicated to various Hindu deities were constructed throughout northern and north-central India during the Gupta period. Usually, these structures are classified according to certain physical characteristics as well as their relationship to later forms. Regional patterns may have accounted for some of the differences between temple types, but, in addition, ritual needs of growing Hindu religion, as well as sectarian differences, necessitated the development of individual types. Some of the forms reflect structures that must have existed prior to the fifth century but which have been lost, and others may have been completely innovative. A few selected examples suggest the richness of the developing forms. One such example is the Vishnu temple at Deogarh commonly (and mistakenly) called the Dasavatara because it was originally thought that the iconographic program referred to the ten incarnations (dasavatara) of Vishnu. Although the patrons and donors involved in its erection are not known, on stylistic grounds, the structure may be dated to the early sixth century. In many ways, the form of the temple shows considerable advancement in the development of Hindu temple architecture, a factor that has led some to conclude that its date is much later. The form of the tower is one of the most interesting and highly debated features in this regard, since it’s tall apparently curvilinear shape anticipates the developed northern style sikhara. Its damaged state, however, precludes full analysis, and thus the place of this temple in the development of the northern style sikhara may never be known. ANCIENT
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Ganesha, the elephant-headed God, on a pilaster to the left of the Anantasayana relief. As the ‘Overcomer of Obstacles,’ Ganesha is invoked at the start of worship, and became a standard element in the iconographic programs of Hindu temples and painting cycles throughout South Asia. The Ananatasayana subject itself signifies the beginning, for it is concerned with the birth of Brahma from the navel of Vishnu. Since Brahma is the creator of the universe, his own birth signifies the beginning of the creations of the creator. In this form, Vishnu is called Narayana (Moving on the waters, or abode of man) as He rests on the serpent in the primeval waters, and He is described as older than the oldest. In the relief, the four-armed Vishnu seems to rest comfortably on the coiled body of the serpent Sesa (Remainder), who is also called Ananta (endless), and whose hood arches behind Vishnu’s head like a halo. The God’s wife Lakshmi (Goddess of fortune) is considered to be the mediator between the devotee and the Lord. Garuda stands just to the viewer’s right of Lakshmi, wearing his snake ornaments. In the centre, above, Brahma can be identified his antelope skin garment, his three faces (the fourth is implied) and his sitting atop a lotus after having just emerged from Vishnu’s navel. He is flanked by the airborne figures of Indra and Karttikeya to his right, respectively mounted on their vahanas, the elephant and peacock, and to his left, Shiva, with his wife Parvati on his vahana Nandi and another unidentified figure. Below, a separate slab bears deeply carved representations of five males and one female. These are Madhu and Kaitabha at the left with the four personified attributes of Vishnu at the right. Madhu and Kaitabha were two demons that sprang from Vishnu’s ear, while he was asleep, and were about to kill Brahma (who was emerging from Vishnu’s navel), when Vishnu destroyed them. In this relief, the four personifications of Vishnu’s weapons (ayudhapurusas) are juxtaposed with the two demons as if to show Vishnu’s might against them, although the elegant positioning and grace of the figures hardly suggest an impending battle. From the right, the personified weapons are Gadadevi, (the female, recognized by the mace emerging from the top of her head), Chakrapurusa (recognized by his chakra (wheel) hair ornament), Dhanuspurusa (who positions his right arm as if it were a bow), and Khadgapurusa (who prepares to draw his sword). On the east, the major reliefs show two saints Nara (viewer’s right) and Narayana (viewer’s left), who bring the message of divine love and devotion as an instrument of spiritualization.
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The main shrine occupies the centre of a square plinth that is accessible on all four sides by staircases with semicircular base sometimes referred to as moonstones. Originally, four smaller subsidiary shrines were present, one at each corner of the plinth, so that the temple is of the panchayatana (five-shrine) variety. Each shrine was probably dedicated to a different Hindu deity, although their identities are unknown because the structures are totally destroyed except for their bases. Further, it is impossible to determine the original forms of the buildings, although they may have been miniature versions of the main temple. The temple is oriented to the west, where the impressive, decorated doorway to the shrine is located. In contrast to the early Gupta-type entrance seen at Udayagiri, the Deogarh doorway is a greatly elaborated ensemble. The lintels and jambs have been multiplied, and these are replete with well-ordered foliate motifs, mithunas, guardian figures, and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna placed respectively at the top left and right of the doorway and clearly defined by their makara and tortoise vehicles. At the centre, above the entranceway, is a panel showing Vishnu in an unusual form, seated atop the coiled body of a serpent with the open serpent hood behind his head while Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu massages his foot, and two other forms of Vishnu himself appear, the man lion or the Narasimha and the dwarf or the Vamana. The multiple figures in this small relief demonstrate the growing complexity of Vaishnavite iconography, and perhaps provide a clue to the original dedication of the temple. Before entering the single-celled shrine through the decorated doorway, ritual practice probably required the devotee to circumambulate the temple to view the three major sculptural panels on the exterior. Each of the three relieves decorating the main body of the temple is placed in a niche that consists of decorated lintels and jabs flanked by pilasters. The subject matter of the sculptures reveals of the order in which the devotee would view them. In this case, the viewing order of the major sculptures would be the relief of Vishnu Narayana as Anantasayana or Sesasayana on the South, that of Nara and Narayana on the east, and the sculpture of Gajendramoksa on the North, thus moving the devotee in a counter clockwise direction (Prasavya). This assertion, which is contrary to the commonly held belief that in Hindu worship circumambulation is always performed in a clockwise manner (pradaksina), is based on the internal message of the reliefs, their accompanying elements, and an analysis of circumambulation practices in Hindu rituals. An indication that the devotee began his worship on the South is clearly seen in the depiction of © Chronicle IAS Academy
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which represent a high point in the development of Indic art, reflecting what has come to be known as the Gupta ideal. Smooth body contours, relived by moderate amounts of jewellery, peaceful facial expressions, graceful poses and elegant hairstyles characterize the figures. Each composition is carefully balanced, and seems to come alive with the deep, three-dimensional carving. The so-called Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara is approximately contemporaneous with the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, c. A.D. 500 or perhaps slightly later, and like it, is a notable achievement of Gupta Art. The name Parvati is undoubtedly a late appellation, for the temple was probably originally dedicated to Shiva, its forms offer insight into a completely different temple format in use at the time, however, for it is a double-storied structure resting on a plinth with an enclosed passage, the outer walls of which are lost. This building is apparently the earliest surviving example of a structural temple with an enclosed circumambulatory passage, and thus it is the oldest known temple of the sandhara class of Hindu temples that are in fact characterized by this feature. Light was admitted into the ambulatory by three windows, one on each side except that of the entrance, which was open, and some light was also admitted into the main shrine through windows in the ambulatory passage wall. The second story covered only the temple shrine (not the passageway) and may have contained a representation of a deity. Perhaps specific ritual needs necessitated the double story form. No signs of a sikhara or other high superstructure exist although the original forms of the roofs of the temple are unknown. The doorway of the structure, which is oriented to the West, is among the finest in all Gupta Art, and in general, the trellis like carved windows and miscellaneous sculptures found at the site testify to a high quality of workmanship. An interesting feature of the plinth is the deliberately rusticated blocks of stone that have been carved to resemble a rocky landscape, complete with animal life. The depiction of such stylized landscape, although unusual in this location, is also seen in the paintings of Ajanta and in carved renditions of stylized landscape, for example, in the Nara-Narayana relief at Deogarh. Here, a reference to the temple as a replica of Kailasha, the mountain abode of the God Shiva, seems to be implied.
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These two, who are considered to be the fourth of the twenty-two minor incarnations of Vishnu, were the sons of Dharma (Righteousness) and his wife Ahmisa (Non-violence). They performed austerities as part of their devotions, and their ascetic nature is indicated in the relief by their lack of jewellery and by the wearing of their hair in topknots (jatamukuta). Like other ascetics who have forsaken the comforts of society, they appear in a wilderness setting suggested by the rocky landscape with deer and lions beneath and bowers of tree above. The figures hold peaceful attributes in their hands, including the rosary, as symbols of their devotion. A female figure in the centre above is Urvashi, who was created when Narayana struck his thigh to demonstrate that he could not be tempted by celestial nymphs and that he was steadfast in his devotion. The niche on the North depicts the story of Gajendramoksa, concerning a king who had been changed into an elephant (Gajendra) as a curse. One day, while wadding in a lotus pond, a water beast seized the leg of the elephant and a tug of war ensued between them that lasted for a thousand years. Finally, the elephant invoked Narayana and was saved. The moment just after deliverances is depicted clearly in the relief, for the water beast (here a naga accompanied by his nagini) is depicted in anjali mudra, paying respect to the victors. Essentially, the story is a parable about a devotee who had been cursed because his untrained intellect was like an elephant’s and his subsequent deliverance through faith, which represents the attainment of moksha and serves as a model to the worshipper at the temple. A crown born aloft by vidyadharas above signifies this final achievement.
The overall message of the temple is thus clearly indicated in the sculptural program, revealed through a sequential arrangement of the reliefs, for the Anantasayana represents the beginning, Nara and Narayana denote the means through which moksha may be achieved, and the Gajendramoksha story expresses the final result. In contrast to earlier Gupta temples, sculpture has a much more important role in the overall scheme of the monument, including the major reliefs as well as the decoration of the doorway. Still, sculpture is confined to certain areas of the temple and a balance is struck between ornamentation and the simplicity of the architecture. The rather large blocks of stone used to construct the temple are easily visible, as there has been no attempt to disguise them with the temple decoration. The beauty of the monument is carried out in the grace and delicacy of the sculptures themselves, © Chronicle IAS Academy
Brick Temples & Terracottas Although brick and terracotta have been popularly used since the early discovery of pottery techniques in ancient India, the fragile nature of the material has led to the construction of a number of important monuments, some of which have survived. ANCIENT
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fully modelled facial features suggest a departure from the more tranquil, delicate forms of Gupta stone sculpture. Each goddess, now easily recognized by her respective vahana, the makara and the tortoise, holds a water vessel and is attended by a diminutive figure holding chattra aloft. Other terracotta recovered from Northern India hint at what must have been the widespread and highly develops art of terracotta sculpture in the Gupta period. In contrast to the surviving terracotta’s from the prehistoric and early historic periods, Gupta terracottas are often large (though not always as large as the two river goddesses from Ahicchattra). Many formed panels that were used as decoration on temples. One such architectural fragment shows the God Vishnu riding atop his winged vehicle, the birdman Garuda. Only Vishnu’s two left arms are preserved, one holds a bow while the other brings his characteristic conch to his lips, as if the god is blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose fleeting sound sometimes serves as a symbol of the transience of the physical world, here probably indicated a war call, for the god and his companion seem to be in battle ready positions that suggest that the relief represents an attack on an unseen adversary. Although its find spot is not known, the piece is of a type generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh region, and such works are generally attributed to the site of Ahicchatra or, alternatively to Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and well preserved sites that have yielded Gupta-period terracottas in Northern India. But it is likely that the monuments at these two centres were not unique at the tie of their creation, and that sculptures like this may document a broadly-based style and art from current throughout North-Central India. The curly hair-style of Garuda suggests aesthetic associations with stone art of the Gupta period, though the techniques used by the terracotta artist differ considerably form those of his fellow craftsmen who worked in stone. The outlines of the eyes and eyebrows, for example, have been created simply by using a sharp tool to incise in wet clay, creating a sense of dynamism and calligraphic line that is not apparent in works produced by the slower and more pains taking process of stone carving. A second terracotta sculpture also probably intended to be used as architectural adornment and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayana and his younger brother, Lakshmana, as if in conversation. Rama came to be considered the seventh incarnation of Vishnu and stories narrating events involving him are commonly included in the repertoire of subjects adorning
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The bricks temple at Bhitargaon is one of the bestpreserved examples, in spite of the fact that it was damaged by lightning in the last century. Its date is difficult to fix as there is no inscriptional or other evidence of its dedication, but on stylistic ground, a date of the first half of the fifth century might be suggested. Burnt bricks joined by mud mortar were used in the construction of the building, and the walls reached a thickness of more than two meters. The temple faces east, as may be determined by the remains of a portico on that side, and it rests upon a square plinth (jagati). Each side of the temple has a projecting bay, creating what is known as a triratha (three ratha) design. The number three is obtainend by counting the two sections to the left and right of the bay, which form the wall of the structure itself, as well as the outer surface of the bay, which runs parallel to them. In five rathas, seven rathas, and other systems where additional bays extend out from the centre of each preceding bay, the count expands to include the length of all new parallel wall sections formed. Such offsetting of the walls of a temple became a standard feature in many later schools of architecture. A secondary shrine chamber is present above the main shrine, although this feature is not readily apparent from the exterior because of the rising, vertical shape of the sikhara, which is one of the earliest extent examples of a northern style tower. Niches on the exterior of the body of the temple and the superstructure contained sculpted panels, some of which are missing and many of which are partially destroyed. An interesting feature of the construction in this building is the use of true arches in the shrines and the porch in preference to the usual Indic corbelled vault. From examples like this, it is evident that ancient Indians knew of the arch at an early date, but elected to use it only on certain occasions, preferring trabeated forms. The type of sculptural decoration used in such a temple is perhaps best seen in a number of terracottas that are better preserved from other temples, such as that at Ahicchatra. Most impressive among them are the nearly human size representations of the river goddesses, the entrance to the Shiva temple, probably dating from the late fifth or early sixth century. Although these figures have been heavily restored, their original animation, which perhaps exceeds that seen in contemporary stone carving and may be due in part to the nature of the terracotta medium, is preserved. Their positions, turning inward towards the devotee who would enter a doorway, provide a sense of immediacy to the viewer. The costumes, with the heavy drapery folds and tight bodies, and the very © Chronicle IAS Academy
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has been described by K. V. Soundara Rajan as “The Prayaga of coalescing formal trends in temple styles.” Moreover, the building activities of the period were, as Percy Brown observes, “clearly the result of an enthusiasm which was religious in origin and in intensity of purpose.” The Chalukya monuments are broadly grouped into two classes: (a) the rock - cut halls, and (b) the structural temples. The excavated rock - cut halls are found at Badami and Aihole. There are four such cave temples at Badami. Of them the earliest and the largest is cave No. III excavated during the reign of Mangalesa and dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The other caves are of smaller dimensions, and the Cave No. IV is a Jaina temple. The Badami caves have three common features, namely, a pillared verandah, a columned hall and a small square cellar or Garbhagriha, cut deep into the rock. The cave temples of this age contain some impressive sculptural specimens like Tandavamurti, Harihara, Ardhanarishvara, Nataraja, Mahishasura Mardini and so on. The depiction of Vishnu in his Varaha incarnation is so full of vitality, vigor and charm that Zimmer wrote, “The age in which it was fashioned was one of those rare moments in the history of art in which versatility and restraint were perfectly balanced”. There are two excavated temples at Aihole, one Shaiva and the other Jaina. It is said that the Chalukya genius in excavating cave temples inspired the Pallavas. Structural temples were built in large numbers during this period. The boom in temple building activity, which the Chalukya rule witnessed is said to have continued right up to the 13th Century A. D. The three important centres of Chalukyan architecture are Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Of these Aihole has been described as “the cradle of the Indian architecture”, and it alone consists of 70 temples. The Gaudaragudi and the Ladhkhan temple are the oldest buildings of the Aihole group. The Ladhkhan temple is a comparatively low, flat - roofed building, fifty feet square. There of its sides are completely enclosed by walls, and from its fourth side, forming its eastern front, there is projected an open-pillared porch. The Durga temple, according to Percy Brown, “is a Brahmanical version of the Buddhist Chaitya hall, adopted to suit the service of the former creed”. It contains a new feature, namely. A vestibule or antarala, which is an intermediate chamber between the cell and the main hall. It also had a shikhara over the Garbhagriha, but now it has fallen. The Huchchimalligudi is something of an abridged form of the Durga temple. There are other important temples in Aihole, which represent various stages of archi-
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a Vaishnavite temple. However, as a cult deity, he never achieved the stature of other depicted in art, and he is generally shown, as here, in a two-armed form that stresses his human, rather than his godly, characteristics. The panel apparently records the period narrated in the Ramayana when, after Rama had been banished from the kingdom to which he was rightful heir, he lived in the company of forest dwellers, rather than princes; their earlobes, stretched from years of wearing heavy ornaments, are unadorned, and their hair is tied into simple topknots. The figures are strikingly naturalistic and life-like, an impression perhaps partly created by the terracotta medium. One of the most dramatic and realistic of all the terracottas surviving from the Gupta period represents a Shaivite deity. The relief, broken at the waist of the figure, is from Saheth-Maheth, Shravasti, Uttar Pradesh, and shows an ascetic whose divine nature is indicated by the presence of four arms. His emaciated body, matted locks and pile up hair style (jata), as well as his lack of jewellery (especially noticeable due to the distended, pierced earlobes that conspicuously lack earrings), all signify his ascetic nature. A very problematic monument that may be discussed along with terracotta remains of the Gupta period is the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya. Much of its present appearance is due to renovations as recent as the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although the essential elements may have been determined as early as the late-Kushana or Gupta periods. As it now stands, the temple consists of a large central shrine surmounted by a large tower, surrounded by four smaller shrines. These are thought to have been added fairly recently, although certainly, the concept of the panchayatana format was welldeveloped by the Gupta period as demonstrated by the Vishnu temple at Deogarh. The present tower is probably much taller than the original superstructure, and its pyramidal profile, which differs from the typical, curved, northern-style sikhara, is possibly also the result of later modifications. The type of brickwork and use of certain vaulting techniques suggest ties to Iranian methods, possibly introduced into the Indic region by the Kushanas. Chalukya Art The most splendid achievement of the Chalukyas was recorded in the realm of art and architecture. They evolved a new style, which is known as the “Chalukyan architecture”. It has been described as belonging to the Vesara style, a combination of the South Indian or Dravida and the North Indian or Nagara Styles. The Chalukya art zone of Karnataka © Chronicle IAS Academy
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At times, their empire also reached into the Deccan and to the frontier of Orissa. The figure style visible in their art shows clear ties to the earlier Buddhist traditions developed under the Satavahanas and Iksvakus, although the Pallavas were Hindus, primarily Shaivite. The origins of their architectural forms, however, are more difficult to assess, since precedents in ephemeral materials are unknown and earlier stone monuments in the Pallava regions are scarce. It has been suggested that a strong, traditional use of stone as a medium for funerary monuments in the South, as seen in the long megalithic tradition, led to a reticence to employ it in temple architecture prior to the Pallava period. Perhaps a study of some of the caves in the Vijayavada region may some day-shed light on the origins of Pallava stone monuments. The burst of artistic energy under the Pallavas, however, cannot be understood simply in terms of precedents, for the Pallava empire was blessed with a number of strong rulers, several of whom imposed their personalities on the production of art. Religious developments, particularly Bhakti cults, must have played a major role in providing impetus to artistic developments. In particular, the Alvars, a group of Tamil Vaishnavite poet saints, and the Shaivite Nayanars stimulated religious thought, which may have affected the production of art and temple architecture. Four of the Alvars came from the Pallava country and their devotional (bhakti) hymns, which were concerned with the personal experience of the deity rather than metaphysics, must have had great impact on the society.
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tectural evolution, like the Kontigudi, Allibasappa temple, the Meguti temple, Huchchappayya gudi and Tarappagudi. At Badami there are a few important structural temples like the Naganatha temple and the Malegitti Sivalaya. At Pattadakal there are ten temples - four in the northern style and six in the Dravidian style. Important temples of Pattadakal are the Papanatha temple, the Sangameshvara temple, the Virupaksha temple, Mallikarjuna temple, the Galaganatha temple, the Kashi Vishveshwara temple, the jambulingeshvara temple and the Kadasiddeshvara temple. Among them the most famous is the Virupaksha temple. It was built at the orders of Lokamahadevi, the senior queen of Vikramaditya II to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas. It has many features similar to the Kailasanatha temple of Kanchi. The Chief architect of the temple was Sri Gundan Anivaritachari, who held such titles as “Anikapuravastu Pitamaha” and “Tenkanadesiya Sutradhari”. According to Percy Brown, “There is a bold beauty in the appearance of the Virupaksha temple as a whole, which is best seen in the exterior”. The main building measures 120 feet, and the studied grouping of its parts produces a very pleasant total effect. The heaviness of the stone work is relieved by an increase in the amount and quality of the sculpture, which includes the representations of Shiva, Nagas and Naginis and the scenes from the Ramayana. As Percy Brown observes, “The sculpture flows into the architecture in a continuous yet disciplined stream…. The Virupaksha temple is one of those rare buildings of the past in which the spirit still lingers of the men who conceived it and wrought it with their hands”. The scholars have identified a few examples of the Chalukya painting. “The Temptation of the Buddha” and “the Persian Embassy” in Cave No. I at Ajantha have been assigned to this period. The Caves of Badami too have a few fragments of paintings to offer. But they are not well - preserved. Nevertheless, they enrich the proud heritage of Chalukyan art, which has so much to present in terms of variety, novelty, grace and beauty. Pallava Art As in case of many other ruling families in South Asia, the Pallavas were known in history long before they rose to prominence. They may be traced as far back as the second century A.D., but it is not until the latter half of the sixth century that the family and its history become less enigmatic, with both inscriptions and art monuments in stone appearing to initiate a steady tradition that lasted approximately two hundred years. The Pallavas were heirs to the Andhra region, but expanded their territories to include much of the Tamil area to the South. © Chronicle IAS Academy
1. Early Phase It is usually assumed that the early phase of Pallava architecture consisted primarily of rock-cut monuments, while the later phase is dominated by structural buildings. As a general rule, this is true, at least in terms of the surviving examples. However, there is evidence to suggest that structural monuments were produced virtually from the inceptions of the Pallava tradition and perhaps the two phases should be considered shifts in emphasis rather than total abandonment of one from and the supplanting of another. Various stylistic designations of Pallava art and architecture are traditionally associated with specific rulers, who may have been responsible for the inception of certain stylistic changes. In general, the developments of the Pallava period include a progression from rather simple forms to ones of greater complexity. This progression has ANCIENT 80
sectioning is reminiscent of Early Western Chalukya examples and also suggests ties coast of India, such as the Undavalli caves or, further North, much earlier examples from Khandagiri/Udayagiri in Orissa. The simplicity of the cave and lack of decorative carving in general characterizes this early Pallava phase, for the dvarapalas comprise almost the sole sculptural enhancement. These slender, animated figures show stylistic affinities to the earlier traditions of the Satavahanas and Ikshvaku, demonstrating that the Pallavas were indeed the heirs to the Andhraregion traditions. Characteristic of Pallava dvarapala depictions, the difference between the left and right guardians is pronounced, for they are placed in different postures. The near profile positioning of the body of the left guardian, possibly deriving from the highly mobile postures of Ikshvaku representations, anticipates the still more animated and freely moving figures to be seen in the Pallava Art. Also characteristic of Pallava dvarapala type is the fierce appearance of the figures, most easily visible in the bulging eyes of the sample to the left of the façade. Also safely attributable of the reign of Mahendra I on the basis of inscriptional evidence is the upper cave temple at the hill fort in the heart of the city of Tiruchirappalli called Lalitankura’s cave after another biruda of Mahendra’s. Its façade, which faces South, is essentially a refinement of the Mandagappattu type, with an extra pair of pillars, a broader intercolumniation (which makes the pillars appear very slender), and carved medallions decorating the facts of the pillars. Although the devotee enters the cave between two central pillars, the main axis of the temple extends laterally. This was apparently done so that the shrine could be placed on the east, in spite of the fact that the façade was on the south. Such problems in orientation, which were often extremely complex in rock-cut architecture, may have been one of the reasons for the eventual abandonment of cave excavations by the Hindus in favour of structural temples, although not before they went on to produce some of the most remarkable achievements of South Asian Art. The plan shows that the cave consists of two chambers: a larger pillared hall (Mandapa) and a cubical shrine. A pair of dvarapalas flanks the entrance to the shrine, each figure appearing in the animated, slightly twisted posture typical of Pallava examples. At the opposite end of the hall, to the west, located where the entrance would probably have been if this were a structural example is a relief showing Shiva as Gangadhara (Bearer of the Ganges River).
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been attributed to the growing accumulated skill on the part of the artisans over the centuries in working the hard granite stone native to the region. However, it is likely that the increased complexity in style and growing elaboration of detail and iconographic forms were also part of the pan-Indic development of postGupta periods, which in general may be said to be characterized by such a transformation. Compared to northern developments, however, the southern style maintains a much greater simplicity and the changes are subtler. The earliest body of surviving architectural monuments of the Pallava period belongs to the reign of Mahendra Varman I, whose rule in the first three decades of the seventh century coincided with that of Pulakesin II of the Early Western Chalukyas. Originally a Jain, Mahendra Varman was converted to Shaivism by Saint Appar, and this fact is visible in the primarily Shaivite dedications of monuments associated with him. One monument of the reign of Mahendra I is a cave temple at Manappattu, which is called Laksitayatana (temple of Laksita) in its dedicatory inscription. The name Laksita is a well-known epithet (biruda) for Mahendra I, and thus, the royal patron, who is also called Vichitrachitta (curious Minded) in the epigraph, may be identified. The inscription further reveals that the cave was dedicated to the Hindu trinity- Brahma, Vishnu- and Shiva and calls it a brickless, timberless, metalless and mortarless mansion. The latter statement is generally taken to mean that the usual temple would have been a structural building, made of some of the materials enumerated in the inscription, and thus it appears that Mahendra I was the initiator of a new stone tradition. Whether or not this is the case, the use of stone was truly unusual at this time, judging from the lack of extant remains. The façade of the cave has a low wide, rectangular appearance with two central pillars and a pilaster at each side flanked by large sculpted representations of door guardians. The niches in which the guardian figures appear repeat the shape of the space between the columns of the facade with their square bottoms and tops, octagonal central portions and bracket like capitals. A second row of pillars and pilasters within the cave divides the interior of the main hall into two lateral sections, while three identical shrines for housing the images of the trinity (no longer present) to whom the cave is dedicated are placed along the rear wall. The shallowness of the excavation, though not so pronounce as in other Pallava examples, and the lateral © Chronicle IAS Academy
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have been carved into buildings, animals, sculpted reliefs and other forms. In spite of the popularity of the site as tourist resort, and its mention in virtually every general book on South Asian Art, it has never been thoroughly studied, analyzed and examined in order to determine the sequence of monuments and their place in the development of Pallava art and architecture. The vibrancy and animation of Pallava Art is perhaps nowhere better seen than in the Varaha mandapa at Mamallapuram. Thought to belong to the period of Mamalla I, this cave exhibits both the elaboration of sculptural and iconographic elements and the refinement of architectural features associated with the reign. A feature of Pallava architecture seen here, and one, which comes to fruition in Early Chola monuments, is the presence of tank preceding (or later, surrounding) the monument itself. The use of tanks or other artificial reservoirs of water seem to have played an important role in Pallava iconographic. One aspect of such symbolism may have been a reference to one of the practical aspects of kingship, that of providing public irrigation reservoirs. Here, the tank extended across the entire front of the cave, so that when it was full of water, the devotee would have had to cross the water to reach the cave. The façade is based on earlier examples, such as those from the reign of Mahendra I, but here the pillars and pilasters are slandered, providing a more open appearance, and bear cushion-type capitals reminiscent of Early Western Chalukya types. The seated lions at the bases are a typical Pallava characteristic, and may be seen as a precedent for the later animal pillars of South Indian temples. The cave consists of the rectangular hall and a shrine that projects forward into the space of the hall bearing representations of dvarapalas on the front surface, each of which is contained in a niche as is typical of the South Indian style. The simplicity of the architectural features, such as the plain niches with large figures, characterizes the Pallava style, which, in contrast to the usual Northern and Deccan styles, is virtually devoid of subsidiary elements like vine scroll, gem motifs and similar designs. Four major sculptural panels dominate the interior of the cave. Following a pattern visible in Hindu art as early as the Gupta period, the reliefs seem to have double meanings, referring both to the deities represented as well as to achievements of the king, presumably Mamalla I. The left wall of the cave bears a representation of Varaha resting the earth goddess on his upraised knee. Vishnu as Trivikrama is depicted on the right wall.
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As Gangadhara, Shiva is shown receiving in his hair the heavenly Ganges River as it came to earth as a result of the penance performed by one Bhagiratha, who wished to use the holy water to purify the ashes of his deceased uncles. The lengthy inscription in the cave located on the pilasters adjoining the Gangadhara panel suggests through the use of double entendre that the choice of this subject was deliberate and significant. In particular, a play on the word Kaveri, which refers both to the Kaveri river in full view of the cave and to a courtesan, suggests a parallel between Shiva and Mahendra I, for Kaveri is described as the beloved of the Pallava king just as Ganga was the beloved of Shiva. This implies equation between Shiva and Mahendra I and their respective river goddesses is significant in light of other Pallava inscriptional and artistic evidences. 2. Mamalla Phase The most famous phase of Pallava Art was that apparently inaugurated during the reign of King Narasimha Varman I, who is known most popularly by his epithet Mamalla I. This son of Mahendra Varman I succeeded his father around the fourth decade of seventh century. A memorable ruler, Mamalla I sent naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, defeated the Early Western Chalukyas under Pulakesin II, and captured Badami in 642 from the Chalukyas (in retaliation for his father’s earlier defeat by Pulakesin II), in addition to defeating other South Indian ruling families. During his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Hieun-Tsang visited Kanchipuram, then a major Pallava city and capital. Although the seaport city of Mamallapuram was named after Mamalla I, he was not its founder, for Roman coins found in the area and descriptions by early classical writers much as Ptolemy indicate that the town had been famous as a seaport at least since the beginning of the Christian era. In addition, although it has often been assumed that the majority of monuments at the site belong to his reign, this idea has been increasingly challenged. However, he should be credited with stimulating the development of Mamallapuram (City of Mamalla) as a great seaport, vital in the dissemination of South Indian culture to South-east Asia and commercially important in the Indian Ocean trade network. Most of the monuments at Mamallapuram are rock-cut, carved out of the boulders and cliffs that abound in the area. These include caves, monoliths and large sculpted reliefs, although some structural buildings were also erected. The site, which covers several square miles, is virtually a stone city in which boulders and rock faces © Chronicle IAS Academy
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Each of the caves at Mamallapuram is unique. The variety of iconographic types represented in them indicates an already established wealth of imagery. This suggests that these excavations were modelled after structures that no longer exist but which might have revealed the formative stages of architectural development. The Trimurti cave, for example, consists of three similar shrines entered directly from the exterior with no porches or mandapas, but unified by the carving of the exterior of the rock into temple facades with architectural niches containing figurative sculpture. The name Trimutri literally means ‘triple form.’ But here it refers to the Hindu trinity of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. Shiva is the most prominent of the three in this conception, since His is the central shrine, flanked by those of Brahma (viewer’s left) and Vishnu (viewer’s right). The slightly larger size of the central shrine and its projecting form emphasize its preeminence. A fourth worship area is designated at the right of the façade where a set of steps leads to an image of Durga, although an excavated shrine is not present. Durga is shown in an eight-armed form standing frontally and atop the buffalo head of the defeated Mahisa in a format typical of Pallava representations of the subject. Each door to the three shrines is flanked by a pair of male figures who serve as dvarapalas. The back wall of each of the small rectangular shrines is decorated with a large relief representing the deity to whom the shrine is dedicated. In the case of the Shiva shrine, a stone linga is also placed on the floor in front of the image. This practice of caving the rear wall of the shrine is typical of Pallava monuments and contrasts with often bare-walled shrines found throughout Northern architecture. In Pallava shrines the linga is usually carved of a different stone than that of the shrine itself, and in the case of cave monuments, the linga is added rather than rock-cut. The façade of this excavation contrasts with that of the Varaha cave in that it is not pillared. Instead, it replicates an actual vimana, that is, a shrine with its superstructures, and is better compared to the freestanding monoliths found nearby at Mamallapuram. The date of this cave is unknown but its form suggests that it was excavated in the middle to late seventh century. A highly unusual cave has been excavated not far from the heart of Mamallapuram about five kilometers away at Saluvankuppam, a village that certainly lies within the ancient boundaries of Mamallapuram. This excavation, the so-called Yali (Vyala) cave is distinguished by the eleven vyala (horned lion) heads
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In the Trivikrama incarnation, Vishnu assumed the form of the dwarf Vamana, who extracted a promise from Bali, King of Asuras, that he could have territorial control over the amount of space he could cover in three paces. Vamana then assumed a gigantic form and covered the earth world with his first stride, the mid-world between heaven and earth with his second and with his third, stepped upon the head of Bali, thereby sending him to the nether world of the Asuras. As metaphors, the Varaha and Trivikrama subjects, while not unique to Pallava Art, might have been deliberately chosen to refer to specific achievements of the king, presumably the defeat of Pulakesin and the avenging of the defeats to the Pallavas under his father. The rear walls of the cave bear images of Gajalakshmi on the left and Durga on the right, suggesting the notions of prosperity (Gajalakshmi) and once again victory (Durga). An interesting aspect of the Durga relief is the figure at the front left of the composition who is in the act of self-immolation by decapitation. Such figures are found during the Pallava period and later in South Indian art, generally in relationship to Durga images and may be related to rituals detailed in at least one Hindu text.
Each relief is characterized by essentially naturalistic scaling, in contrast to what is often seen in Indic sculptures and by considerable special complexity. In this latter sense, strong ties to the Iksvaku tradition are suggested. This earlier Indian dynasty from the Andhra region inherited by the Pallavas used sophisticated devices to imply illusionistic space that were perhaps originally or partially inspired by Roman art, in the Varaha relief, this complexity is seen in the two figures at the left who turn inward and are shown in a rear/profile view. In the relief of Durga, one figure is shown from the rear while another is depicted in profile. Although arbitrary adjustments of scale to suit the hierarchic needs prevail in South Asian Art, essentially naturalistic means are used here to achieve emphasis. In the Gajalaksmi panel, for example, the central figure is emphasized by being placed above the others on a throne but is depicted in the same scale as other figures. In all the reliefs the elements are carved in a fairly three-dimensional manner; space exists around each figure and the effect is almost as if the deities and their attendants were indeed in the presence of the worshipper. The slender figures, with their narrowed, tapered limbs, betray the Andhra heritage of Pallava Art and anticipate the typical style of the South Indian Tamil area to be continued into the reign of the Cholas and even to the still later Vijaynagar kings. © Chronicle IAS Academy
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river, the Ganga itself, in the rainy season, a now lost receptacle is believed to have filled with water, which could then fall down the cleft into a tank as a kind of living reenactment of the sacred descent. Some scholars believe that the tank, at the base of the relief, would have served as a royal bathing pool for the king himself. The arguments for the Arjuna story are less compelling, thought still substantial. In this tale, Arjuna, one of the five Pandava brothers of the Mahabharata, performed served austerities in order to enlist Shiva’s aid (literally, his weapons) in achieving victory in the pending war between the Pandavas and the Kurus. Since Arjuna’s penance was performed on the bank of a river, the arguments can be made that this subject is represented in the Mamallapuram relief. Both the Descent and Arjuna’s Penance interpretations would be served well by the figures at the top of the relief, just to the left of the cleft. The penanceperforming individual, with arms raised and balanced on one leg, could represent either Bhagiratha, whose penance brought the Ganga to earth, or Arjuna, whose penances earned him the aid of Shiva’s weapons. Shiva, who appears next to the ascetic in a four art form, attended by his dwarves (ganas), performs the varada mudra, or gift bestowal gesture, with his front left hand, a gesture that would be appropriate to either story. In each case, too, secondary meanings relating to the Pallavas themselves, of the type inferred in other contexts for Pallava art, might be suggested. A later Pallava inscription mentions that the Pallavas resembled the Descent of the Ganga as it (too) purified the whole world. Considering the prominence already accorded the Gangadhar a murti icon in Pallava art, considerable credibility is given to this interpretation. Alternately, Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata and leader of the Pandavas, might serve as a symbol of the Pallavas themselves for just as Arjuna sought Shiva’s aid in the war against the Kurus, the Pallavas sought victory in their continuing competition with the Early Western Chalukyas. In light of such strong but conflicting evidence, it might be argued that both meanings simultaneously were intended by the creators of this remarkable relief. However, this suggestion, too, would need further substantiation. Important features of the relief included the large elephants at the lower right, the small shrine with a representation of a deity, the ascetics worship at the shrine if to converge at the cleft. Considerable naturalism in pose and individuality in facial features is seen in the figures, reflecting some of the concern with naturalism seen elsewhere in Pallava Art.
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that form a kind or ring around the central excavated chamber and its two flanking niches. To the viewer’s left of this area but also on the face of the rock are carved elephants shrines atop their backs. Although the main show no trace of any original images within, these small shrines each bear a much worn depiction of a four-armed deity. The original purpose and meaning of the cave, however, remains unknown. Further, the date of the excavation is uncertain, although it is probably a monument of the late seventh or early eighth century. In addition to the variety of architectural types seen in the caves of Mamallapuram, numerous religious subjects were interpreted anew by the Pallavas in sculpture and other were introduced for the first time. A representation of Durga battling the demon Mahisa in the so-called Mahisasuramardini cave, for example, is unlike any other depiction of this scene known in earlier Hindu art. Durga sits astride her lion vahana while Mahisa, depicted as a human figure with a buffalo head, appears at the right, as if recoiling from her attack. Fallen warriors of Mahisa’s army appear at the right and lean in the direction of retreat, while Durga’s forces advance from the left. The naturalistic rather than hierarchic scaling of the figures, including Durga herself, who is not even as large as her opponent, heightens the sense of emotion and drama of the scene. In addition, the figures are in animated and logical poses that further increase the sense of actuality. In composition such as this, the Pallava sculptors achieved a striking balance between the world of nature and the realm of the divine. The most impressive sculptural composition at Mamallapuram is the famous relief that has been alternately identified as the descent of the Ganga River or Arjuna’s Penance. This striking work is believed to have been carved during the reign of either Mahendrvarman I or that of his son Mamalla. Measuring nearly thirty meters in length and approximately fifteen meters in height, it contains a myriad of figures, animals and other subjects, all of which are carved on approximately life sized scale. A major aspect of the composition is the natural feature, which has been skillfully incorporated into the design and subject matter of the carving. Arguments for the interpretation of this impressive scene as either the Descent of the Ganga River or Arjuna’s Penance are convincing in each case. Both stories are found in Indian literature, although different versions appear in various texts. A strong case for the Descent interpretation is presented by the central cleft of the composition, with its naga inhabitants, as a representation of the holy © Chronicle IAS Academy
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should not be inferred that Mamallapuram examples represent the beginning of the tradition; rather, they are manifestations of what must have been already widespread forms. The smallest and simplest of the group is the Draupadi monolith, which is in fact a shrine dedicated to Durga, distinguished by its curved roof, which is believed to have been modelled after that of a thatch proto-type. Square in plan, this single celled, one story shrine shares a low plinth with the adjacent Arjuna ratha. The exterior wall decoration consists of pilasters at each of the four corners and niches containing image. The two niches flanking the door to the interior contain life-size female door guardians (dvarapalikas). The single niches on the three remaining sides, each contain a representation of Durga. The rear wall of the interior of the shrines bears a panel showing Durga, standing, being adored by worshipers, one of whom is performing a self decapitation like that seen in the Durga relief in the Varaha cave. The freestanding lion vahana of Durga is located outside the shrine. The distinctly feminine nature of the sculptural program of this small temple contrasts with the other monoliths, which are male oriented and suggests the growing emphasis on female imagery. In the Trimurti cave, Durga’s importance is apparent from the fact that a separate niche had been provided for her. Here, an entire shrine is allotted to her worship. Ultimately, South Indian architects create a separate temple dedicated to the female principle within the compound of the main temple, the so called Amman shrine, already visible in nascent form in Pallava monuments. As in Buddhism of post-Gupta ages, Hinduism of the later periods is characterized by increasing emphasis on the female principle or female energy (shakti). Arjuna’s ratha is not much larger than the Durga shrine sharing its plinth but it is significantly different in appearance. The pillared front of this square shrine is reminiscent of the format seen in Pallava cave architecture. However, the super-structure clearly reflects the form of a structural building. The twotiered roof is pyramidal in shape and is capped by a dome-like element called a sikhara, which is, in this case, octagonal. In South Indian architecture, the term sikhara refers only to this crowning member and not, as in northern India, to the entire tower comprising the superstructure of the vimana. Each of the levels of the roof is decorated with a design of miniature barrel vaulted roofs (sala) interspersed with chandrasalas (essentially a rounded arch of the type formed by the end of a sala), as well as plastered niches, some of which contain half-length figures. These figures
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As is generally true in the Indian art, the figures are the principal elements of the compo-sition; it is the figures that create the volumes and dynamism, rather than arbitrary devices, such as systems of perspective or landscape elements, which could be used to render a context. Other monuments at Mamallapuram include the nine freestanding monolithic building scattered throughout the site. A series of five concentrated in one group near the sea gives the visitor the remarkable sense of waling through a petrified city. The origin of the idea of producing complete replicas of structural buildings, complete both inside and outside. But, apparently, this mode never became as popular as the cave format, which did not require the completion of exterior details other than that of the façade. Usually, these monoliths have been called rathas; a complete misnomer since they are clearly not intended to represent temple carts (rathas), but are more properly termed vimanas, for each is a distinctive shrine. The major group of five monoliths has been traditionally named for the five Pandava brothers (two of whom have been assigned to one shrine), and their common wife, Draupadi, although this iconographic interpretation is clearly erroneous. Each monolith is unique, yet the five seem to form a coherent group and must have been carved at about the same time, probably during the reign of Mamalla I. Four of the buildings were apparently carved out of what was once a single outcropping of stone, not separate boulders, as has often been stated. The fifth, which is not in a line with the others, was carved out of a smaller adjoining boulder. Three large animal sculptures of a lion, an elephant, and a reclining bull, are also associated with the vimanas. The highest part of the major boulder was at the South, where the so-called Dharmaraja ratha is located, and then, the form tapers to the smaller, so-called Draupadi shrine at the other end. From unfinished examples of rock-cut shrines at Mamallapurm, it may be inferred that the workmen proceeded from top to bottom, completing each section as they went and using the uncut rock beneath as a platform upon which to work. The buildings are important not only their own right but as documents of what must have been the contemporary freestanding temple architecture of the Pallavas. As such, they provide vital information regarding the genesis of South Indian architectural forms and indicate that within a short time after the Gupta period, clear distinction between northern and southern modes were already present, although all of the stages in these development have not been traced. It © Chronicle IAS Academy
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rel-vaulted shrines decorate the upper levels of the monument. The pillared façade, with seated lion bases, typifies one Pallava architectural format. Even though it is unfinished and contains virtually no sculpture, this monument provides valuable information about a rare form in Hindu architecture. The Dharmaraja ratha is the tallest of the group, but it too remains unfinished. The inscriptions on the shrine present conflicting evidence regarding the date of its excavation, for while the name Narasimha and a number of birudas suggest that the monument was begun during the reign of Narasimha Varman I (Mamalla I), other epigraphs refer to later kings. However, it is possible that the additional names were inscribed after work on the shrine was abandoned, for the rather unified style of the monument suggests that it was the product of a fairly concentrated effort, and thus a monument of the reign of Narasimha Varman I. Similar in concept to Arjuna’s ratha although larger and more elaborate, this shrine also depicts in the rock-cut form what must have been a popular style of free standing monument and demonstrates what was a fully developed southern style of architecture during this period. Each of the four sides, if completed, would have had a pillared façade flanked by niches containing sculptures. The southern style superstructure has three stories that diminish in size as they ascend, forming a pyramidal profile, each roof is decorated with the barrel-vaulted shrines (sala) and chandrasalas and the whole is capped by an octagonal sikhara. Like the Arjuna ratha, this building is a clear replica of the vimana of a southern-style structural temple, which would, in general, be preceded by a mandapa and which might typically be enclosed in a rectangular compound. This form the basis for what will be seen in Chola, Vijyayanagar and Nayak period monuments. While decidedly shaivite in iconography and dedication, the overall scheme of the monument has yet to be established. One image depicts Narasimha-Varman I himself, identified by an inscription. It is possible that his presence was significant in determining the purpose of the building, for although the king appears in a two-armed form befitting his human nature; he stands in the stiff frontal manner appropriate for deities, with no flexion to his body (Samabhanga). Other portraits of Pallava kings, sometimes even accompanied by their wives, occur in the art of Mamallapuram. But those at the Adivaraha cave, more relaxed postures and as accompaniments to the divine subjects carved in the other compositions of the cave.
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give the impression that they are partially hidden due to the viewer’s perspective from below, and like the freely moving figures in the other niches, again show the realism characteristic of Pallava Art. The two sides and rear of the lower story are carved into a series of niches containing figures, each separated by pilasters with bracketed capitals. This format, of figures contained within niches separated by pilasters and in fact, the plastered wall in general, is typical of South Indian temple architecture from this period forward, contrasting strongly with the wall treatment that characterizes North Indian monuments of the later periods. The two sidewalls have six niches each, although in both cases, the panel nearest the front has been left unsculpted, while the rear has only five niches. Male attendants appear at the corners of each, while the central niches contain images of principal deities of the iconographic program: Vishnu in the North, Shiva leaning in Nandi in the South and a male figure riding an elephant in the East. This figure has been traditionally identified as Indra on his elephant mount or sometimes, Subrahmanya (known also as Murugan), son of Shiva, who is associated with the elephant in South India. While both of these interpretations bear some credibility, another suggestion is that the figure represents Aiyanar-Sasta, a hunter god, known only in South India. Not only does Sasta commonly ride an elephant, but also the depictions of Shiva and Vishnu on the shrine reinforce the Sasta, interpretation since the god is believed to be the son of Shiva and Vishnu, a birth which occurred when Vishnu took the feminine form known as Mohini. The suggestion of the union between Shiva and Vishnu, which led to the birth of Sasta, is strengthened by the presence of mithuna couples in the niches flanking the principal niches. While mithunas are common in many other regional schools of South Asian Art, their near absence in Pallava depictions suggest that their inclusion here was for the specific purpose of amplifying the iconographic program of the shrine. Bhima’s ratha is a two storied, oblong building with a barrel-vaulted roof. The main image within, although never finished, was intended to be a representation of the reclining Vishnu Anantasayana for which such an elongated structure is appropriate. Entered on the long side rather than the short side, this building provides a completely different effect than the barrel-roofed Buddhist pillared halls; the somewhat similar roof form may imply only a common architectural proto-type rather than direct influence of one religion upon another. As in the case of the Arjuna ratha, chandrasalas and miniature bar© Chronicle IAS Academy
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sculptures,) and other features all suggest that these forms had been developing in the early Pallava period and earlier, although the complete evolution is not known. Yet, as preserved, like petrified replicas of vanished monuments, they provide important basis for the understanding of South Indian developments to follow. Rajasimha Style Freestanding structural temples of the Pallava period provide further information about religious and artistic developments. The so-called Shore Temple at Mamallapuram is thought to be a product of the reign of Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha, who ruled from about 700 and who is credited with giving a minor impetus to the production of structural temple, consisting as it does of three distinct worship areas, suggest that it was not the product of a unified or added to after its initial construction, although possibly still within the reign of the one king. A plan of the temple shows a small square Shiva shrine, containing a linga and representation of Somaskanda, on the western side of the temple, complex and slightly to the north. The main temple also dedicated to Shiva and containing a linga and relief of Somaskanda in the central shrine, faces east and consists of a rectangular walled enclosure, the main shrine and its antechamber, and a circumambulatory passage between the wall and the central building. A third shrine, dedicated to Vishnu as Anantasayana, is aligned with the central shrine and is located at the western end of the main temple, connecting two Shiva shrines into a single unit. The sculpture of Anantasayana was carved in situ from an existing rock and this may explain part of the peculiarity of the plan. Access to the Vishnu shrine is possible only from the southern side of the circumambulatory passage around the large Shiva shrine. The temple (if this term may be used to describe all three units as a whole) is thus oriented both to the east and the west and is apparently dedicated to both Shiva and Vishnu. Obviously, the east-facing Shiva shrine is the most important as indicated by its size and the fact that it has the highest superstructure. A much smaller tower appears atop the western Shiva shrine, while none is present over the Vishnu shrine. An entrance through the temple wall on the east and another leading into the rectangular temple compound on the west may be proto-types for the monumental gateways (gopura) that will characterize South Indian temples in later periods. The compound itself is much ruined due to the ocean spray and blowing sands that poses a continual threat to
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Here, Narashimha Varman is almost indistinguishable in his general demeanor from the deities carved as part of the same iconographic program. His depiction, then, must have served a role that was integral part of the meaning of the monument as a whole. The placement of his image on the south face of the building may be revealing in this respect, for in Hinduism, South is the quadrant of Yama, the god and judge of the dead. Later South Indian inscriptions of the Cholas reveal that specific funerary monuments called pallippadai were erected for royal personages. Although conclusive evidence is lacking, this Pallava building may be an early example of just such a building. Another important image of the Dharmaraja ratha is a sculpted panel in the shrine of the third storey, which shows Shiva with his wife, Uma (a form of Parvati), and their son, Skanda, in a group known as Somaskanda. Here, images of Brahma and Vishnu flank the figures. The Somaskanda subject becomes a popular Pallava icon that in later contests served as a metaphor for the Pallava royal family. Since this is the earliest Somaskanda image known, it is possible that it was introduced as part of the royal symbolism associated with this monument in general. The roughly carved surfaces of this sculpture seems to indicate that the work would have been completed by plastering and painting as well. The last of the group, the Nakula-Sahadeva ratha, is not in line with the other four, and unlike them, it faces South, not West. Because it lacks figure carving, it is not possible to determine anything about its iconography and how it relates to the other four shrines. However, its forms are extremely important for the understanding of the development of South Indian architecture. Its apsidal shade documents a rare type among the surviving examples of Hindu temples, but one that is clearly related to Ikshvaku proto-types like the temple at Chejerla. That this building is decidedly southern in styles is seen in the plastered walls (here, with empty niches) and in the tiered roof with chandrasalas and barrel vaulted salas. A sala roof caps the whole. It may be noted that although the exterior rear of the shrine is rounded, the interior cell is squared. The rock-cut monuments of Mamallapuram, which have only been sampled here, demonstrate conclusively a well-developed architectural and iconographic vocabulary by the 7th century A.D. This implies a tradition of some long standing that must predate such remains. The variety of architectural types, seen in the different roofs, wall treatments (including plastered wall with and without © Chronicle IAS Academy
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nine smaller shrines, with the two at the eastern end now accessible only through a pillared hall that was added at a later date. A detached mandapa to the east of shrine area was part of the original conception but is now attached to the main building owing to the addition of the intermediary mandapa. An important feature of this temple complex is the presence of gopuras (gateways) and proto-types in the enclosure walls. On the west, the central pavilion is in fact a gateway (although sealed off at present) and is distinguished from the other pavilion in the row by its decoration and sala form. Directly opposite the central shrine in the walled enclosure on the south and north are chapels that are also visibly different from the others in the row in their shape, size and the presence of the sala roof. These are clearly shrines, not gateways, but serve as precedents for what will ultimately be the placement of gopuras in line with the main shrine and for the evolution of the gopura form out of shrines with sala roofs. The largest of all the chapels aligned with the main shrine, Mahendra Varman’s temple on the east, also has a barrel roof and serves as the equivalent of the other three pavilions, although much grander. In contrast to later gopuras, this structure cannot be traversed; instead, the devotee is diverted to one side or the other in order to enter the main courtyard. A small gopura on the east provides access to the fore court of this shrine. The alignment of the four chapels-cum gopuras is clearly with the main shrine of the temple rather than with the centre of the respective walls of the rectangular compound; this practice explains the often asymmetrical appearance of the placement of gopuras in later monuments. In contrast to early Pallava monuments, which are generally rather simple in their architectural and sculptural embellishment; this temple complex is rather lavishly decorated. One major sculptural motif particularly associated with Rajasimha’s reign is the rampant lion, which appears almost ubiquitously as part of the façade decoration of the shrines in the compound wall. Plaster and paint on the chapel walls in particular from post-Pallava redecorations of the temple have obscured much of the other sculptural work. However, a panel showing ganas and other creatures on the base of the temple and only thirty centimeters in height demonstrates the high quality of carving that must have characterized the workmanship at the temple. These animated figures, crisply carved and delicately modelled, may be classed with the finest of Indic sculptures. By far the most common icon enshrined in the walls of chapels is Somaskanda. While this subject
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the monument but enough remains on the west to suggest that water had been channelled into a series of passages and pools. A related use of water was seen at the varaha mandapa, and both of these anticipate Chola-period designs. The Shore Temple is decidedly southern in style, as may be seen in the pyramidal shape of the superstructure and plastered wall treatment. The towers in this case are far taller and slenderer than the superstructure of the Dharmaraja ratha, although this may not indicate a general trend of the period. Sculptures of dvarapalas, lions and other figures were fairly abundant at the Shore Temple, but the sea air has rendered all of them into virtual shadows of their original forms. Another monument, more securely attributable to Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha’s reign, some fortykilometer away from Kanchipuram, is less enigmatic. Inscriptional evidence on this Shiva temple clearly indicates that Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha was the builder of the structure and that he named the deity enshrined in it (and by implication, the temple) after him, calling in Rajasimha Pallavesvara, in keeping with a practice that was to become very popular in South India. Commonly called the Rajasimhesvara, it is also known as Kailashnath (referring to Shiva as Lord of Mount Kailasha), a name that may have arisen from a verse in one of its inscriptions, which states that the temple touches the cloud with its top and robs Kailasha of its beauty. The temple scheme includes a large rectangular enclosure containing more than fifty chapels surrounding the main structure. A second row of small shrines at the east end of the temple compound suggests that at some time, perhaps after Rajasimha’s initial period of construction, a second compound was to have been built, but this was never completed. At the eastern end, aligned with the front of the inner compound wall, a smaller shrine, also dedicated to Shiva, was built by Rajasimha’s son Mahendra Varman III. Like his father, Mahendra Varman named the deity of the structure he had built for himself, and it is called Mahendrasvara or Mahendravarmanesvara in an inscription. Unlike the separate elements of the Shore Temples, this smaller shrine was probably part of the original conception of the temple, for here a clear break has been allotted for it in the wall, and it is probable that the son had the shrine built, while his father was engaged in the original project. Mahendra Varman’s structure is topped by a sala roof, but the main sanctuary, Rajasimha’s dedication, bears a typically tired southern form tower. The main building consists of a principal central shrine with its linga and enclosed circuma-mbulatory passage, surrounded by © Chronicle IAS Academy
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may have been introduced into Pallava art earlier, it was certainly popularized during the reign of Rajasimha. A clue to the importance of Somasakanda in the art of Rajasimha’s time occurs in an inscription at the temple stating that ‘just as Guha (Skanda, also called Subrahamanya or Kumara) took birth from the supreme lord (Shiva)’ thus from lord Ugradanda there took birth a very pious prince (subrahamanyahkumarah), the illustrious Atyantakama, the chief of the Pallavas. This the Pallava king Paramesara I and his son Rajasimha, each referred to by one of his alternate names, are likened to Shiva and his son in what appears to be another Pallava synthesis of the divine and kingly realms. The Rajasimhesvara temple at Kanchipuram displays any of the essential characteristics of the evolving southern architectural style. Some of this contrast sharply with those of the developing idioms of the north and Deccan. The storeyed pyramidal form of the tower above the shrines, the use of a rectangular enclosure wall with gopuras, and distinctive wall treatment using niches with or without figures and pilasters are all-important features. These characteristics form the basis of later southern styles, although their treatment could be elaborated upon and modified. Historically, another aspect of this temple deserves mention. Inscriptions of the pillars of the deatched mandapa record that the Early Western Chalukya king, Vikramaditya II, visited the temple, and was apparently so impressed by it that he did not carry off its treasures as spoils of war but instead allowed them to remain at the temple.
Points to remember
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The Mauryas, and especially Ashoka, built a large number of stupas throughout their empire to enhrine the relics of Buddha. Buddhist traditions credit Ashoka with building of 84,000 stupas. A stupa is a dome- like structure which is resting on a round base and is made of brick or stone. Some of these stupas still survive and rouse our curiosity even upto this day. The most famous are those of Sanchi and Barhut. The Sanchi Stupa is at present 77½ feet high and 121 ½ feet in diameter. A massive stone railing, supposed to be added later on encloses the whole structure. Ashoka is also credited to have built many monasteries and cave dwellings for the monks. The caves were cut out of hard rocks but their walls were softened and polished in such a manner that they still shine like a mirror. According to Kalhan, the author of Rajtarangini, it was Ashoka who laid the foundation of Srinagar. Another town supposed to have been buit by Ashoka was Devapattan in Nepal. The art of sculpture (or stone-cutting) reached a high watermark under Ashoka. The pillars, figures of animals and birds, and statues cut out of solid rocks are also exquisite in their beauty that they have won general admiration throughout the world. Ashoka’s pillars are perhaps the best example of the Mauryan art. These pillars are 50 to 60 feet in height and about 50 tons in weight. How such high and heavy pillars were chiselled out of one single rock is still a wonder. The stone is chiselled and cut with such an accuracy that it is generally said that they appear to have been designed by giants and executed by jewellers. Each pillar is surmounted by a capital or a head which is decorated with figures of animals like the lion, the bull, the elephant or the horse. The high artistic merits of the figures, which exhibit realistic modelling and movements are of a very high order. The Capital of the Sarnath pillar is the most magnificent. The figures of four lions, standing back to back, are so natural and exquisite that they have been praised all over the world. According to Dr. V.A. Smith, “It would be difficult to find in any country an example of ancient animalsculpture superior or even equal to this beautiful work of art, which successfully combines realistic
Under Ashoka (or the Mauryas) all branches of the fine arts — architecture, sculpture, art of polishing, art of engineering and art of jewellery —made a great progress. The buildings that were constructed by the Mauryas put the foreign travellers to mere astonishment, because of their beauty, design and execution. These buildings were mostly that of wood and so most of them could not come down to us but the Greek writers have left us impressive accounts of them. They tell us that the royal palaces constructed by the Mauryas were ‘the finest and grandest in the whole world.’ The Chinese traveller Fahein also remarked, that these palaces are so beautiful and excellent that they appear to be the creation of gods rather than of men.
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The Gandhara art is sometimes called the Greeco Buddhist art because while its subjects and ideas remained Indians, its style, physical features and dress were all after the Greek fashion. It has been pointed out by some historians that the Indians also learnt the construction of caves especially the rock-cut caves from the Greeks. Some of such caves can still be found in this country especially in the North-West of India. The Indian architecture is supposed to be some what affected by the Greeks but nothing definite can be said in this direction because no notable building belonging to the Indo-Bacterian or IndoParthian rulers has yet been unearthed except some ‘unembellished (unde-corated) walls of some houses and a temple at Taxila.’ Some decorative styles were no doubt adopted by the Indian architects and builders from their Greek contemporaries. The Gandhara school of art occupies a high place in the history of the Indian Art. At one time it was thought that India had only one school of art, and that was the Gandhara school of Artd. It is even believed that this school of art produced far-reaching effects on the art of such distant countries as China, Japan and Central Asia. As most of the statues and sculptures made under this school have been discovered in Gandhara, this art has come to be called Gandhara school of Art, after the name of the country of its origin. The Gandhara style might have been originated under the Indo-Bactrian and Indo-Parthian rulers but it was under Kanishka that it made a rapid development. Under this school of art life-like statues of Buddha began to be made in large numbers whereas under the older schools (of Sanchi and Bharhut) no statues and images of Buddha were made. His existence was shown only by symbols such as foot-prints, the Bodhi-tree, a vacant seat or the umbrella. In this school a great care was taken to show the physical features, muscles and moustaches, etc. of a figure in as natural a way as was possible. Much attention was paid in depicting each and every fold and turn of the dress. Rich ornaments, costumes and drapery were used most enthusiastically in this school and much attention was paid to imparting physical beauty to the artistic specimens. A great importance was attached to refineness and polish in the Gandhara School of art.
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modelling with ideal dignity and is finished in every detail with perfect accuracy.” This sculpture of four-lions has been adopted by the modern Indian currency. The walls of the caves, that have been found near Gaya, are so brightly polished that they shine like a mirror. The pillar which now stands in Feroze Shah Kotla bears such a fine polish that some observers have been misled to the belief that it was made of metal rather than of stone. For instance, Bishop Habere remarked after seeing this pillar, “It was a high black pillar of cast metal.” During the reign of Ashoka huge blocks of rocks were cut and chiselled into monolithic and exceptionally fine pillars, some of which were 50 tones in weight and about 50 feet in height. These huge blocks of rocks were perhaps cut from the Chunar hills of hard stone. How these pillars were taken to such distant places is nothing less than a miracle. A high degree of knowledge of engineering must have been required both in cutting these huge blocks and later on removing them hundreds of miles away, sometimes to the top fo a hill. In 1356 A.D. Feroze Shah Tughlak decided to remove the Topra pillar from Ambala district to Delhi. It is said that he had to prepare a special carriage with 48 wheels and employ about 8,400 men to carry this one single pillar. In other words, he employed about 200 men to move a single wheel. This example would clearly indicate that the art of engineering had greatly developed in the Mauryan period. The art of jewellery also made a great progress during the Mauryan period. In the Taxila ruins some very fine specimens of ornaments belonging to the Ashoka’s period were found. Their study revealed artistic beauty of the highest order. The Greeks had a great hand in the development of the so-called Gandhara School of Art which developed on the North-West. Now, in place of symbols for depicting Lord Buddha, his life like statues and images began to be made in large numbers. The later Gandhara school, depicting on stones, scenes from the life of Buddha is beyond doubt inspired by Hellenic ideals.
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solid rocks and shows the Chalukya art at its great height. Another stone temple of great merit is at Meguti. According to Prof. Ghosh “It shows the art of stonebuilding in its perfection.” The Vishnu temple at Aihole is not only the best preserved temple but it is also the most important temples from the historical point of view. It contains the famous Aihole Inscription of Vikramaditya II, which has thrown a good deal of light on the Chalukya dynasty. This temple is also known for its extraordinary fine sculptures and tow superb high flying statues of Devas which are excellent in design. The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, according to Havell, ‘combines the statelines of the classic design of Europe with ferried (burning) imagination of Gothic art.’ This temple also bears an inscription of great importance. The Mahadeva temple at Ittagi also bears an inscription and has elaborately designed pillars. The Kasivisvesvara temple at Lukkundi and Saraswati temple at Gadag are two other elaborately decorated temples of the Chalukyas. An important characteristic of the Chalukyan temples is that every attempt is made to decorate every part of them and consequently there is ‘crowded abundance of minute details which covers the surface.’ The Chalukya rulers also patronised the art of painting. Both Ajanta and Ellora were situated in their dominions, and at least some of the famous Ajanta cave frescoes were probably executed in the time of the Early Chalukya rulers.
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The technique and forms applied were Greek in nature but the ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indians. Chalukya rulers were not only great conquerors but also great builders and patrons of art. They were mostly Hindus by faith and so they build a large number of beautiful temples in honour of the Hindu gods- Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, etc. Some of these temples have life- like statues of these deities, which are superb both in their design and execution. The Chalukya rulers built various types of temples- some of them are excavated out of soil rocks. Some are brick- temples while there are others which are ‘structural buildings of stone finely joined without mortar. The Vishnu temple at Badami, the Jain temple at Meguti, the Vishnu temple at Aihole, the Shiva temple at Pattadakal, the temple of Kasivivesvara at Lakkundi, the Mahadeva temple at Ittagi and the Saraswati temple at Gadag are some of the most important temples built by the Chalukya monarchs. Almost every little town within the Chalukya empire has got some remains of one temple or the other. According to Prof. N.N. Ghosh “There is hardly a village (within the Chalukya boundaries) that has not some remains of the Chalukyas, both the early and the later ones, were great builders.” All these temples referred to above have special qualities of their own. The one built at Badami presents one of the earliest examples of the Chalukya art. The temple, which was built by Mangalesa Chalukya towards the end of the 6th century A.D. in honour of Vishnu is completely excavated out of
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HIST OR Y (UPSC QUESTIONS HISTOR ORY UESTIONS)) 1. The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by (a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul 2. The "dharma" and "rita" depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India, In this context, consider the following statements: 1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one's duties to oneself and to others. 2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it contained.
conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery. 2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person. 3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 3. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements: 1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India. 2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. 3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 4. The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general History IAS Academy ©Chronicle
(d) 1, 2 and 3 5. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas. What is the difference between the two? (a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks (b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks (c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it (d) There is no material difference between the two 6. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? (a) The extinction of the flame of desire (b) The complete annihilation of self (c) A state of bliss and rest (d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension 7. Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization? 1. They possessed great palaces and temples. 2. They worshipped both male and female deities. 1
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare. Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(d) None 11. With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following statements regarding Sankhya school: 1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transrmigration of soul.
CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the statements given above is correct
2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent.
8. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine? 1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
Which of the statements given above is /are correct? (a) 1 only
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
9. Consider the following Bhakti Saints: 1. Dadu Dayal 2. Guru Nanak 3. Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over? (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
10. Consider the following historical places: 1. Ajanta Caves 2. Lepakshi Temple 3. Sanchi Stupa
2
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
12. In the context of cultural history of India, a pose in dance and dramatics called 'Tribhanga' has been a favourite of Indian artists from ancient times till today. Which one of the following statements best describes this pose? (a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but oppositely curved at waist and neck (b) Facial expressions, hand gestures and makeup are combined to symbolize certain epic or historic characters (c) Movements of body, face and hands are used to express oneself or to tell a story
(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and certain hand gestures are emphasized to express the feelings of love or eroticism
13. With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the country's economy, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the king was the chief administrative authority on them. 2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.
Which of the above places is / are also known for mural paintings? (a) 1 only
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
History
14. With reference to the scientific progress of ancient India, which of the statements given below are correct? 1. Different kinds of specialized surgical instruments were in common use by 1st century AD. 2. Transplant of internal organs in the human body had begun by the beginning of 3rd century AD.
2. Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and spiritual music. 3. Dhrupad Alap uses Sanskrit syllables from Mantras. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3
3. The concept of sine of an angle was known in 5th century AD. 4. The concept of cyclic quadrilaterals was known in 7th century AD. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) None of the above is correct
18. With reference to the religious history of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known to pursue which of the following practices? 1. Meditation and control of breath 2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place 3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience
15. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism? 1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
19. Lord Buddha's image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called 'Bhumisparsha Mudra'. It symbolizes: (a) Buddha's calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
16. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the (a) Three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent (b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the language of India can be classified (c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture (d) Three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India 17. With reference to Dhrupad, one of the Major traditions of India that has been kept alive for centuries, which of the following statements are correct? 1. Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput kingdoms during the Mughal period. History
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) Buddha's calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara (c) Buddha's reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory (d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context 20. The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of (a) Bhakti (b) image worship and Yajnas (c) worship of nature and Yajnas (d) worship of nature and Bhakti 21. What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat ? 3
(c) 2 and 3 only
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore (b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg Khan invited him to invade Punjab
(d) 1, 2 and 3 23. Among the following, who was not a proponent of bhakti cult ? (a) Vallabhacharya
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y
(b) Tyagaraja
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi to his kingdom
22. Why did Buddhism start declining in India in the early medieval times ? 1. Buddha was by that time considered as one of the incarnations of Vishnu and thus became a part of Vaishnavism. 2. The invading tribes from Central Asia till the time of last Gupta king adopted Hinduism and persecuted Buddhists. 3. The Kings of Gupta dynasty were strongly opposed to Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? (a) 1 only
(c) Tukaram
(d) Nagarjuna
24. There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings ? (a) Bagh caves (b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
25. Mahamastakabhisheka, a great religious event is associated with and done for who of the following? (a) Bahubali (b) Buddha
(c) Mahavir
(d) Natraja
(b) 1 and 3 only
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4
History
HISTORY (UPSC QUESTIONS) (ANSWERS)
CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY
CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
1 (a)
14 (c)
2 (c)
15 (b)
3 (b)
16 (c)
4 (b)
17 (b)
5 (b)
18 (c)
6 (c)
19 (d)
7 (c)
20 (c)
8 (d)
21 (a)
9 (b)
22 (a)
10 (b)
23 (d)
11 (b)
24 (a)
12 (a)
25 (a)
13 (c)
History
HIST OR Y (SAMPLE QUESTIONS HISTOR ORY UESTIONS)) 1. Consider the following statements about the taxes charged by Delhi sultans and select the correct answer: (i) Zakat was a tax on the property and land of Muslims. (ii) Jizya was a tax imposed on non-Muslims for the protection given by the state to their lives and property. (iii) Kharaj was a land tax imposed on both Muslims and non-Muslims peasants. Codes: (a) i and ii only
2.
(b)
i and iii only
(c)
ii and iii only
Select the correct answer code from the below: (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct (c) Both I and II are correct (d) Neither I nor II are correct 4. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer: i. Zen Buddhism is a form of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan that lays special emphasis on meditation. ii. Zen Buddhism places much more emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism.
(d) All of the above
Codes: (a) i only
Consider the following statement select the correct answer: (i) Nyaya is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy based on system of logic.
(b) ii only
(ii) According to the Nyaya School, there are exactly four sources of knowledge -perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. (iii) According to the Nyaya School, knowledge obtained through each of these sources will always be valid. Codes: (a) i and ii only (b)
i and iii only
(c)
ii and iii only
(d) All of the above 3. Consider the following statements: I. Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. II. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colours, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and scenes from Buddhism mythology. History IAS Academy ©Chronicle
(c) Both (d) None 5. Which of the following land classification in Dahsala system developed by Todar Mal under the Mughal rule are correctly matched? (i) Polaj - land cultivated annually. (ii) Parauti- land left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years). (iii) Chachar - land left fallow for 3 to 4 years. (iv) Banjar - land uncultivated for 5 years or more. Codes: (a) i, ii & iii (b) ii, iii & iv (c) i, iii & iv (d) i, ii, iii & iv 6. Consider the following statements: 1. Jainism believes that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. These states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of existence. 1
2. According to the Buddhism liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul. Select the correct answer from below: (a) Only 1 is correct
9. Consider the following statements in the context of Dravida temple architecture: 1. The chief feature of the Dravida style is the Vimana or the storey. 2. Chola temples are famous for their richly ornamented gateways called the gopurams.
(b) Only 2 is correct Which of the above statements are correct? (a) Only 1
CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y
(c) Both 1 and 2 are correct
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 is correct
7. Consider the following statements: 1. Kathakali is the only Indian dance form in which the entire body, both skeleton and muscles, down to even the smallest facial muscle are used to portray emotion.
2. The Hastha Lakshandeepika is a classical text and forms the basis of hands and arms movement in Kathakali.
Select the correct answer code from the below: (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct
(c) Both I and II are correct
(d) Neither I nor II are correct
8. Consider these statements regarding 'Mahajanpadas: 1. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas Mahajanapadas).
2. Mahajanpadas had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region. 3. Each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein. 4. The first Buddhist Council was held in Pataliputra,capital of Magadha Mahajanpad. Later on, Rajagriha became the capital of Magadha.
Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3 (c) Only 2, 3 and 4
(d) Only 1, 3 and 4
2
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
10. Consider the following statements in the context of Buddhism: 1. Hinayana is the more orthodox and conservative school of Buddhism which is believed to be more close to the adwaitic tradition of Hinduism.
2. Mahayana is the more advanced and modern school of Buddhism which is believed to be closer to the Dwaita tradition of the Puranic Hinduism. 3. Vajrayana is the Tantric tradition in Buddhism which originated in Tibet and eastern part of India and drew inspiration from the occultist traditions of Vedic Hinduism.
Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Only 3
11. Match the following: Department
Function
1. Vazarat
A. Finance
2. Rasalat
B. Religious affairs
3. Diwan-e-insha
C. Military
4. Diwan-e-arz dence
D. State correspon-
Codes: A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 1
2
4
3
(c) 2
1
4
3
(d) 2
1
3
4
History
12. Consider these statements: 1. Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. 2. Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated into the language of Vedic (chaste) Sanskrit. 3. Along with the Indian emperors Ashoka and Harsha Vardhana and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors. 4. Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Mahakshyapa, who became his religious advisor in his later years. Which of the above statements is /are incorrect? (a) Only 1 and 4 (b) Only 2 and 4 (c) Only 1 and 3 (d) Only 2 and 3 13. Find the correct chronology of the following Mughal emperors 1. Farrukh Siyar 2. Jahandar Shah 3. Muhammad Shah 4. Ahmad Shah Bahadur
(c) Both 1 and 2 are correct (d) Neither 1 nor 2 is correct 15. Which among the following books were written by Harshavardhan? 1. Ratnavali 2. Priyadarshika 3. Nagnanda 4. Kavirajmarg 5. Harshacharita Codes: (a) 1 & 2 only (b) All (c) 1, 2, 3 & 4 only (d) 1, 2 & 3 only 16. The Vakataka Empire was the contemporaries of the Gupta Empire. Consider the following statements regarding the Vakataka Empire: (i) They formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over an area which roughly forms today's states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. (ii) Some of the Ellora Caves were built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. (iii) They were eventually overrun by the Chalukyas. Which of these statements are true? (a) (i) only
Codes: (a) 2 - 1 - 4 - 3
(b) (i) and (ii)
(b) 1 - 2 - 4 - 3
(d) All of the above
(c) 2 - 1 - 3 - 4 (d) 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 14. Consider the following statements: 1. Pattachitra refers to the folk painting of Odisha, in the eastern region of India. 2. Themes of the Pattachitra are chiefly on Lord Jagannath, Radha-Krishna and Jainism. Select the correct answer code from the below: (a) Only 1 is correct (b) Only 2 is correct
(c) (i) and (iii)
17. Which of the following statements regarding Vedas is/are correct? (i) The seventh mandala of the Rig Veda contains the famous Purushasukta which explains the 4 varnas. (ii) Shatapatha Brahamana literature is attached to Yajur Veda. Codes: (a) i only (b) ii only (c) Both i and ii (d) None of them
History
3
18. Consider the following statements regarding the administrative arrangement during Mughal emperor Akbar's reign, and choose the incorrect ones: (i) The revenue department, headed by a wazir, was responsible for all finances and management of jagir and inam lands.
3. Andal the famous woman poet of south India belonged to the Nayanars tradition. Which of the above statements are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
CH IA R S ON AC I C AD L E EM Y
(ii) The head of the military, mir bakshi, was appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotions.
(following the Vaishnava tradition) and Alvars (following the Shaiva tradition).
(iii) The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguards. (iv) The judiciary was a separate organization headed by a chief qazi, who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices. Codes: (a) Only (i)
(b) Only (ii)
(c) Only (iii) and (iv)
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 1, 2 and 3
21. Consider the following statements regarding the Vijayanagar Empire: 1. The Vijayanagara Empire was an empire based in South India, in the Deccan Plateau region. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka I of the Sangam Dynasty. 2. It lasted until 1646 although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates.
3. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site.
(d) None of the above
19. Which of the following statement is/are correct? (i) Aihole inscription is related to Pulakesin II of the Chalukya Dynasty. (ii) Pallavas initiated the Dravida style of temple architecture.
(iii) The founder of the Chalukyas of Vatapi was Jayasimha. Codes: (a) i and ii
(b) i and iii
(c) All of them
(d) None of them
20. Consider the following statements in the context of the Bhakti movement in south India? 1. One of the important regional movements of the Bhakti tradition in Karnataka was founded by Basava who established the Virashaivas sect also called as Lingayats. 2. Under Chola kings two important sects developed in Bhakti tradition - the Nayanars
4
Which of the statements are false? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
(c) All of the above
(d) None of the above
22. Which is not true of the Mauryan Administration? (a) Pataliputra was looked after by six committees. (b) Government officials used to visit their areas for inspection. (c) Officers were given land for their maintenance.
(d) The heads of various departments were called "Adhyaksha".
23. Who among the following anticipated Newton by declaring that all things gravitate to the earth? (a) Aryabhatta (b) Varahamihira (c) Buddhagupta
(d) Brahmagupta
History
24. Match the following: A. Early Paleolithic
1. Chopper-Chopping tools
(b) 2
3
4
1
(c) 1
4
2
3
(d) 3
4
2
1
B. Middle Paleolithic 2. Blades C. Upper Paleolithic
3. Geometric tools
D. Mesolithic
4. Flake
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
3
2
4
25. Which of the states in India has the largest number of Harappan sites after independence? (a) Haryana (b) Gujarat (c) Rajasthan
(d) Punjab
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History
5
HISTORY (SAMPLE QUESTIONS) (ANSWERS)
CHRONICLE IAS ACADEMY
CH IA R S O AC NI C AD L E EM Y
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
1 (d)
14 (a)
2 (a)
15 (d)
3 (a)
16 (c)
4 (a)
17 (b)
5 (d)
18 (d)
6 (d)
19 (c)
7 (a)
20 (a)
8 (b)
21 (d)
9 (c)
22 (c)
10 (c)
23 (d)
11 (b)
24 (c)
12 (b)
25 (b)
13 (c)
History
MEDIEVAL HIS TORY
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CONTENTS Sl. No.
TOPICS
Pg. No.
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 1.
India Between 750-1200 AD ................................................................... 5-31
2.
Establishment and Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate ........................ 32-51
3.
Emergence of Regional States in India ................................................ 52-63
4.
Religious Movements in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries .............. 64-79
5.
Mughal Dynasty .................................................................................... 80-90
6.
Administration Under Mughals ......................................................... 91-107
7.
Later Mughals .................................................................................... 108-116
8.
The Maratha State.............................................................................. 117-120
9.
European Arrival ............................................................................... 121-128
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y [4]
Chronicle IAS Academy
INDIA BETWEEN 750–1200 AD
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
been the founder of the Pallava dynasty. During their reign, the Pallava rulers made Kanchi their capital and extended the kingdom from the Krishna in the south to a region further north of the Arabian Sea. The chronology of the Pallava kings is vague, but texts suggest that they were most powerful between 330 and 550. The noteworthy rulers during this period were: Simhavarama I, Sivaskkandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa. Vishugopa is said to have been defeated in battle by Samudragupta after which the Pallavas become weaker and the Cholas and the Kalahari repeatedly attacked their kingdom and robbed it of its wealth and territories. It was Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma II, who eventually crushed the Kalabhras’ dominance in 575 and re-established his kingdom. There also seems have been an enmity between the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. However, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms. The Pallava history between 600 and 900 is full of accounts of wars between the Pallava and the Chaluakaya rulers.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The period between AD 750 and AD 1200 is referred to as an early medieval period of Indian History. It was earlier treated by historians as a ‘dark phase’. It was so because during this time the whole country was divided into numerous regional states which were busy fighting with each other. But recent studies have indicated that, though politically divided, India witnessed a growth of new and rich cultural activities in the fields of art, literature and language. In fact, some best specimens of temple architecture and Indian literature belong to this period. Thus, far from being ‘dark’ it may be treated as a bright and vibrant phase of Indian history.
CHRONICLE
The political developments after Harshavardhan, can be best understood if we divide the period from AD 750 to AD 1200 in two parts (a) AD 750–AD 1000; (b) AD 1000– AD 1200. The first phase was marked by the growth of three important political powers in India. These were Gurjara Pratiharas in north India, Palas in eastern India and Rashtrakutas in South India. These powers were constantly fighting with each other with an aim to set up their control on Gangetic region in northern India. This armed conflict among these three powers is known as ‘Tripartite struggle’. In the second phase we notice the breakup of these powers. It resulted in the rise of many smaller kingdoms all over the country. For example, in northern India, the disintegration of the Pratihara Empire brought to the forefront various Rajput states under the control of different Rajput dynasties such as the Chahmanas (Chauhans), Chandellas, Paramaras. etc. These were the states which fought and resisted the Turkish attacks from northwest India led by Mahmud Ghaznavi and Mohammad Ghori in the 11th and 12th centuries, but had to yield ultimately as they failed to stand united against the invaders.
MAJOR DYNASTIES The Pallava dynasty emerged in South India at a time when the Satavhana dynasty was on the decline, Shivaskandavarman is said to have
Chronicle IAS Academy
In 670, Parameshwaravarma I came to the throne and restricted the advance of the Chlukyan king Vikramaditya I. However, the Chalukyas joined hands with the Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma, another promients enemy of the Pallavas, and defeated Parameshwaravarma I. Parameshwaravarma I died in 695 and was succeeded by Narasimhavarma II, a peaceliving ruler. During his reign, clashes between the Pallavas and chalukyas were few. He is also remembered for building the famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi. He died grieving his elder son’s accidental death in 722. His youngest son, Parameshwaravarma II, came to power in 722. He was a patron of arts and had little interest in fighting. He proved to be a very soft opponent to his contemporary Chalukya king, Vikramaditya II, who had the support if the Ganga king, Yereyqppa. He died in 730 with no heirs to the throne, which left the Pallava kingdom in a state of disarray.
[5]
kingdom by annexing the entire Andhra kingdom. His reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of Karnataka. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada. In the north, pulakeshin II subdued the Latas, Malavas, and Gurjara. He also annexed the three kingdoms of Maharashtra, Konkan, and Karnataka. After conquering the Kosalas and the Kalingas, and eastern Chalukyan dynasty was inaugurated by his brother Kubja Vishnuvardana. This dynasty absorbed the Andhra country by defeating the Vishnukundin king Vidramendravarman III. Moving south, pulakeshin II allied himself with the Cholas, Keralas, and Pandyas in order to invade the powerful Pallavas. By 631, the Chalukyan empire extended from sea to sea. However, Pulkeshin II was defeated and probably killed in 642, when the Pallavas, in retaliation for an attack on their capital, captured the chalukyan capital at Badami.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Nandivarma II came to power after some infighting for the throne among relatives and officials of the kingdom. He waged war against the Pandyas and crushed them at a time when they got no support from the Chalukyas; Instead, the Chalukyan king Deertivarma (son of Vidramaditya II) waited for the defeat of Pandyas at the hands of Pallavas, and immediately afterword waged war against the war-torn Pallava army and defeated it. However, Nandivarma married the Rashtrakuta princess Reetadevi, and reestablished the Pallava kingdom. He was succeeded by Dantivarma (796-846) who ruled for 54 long years. Dantivarma was defeated by the Rastrakut king, Dantidurga, and subsequently by the Pandyas. He was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846. Accounts in the Tamil book Nandikkalubalakom say that the Pallava kings who followed were powerful. Nandivarma III was succeeded by Nrupatungavarma, who had two brothers, Aparajitavarma and Kampavarma. The Chola king provoked Aprajita varma into waging a civil war in the Pallava kingdom. Subsequently, Aprajita Varma captured the throne but had to pay heavy costs to the Cholas for their help. Later, incompetent kings and political instability reduced the Pallavas to petty kingdom. This brought the Cholas to formidable position in the south Indian political stage.
THE CHALUKYAS
History of the Chalukyas, the Karnataka rulers, can be classified into three eras: 1) the early western era (6th -8th century), the Chalukyas of Badami; 2) the later western era (7th - 12th century), the Chalukyas of Kalyani; 3) the eastern chalukya era (7th - 12th century), the chalukyas of Vengi. The Chinese traveler, Hieun Tsang, gives an elaborate account of the Chalukyas in his travelogue. Pulakesin I (543567) was the first independent ruler of Badami with Vatapi in Bijapur as his capital. Kirthivarma I (566-596) succeeded him at the throne. When he died, the heir to the throne, Prince Pulakesin II, was just a baby and so the king’s brother, Mangalesha (597-610), was crowned the caretaker ruler. Over the years, he made many unsuccessful attempts to kill the prince but was ultimately killed himself by the prince and his friends. Pulakesin II (610-642), the son of Pulakesin I, was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and the most famous of the Chalukyan kings. He increased the size of his
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The Chalukyas rose to power once again under the leadership of Vikramaditya I (655-681), who defeated his contemporary Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and Kerala rulers to establish the supremacy of the Chalukyan empire in the region. He was succeeded by his son Vinayaditya(681-696), who was an able administrator. He had many victories to his account, prominent among them credit against Yashovarma being the once (king of Kanauj). He was succeeded by his son Vijayaditya (696-733), who was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya II (733-745) who defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom. However, Vikramaditya II’s son, Kirtivarma II (745), was disposed by the Rastrakuta ruler, Bhantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta dynasty as a force to reckon with in Karnataka’s Political scenario.
THE PANDYAS OF MADURAI (6TH TO 14TH CENTURY)
The pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule south India and are mentioned in Kautilya’s Arhasastra and Megasthenes’ Indica. The Sangam age started from a Pandya king and, as per Sangam literature, there were at least twenty kings in this dynasty. The most prominent among them was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital. Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several Lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes
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dynasty who conquered Orissa, Bengal, Burma and the Andaman and Nicobar Island. The Cholas dynasty was at its zenith during his reign. The last ruler of the Chola Dynasty was Rajendra III (1246-79). He was a weak ruler who surrendered to the pandyas. Later, Malik Kafur invaded this Tamil state in 1310 and extinguished the Chola empire. Rajaraja I (985-1014) who was known by a variety of titles such as mummadi choladeva. Jayandonada, and chola-martanda, began the most glorious epoch of the Cholas. He used his military powers to rebuild the Chola empire and raise himself to a position of supremacy in the south. One of the earliest exploits of Rajaraja I was the subjugation of the Cheras, whose fleet he destroyed at Kandalur. He then took Madurai and captured the panday king, Amarabhujanga. At this time the affairs of Srilanka were in a state of disarray; hence, he invaded the island and annexed its northern part which became a Cholas province under the name Munnadi colamandalam. Rajaraja I then overran the eastern Chalukyan country of Vengi. The conquests of Rajaraja I included Kalinga and “ the old islands of the sea numbering 12,000”, which have been generally identified with the Laccadives and the Maldivas. Rajaraja’ is also famous for the beautiful siva temple which he constructed at Thanjavur. It is called Rajarajeswava after his name and is specially admired for its huge proportions, simple design, elegant sculpters, and fine decorative motifs. On the walls of the temple, is engraved an account of Rajaraja’s ecploits.
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such as Valuti and Celiyan. The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the cheras and Cholas, and luxury goods from their maritime trade with countries further west. The Pandyas founded a Tamil Literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests. Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras. After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century. Their first significant ruler was Dundungan (590620) who defeated the Kalabars and brought the pandyas back to the path of glory. The list known Pandya king, Parakramadeva, was defeated by Usaf Khan, (a viceroy of Muhmmad-bin-Tughlaq when the Tughlaq dynasty was in process of extending their kingdom up to Kanyakumari.
THE CHOLAS (9TH TO 13TH CENTURY)
The Chola dynasty was one of the most popular dynasties of south India which ruled over Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka with Tanjore as its capital. Rock edicts II and XII of Ashoka rare the earliest historical documents to refer to the Cholas. Early Chola rulers were the karikala Cholas who ruled in the 2nd century. After them, the Chola dynasty remained insignificant for centuries before resurfacing when, in 850, Vijayalaya captured Tanjore during the Pandya-Pallava wars. To commemorate his accession, he built a temple at Tanjore, The king was the central head who was helped by a council of ministers. However, the administration was democratic. Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income. Society was divided into Brahmins and nonBrahmins. The temple was the cultural and social centre, where art and literature flourished. The giant statue of Gomateswara at Shravanbelagola was also built during this period. Vijayalaya’s son Aditya I (871-901) succeeded him to throne. Aditya died in 907 leaving the throne to his son Parantaka I (907-955) who was king for the next 48 years. But it was Rajaraj I (985-1014) who was the founder of newly organized Chola kingdom. He snatched back lost territories form the Rashtrakutas and become the most powerful of the Chola rulers. Rajendra Chola (1014-144), son of Rajaraja I, was an important ruler of this
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Rajendra I gangaikonda (1014-44) secceeded Rajaraja I. A few years after coming to the throne, he annexed the whole of Sri Lanka's, northern part having been previously conquered by RajarajaI. The following year he reasserted the Chola supermacy over the kings of Kerala and the Pandyan country. Rajendra I also directed his arms towards the North, and his armies marched triumphantly as far as the Ganga and the dominions of the Pala king Mahipala. It was doubtless an audacious campaign and to commemorate it he adopted the title of gangaikonda, Rajendra I invited a number of Hiavas form Bengal in to his kingdom. The chola monarch’s achievements were not invited to land. He possessed a fowerful fleet which gained successes across the Bay of Bengal. It is said that he vanquished Sangramavijayottungavarman and conquered kataha or Kadaram (Sumatra).
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Presumably, the expediton was undertaken to further commercial intercourse between the Malay peninsula and South India. Rajendra I founded a new capital called after himGangaiknoda-Cholapuram, indentified with modern Gangakundapuram in the Tiruchiraplli district of Tamil Nadu. It has magnificent place and a temple adorned with exquisite granite sculptures.
The organisation which was responsible for the continuity of life and tradition in the midst of frequent political changes in south India was the village, and the vitality of this institute is attested by hundreds of inscriptions from all arts of south India. The degree of autonomy at the south Indian village level was quite remarkable. Participation of royal officials in village affaris was more as advisors and observers than as administratiors.
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Kulottunga I (1070-1122) was another significant Chola ruler. Kulottunga I united the two kingdom of the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of Thanjavur. Kullottunga I introduced certain reforms in the internal administration of the kingdom. Of these, the most important was that he got the land resurveyed for taxation and revenue purposes. Despite being a devout Shaiva by faith, he is known to have made grants to the Buddhist shrines at Megapatam. After a long reign of about half a century, Kulottunga I passed away sometime in 1122 and was succeeded by his son, Vikrama Chola, surnamed Tyagasamudra, who had earliar held the viceroyalty of Vengi. Vikrama Chola (1118-33) and his immediate successors, Kulottunga II (1133-47), Rajaraja II (1147-62) and Rajadhiraja II (1162-78), were all weak rulers under whom the power of the cholas rapidly declined and their place was taken by the Hoysalas of Dwarsamundra and Pandyas of Madurai.
SOUTH INDIAN VILLAGE SYSTEM
The Cholas (like the Pallavas) undertook vast irrigational projects. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, they built mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land One of the most remarkable achievements belongs to the time of Rajendra I. He dug an artificial lake which was filled with water form the Klerun and the Vellar rivers near his new capital, Gangaikonda Chlapuram. The Cholas also constructed grand trunk roads which served as artorvals along important roads, and public ferries were provided across rivers. The Chola rulers were mainly worshippers of Siva, but they were not intolerant of other prevaints faiths. Rajaraja I, and ardent Saiva himself, built and endowed temples of Vishnu and made gifts of the Buddhist Vihara at Negapatam. Kulottuga I, also a Shaiva, is recorded to have granted a village to a Buddhist vihar. The jains also appear to have pursued their faith in peace and harmony.
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Type of Villages
The village with an intercaste population, paying taxes to the king in the form of land revenue, was the most frequent type. Brahmadeya or agrahara villages were villages granted to Brahmins and inhabited entirely by them. These were less common than the first type, but much more porsperous, because of their exemption from tax. Devadan were villages granted to god, they functioned more or less in the same manner sa the first type except that the revenues form these villages were donated to temple, and, hence, received by the temple authorities and not by the state.
During the Pallava period, the first two type were predominant, but under the Cholas when temples become the centres of life, the third of the last type gained more popularity.
The emperor was the pivot on which the whole machinery of the state turned. He discharged his onerous duties and responsibilities with the advice and help of ministers and other high offcers. The inscriptions of the Cholas prove that there system of administration was highly organise and efficient. Public revenue was derived mainly from land and collected in kind, or in cash, or in both, by village assemblies. Land was possessed by individual and communities. There were peasant proprietorship and other forms of land tenure. The state’s demand of land revenue seems to have been one third of the gross produce in the time of Rajaraja I. The other items of public income were customs and tolls, which were taxes on various kinda of professions, mines, forests. salt, etc. There were occasional famines, general or local; the visitation of 1152 evidently belonged to the former category, though there is evidence of the sympathetic
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administration of the tax system-Kulottunga I earned fame by abolishing toll some cases of oppression are on record. The chief items of public expenditure were the regular expenses of the king and his court, army and navy, civil administrative staff, roads, and irrigation tanks and channels besides temples and religious endowments.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The village assembly held society together through its unique feature of an autonomous selfsufficient village. The village was the primary unit of society and polity. From inscriptional records we are able to trace the presence of at least three types of assembly held society together through its unique feature of an autonomous self-sufficient village. The village was the primary unit of society and polity, from inscriptional records we are able to trace the presence of at least three types of assemblies which played a regular part in local administration, namely (a) the ur, (b) the sabha or mahasabha and (c) the nagaram. The ur was evidently the more common type of assembly of the normal villages. Land was held by all classes of people who were, therefore, entitled to membership in the local assembly. The sabha was apparently an exclusively Brahmin assembly of the brahmadeya villages where, all the land belonged to the Brahmins.
were made whenever necessary. The Uttaramerur Inscription, behinging to the reign of Parantaka I (10th century), gives us detail about the functioning and constitution of the local sabha. It mentions not only qualifications, ranging from property and education to honesty, but also disqualification of the local sabha. It mentions not only qualifications, ranging form property and education to honesty, but also disqualifications such as lunacy and corruption. Other inscriptions also give similar information, though there are a few variations. The assembly generally met in the premises of the temple. The assemblies collected the assessed land revenue for the government or the temple (assessment could be either joint or individual). They levied additional tax for a particular purpose such as the construction of a water tank. They settled agrarian disputes such as conflicts over tenures and irrigation rights. They maintained records, particularly those pertaining to charities and taxes on larger assemblies.
The nagaram was an assembly of merchants and belonged to localities where traders and merchants were in a dominate position.
Functioning and constitution of assemblies
The functioning of assemblies differed form place to place according to local conditions. The ur was open to all the tax paying adults of the village, but in effect, the older members played more prominent role with some forming a small executive body, the ur had an executive body, called alunganam, whose numerical strength and the manner of the appointment of its members are not clear. The sabha had a more complex machinery, and it funtctioned very largely through its committees called the variyams. Both usually constituted smaller committees of different sizes from among their members for specialised work. Election to the executive body and other committees of the ur of sabha appears to have been conducted by draw of lots form among those who were eligible, though amendments to the constitution and working of the ur or sabha
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The two Uttaramerur inscriptions of the twelfith and fourteenth years (919 and 921) of the Chola monarch Parantaka I may be considered great landmarks in the history of the Chola village assemblies. In these inscriptions, we see the completion of the transition from the appointment of individual executive officers (the variyar) by the sabha to the establishment of a fairly elaborate committee system. By this means, important sections of local administration were entrusted to committees (Variyam) of six or twelve members according to the importance of their functions. The first inscription laid down rules for the election of the various committees, and the second inscription, dated two years later, amended these rules with a view to removing some practical difficulties that had been experienced in their working.
THE CHERAS (9TH TO 12TH CENTURY)
The Chera kingdom was another historical Tamil chiefdoms of southern India, which controlled the Cauvery river valley. It first arose some time after the 3rd century BC with Karuvur-Van-chi as its inland political centre and Muchiri on the Kerala cost as its port of trade, where merchants exchanged pepper for gold and wine from the Raman empire. The Cheras exercised a clan rule under different Lingages. Its rulers apparently fought intertribal
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Among Amoghavarsha’s successors, two significant Rashtrakuta rulers were Indra III (915-27) and Krishna III (939-5-65). Indra III defeated the Paratihara king Mahipala I, plundered his capital Kanauj, and challenged the eastern Chalukyas. The Arab traveler AlMashdi, who visited India during this period, calls the Rashtrakuta king the, ‘greatest king of India.’ Krishna III, fourth in succession from Indra III, invaded the Chola kingdom and his army reached Rameswaram, where he built a pillar of victory and a temple. In about 963 he led an expedition of northern India and brought Vengi under his control by putting his nominee on the throne. But by waging wars almost against all his neigbours, he aliennated them and created serious problems for his successors. During the reign of his successors, the situation worsened on account of the internal dissensions including the wars of succession. Taking advantage of this situation, the Paramaras of Malwa, who were the feudatories of the Rashtrakuta, declared their independence and invaded the Rashtrakuta kingdom and plundered the Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta (modern Malkhed, Maharashtra) in 972-73. Soon, other feudatories of the Rashtrakutas also became independent. Thus, by the end of 10th century the Rashtakutas completely disappeared form the scene,
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conflicts with the Cholas and Pandyas, and subjugated minor chiefs of the Velir clan. The Chera kingdom o Makotai was established in the 9th century in the Periyar valley of Derala, with Makotaipuram (kodungallur) and Quilon as its first and second capital. The kingdom acquired an agrarian base through land grants to Brahmins and Brahmin institutions, such as temples to Siva and Vishnu, trading ventures with Arab and Jewish lands provided commercial resources. Contemporary texts give an account of the ruling dynasty’s legendary origins and history. Makotai was supposedly hostile to the Pandyas but friendly with the Mushakas of Kerala. Despite a series of defensive wares, constant invasions by the Cholas of Tanjavur led to the disintegration of the Makotai kingdom by the early 12th century.
THE RASHTRAKUTA
The term ‘rashtakuta’ means designated officers-in-charge of territorial division called rashtra. The originally belonged to Lattatura or modern Latur of Maharashtra. They were feudatories under the Chalukyas of Badami. The Rashtrakutas were descendants of the nobles who governed under the Andhras. They were follower of jainism. Dhantidurga (735-756) established this kingdom. His ancestors were subordinates of the Chalukyas. They overthrew the Chalukyas and ruled up to 973. Dhantidurga was succeeded by his son Krishna I (756-774). Krishna I is credited to have built the Kailasa temple at Ellora. He is also said to have totally eclipsed the contemporary Chalukya rulers. Other kings of this dynasty were Govinda II (774780), Dhruva (780-790), Govinda III (793-814) and Amoghavarsa Nrupatunga I (814-887). The extend of the Amoghavarsa’s empire can be estimated from the accounts of the Arabian traveller, Sulaiman, who visited his court in 1851 and wrote in his book that ‘his kingdom was one of the four great empires of the world at that time.’ However, Amoghavarsha lacked the maratial spirit of his predecessors, partly due to his leanings towards religion and literature. The principles, appealed to him. He was a patron of literature and patronished men of letters, such as Kinasena, the author of Adipurana, Mahaviracharya, the author of Ganitasara Samgraha and Saktayana, the author of Amonghavriti. Amoghavarsha himself wrote Kavirajamarga which is the earliest Kannada work on poetics.
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The dynasty of the Dhalukyas of Kalyani was founded by Tailapa after overthrowings the Rashtrakutas in 974-75, The dynasty founded by him, with its capital at Kalyani (Karnataka), is known as the later Chalukyas of the Chalukyas of Kalyani (the early Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). Tailapa ruled for twentythree years form 974 to 997. He made extensive conquests during his reign. By defeating the Gangas, he conquered North Mysore. He fought a protracted war with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually took Paramara Munja, prisoner and executed him in his capital. He opened the longdrawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, by attacking Uttama Chola. The Chaluky-Chola power struggle become a regular feature during the period of his successors. This lead to weakening of the dynasty and decline of its financial resources.
CAUSES OF TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE Causes for Tripartite Struggle between the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas are as follows:
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1. To acquire supremacy over Kanauj, as symbol of prestige. 2. Te get control over the rich resources of the Gangetic valley. 3. To get control over Gujarat and Malwa whose nearness to the coast was very important for forging trade. 4. Lust for war booty, and important source for maintaining a huge army.
THE PRATIHARAS (8TH TO 10TH CENTURY) The Pratihars were also called GurjarPratihars probably because they originated from Gurjarat or Southwest Rajasthan. It is believed that originally they were a branch of the Gurjaras, which was one of the nomadic central Asian tribes that poured into India along with the Hunas following the disintegration of the Gupat Empire. As rulers, the Pratiharas came into prominence in the middle of the eight century when their king, Nagabhatta I, defended western India form the Arab incursions form Sindh into Rajasthan. He was able to leave to his successors a powerful principality comprising Malwa and parts of Rajputana and Gujarat.
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5. Desire to impress the smaller kingdoms with the sense of their power and demand respect.
almost extinct and their place was taken by the kaktiyas of Warangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Yadavas of Devigiri.
The Rashtrakutas were tolerant in religious matters and patronised not only Saivism as will. The Rashtrakuta rulers were even tolerant of Islam. They permitted Muslim merchants to settle, build their mosques and preach their religion in the Rashtrakuta dominions. Their tolerant policies gave a great impetus to trade and commerce.
In the field of literature also, their tolerant spirit is visible. They equally patronised Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apaghransa, a forerunner of many modern India languages, and Kannada They patronised the arts liberally. The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora-Brahmanical. Buddhist and jain are the symbols of their religious toleration and are one of the splendours of Indian art. The Kailash Temple, built by the Rashtrakut king Drishna I, is an unrivalled and stupendous piece of art. The ancient Indian rock-cut architecture reached its zenith under the Rashtrakutas. The last great Chalukya ruler was Vikramakitya VI (1076-1126) who, on his coronation, withdrew the Saka era and introduced the Chalukya-Vikram era. Vikramaditya VI was a great patron of writers. Bilhana, the author of the Vikramankadevacharita and Vijananeshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentator on the Smritis, adorned his court. In 1085, he invaded Kanchi and annexed some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought numerous wars against the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, the Kakatiyas of Warangal. The Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were all the feudatories of the Chalukyas. Despite defeating them he could not suppress their power and within three decades of this death. Most of the leading Khalukyan feudatories asserted their imdependence once again, by the middle of the twelfth century, The Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyan, had become
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After the Nagabhatta I regin, the Pratiharas suffered a series of defeats mostly at the hands of the Rashtrakutas. The Pratihara power regained its lost glory only after only after the succession of Mihirbhomja, popularly known as Bhoja. He had a long reign of 46 years and his evenful career drew the attention of the Arab traveler, Sulaiman. He reestablidhed the supremacy of his family in Bundelkhand and subjugated Jodhpur. The Daulatpura copper plate of Bhoja shows that the pratihara king had succeeded in reasserting his authority over central and eastern Rajputana. Mihirbhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I whose most notable achievement was the conquest of Magadha and northern Bengal. Mahendrapala I was a Liberal patron of literature. The most brilliant writer in his court was Rajasekhara who has to his credit a number of literary worksKarpuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Bala and Bharta, Kavyamimamsa. Mahendrapala’s death was followed by a scramble for the possession of the throne. Bhoja II seized the throne, but half brother, Mahipala soon usurped the throne. The Rashtrkutas again challenged the strength of the Pratihara empire and its ruler, Indra III, completely devastated the city of Kanauj. However, the withdrawal of Indra III to the Deccan enabled Mahipala to recover form the fatal blow. Mahendrapala II, son and successor of mahipala, was able to keep his empire intact. But it received a shattering blow during the reign of Devapala, when the Chandelas become virtually independent. The
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process of decline of the Pratihara empire which had begun with Devapal accelerated during the reign of Vijayapala.
The glory of the Pala empire suffered with the death of Devapala. The rule of his successors was marked by a steady process of disintegration. A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Kalachuris dismembered the Pala Empire.
THE SENAS (11TH TO 12TH CENTURY)
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Thus, we find that the Pratiharas emerged as one of the most powerful empires of the early medieval period. The Arab traveler Al-Masudi, who visited India in the year 915-16, also refers to the power and resouces of the king of Kanauj whose kingdom extended up to Sind in the west and touched the Rashtrakuta kingdom in the south.
Devapala granted the request and appointed Viradeva, as head of Nalanda Monastery. Devapala’s court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vijrakatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka.
THE PALAS (8TH TO 11TH CENTURY)
Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India in the 9th century has termed the Pala empire as Rhumi. The Pala Empire was founded by Gopal in 750. It is believed that he was elected as the king by the notable men of the area to end the anarchy prevailing there after the death of Sasanka of Bengal. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist and is supposed to have built the monastery at Odantapuri (Sharif district of Bihar). Gopala was succeeded by his son Bharmapla who raised the Pala kingdom to greatness. The kingdom expanded under him and it comprised the whole of Bengal and Bihar. Besides, the kindom of Kanauj was a dependency, ruled by Dharmapal’s own nominee. Beyond Kanuja, there were a large number of vassal states in the Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa and Berar whose rulers acknowledged Dharmapala as their overlord. However, Dharmapala’s trimphant career was soon challenged by his pratihara adversary. After a reign of 32 years Dharmapal died, leaving his extensive dominions unimpaired to his son Devapala. Devapala ascended the throne in 810 and Ruled for 40 years. He extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam), parts of Orissa and parts of Modern Nepal Devapal was a great patron of Buddhism and his fame spred to many buddhist countries outside India. As a Buddhist, he founded the famous mahavihara of Vkramasial near Bhagalpur. He also credited with the construction of a vihara at Somapura (Paharpur). He also patronised Haribhadra, one of the great Buddhist authors. Balaputradeva, a king of the Buddhist Sailendras, ruling Java, sent an ambassador to Devapala, asking for a grant of five villages in order to endow a monastery at Nalanda.
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The Sena dynasty ruled Bengal after the Palas. Its founder was Samantasena described as a ‘brahmakshatriya’. The title brahmakshatriya shows that Samantasena was a brahmin, but his successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas. Samantasena’s son Hemantasena took advantage of the unstable political situation of Bengal and carved out an independent principality. Vijayasena, son of Hemantasena, brought the family into the limelight by comquering nearly the whole of Bengal. Vijayasena assumed several immaterial titles like paramesvara, paramabhattaraka, and maharajadhiraja. He had two capitals, which was one, at Vijaypuri of Bangladesh. The famous poet Sriharasha composec the Vijayaprasasti in memory of Vijayasena. Vijayasena was succeeded by his son, Ballalasena. Ballalasena was a great scholar. He wrote four works of which two are extant, the Banasagara and the Adbhutasagara. The first is an extensive work on omens and portents, and the second on astronomy. Lakshmanasena succeeded Ballalasena in 1179. The reign of Lakshmanasena was remarkable for patronising literature. He was a devout Vaishnava and, Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and author of the Gita Govinda lived at his court. His reign saw the decline of the Sena power because of internal rebellions. The invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji gave it a crushing blow. A detailed account of the invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji has been given in Tabakat-i-Nasiri.
THE EASTERN CHALUKYAS (OF VENGI) (8TH TO 10TH CENTURY)
Vishnuvardhana was the founder of the dynasty of the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Pulakesin II of Badami subdued the king of Pishtapura (Pitapuram in the Godavari district) and the vishnukundin king and appointed his
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reached the zenith of its glory and power in the reign of Simhana. Many among the Hoyasalas, the Kakatiyas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas dared to challenged his supremacy in the Deccan. Simhana was not merely a wirrior, but was also a patron of music and literature. Singitaratnakara of Sarangadeva, an important work on music, was written in his court. Anantadeva and Changadeva were the two famous astronomers who also adorned his court. Changadeva established a college of astronomy at Patana in Khandesh in memory of his illustrious grandfather, Bhaskaracharya. Anantadeva wrote a commentary on Bharahmagupta’s Brahmasphhutra Siddhanta and Varahamihira’s Brihat Jataka.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
younger brother, Vishnuvardhana, vicerory of the newly conquered territories. Very soon, the Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and Vishnuvardhana became the founder of dynasty known as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Vijayawada). This is the earliest reference of Jainism in the telugu country. Vishnuvardhana himself was a Bhagavata. Vishnuvarkhana was succeeded by his son Jayasimha I. His fater, Jayasimha was also a Bhagavata. He was succeeded by Vishnuvardhana II, Vijayasiddhi, jayasimha II, Vikramaditya, Vishnuvardhana III and then by Vijayadity one after another. His reign withessed a great political revolution in the Deccan when the imperial Chalukyas were overthrown by the Rashtrikutas who began a protracted struggle against the eastern Chalukyas. Vijayaditya was succeeded by his brother’s son Bhima. His succession was disputed by his uncle, Yaddamalla, who seized Vengi with the help of the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II. The Chalukyan nobles, however, succeeded in restoring the kingdom to its lawful master after defeating Krishna II. He was a devotee of Siva and built the temples of Bhimavaram and Draksharamam in the east Godavari district.
THE YADAVAS (OF DEVGIRI) (12TH TO 13TH CENTURY)
The first member of the dynasty was Dridhaprahara. However, Seunachandra I, the son of Dridhaprahar, was the first to secure feudatory status for his family from the Rashtrakutas. The importance of this chief can be assessed from the fact that the territory ruled by the Yadavas came to be known as Seunadesa. Meanwhile, the great Chalukyan power was already on the read to decline. The Yadavas naturally took advantage of the situation and asserted their independence. Bhillama, thus, laid the foundationof the yadava Empire which endured for about a century. Simhana was the most powerful ruler of the family. As the Hoyasalas proved a great obstacle to the further expansion of the kingdom in the south, Simhana launched a successful campaign against them. Elated by his successes in the south, Simhana waged war against his hereditary enemies in the north-the Paramaras of malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat. He defeated and killed the Paramara king Arjumavarman. Thus, the Yadava kingdom
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Sankaradeva was probably the last of the Yadava rulers. After his accession, hi immediately repudiated the authority of Alauddin. Malik kafur easily defeated Kankaradeva, put him to death and annexed the Yadav kingdom. The period between the 9th and 11th century saw the energence of warrior castes-military ruling clans which ultimately coalesced into a single caste, that of the Rajputs, the term being derived, from the Sanskrit word rajaputra. The four Rajput clans that claimed a special status during his time were the Prathiharas, the Chalukyas, the Chauhans (also called Chahamanas) and the Dolankis. Western and Central India provide us with example of a fresh spurt in the emergence of local states. For example, the Rajput clans such as the Gujarara, Prathihar, Guhila, Paramara, Chahamana as well as the Kalachuriwa and Chandella exploited political uncertainties of the post-Gupa era in western and central India. They donimated the political scene for centuries, especially during the period exending from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries. The picture of the political processes that resulted in the replacement of old dynasties by new Rajput powers of uncertain origin is not clear. Nonetheless an attempt has been made to work out some essential traits of the nature of the distribution of political authority. Unlike northern and eastern India, the region showed some influence of Iineage-at least in some parts of the region. Even in these parts, the dispersal of administrative and fiscal powers along with the changes in the bureaucratic set-up-all based on new landholding-set the tome of fedual polity.
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contemporary status of a clan at least in the early stages of the crystallisation of Rajput power. There are two important pointers to the process of the emergence of the Rajputs in the earyl medieval records. As these records suggest, at one level the process may have to be has to be traced not only in the significant expansion of the number of settlements but also in some epigraphic references, suggesting an expansion of an agrarian economy.
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The problem of the origin of Rajput dynasties is highly complex and controversial. Their gotrochhara makes them Kshatriyas of the Lunar family (somavamshi) while on the basic of old davyas some maintain that they were of the solar race. The myths of solar origin regard them as Kashtriya created in Kaliyuga to wipeout the mlecchas (foreigners). Rajasthani bards and chroniclers regard them as fire-born (agnikula). According to the agnikula myth recorded by a court poet, the founder of the house of the Paramaras originated form the firepit of sage Vasistha on Mount Abu. The man who thus sprang out of the fire forcibly wrested the wish-granting cow of sage Vasishtaha form sage Vishwamitra and restored it to the former. Sage Vasistha gave him the fitting name of paramara-slayer of the enemy. From him sprang a race, which was regarded with high esteem by virtuous kings. The Parakara inscription also declare th origin of the Paramaras form the firepit of sage Vasishtha on the Mount Abu. The Rajasthani bards went a step further and described the five origin not only to the Paramaras but also to the Prathiharax, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Chahamanas. The practice of new social groups claiming Dshatriya status become widespread in the early medieval period. Kshatriya status was one of the various symbols that the emergent social groups sought for the legitimation of their newly acquired power. The early medieval and medieval Rajput clans, representing a mixed caste and constituting a fairly large section of petty chiefs holding estates, achieved political eminence gradually, There was a direct relationship a Kshatriya lineage. In this context, it is important to note that these dynasties claimed descent from ancient Kshatriyas long after their accession to power. A preliminary idea of the processes idea of the processes involved may be formed by trying to defind the term rajput. In the early medieval period too, as in other periods, it may not be at all easy to distinguish the Rajputs from the non Rajputs, despite the clear evidence regarding certain recognisable clans and frequent references to the Rajaputras in inscriptions and literature. If the early medieval and medieval references to the Rajputras in general are taken into account, they represented a mixed caste and constitited a fairly large section of petty chiefs holding estates. The criterion for inclusion in the list of Rajput clans was provided by the
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However, to conceive of the emergence of the Rajputs only in terms of colonisation would be to take a wrong view of the total process involved, and here we come to the second pointer provided by the records. The fact that the mobility to the Kshatriya status was in operation elsewhere in the same period, prompts one to look for its incidence also in Rajasthan, The cases of two groups who are included in the list of Rajput clans are significant in this context. One is that of the Medas who are considered to have reached the Rajput status form a tribal background. The other is that of the Hunas. The inclusion of these two groups in the Rajput clan structure is sufficient to believe that the structure could be composed only of such groups as were initially closely linked by descent, ‘foreign’ or ‘indigenous’.
AGRARIAN AND POLITICAL STRUCTURES
From about the beginning of the eighth century, there emerged a political set up in western India and central India in which new social groups acquired political power by various means such as settlement of new areas. The pattern of the emergence of the Rajputs, which was partly a clan-based organisation of political authority, shows some deviations form developments outside western India. However, the mobility of new powers towards kshatriya status for legitimation was not specific to western India as a similar process was in operation elsewhere in early medieval India. After seeking legitimacy for their new Kshatriya role, the ruling clans of western and central India formulated detailed geneologies in the period of their transition form feudatory to independent status. They consolidated their political position by means of specific patterns of land distribution and territorial system. Some other prominent features of the polity and the agrarian struchtures in the region are:
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organisation of bureaucracy which could connect different modes in their political structures marked by different foci or levels of power.
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Dominance of landlord-subordinate relations.
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Landholding as an important component of the samanta status.
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Integration of local polities into larger status polities.
their land cultivalted led to the growth of different strata of intermediaries. It was a hierarchy of landed aristocarats, tenants, share croppers and cultivators. This hierarchy was also reflected in the powers, administrative structure, where a sort of lord vassal relationship emerged. In other words, Indian feudalism consisted of the unequal distribution of land and its produce. 2. Prevalence of forced labour. The right of extracting forced labour (Vishti) is believed to have been exercised by the Brahmanas and other grantees of land. Forced labour was originally a prerogrative of the king or the state. It was transferred to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and other. As a result, a kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural labourers were reduced to the position of semi-serfs.
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•
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Certain amount of land-based ranking associated with politico-administrative roles and services.
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Wielding of vast-administrative and financial powers by vassals and officers to the extent of sub-infeudation.
INDIAN FEUDALISM
This period (from 750 to 1200) in Indian history has been termed as a period of ‘Indian Fedualism’ by a few historians. They believed that a number of changes took place in Indian society. One significant change was the growing power of a class of people who are variously called Samantas, Ranaks, Rauttas etc. Their origins were very different. Some were government officers who were defeated rajas who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Still others were local hereditary chiefs or tribal leaders who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of armed supporters. In course of time these revenue-bearing lands began to be considered hereditary and monopoly of a few families. The hereditary chiefs began to assume many of the functions of the government. They not only assessed and collected land revenue but also assumed more and more administrative power such as the right lands to their followers without the prior permission of the rulers. This led to an increase in the number of people who drew sustenace form the land without working on it. The salient features of Indian feudalism were as follows.
1. Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries. Vassal and officers of state and other secular assignes had military obligations and were called Samonta. Subinfeudation (varying in different regions) by these donees to get
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3. Due to the growing claims of greater over them by rulers and intermediares, peasants also suffered an curtailmat of their land rights. Many were reduced to the positon of tenants facing evergrowing threat of eviction. A number of peasants were only share- croppers (ardhikas). The strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of taxation, coercion and increase in their indebtness. 4. Surplus was extracted through various methods. Extra economic coercion was a conspicuous method, new mechanisms of economic subordination also evolved. 5. It was relatively a closed village economy. The transfer of human resources along with land to the beneficiaries shows that in such villages the peasants, craftsmen and artisans were attached to the village and, hence, were mutually dependent. Their attachment to land and to service grants ensured control over them by the beneficeries.
Recently, the validity of the feudel formation in the context of medieval India has been questioned. It has been suggested that the medieval society was characterised by self
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took an interest in the extension and improvement of cultivation. Economically, the first phase, i.e, AD 750– AD 1000, is believed to be one of decline. It is evident from the absence of coins for exchange and the decayed condition of towns inorthern India. But in the second phase after AD 1000, we notice a revival of trade activities. Not only do we come across new gold coins, there are also numerous references to trade goods and towns. What could be the reason for it? There seem to be two main reasons for it. One, there was increase in agricultural activities on account of land grants in fresh areas. It led to surplus production of goods for exchange. And second, the Arab traders had emerged on the coastal areas of India as important players in international sea trade. The Arabs had acquired a foothold in Sind in AD 712 and later, gradually, they set up their settlements all along the sea from Arabia to China. These settlements served as important channels for the sale and purchase of Indian goods, and thus helped in the growth of Indian external trade. In south India, the Chola kings maintained close commercial contact with southeast Asia (Malaya, Indonesia etc) and China.
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dependent of free-peasant production. The peasants had control over the means and the processes of production. It is added that there was relative stability in social and economic structure and there was not much change in the level of techniques of the surplus than over a redistribution of means of production. The appropriation of agrarian surplus to the state formed the chief instrument of exploition. The high fertility of land and the low subsistence level of the peasants facilitated the state appropriation of the surplus in condition of relative stability.
This line of approach does not take note of superior right and inferior rights of one party or another over land. In fact, in early medieval times, in the same piece of land, the peasant held inferior right and the landlords held superior right. The landgrants clearly made the position of the landlords strong over the land as compared to that of peasants. The critique of feudal polity does not take note of massive evidence in support of the subjection and immobility of peasantry, which is an indispensable element in the feudal system. Some of these factors are stated below. 1. It weakened the position of the ruler, and made him more dependent on the feudal chiefs, many of whom maintained their own military forces which could be used to defy the ruler. 2. The internal weaknesses of the Indian states became crucial in their contest with the Turks later on.
3. the small states discouraged trade, and encouraged an economy in which villages or groups of villages tended to become largely self-sufficient. 4. The domination of the feudal chiefs also weakened village self-government.
5. The feudel order had a few advantages as well. In an age of disorder and violence, the stronger feudal chiefs protected the lines and property of the peasants and other without which daily life could not have functioned. Some of the feudal chief protected the lives and property of the peasants and others without which daily life could not have functioned. Some of the feudal chief also
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EXTENT OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
Several irregular or mixed castes are mentioned in the Kharmasastras as coming into existence as a result of the anuloma and pratiloma connections, especially the latter. Some of the latter types of castes are the antyaja or lowest castes. The later Vedic Literature mentions about eight mixed castes besides the four regular varnas. Vasistha raises their number to ten, Budhayana to fifteen, Gaulama to eighteen, Manu to about sixty, but the same mixed origin is not given to the same caste in all the texts. The Brahmavaivarty Parana, a work of the early medieval period, raises the number of the mixed castes to over one hundred.
However, the above theory only partly explains the proliferation of castes (jatis). Instead, it seems to be an afterthought provide place for the numerous tribal peoples in the fourfold. It is obvious that the Nisadas, Ambasthas, and Pulkasas, were originally tribal communities, but once they were admitted into the Brahmanical society, ingenious origins within the framework of the varna system were suggested for them, and here, the fuction of mixed castes of varnasamkara came in handy,
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The first systematic attempt at describing the samskaras is found in the Grihyasutras. The number of samkaras in the Grihyasutras fluctuate between twelve and eighteen. In course of time, sixteen became the classical number comprising the following: 1. Garbhadhana (conception), 2. Pumsavana (engendering a male issue), 3. Simantonnayan (parting the hair),
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
4. jatakaramn (natal rites), and severing of navel string
The four approved forms of vivahas were generally meant for the three lower varnas of Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Sudra. Within these, the rakshasa and gandharva forms are permissible especially for the kshatriyas. The Asura vivaha in considered to be universal in ancient times. But it is condemned by the Dharmasastras in strong terms, probably because of its connection with the lower vanas. The paisacha vivaha is the worst of all marriages-Baudhayana prescribes it for the Vaishyas and Sudras. This is also corroborated by Manu. These prescriptions were probably intended to validate the mariiage practices of those tribes who were absorbed as two lower varnas in ancient society. The rakshasa form is prescribed by Manu for the kshatriyas. Gandharva Vivaha, confined by some to only the kashtriyas, was probably followed by men and women of the other varnas as well. This can be inferred from the rules laid down in the Dharmasastras as well numerous examples found in the general Ieterary works.
5. Namakarana (naming)
6. Nishdramana (first outing), 7. Chudakarana (tonsure),
8. Darnavedha (piercing the ear lobes),
9. Vidyarambha or akshararambha (learning the alphabet),
10. Upanayan (holy thread ceremony and choosing the child’s teacher), 11. Vedarambha (first study of the Vedas) 12. Kesanta (cutting the hair),
13. Samavartana (graduation and returning home after completing education), 14. Vivaha (marriage), and 15. Antyesti (Funeral).
Though there is neither literary nor epigraphic evidence about the practice of wide remarriage in ancient India, it was probably practiced particularly by the lower varmas. A passage of Manu states that it cannot take place among the Brahmins, which implies that it can take place among the three other varmas. Niyoga (levirate) was certainly practiced by the Sudras in the early centuries of the Christian era, which infact strengthens aur presumption about the existence of widow remarriage among the lower varnas.
Most of the Dharmasastras mention eight forms of marriage, of which the first four are approved forms and the last four unapproved forms are brahma, prajapatya, daiva and arsa. The distinction between the brahma and prajapataya forms of marriage is not all that clear in both these forms, marriage was performed according to the prescribed religious ceremonies. In the daiva form the bride was given in marriage to a priest, who officiated at a sacrifice. In the arsa form, the marriage ceremony was duly performed, but a part of the ceremony was the presentation of a bull and a cow by the bridegroom to the bride-price.’
The very high standard of learning, culture and as round progress reached by Indian women during the Vedic age is a well-known fact. The best proof of this is the fact that the Rigveda, the oldest known literature in the whole world,contains hymns by as many as twentyseven women, called brahmavakinis of women seers. Saunaka in his Brihaddevata (5th century BC), a work on the rigveda, has mentioned the name of these twenty-seven women seers.
The last four unapproved forms of marriage are asura, paisacha, rakshasa and gandharva. Asura vivaha or marriage was marriage by purchese. In the paisacha form of marriage, the bride was abducted in an unfair manner. The rakshasa vivaha was marriage by capture. The gandharva vivaha was a love marriage.
In the Ramayana and the Mahabharata too, we find many instance of the two types of Indian women, ascetic and domestic. A magnificent example of a brahmavadini in the Ramayana is Anasuya, wife of the Sage Atri. Another celebrated woman. She was the disciple of the great sage Matanga and had her hermitage on
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Position Of Women
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took strong roots in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, although the institution of monogamous family and private property had been developed much earlier.
THE ARABS IN SIND The establishment of Arab rule in Sind in 712 A.D. was preceded by a number of efforts to penetrate India. The view that the Arabs indeed were not interested in territorial acquisition till the ruler of Sind in 700 A.D. provoked them, is not accepted by the book ‘A Comprehensive History of India’. This book relies on the authority of baladhuri, who is regarded as the most reliable authority on the subject. According to the book, the Arabs made systematic inroads on the three kingdoms of Kabul, Zabul and Sind. Very often the first two were united in resisting the aggression of the Arabs. Baladhuri says that after 650 A.D. the Arabs entered India. One more expedition was sent by the Caliphate of Ali to conquer Kabul but was frustrated. Another attempt was made in 698 A.D., which was still less successful. The weakness of the Arabs was undoubtedly due to internal troubles and weakness of the Caliphate during the last days of Umayyids, but after the establishment of powerful Abbasid Caliphate the earlier designs were repeated. Kabul was conqured but again escaped from the control of the Caliphate. Zebul was conquered only in 870 A.D.
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the bank of the lake Pampa On the other hand, the highest manifestation of domestic perfection in the Ramayana, is found in the inimitable personality of Sita, the idol of Nidian womanhood. The Mahabharata too is resplendent with a galaxy of great women fulfilling their destinies. For instance. Suitable, who was a great scholar, for want of a suitable bridegroom, became an ascetic for life and roamed about from place to place in search of knowledge. Other celebrated brahmavakinis of the Mahabharata are the daughter of Sandklya described as a Brahmani and Siva had who mastered the Vedas. Far more numerous are the instances of women who led dedicated lives at home, e.g., Kunti and Draupadi. One of the most celebrated women of the Puranas is Makalasa, the escort of king Ritdhvaja. She was at once a great scholar, a saintly woman and dutiful housewife. Another saintly woman of the Puranas is Devahuti, wife of the great sage Prajapati Kardama and mother of the greater sage Kapila. The propounder of the samkhya system of Indian philosophy. Her philosophical discourses with her learned husband and son go to prove her unique spiritual attainments, even though she lived a household life. The position of women in India gradually deteriorated as the golden Vedic ideals of unity and equality began to fade off through the passage of time. During the period of the Smritis, women were bracketed with the Sudras, and were denied the right to study the Vedas, to utter Vedic mantras, and to perform Vedic rites.
Hence, during such an age, it was not to be expected that women would continue to enjoy the old privilege of choosing a life of celibacy and asceticism. Since women and property are bracketed together in several reference in the epics, Smritis and Puranas, there is no doubt that woman herself was regarded as a sort of property. She could be given away or loaned as any item of property. Manu and Yajnavalkya, for example, hold that a woman is never independent. This was like the attitude of a typical patriarchal society based on private property. Because of this attitude, the Brahmanical law did not allow any proprietary rights to to women; the provision for stridhana is of a very limited character and does not extend beyond the wife’s rights to jewels, ornaments and presents made to her. Manu declares that the wife, the son and the salve are unpropertied, whatever they earn is the property of those to whom they belong. This sort of social philosophy
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Although both Kabul and Zabul succumbed to Islam the heroic resistance they offered checked the spread of Islam into the subcontinent. Few countries in the world, that too small principalities like these, have defied the arms of Islam so bravely and for so long 2000 years. Good number of details are found regarding the history of Sind in the 7th Century A.D. in Chachnama, a Persian translation of an old Arabic history of the conquest of Sind by the Arabs. An expedition of the Arabs was sent against Debal some time before 643 A.D. Baladhuri speaks of Muslim victory but Chachnama says that the Muslims were defeated. The conquest of Sind was abandoned for some time. When then new Calipha Uthman attempted to conquer, he too left it after a setback. During the days of Caliphate of Ali, a well-equipped Muslim Army came along the land route. According to Baladhuri, the Muslims were put to rout. After this, a series of expeditions
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were sent to conquer an outpost of Sind, which all ended in failure.
After the collapse fo the Abbasid power, Sind became virually independent and was divided into two independent states. Neither of them could become powerful.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The Arabs resumed their aggression against Sind only after 705 A.D. An Arab ship fell in the hands of pirates near Debal. A Muslim governor demanded their release and also the arrest of the pirates. It appears, Dehar refused to oblige. As a matter of fact, the governor for Iraq was appointed for both the areas of Hindi and Sind. For long time the Arabs chafed at their failure to conquer Sind. Thus, the governor Hajja merely seized the policy as a pretext to defeat and conquer Sind.
shows that Lalitadiya thrice defeated the Arabs. It was some time between 800 and 830 A.D. that the Arabs fully re-conquered the lost areas. It was during this period that the Arabs forces probably advanced as far as Chittor but the resistance offered by Indian kings probably forced them to retreat.
After making elaborate preparation, Mohammad-Bin-Kasim, the son-in-law of Hajjaj, was sent with a well equipped army. He advanced to Makran and laid siege to Debal in 711 A.D. The capital was captured then, Muhammad advanced along the Indus to conquer the whole area. It appears that very often treachery led to the Arab conquest of Sind Muhammad advanced against Multan and succeeded in capturing it. According to Chachanam, Muhammad himself advanced to the frontier of Kashmir.
The triumph and career of Muhammad was suddenly cut short by political changes at home. Since the new Caliph was the sworn enemy of Hajjaj. Muhammad was taken prisoner, insulted and tortured to death. This development made Jaisimha, the son of Daher, to re-occupy Bahmansbad. The Caliph sent an army to subdue the rebels. They even parleyed with Jaisimha. Junaid, the Governor of Sind, defeated Jaisimha and took him prionser. Thus ended the dynasty of Daher and the independence of Sind. The comperatively easy conquest of Muhammad, son of Kasim, should not make us forget the long resistance offered by Sind to the Arabs.
Later, Junaid sent several expeditions to the interior of India. They were signally defeated by the Pratihara king Nagabhatta - I Pulakesin, the Chalukya chief of Gujarata, and probably also by Yasovarman. These defeats forced the Arabs to confine themselves to Sind. The Arabs lost control of Sind during the last years of Umayyids. The Abbasid Caliphs once again started to re-establish their power in Sind. A claim was made. The Arabs once again conquered Multan and Kashmir but the evidence
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Significance:
It is no longer believed that the Arab conquest of Sind was a mere episode in the history of India. What this event reveals is the sea change that cave over Hindu Civilisation by 1000 A.D. A few Muslim traders earlier settled in the Malabar region. But the might of Islam was experienced in Sind. This challenge was met by rulers of the day. It is now well-known that the political ambitions of the successors of Muhammad-binKasim were check mated by Lalitaditya, Bhoja and a few other rulers. This particular resistance bears testimony to the political consciousness of the day. It is this consciousness that was totally absent in India when Mahumud of Ghazni raided the country and soon he was followed by Ghori who succeeded in establishing Islamic rule in India. It is surprising to note that when the Sahiyas checkmated the Arab penetration in the north-west and rulers within India contained the penetration of Arabs in Sind, no concerted efforts were made by Indian rulers after 1000 A.D. to defeat the invaders except for the first battle of Tarain to some extent. Instead, we hear that Hinduism retreated into its own shell, a fact sharply revealed by the observations of Alberuni. Apart from this significance, the Arab rule in Sind led to interaction between two cultures. It is held by some historians that Sind was the birth-place of later-day Sufism which in turn occasioned the emergence of the famous bhakti cult in the middle ages. Apart from this consequence, the Arab conquest of sind also led to the transmission of Indian culture-Panchtantra and scientific lore of ancient India like the digital system and knowledge of medicine. It is to be kept in mind that after the collapse of the Roman empire intellectuals began to gather in Baghbad, meaning city of god in Sanskrit. The intellectual
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the land of ancient civilisations in east Asia. The Iranian rulers of the area and the Abbasid Caliph recruited the Turk as mercenaries and slaves for their personal needs and security after getting them converted into Islam. These Turks quickly assimilated the Iranian Language and culture and became Islamised and Persianised. After the disintegration of the Abbasid empire, the most powerful dynasty which arose in the region was the Samanid dynasty (874999_. The Ghaznavids were displaced by the Seljukids, and then by the Khwarizmi empire which had its capital at Merv. These empires fought with each other and this led to the growth of militarism which spelt immediate danger to India. Such a danger had become imminent also owing to the fact that west and central Asia are connected to India geographically across mountain barriers having number of pass. The nomadic and seminomadic hordes have constantly tried to enter India through these mountain passes, attracted by India’s wellwatered plains with fertle soil. extending from the Punjab to the eastern borders of Bengal.
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speculations that the city facilitated by the interaction of Greek and Roman heritage with that of the Indian lay at the base of the Renaissance movement in Europe in the 16th century. “We know definitely from Masudin Ibn Hauqal that Arab settlers lived side by side with their Hindu fellow-citizens for many years on terms of amity and peace, and Amir Khusrav mentions that the Arab astronomer Abu Mashar come to Benaras and studied astronomy there for ten years. Finally, the significance of the Arab conquest of Sind lies in the tolerance that was shown to Hinduism by Islam. Although jaziya was collected, the Arab governors chose to leave Hindu religious practices untouched. What India witnessed after the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni was not Islamic influence as pioneered by the Arabs but central-Asian culture of the Turkish, nomad who carried the banner of Islam. In other words, what the history of Arabs in Sind conveys is the fact that persecution of other religious was not the avowed doctrine of Islam. The Arabs had to leave India towards the end of the 9th century. After the Arabs, the Turks invaded India. They were attracted mainly by the fabulous wealth lying in the garbhagriha of the temples.
THE GHAZAVIDS
The empire of the Ghaznavids was built on the ruins of the Abbasid Caliphate concentrated in west and central Asia. From the end of the 9th Century, the abbasid empire disintegrated and a series of aggressive, expansionist states arose. These states were independent in all but they accepted the nominal suzeriegnty of the Caliph who legitimised their position by granting them a formal letter or manshu. In course of time, the rulers of these states began to be called sultans. Most of these Sultans were Turks. The Ghaznavids and the seljuq states were products of the acculturation of the Turks had expanded into the institutions of settled societies. Under the Seljuq umbrella. The Turks had expanded into the Meditarranean and Byzatine territories. Anatolia (modern Turkey) was conquered and settled by the Ottoman Turks. The Turks were nomadas and lived in areas now known as Mongolistan and Sinkiang since the 8th century. They had been filtration into the region called Mawara-un-nahar, i.e., Transoxiana, which was the transitional zone between central Asia and
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Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030)
He was also known as “But-Shikan” (destroyer of the image) seventeen plundering expeditions betweened 1000 and 1027 into north India. Annexing Punjab as his eastern province. He claimed to have come here with twin objectives of spreading Islam in India, and enriching himself by taking away wealth from India. The contemporary Persian sources mention that his motive was primarily spreading Islam and that is why the got the title of Ghazni. But recent research has provide that a religious motive was highlighted by him in order to win over the Caliphiate (Khalifa) at Baghdad and the real intention of his invasion in India was to loot the wealth hidden in the garbhagriha of the Indian temples. The invader’ effective use of the crossbow while galloping gave them a decisive advantage over their Indian opponents, the Rajputs. Mahmud’s conquest of Punjab foretold ominous consequences for the rest of India. However, the Rajputs appear to have been both unprepared and unwilling to change their military tactics which ultimatly collapsed in the face of the swift and punitive cavalry of the Turks. In 1025, he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnat, near the coast in the extreme south of Kathiawar (Gujarat). Bhima I, the Chalukyan ruler of
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Anhilwara, could not put much resistence and the temple was looted. Al Beruni who wrote Kitab-ul Hind, and firdausi, who wrote Shah Namah, were the court Historians of Mahmud Ghazni and give a good account of the polity and society on the eve of Mahmud’s invasion.
After the fall of the Gurjark-Pratihara empire, no single state took its place. Instead, there arose small independent powers like Ghadavalas in Kannauj, Parmars in Malva, chlukyas in Gujarat, Chauhans in Ajmer, Tomars in Delhi, Chadellas in Bundelkhand, etc. far from being united, they tended to operate within the confines of small territories and were in a state of perpetual internal conflicts. Lack of centralised power was an important factor in emasculating the strength and efficiency of the armed forces. Fakhi Mudhbbir in his AdabulHarb wa-al Shuja’s mentions that Indian forces consisted of ‘feudal levies’. Each military contingent was under the command of its immediate overlora/chief and not that of the king. Thus, the army lacked ‘unity of command’. Besides, since only few castes and clans took to the country; when the Turks came, we find the indian masses hardly came to the rescue of their kings. The concept of physical pollution (chhut) also hampered millitary efficiency since it made the division of labour impossible; the soldiers had to do all their work on their own, from fighting to the fetching of water.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
In political and military terms, the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni were the actual precursors of the Delhi Sultanate. Beginnning in 1000, when the Shahiya King Jaypala was routed, the incursion became almost an annual feature of Mohmud and came to an end only with his death in 1030. After taking Multan, he occupied punjab. Later, Mahmed made incursion into the Ganga-Yamina doab. The major interest of Mahmud in India was its fabulous wealth, vast quantities of which (in the form of cash, jewellery, and golden images) had been deposited in temples. From 1010 to 1026, the invasions were thus directed toward the temple-towns of Thaneswar, Mathura, Kannauj and finally Somnath. The ultimate result was the breakdown of Indian resistance, paving the way for Turkish conquests in the future. More importantly, the aftermath of the campaigns had exposed the inadequacy of Indian politics to offer a united defence against external threats.
drunkenness which, accorkding to Sarkar, was the ruin of the Rajputas, Marathas, and other Indian rulers. Whatever partial truth in might contain, this explanation too seems insufficiently grounded in history. A more compreshensive view of the Indian debacle most perhaps had into account at least two major factors: the prevailing sociopolitical system in Indian and her military perparedness.
Within a short time of Mahmud’s death, his empire met the fate of other empires. Newly emerging centres of powers, formed around growing clusters of Turkish soldier adventurers, replaced the older ones. The Ghaznavide pessissions in Khurasasn and Transoxiana were thus annexed, first by the Seljuqs, and later by the Khwarizm Shah. In their own homeland, Afghanistan, their hegemony was brought to an end by the principlity of Ghor under the Shansibani dynasty. However, in the midst of these buffetings, the Ghaznavid rule survived in punjab and sind till about 1175. Since Indian historians have traced the Turkish success to the peculiar social structure created by Islam, Jadunath Sarkar, for instance, lays stress on the unique characteristic which Islam imparted to the Arabs, Berbers, Pathnas and Turks. First, equality and social solidarity as regards legal and religious status. Unlike India, the Turks were not divided into castes that were exclusive of each other. Secondly, and absolute faith in god and his will which gave them drive and a sense of mission. Finally, Islam secured the Turkish conquerors from
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Another important reason for the success of the Turks was their superior miltary technology and art of war. These nomads could be credited with introducnig the horses for warfare with greater skill. The Turks used iron stirrps and horse shoes that reinforced their striking power and the stamina of the cavalry. While horse shoes provided greater mobility to the horse, the stirrup gave the soldiers a distinct advantage.
Muhammad Ghori (Shahabuddin Muhammad)
In AD 1173 Shahabuddin Muhammad (AD 1173–1206) also called Muhammad of Ghor ascended the throne of Ghazni. The Ghoris were not strong enough to meet the growing power and strength of the Khwarizmi Empire; they realised that they could gain nothing in Central Asia. This forced Ghori to turn towards India to fulfil his expansionist ambitions. Muhammad Ghori was very much interested in establishing
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permanent empire in India and not merely looting its wealth. His campaigns were well organised and whenever he conquered any territory, he left a general behind to govern it in his absence. His invasions resulted in the permanent establishment of the Turkish Sultanate in the region lying north of the Vindhya Mountains.
Conquest of Punjab and Sind
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Muhammad Ghori led his first expedition in AD 1175. He marched against Multan and freed it from its ruler. In the same campaign he captured Uchch from the Bhatti Rajputs. Three years later in AD 1178 he again marched to conquer Gujarat but the Chalukya ruler of Gujarat, Ghima II defeated him at the battle of Anhilwara. But this defeat did not discourage Muhammad Ghori. He realised the necessity of creating a suitable base in Punjab before venturing on the further conquest of India. He launched a campaign against the Ghaznavid possessions in Punjab. As a result Peshawar was conquered in AD 1179–80 and Lahore in AD 1186. The fort of Sialkot and Debol were captured next. Thus by AD 1190 having secured Multan, Sind and Punjab, Muhammad Ghori had paved the way for a further thrust into the Gangetic Doab.
made very careful preparations for this conquest. The Turkish and Rajput forces again came face to face at Tarain. The Indian forces were more in number but Turkish forces were well organised with swift moving cavalry. The bulky Indian forces were no match against the superior organisation, skill and speed of the Turkish cavalry. The Turkish cavalry was using two superior techniques. The first was the horse shoe which gave their horses a long life and protected their hooves. The second was, the use of iron stirrup which gave a good hold to the horse rider and a better striking power in the battle. A large number of Indian soldiers were killed. Prithviraj tried to escape but was captured near Sarsuti. The Turkish army captured the fortresses of Hansi, Sarsuti and Samana. Then they moved forward running over Delhi and Ajmer.
ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE
The First Battle of Tarain (AD 1191)
Muhammad Ghori’s possession of Punjab and his attempt to advance into the Gangetic Doab brought him into direct conflict with the Rajput ruler Prithivaraja Chauhan. He had overrun many small states in Rajputana, captured Delhi and wanted to extend his control over Punjab and Ganga valley. The conflict started with claims of Bhatinda. In the first battle fought at Tarain in AD 1191, Ghori’s army was routed and he narrowly escaped death. Prithviraj conquered Bhatinda but he made no efforts to garrison it effectively. This gave Ghori an opportunity to re-assemble his forces and make preparations for another advance into India.
The Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192) This battle is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian History. Muhammad Ghori
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After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs of India in the hand of his trusted slave general Qutbuddin Aibak. In AD 1194 Muhammad Ghori again returned to India. He crossed Yamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards Kanauj. He gave a crushing defeat to Jai Chand at Chandwar near Kanauj. Thus the battle of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in Northern India.
The political achievements of Muhammad Ghori in India were long lasting than those of Mahmud of Ghazni. While Mahmud Ghazni was mainly interested in plundering Muhammad Ghori wanted to establish his political control. His death in AD 1206 did not mean the withdrawal of the Turkish interests in India. He left behind his slave General Qutbuddin Aibak who became first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.
CULTURAL TRENDS (750-1200)
Religious Conditions: Importance Of Temples And Monastic
Temples held an important place in the predominantly agrarian economy of medieval India, especially in south India. Even though temples rose to power during the Pallava period, they gradually consolidated their position under the Cholas with the help of royal patronage. The importance of temples was more visible during the early medieval period largely because of the fact that land grants during this period were given more prolifically. During this period we see the emergence of great royal temples which symbolised the power of the ruling kingdom.
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towards agricultural development, e.g., providing irrigation facilities to agriculturists. Temples also had economic functions in their varied roles as landholders, employers, consumer of goods and services, and banks. They also discharged the function of money lenders and depositories. The continuous handling of funds and receipts of gifts in cash, goods, precious metals and services gave the temples capital which the usually reinvested in productive ways. We have evidences the loans given by temples to village assemblies for economically productive purposes. They also granted loans to cultivators, traders and artisans in reutrn for various articles given as interest ranging usually between 12.5 percent to 15 percent.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
From the 10th to 13th centuries, a large number of temples were built in various regional kingdoms. On account of the royal support and patronage they received, temples had an access to agricultural produce and a control of society. They were also used to counter the divisive forces prevailing in those kingdoms. Temples flourished on the landgrants and cash endowments by the crown, merchant guilds and others which, in turn, made them the biggest employer, money lender and consumer of goods and service. Its social role, based on this economic substructure, pivoted around its role of preserving and propagating education and culture. Sources both archaeological and literary like Mitakshara, Pratagmanjari and Tahkike Hind, help a lot to reconstruct the socio-economic role of temples. All these are corroborated by copper plates, stone inscriptions and numismatic findings. Land endowments were the most important resources of the temples in medieval south India. The landgranted to the temples had two functions: first, to yield and income with which to maintain a specified ritual service in the name of the donor, and second, to provide a productive place to invest funds granted to the temples for the performance of services in the first place, they increasingly led to an expansion of temple personnel who were paid in kind or through allotment of land. This resulted in the growth of feudal land tenure which is evident from various epigraphic references to tenants fiscal concessions and immunities which accompanied many grants perhaps caused greater economic bondage of the peasantry and weakened the central authority.
There were various ritual functionaries attached to temples who were given monetary endowments by the temple out of their income from the landgrant and donations from various quarters. These functionaries included members of educational institutions (mathas) reciters of Sanskrit and Tamil sacred works, teachers, scholars, musicians and poets. They also received a share of consecrated food offering of the deities. The economic value of consecrated food had an important funciton in the endowment of money to the temple. The secondary distribution of consecrated food to the devotees permitted the temple functionaries to resources of the temple. Temples also discharged vital responsibilities
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As per as the social role of temple is concerned, they were the centre of activity as assemblies and schools. Caste consciousness had become a marked feature with the society divided vertically between the Brahmanas and the nonBrahmanas. The medium of education in the temples was sanskrit. Debates were held in various mathas and colleges regarding philophical aspects of Hindu theology. Sankaracharya’s ideas continued to be developer and improved upon and theories and philosophies of other teachers were also discussed. It is to be noted that Ramanuja, the famous Vaishnava philosopher, spent a favourable part of his life teaching at the famous temple of Shrirangam. Thus, temples in medieval India, specially in south India, had developed some sort of tourist industry lide in modern times. Pilgrims flocked to temples during the festivals (which were quite frequent) in huge numbers, and hence, these necessitated employment to guilds, priests, innkeepers, food-shelters etc. In effect, they become miniature towns.
North
1. In the north, a shikhara rises above the chief room. The shikhara has a global bulge in the middle and tapers to a point at the top. 2. Temples lack gateway (gopuram).
3. Temples are mostly of brick solid and mortar. 4. Temples are smaller in size. 5. Temple were mainly centres of religious activity.
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South 1. A pyramidal tower (vemana) story up on storey, above the garbhagriha (chief deity room) 2. Temples have very lofty and site gateways called gopurams. 3. Temples are made mostly of rocks.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
4. Temples are generally bigger and more airy.
Sankaracharya was an orthodox Brahmin for whom the Vedic literature was sacred and unquestionably true. In order to harmonise the many paradoxes of Vedic tradition, that had to trade recourse to a philosophy of “double standard of truth” (already known in Buddhism). It meant that on the every day level of truth, the world was preduce by Brahma, and it went through an evolutionary process similar to that taught by the Sankhya school of philosophy. But on the highest level of truth, the whole universe including the God was unreal, i.e., the world in maya, an illusion and figment of imagination. Therefore, Shankarcharya believed that ultimately the only reality was the Brahman, the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul was identical.
5. Temples were not only centres religious activity but also social and economical activities.
Sankaracharya
Sankaracharya was a Nambudiri Brahman born in Kaladi, Malabar. He was originally a worshiper of Seva. He gave an entirely new turn to the Hindu revival movement by providing it with a solid philosophical background through the reinterpretation of ancient Indian scriptures, particularly the Upanishads. Sankaracharya advocated the philosophy of “Advaita” the monism of the Vedanta by giving a brilliant exposition to the entire range of the Vedic religions and spiritual thought. Having lost his father in his childhood, Sankaracharya become a sanyasi, while in his teens and began to roam about in search of true knowledge and wisdom. A genius by birth and intensely religious by outlook and social heritage, he received instruction in religious scriptures and philosophy at Kashi. Sankaracharya renewed and systematised Vedanta philosophy by stressing on its main principle of monism (advaita or absolute non-dualism). Sankaracharya started a vigorous campaign for the revial of Hinduism based on the solid foundation of Vedic philosophy and ancient Indian cultural tradition in order to check the growth of Buddhism and Jainism. He recognised the ascetic order of sanyasis on the pattern of Buddhist sangha and launched a campaign for the popularisation of Hinduism. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahmasutra and chief upanishad and traveled all around India to highlight the cultural unity of India. The mathas also began propagating the centre of Vedic religion. The mathas, among many, included Jaganathpuri in the east, Sringeri in the South, Dwarka in the west and Badrinath in the north.
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Sankaracharya also believed that god and the created world was one and the difference which is evident is due to ignorance. According to him, the way to salvation was to realise by means of meditation and knowledge that god and the created beings were one and the some. At the deepest level of meditation “nirvikalpa samadhi”, the complete identity between god and the individual is realised. It is the goal of everyone to know, realise, feel and display in action this identity. When this is accomplished all sufferings and births and deaths cease. This identity has been termed as “ sachidanand Brahman” by Sankaracharya. Sankaracharya’s ‘Brahman’ is not really different from the concept of ‘nirvana’ of Mahayana Buddhism. It is a fact which was wellrecognised by his opponents who called him “crypto-Buddhist.” However, Shankarcharya proved the Buddhist scholars wrong and was able to show that Buddhist metaphysics was only a poor imitation of the metaphysics of snatan dharma.
The philosophy of Sankaracharya had far reaching consequences for the India society. For example the monastic Sankaracharya (mathas) which he established in the four corners of India served as an effective step towards the physical and spiritual unification of India. By Jainism but his real greatness lies in his brilliant dialectic. By the able use arguements he reduced all the apparently self-contradicting passages of the Upanishads to a consistent system which has remained the standard of Hinduism to this day, Sankaracharaya passed away at Kedar Nath at
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the age of 32 Ramanuja combined Sankara’s Advaitavada with the Vaishnava Pancharatra theology which claimed that Vishnu is the very foundation of the universe. The impact of Ramanuja’s writings and his long service as priest of the fomous Vishnu temple at Srinangam made his ideas widely known among the Vaishnavites and he is justly regarded as the founder of Srivashnavism. The Vedantic Philosophy of Sankaracharya was revived Vivekanand in the second half of the 19th century.
5. The sufis organised impassioned musical recitals (soma). The practice of sama was intended to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. However, some sufi orders did not approve of certain forms of sama and the ulema were particularly hostile to the practice.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Sufism
such spiritual exercise as self-mortification, recollection of god’s name to attain concentration (zikr) and contemplation.
Sufism or tasawwuf is the name for various mystical and movements in Islam. It aims at establishing direct communion between god and man through personal experience of mystery which lies within Islam. Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies is its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In this sense, Sufism was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety. The Sufis while accepting the shariat did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence and stressed cultivation of religious experience aimed at a direct perception of god. There developed a number of Sufi orders of silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their specific characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi orders.
1. Sufism as it developed in the Islamic world came to stress the importance of traversing the Sufi path (tariqa) as a method of establishing direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat). 2. According to the Sufi beliefs, the novice has to pass through a succession of “stations” of “stages” (maqamat) and changing psychological conditions or “states” (hal) to experience god.
3. The sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of a spiritual director (sheikh, pir or murshid) who had himself successfully traversed and consequently established direct communion with god.
4. the disciple (murid) progressed through the “stages” and “states” by practising
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6. Yet another feature of sufism is the organisation of the Sufis into vatious orders (silsilah). Each of these silsilah, e.g. suhrawardi, qadiri, chishti, weer founded by a leading figure who lent his name to it. A silsilah consisted of persons who had become disciples of a particular Sufi. 7. The hospice (dhanqah) was the centre of the activities of a sufi order. It was the place where the pir imparted spiritual training to his disciples. The popularity of the khanqah and its capacity fo attract disciples depended on the reputation of the pir. Khanqahs were supported by endowment and charity.
By the time the various Sufi orders began their activities in India from the beginning of the 13th century, Sufism had already grown into a full-fledge movement in different parts of the Islamic world. Sufism acquired distinct characteristics in the Indian environment but its growth in India, particularly in the initial phase, was linked in many ways with the development that occurred in Sufi beliefs and practice in the Islamic world during the period between 17th and 13th centuries. The growth of Sufism in the central lands of islam during this period can be divided into three broad phases.
GROWTH OF SUFISM IN ISLAMIC WORLD
The Formative Stage (Upto 10th Century) Early Sufis applied an esoteric meaning to verses in the quran which stressed on such virtues as repentance (tauba), abstinence,
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of sufism was Kashful Mahjub written by AlHujwiri. Another salient feature of Sufism during this period was the emergence of Sufi poetry in Persian. While Arabic literature on mysticism is in prose, Persian literature is in poetry. Sufi poetry in Persian in the form of narrative poems (mannavis) reached its peak during the 12th and 13th centuries.
Formation of Sufi Orders of Silsilah (Late 12th and 13th Centuries)
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
renunciation, poverty, trust in god (gawakkul) etc. Mecca, Madin, Basra, and Kufa were the earliest centres of Sufism. Sufism at Basra reached its height during the time of the woman mystic Rabia. Other regions of the Islamic world where Sufism spread to Iranian regions, it tended to express greater individualism, divergent tendencies, and heterodox doctrines and practices under Persian influence. The most famous of the early Sufis in the Iranian regions was Bayazid Bistami from Dhurasan. In Baghdad, Al junaid was the most well-known of the early Sufis. Al junaid won the approval of the Islamic orthodoxy and represented the controlled and disciplined side of Sufism and, therfore, those Sufis who followed his line are regarded as sober. Both Junaid and Bistami exercised profound influences on their contemporary and later Sufis. Two contrasting tendencies initiated by them come to be distinguished as Junaidi and Bistami, or Iraqi and Dhurasani, Another prominents early sufi from Baghdad was Mansur al-Hallaj who started his career as pupil of Al Junaid but later developed the method of Bayazid Bistami. His mystical formula “I am god” played an important role in the evolution of Sufi ideas in Iran and then in India. The Ulema considered, imprisoned and finally hanged. His ideas provided the basis for the development of the doctrine of “Insane-i-kamil” (the perfect man).
Growth of the Organised Sufi Movement (10th-12th Century)
Sufism began to acquire the form of an organised movement with the establishment of the Turkish rule under the Ghaznavis and then under the Seljuqs in various parts of central Asia and Iran in the later 10th and 11th centuries. The period marks the development of two parallel institutions in the Islamic world-the madarasa system (seminary, higher religious school) in its new form as an official institution of orthodox Islamic learning and the Khanqah system as an ogranised, endowed an permanent centre for Sufi activities. This stage is also characterised by the appearance of Sufi literary texts which argued and codified the Sufi ideas and doctrines. AlGhazzali was the most outstanding sufi author. One of the most authentic and celebrated manual
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Few decades before Sufism began to exercise an influence on Indian society and religious life, organised Sufi movement reached its peak in the Islamic world in the form of various tariqa (paths) or Sufi orders. These orders began to crystallise when, from the end of the 12th century, each one of the Sufi entries began to perpetuate the name of one particular master and his spiritual ancestry and focused on its own tariqa consisting of peculiar practices and chain through which successive spiritual heirs (khalifa) traced their spiritual inheritance to the founder of the order. The founders of various silsilahs accepted the Islamic law and ritual practices of Islam. The link between orthodox Islam and silsila founders is also clear from the fact that many of the latter were professional Sufists. However, the gave an esoteric orientation to orthodox Islamic rituals and introduced many innovation, particularly in their religious practices, which were not always in consonance with the orthodox outlook. Though the silsilah founders laid emphasis on strict adherence to Islamic law, many silsilahs later did develop many heterodox beliefs and practies.
The silsilahs which become popular in Iran, central Asia and Baghdad, played a significant role in the growth of sufism in various parts of the Islamic world including the suhrawardi founded by shaidh Shahabuddin Suhrawardk; the Qadiri formed by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, the Dhawajagan, but later came to be associated with the name of Bahauddin Naqshbandi. The Sufies who had received their training in these silsilahs began to establish their branches in their countries or in new countries such as India. Gradually, these branches become independent Sufi schools with own characteristics and tendencies.
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LITERATURE AND SCIENCE Under the Cholas
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Education based on the epics and the Puranas was imparted during this time through discourses in temples. There colleges and other institutions for higher education. The period was marked by the growth of Tamil classics such as Sibakasindamani, Kamban’s Ramayana, and others. Very few books were composed in Sanskrit, Rajaraja I was the subject of two worksadrama (Rajarajesvara Natakam) and a kavya (Rajaraja Vijayam).
Bhaskaracharya’s father, Mahesvari (known as kavisvara), wrote two works on astrology, Sekhara and Laghutika. Of the numerous works of Bhaskaracharya, the most famous are Siddhanta Siromani (composed in 1150) and Karanakuthuhala, the first being the best treatise on algebra to be found in Sanskrit Literature. His son Lakshmidhara and his grandson Changadeva were the court astrologers of jaitugi and Simhana respectively. Bhaskaracharya’s grand-nephew Anantadeva, a protege of Simhana, was a master of the three branches of astronomy and wrote a commentary on the Brihat Jataka of Varahaminira and also on one chapter of Brahmasphuta Siddhana of Brahmagrupta.
Under the Chalukyas of Kalyani
The Chaludya period withnessed a phenomenal growth in literature, both in Sanskrit and Kannada. Among the sanskrit writers of the period, the foremost in Bihana, the court poet of Vidramaditya VI. Vidramankacharita of Bihana is a mahakavaya. Bihana wrote many other works. The great jurist Vijramaditya, wrote the famous Mitaksara, a commentary on the Yanjavalkya Smriti, Somesvara III was the author of encyclopadedic work, Manasollasa or Abhilashitarha-chintamani.
Under the western Chalukyas, kannada Literature reached great heights. The three Literary gems, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, contributed to the development of Kannada literature in the 10th century. Of the three, Ranna was the court poet of Satyasraya, while the other two belonged to earlier decades. Nagavarma I was another poet of fame. He was the author of Chandombudhi, the ocean of prosody, the earliest work on the subject in Kannada. He also wrote karnataka-kandambari which is based on Bana’s celebrated romance in Sanskrit. The next writer of note was Dugasimha, a minister under Jayasimha II, who wrote Anchatantra. The Veer Saina mystics, especially Basava, contributed to the development of Kannada language and literature, particular prose literature. They brought into existence the Vachana Literature to convey high philosophical ideas to the common man in simple language.
Under the Yadavas
The Senas gave a great impetus to the development of Sanskrit Literature. The family of the famous astronomer and mathematician Bhasdaracharya belonged to this period.
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Under the kakatiyas
The kakatiya rules extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit. Several eminent Sanskrit writers and poets authored inscriptions which must be regarded as kavyas in miniature. Of these writers, Achinterdra was commissioned by Rudradeva to compose the Prasati embodies in the Anumakonda inscription. Telugu literature also flourished in the Kakatiya Kingdom. Several inscriptions were composed party or wholly in Telugu verse, like the inscriptions at Gudur of (Beta II), karimnagar (Gangakhara), Upparapalle (Kata) and Konnidena (Opilisiddhi). The new religious movement led Vaishnavism and Virasaivism gave a great impetus to Telugu literature. Several works on the two great national epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. begun by Nannayuabnhatta in the 11th century AD, was completed by Tikkana Somayaji, the minister and poet Laureate of the Telugu Chola King Manuma siddhi II of Nellre in the middle of the 13th century AD.
Alberuni’s India
Abu’l Rayan Alberuni was a philosopher scientist, whose Ditab al Hind was the first and most important discussion on Indian sciences, religion and society by an outsider. He was not just a historian. His Knowledge and interest covered many other areas such as astronomy, geography, logic, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, religion and theology, He was probably born in 973 AD. He was attached to Mahmud’s court and accompanied him to India during various raids.
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Alberuni’s Kitab al Hind or Tahkik-i Hind is the survey of Indian based on his study and observations in India between 1017 and 1030. To get a proper grip of the situation, he learned Sanskrit so that he might go to the sources of Hindu thought and religion. He learnt Sanskrit to acquire first hand information. He read the religion texts and met the learned Indians.
Alberuni further says that the isolationist attitude of Indians was further buttressed by a false sense of superiority. In his opening chapter itself alberuni writers that the Indians belived that there is no country like theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs, no science like theirs.” The Indian are by nature niggardly in communication what they know and they do not believe in exchange of ideas. They had the greatest possible care to with hold their knowledge from men of another caste, from among their own people, and even more from nay outsider.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
His approach was scientific and religious prejudices do not mar the quality of his observations. He quoted form the Bhagavat Gita, Bishnu Puran, Kapil’s Sankhya and the work of Patanjali. Alberuni’s observation of Indian society can be studied under six major sub-heads:
other types of connection between one region of the country and another.
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Caste-ridden society
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Closed society
Stagnant Knowledge
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Stagnant knowledge
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social evils
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Religious beliefs
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Scientific knowledge.
It is indeed unfortunate that Alberuni visited India at a time when knowledge was at a low ebb. While the rich heritage of the past knowledge is highlighted by Alberuni when he refers to the various ‘sidhantas’ and the progress made in astronomy and mathematics, but he paints a very pathetic picture of the 11th century, He says “The Indians are in a state of utter confusion, devoid of any logical order, and they always mix up with silly notions of the crowd.I can only compare their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to a mixture of pearls and sour dates. Both kind of things are equal in their eyes since they cannot raise themselves to the method of a strictly scientific deduction.”
Caste-ridden Society
The complete caste structure of Indian society did not go unnoticed by Alberuni. One notable observation of Alberuni was that the Vaishyas were also fast degeneration to the rank of Sudras. He notes the absence of any significant difference between the Vaishyas and the sudras, who lived together in the same town and village and mixed together in the same house. By the 11th century it seems that the Vaishyas come to be treated as Sudras virtually and legally. The alliance of convenience between the Brahmanas and the ruling Kshatriyas was a fact that Alberuni refers to indirectly. He also refers to a class of untouchables which existed in the society called antyaja. Alberuni lists eight antyaja castes below the status of the Sudras. Some of the names of untouchable castes that are mentioned by him are: Bhodhatu, Bhedas, Chandala, Doma, and Hodi.
Closed Society
The closed attitude of society, lacking dynamism did not go untouched by Alberuni. He informs us that traveling to far off places was considered by the Brahmins. The area within which a Brahmana could live was fixed and a Hindu was not generally permitted to enter the land of the Turks. All this makes sense in the context of “feudal localism” which ruled out or
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Social Evils
Alberuni mentions evil social practices within the Indian society like child-marriage, sati, the low position of women in general and widows in particular. He mentions that Hindus marry at a very young age, If a wife loses her husband due to death she cannot remarry, A widow has only two options, either the remain a widow as long as she lives, or to burn herself (sati). The latter option was generally preferred because as a widow she was ill-treated.
Religious Beliefs and Practices
Alberuni, who had carefully studied the Hindu religion’s philosophy and institutions, found no difficulty in marking out the trinity gods (three deities of the Hindu religion) and philosophy of the Upanishads. He says that the belief in a multitude of gods is vulgar and is a typical of the un-educated. Educated Hindus believe god to be one and Eternal. Hindus
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considered the existence of god as real. because everything that exists, exists through god.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Alberuni had also learned all about the Hindu concept of transmigration of soul. He explains that Indians believed that every act of this life will be rewarded or punished in the life to com, and the final emancipation of a human being is possible only through true knowledge, He terms all these beliefs of the Indian as narrowmindedness. He says that insularity at every level was the characteristic feature of India in the 11th century and the price of this insularity was the disruption of the country be the coming of the Turks.
parts of south India. The replacement of brick by stone structure went on steadily under the cholas. The chief features of Chola temples are their massive vimanas of towers and spacious courtyards. In the Brihadeswara of Rajarajesvara temple, dedicated to Siva, the vimana of tower is about 57 metres high upon a square, comprising thirteen successive storeys. It is crowned by a single block of granite, 7.5 metres high and about 80 tonnes in weight. Similarly, Rajendra I erected a splendid temple at his new capital, Gangakonda Cholapram. Some Chola temples at Thanjavur and Kalahasti contain beautiful protrait images of royal personages, like those of Rajaraja I and his queen Lodamahadevi and of Rajendra I and his queen Cholamahadevi, The Cholas also encouraged plastic art; the metal and stone images cast during the period are exquisitely executed and display a wounderful givour, dignity and grace. The masterpiece of chola sculpture is the famous Nataraja of the dancing Siva image at the great temple of Chidambaram. Numerous such images were also moulded in bronze. This Nataraja has been described as the “cultural epitome” of the chola period. The Cholas also patronised painting. Of the Chola paintings, the most important are those in the pradakshina passage of the Rajarajesvara temple.
Scientific Knowledge and legal System
Although Alberuni is critical of the scientific knowledge of Indians, sometimes he has praised their knowledge. He made great effort to understand the Indian legal system. He notes every practical aspect of the legal system and points out the difference between these and the legal theories as expounded in the law books like Manusmriti. He also praises the weights and measure system and distance measurement system of Indians. He also notices the many variations of the Indian alphabets. He provides interesting geographical data and takes into account local astronomical and mathematical theories. While making his profound observation, Alberuni, did not pay a partisan role and condemned Mahmud Ghazni’s destructive activities. He was perhaps the first Muslim to have undertaken the study of Indian society on such a major scale. Where Alberuni was not very sure of his own knowledge, he frankly admitted it. His critical assessment of Indian customs and ways of life, festivals, ceremonies is particularly interesting. He says that the fact that Indians had started depending on tradition heavily was a hindrance to genuine intellectual quest. He felt that learning and scientific spirit suffered because they had been sub-ordained to religion.
Art And Architecture
The Cholas continued and developed the art tradition of the Pallavas and pandyas, whom they succeeded. During the nearly four certuries long rule, the entire Tamil country was studded with temples and Chola art traditional were adopted and followed in Sri Lanka and other
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Temple architecutre, particularly the Dravida or south Indian style of architecture, reached the pinnacle of glory under the Cholas. The chief feature of a Chola temple is the vimana or the story, which was later eclipsed by the richly ornamented gopuram of gateway. Under the Cholas, temples became the centre of life, particularly in the rural areas. The village assembly invariably held its meetings in the temple mandapas, which became an additional feature of the Chola temple architecture. The best example is, the Siva or the Brihadesvara of the Rajarajesvara temple, built in 1009 by Rajaraja I. Tanjore. It is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the Cholas under Rajaraja I. Apart from being the tallest (216 feet) of all Indian temples of the medieval period, it is a masterpiece of south Indian architecture. In this temple, a carving of a man’s head with a European hat is found on one side of the temple (in a subsidiary structure), which is believed to be that of Marco Polo (late 13th century), the Venetian traveler, The temple of Gangaikonda Cholapurm (also dedicated to Siva or Brihadesvara), the creation of Rajendra
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I, was meant to excel its predecessor in every conceivable way. Erected around 1030, the greater elaboration in its appearance attested to the more affluent state of the chola empire under Rajendra I. It is larger in plan though not as tall as the previous one.
The temples of Orissa represent the Nagara style of architecture. Few of the famous temples built during 7th and 13th centuries include Lingaraja temple at Bhuvaneshwar, Jagannath temple at Puri and Sun temple at Konark. The temples built by Chandel rulers at Khajurago between 950 and 1050 are also famous for their architectural beauty.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The Chola period also witnessed great strides in the field of sculpure. The three main classes of Chola sculpture are portraits, icons and decorative sculptures.
seven pagodas, kailashnath and Vaikuntah Perumal temples at Kanchi, and Parshurameshvar temple at Gudimallam.
There are three well-preserved and nearly life-size portraits on the walls of the Duranganatha temple at Srinivasanallyur, and several others in the Nagesvara temple at Kumbhakonam. The Chola sculptors started bronze-casting sometime around the middle of the 9th century. The Cholas are particularly known for their Nataraja bronzes (bronze statues of Nataraja of the dancing Siva) which are master pieces of this Nagesvara temple at Dumbhakonam. A group of three bronzes of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita wth Hanuman at their feet from Tirkkadaiyur (Tanjore District) is one of the finest products of Chola bronzemarking of the reign of Rajaraja I. Chola wall paintings are to be found on the walls of the Vijayala Cholesvara and Rajarajesvara temples. On the walls of the Vijalaya Cholesvara temple, large painted figures of Mahakala, Devi and Siva are still visible.
The Hoysalas were also great patrons of art. In many cases, the Hoysala temples are not single but double, having all essential parts duplicated. One more noteworthy feature is that the temple itself appears to be the work of a sculptor and not of a builder, This is best illustrated in the Hoysalesvara temple at Halebid, whose plinth consists of nine bands and each band had thousands of decorative figures in various postures. Hence, the Hoysala temples have been aptly described as sculptors’ architecture. There are a number of temples in the Mysore territory which exhibit amazing display of sculptural exuberance. The most typical and well-known examples are the temples of Desava at Simnathpur, Chenna Desava at Belur and Hoysalesvara at Halebid. The Keasva at Simnathpur, Chenna Kesava at Belur and Housalesvara at Halebid. The Desava temple at Somnathpur, near Seringapatnam erected about 1268, is still in a perfect state. The other major centers of Dravida style are Mammallapuram (Mahabalipuram) with the
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Contact With Southeast Asia
Indians have been moving out from ancient time to different parts of the world for trade and other activities. As far as the Indian contact with Southeast Asia is concerned, it appears to be as old as fifth century B.C. Jatakas the Buddhist texts belonging to this period refer to Indians visiting Suvarnadvipa (island of gold), which is identified with Java. Such early contacts with Southeast Asia are confirmed by the recent archeological finds of pearls and ornaments of agate and carnelian, the semi-precious stones of Indian origin, from the coastal sites in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, etc. These finds belong to as far back as first century BC. According to the Chinese traditions, the first kingdom in South east Asia was founded at Funan (Cambodia) in the fourth century AD by a brahman known as Kaundinya who had come from India and had married the local princess. However, Indian and Southeast Asian contacts became closer from 5th century AD onwards when inscriptions in Sanskrit language start appearing in many areas. It reached its peak during AD 800–AD 1300 when many kings and dynasties with Indian names emerge all over Southeast Asia The Southeast contact was largely on account of trade. Southeast Asia is rich in cardamom, sandal wood, camphor, cloves etc. which formed important items of trade between India and the West. Initially, the Indian traders appear to have settled along the coast, but gradually they shifted their network to the interior. Along with the traders came the priests particularly the Buddhist and brahmanas, to meet the ritual requirements of the Indian settlers. It thus created a situation for the spread of Indian social and cultural ideas in South east Asia. But it must be noted that Indian contact did not uproot the local culture. It was rather a case of peaceful intermixing of Indian concepts with local cultural features. Therefore, for example, while
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upkeep. Similarly in the eleventh century another king was permitted by the Chola king Rajaraja I to build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattam on the Tamil Coast. The Shailendras also built a beautiful temple dedicated to Buddha at Barabudur in Java. It is situated on the top of a hillock and consists of nine gradually receding terraces.
The most important empire which come to be founded in South east Asia in the 8th Century AD was the Shailendra empire. It comprised Java, Sumatra, Malay- Pennisula and other parts of the Southeast Asian region. They were a leading naval power and on account of their geographical position controlled the trade between China and India as well as other countries in the west. The Shailendra kings were followers of Buddhism and had close contact with the Indian rulers. One of the kings of this empire, built a monastery at Nalanda in the ninth century, and at his request the Pala king Devapala of Bengal granted five villages for its
Besides Buddhism, the worship of Hindu gods such as Vishnu and Siva was also quite popular in southeast Asia. The temples dedicated to them have been found at various places. They show distinct traces of Indian influence and inspiration. One of the most famous temples, dedicated to Vishnu, is Angkorvat temple built in the 12th century by Surya Varman II, the king of Kambuja (Cambodia). It is surrounded by a moat, filled with water. It has a huge gopuram (gateway) and number of galleries, the walls of which are decorated with sculptures based on themes drawn from Mahabharat and Ramayana.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Sanskrit was accepted as a language of court and religion in Southeast Asia the regional languages continued to be used side by side , and we find many inscriptions in mixed Sanskrit and local language. Similarly, the concept of varna was known to the south east Asians and brahmanas were respected in society, but social divisions were not rigid as it was in India.
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ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE
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and Uchch aspired for independence. Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power. He defeated Yaldauz and occupied Ghazni. The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra had driven out the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad. Aibak re-conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The rulers who ruled substantial parts of the North India between AD1200 to AD1526 were termed as Sultans and the period of their rule as the Delhi Sultanate. These rulers were of Turkish and Afghan origin. They established their rule in India after defeating the Indian ruling dynasties which were mainly Rajputs in northern India. The main ruler who was overthrown by the invading Turk Muhammad Ghori from Delhi was Prithvi Raj Chauhan. These Sultans ruled for more than 300 years (from around AD 1200 to AD 1526). The last of the Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Mughals under the leadership of Babur in AD1526 who established the Mughal Empire in India. During this period of around three hundred years five different dynasties ruled Delhi. These were the Mamluks (AD 1206–AD 1290) (popularly known as slave dynasty), the Khaljis (AD 1290–AD 1320), the Tughlaqs (AD 1320–AD 1412), the Sayyids (AD 1412–AD 1451) and the Lodis (AD 1451– AD 1526). All these dynasties are collectively referred as the Delhi Sultanate.
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THE MAMLUK SULTANS
With Qutbuddin Aibak, begins the period of Mamluk Sultans or the slave dynasty. Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning “owned”. It was used to distinguish the imported Turkish slaves meant for military service from the lower slaves used as domestic labour or artisan. The Mamluk Sultans ruled from AD 1206 to 1290.
• Qutbuddin Aibak (AD 1206–1210)
Qutbuddin Aibak was a Turkish slave who had risen to high rank in Muhammad Ghori’s army. After Muhammad Ghori’s death in AD 1206, the control of his Indian possessions was passed on to Qutbuddin Aibak. Aibak was the first independent Muslim ruler of Northern India, the founder of Delhi Sultanate. Aibak had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs. Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi. Nasiruddin Qabacha, the governor of Multan
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Qutbuddin Aibak was brave, faithful and generous. Due to his generosity he was known as “Lakh Baksh”. Most of the scholars consider Aibak as the real founder of Mulsim rule in India.
• Iltutmish (AD 1210–1236)
In AD 1210, Aibak died of injuries received in a fall from his horse while playing chaugan (Polo). After his death a few amirs raised his son Aram Shah to the throne in Lahore. But Aram Shah was incapable ruler and the Turkish amirs opposed him. The Turkish chiefs of Delhi invited the governor of Badayun (son-in-law of Qutbuddin Aibak) “Iltutmish” to come to Delhi. Aram Shah proceeded against him at the head of the army from Lahore to Delhi but Iltutmish defeated him and became the Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin. The credit of consolidating the Delhi Sultanate lies largely with him. When Iltutmish ascended the throne, he found himself surrounded with many problems. Other commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qubacha and Ali Mardan rose in defiance again. The chief of Jalor and Ranthambore joined Gwalior and Kalinjar in declaring their independence. Apart from this, the rising power of Mongols under Chenghiz Khan threatened the North West Frontier of the Sultanate.
Iltutmish took up the task of consolidating his position. He defeated Yaldauz in AD 1215 in the battle of Tarain. In AD 1217 he drove away Qabacha from Punjab. In AD 1220, when Chenghiz Khan destroyed the Khwarizm expire, Iltutmish realised the rpolitical necessity of avoiding a confrontation with the Mongols. Thus when Jalaluddin Mangbarani, the son of the Shah of Khwarizm, while escaping from the Mongols, sought shelter at Iltutmish’s court,
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Iltutmish turned him away. He thus saved the Sultanate from destruction by the Mongols.
prestigious regions of North India. (You will read details of administration in lesson 12)
From AD 1225 onwards, Iltutmish engaged his armies in suppressing the disturbances in the East. In AD 1226–27 Iltutmish sent a large army under his son Nasiruddin Mahmud which defeated Iwaz Khan and brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. Similarly a campaign was also launched against the Rajput chiefs. Ranthambore was captured in AD 1226 and by AD 1231 Iltutmish had established his authority over Mandor, Jalore, Bayana and Gwalior.
• Raziya (AD 1236–40)
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The problem of successor troubled Iltutmish during his last days. Iltutmish did not consider any of his sons worthy of the throne. His own choice was his daughter Raziya hence he nominated her as his successor. But after his death his son Ruknuddin Firoz ascended the throne with the help of army leaders. However with the support of the people of Delhi and some military leaders, Raziya soon ascended the throne. Despite her obvious qualities, Raziya did not fare significantly better primarily because of her attempts to create a counter nobility of nonTurks and invited the wrath of the Turkish amirs. They were particularly incensed over her decision to appoint the Abyssinian, Malik Jamaluddin Yaqut, as the amir-i-akhur (master of the horses); the recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important posts further inflamed matters. The nobility realized that, though a woman, Raziya was not willing to be a puppet in their hands, therefore the nobles started revolting against her in the provinces. They accused her of violating feminine modesty and being too friendly to an Abbyssinian noble, Yaqut. She got killed after she was defeated by the nobles. Thus her reign was a brief one and came to end in AD 1240.
There is no doubt that Iltutmish completed the unfinished work of Aibak. The Delhi Sultanate now covered a sizeable territory. Besides this, he also organised his trusted nobles or officers into a group of “Forty” (Turkan-iChahalgani). He was a farsighted ruler and he consolidated and organised the newly formed Turkish Sultanate in Delhi. Iltutmish established ‘Group of Forty’ (Turkan-i-Chahalgani). These were Turkish amirs (nobles) who advised and helped the Sultan in administering the Sultanate. After the death of Iltutmish, this group assumed great power in its hands. For a few years they decided on the selection of Sultans one after the other. The group was finally eliminated by Balban.
Iltutmish effectively suppressed the defiant amirs of Delhi. He separated the Delhi Sultanate from Ghazni, Ghor and Central Asian politics. Iltutmish also obtained a ‘Letter of Investiture’ in AD 1229 from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad to gain legitimacy. Iltutmish made a significant contribution in giving shape to administrative institution such as iqtas, army and currency system. He gave the Sultanate two of its basic coins– the silver ‘Tanka’ and the copper ‘Jittal’. To affect greater control over the conquered areas Iltutmish granted iqtas (land assignments in lieu of cash salaries) to his Turkish officers on a large scale. The recipients of “iqtas” called the “iqtadars” collected the land revenue from the territories under them. Out of this they maintained an armed contingent for the service of the state, enforced law and order and met their own expenses. Iltutmish realized the economic potentiality of the Doab and the iqtas were distributed mainly in this region. This secured for Iltutmish the financial and administrative control over one of the most
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• Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–66 AD)
The struggle for power between Sultan and the Turkish Chiefs “Chahalgani” which began during the reign of Raziya continued. After Raziya’s death, the power of Chahalgani increased and they became largely responsible for making and unmaking of kings. Behram Shah (AD 1240–42) and Masud Shah (AD 1242–46) were made Sultans and removed in succession. After them, in AD 1246, Ulugh Khan (later known as Balban) placed the inexperienced and young Nasiruddin (grandson of Iltutmish) on throne and himself assumed the position of Naib (deputy). To further strengthen his position, he married his daughter to Nasiruddin. Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud died in AD 1265. According to Ibn Battuta and Isami, Balban poisoned his master Nasiruddin and ascended the throne.
• Balban (AD 1266–87)
The struggle between the sultan and the Turkish nobles continued, till one of the Turkish
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encouraged by the Mongol threats and the old age of Sultan the governor of Bengal, Tughril Beg, revolted, assumed the title of Sultan and had the khutba read in his name. Balban sent his forces to Bengal and had Tughril killed. Subsequently he appointed his own son Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal. By all these harsh methods, Balban controlled the situation. In order to impress the people with the strength and awe of his government, Balban maintained a magnificent court. He refused to laugh and joke in the court, and even gave up drinking wine so that no one may see him in a non-serious mood. He also insisted on the ceremony of sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing of the monarch’s feet) in the court. Balban was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Sultanate of Delhi, particularly of its form of government and institutions. By asserting the power of the monarchy, Balban strengthened the Delhi Sultanate. But even he could not fully defend northern India against the attacks of the Mongols. Moreover, by excluding non-Turkish from positions of power and authority and by trusting only a very narrow racial group he made many people dissatisfied. This led to fresh disturbances and troubles after his death. Balban adopted a policy of consolidation rather than expansion. He introduced a new theory of kingship and redefined the relations between the Sultan and nobility. Through these measures Balban strengthened the Delhi Sultanate.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
chiefs, Ulugh Khan, known in history by the name of Balban, gradually arrogated all power to himself and finally ascended the throne in AD 1266. When Balban became the Sultan, his position was not secure. Many Turkish chiefs were hostile to him; the Mongols were looking forward for an opportunity for attacking the Sultanate, the governors of the distant provinces were also trying to become independent rulers, the Indian rulers were also ready to revolt at the smallest opportunity. The law and order situation in the area around Delhi and in the Doab region had deteriorated.In the Ganga-Yamuna doab and Awadh, the roads were infested with the robbers and dacoits, because of which the communication with the eastern areas had become difficult. Some of the Rajput zamindars had set up forts in the area, and defied the government. The Mewatis had become so bold as to plunder people up to the outskirts of Delhi. To deal with these elements, Balban adopted a stern policy. In the Mewat many were killed. In the area around Badayun, Rajput strongholds were destroyed. Balban ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard to elevate the position of the Sultan. He did not allow any noble to assume great power. He even formulated the theory of kingship. The historian Barani, who was himself a great champion of the Turkish nobles, says that Balban remarked ‘whenever I see a base born ignoble man, my eyes burn and I reach in anger for my sword (to kill him).” We do not know if Balban actually said these words but his attitude towards the non-Turks was that of contempt. Balban was not prepared to share power with anyone, not even with his own family.
Balban was determined to break the power of the Chahalgani. To keep himself well informed, Balban appointed spies in every department. He also organised a strong centralized army, both to deal with internal disturbances, and to repel the Mongols who had entrenched themselves in the Punjab and posed a serious threat to the Delhi Sultanate. Balban re-organised the military department (diwan-iarz) and deployed army in different parts of the country to put down rebellion. The disturbances in Mewat, Doab, Awadh and Katihar were ruthlessly suppressed. Balban also secured control over Ajmer and Nagaur in eastern Rajputana but his attempts to capture Ranthambore and Gwalior failed. In AD 1279,
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Balban died in AD 1287. After his death the nobles raised his grandson Kaiquabad to the throne. He was soon replaced by his son, Kaimurs, who remained on the throne for a little over three months. During Balban’s reign, Firoz had been the warden of the marches in northwest and had fought many successful battles against the Mongols. He was called to Delhi as Ariz-i-Mumalik (Minister of War). In AD 1290 Firoz took a bold step by murdering Kaimurs and seized the throne. A group of Khalji nobles led by him established the Khalji dynasty. Some scholars call this event as the ‘dynastic revolution’ of AD 1290. It brought to an end the so called slave dynasty and Firoz ascended the throne under the title of Jalaluddin Khalji.
THE KHALJIS (AD 1290–1320) • Jalaluddin Khalji (AD 1290–1296)
Jalaluddin Khalji laid the foundation of the Khalji dynasty. He ascended the throne at the
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In order to prevent the reoccurrence of these rebellions, Alauddin formulated certain regulations and implemented them. (1) Families that had been enjoying free land to support themselves should pay land tax for their holdings. This curbed the excess of wealth owned by some people. (2) The Sultan reorganized the spy system and took measure to make it more effective. (3) The use of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited. (4) The nobles were ordered not to have social gatherings or inter-marriages without his permission. Alauddin established a huge permanent, standing army to satisfy his ambition of conquest and to protect the country from Mongol invasion.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
age of 70 years. Although Jalaluddin retained the earlier nobility in his administration, but the rise of Khaljis to power ended the monopoly of nobility of slaves to high offices. Jalaluddin ruled only for a short span of six years. He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to clearly put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the large majority of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly Islamic state. Jalaluddin tried to win the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of tolerance. He avoided harsh punishments, even to those who revolted against him. He not only forgave them but at times even rewarded them to win their support. However many people including his supporters, considered him to be a weak sultan.
Jalaluddin’s policy was reversed by Alauddin Khalji who awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose him.
• Alauddin Khalji (AD 1296–1316)
Alauddin Khalji was Jalaluddin’s ambitious nephew and son-in-law. He had helped his uncle in his struggle for power and was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies). Alauddin had two victorious expeditions during the reign of Jalaluddin. After the first expedition of Bhilsa (Vidisa) in AD 1292, he was given the iqta of Awadh, in addition to that of Kara. He was also appointed Arizi-i-Mumalik (Minister of War). In AD 1294, he led the first Turkish expedition to southern India and plundered Devagiri. The successful expedition proved that Alauddin was an able military commander and efficient organiser. In July AD 1296, he murdered his uncle and father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and crowned himself as the Sultan. Alauddin decided to revive Balban’s policies of ruthless governance. He decided to curb the powers of the nobles and interference of Ulema in the matters of the state. He also faced, a few rebellions in succession during the early years of his rule. According to Barani, the author of Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Alauddin felt that there were four reasons for these rebellions: 1) The inefficiency of the spy system, 2) the general practice of the use of wine, 3) Social intercourse among the nobles and inter marriage between them and 4) the excess of wealth in the possession of certain nobles.
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Market Regulations of Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin’s measures to control the markets were one of the most important policy initiative. Since Alauddin wanted to maintain a large army, he therefore, lowered and fixed the price of the commodities of daily use. To control the prices, Alauddin set up three different markets for different commodities in Delhi. These markets were the grain market (Mandi), cloth market (Sarai Adl) and the market for horses, slaves, cattles, etc. To ensure implementation, Alauddin appointed a superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi) who was assisted by an intelligence officer. Apart from Shahna-i-Mandi, Alauddin received daily reports of the market from two other independent sources, barid (intelligence officer) and munhiyans (secret spies). Any violation of Sultan’s orders resulted in harsh punishment, including expulsion from the capital, imposition of fine, imprisonment and mutilation. Control of prices of horses was very important for the Sultan because without the supply of good horses at reasonable price to army, the efficiency of the army could not be ensured. Low price in the horse market were ensured by putting a stop to the purchase of horses by horse dealers and brokers (dalals) in Delhi market.
Expansion of Delhi Sultanate
Under Alauddin Khalji the territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, beyond North India, was the most important achievement. Alauddin first began his territorial conquest with a campaign against Gujarat. Alauddin was motivated by his desire to establish a vast empire and obtain the wealth of Gujarat. The riches of Gujarat were to pay for his future conquests and
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Deccan and South India The imperialist ambitions of Alauddin were not satisfied with the conquest of the north. He was determined to conquer south as well. The wealth of the southern kingdoms attracted him. The expeditions to the south were sent under Malik Kafur, a trusted commander of Alauddin who held the office of the Naib. In AD 1306–07, Alauddin planned fresh campaign in Deccan. His first target was Rai Karan (the earlier rule of Gujarat), who had now occupied Baglana, and defeated him. The second expedition was against Rai Ramachandra, the ruler of Deogir who had earlier promised to pay tribute to Sultan but did not pay. Ramachandra surrendered after little resistance to Malik Kafur and was treated honourably. He was kept a guest at Alauddin’s court and was given a gift of one lakh tankas and the title of Rai Rayan. He was also given a district of Gujarat and one of his daughters was married to Alauddin. Alauddin showed generosity towards Ramachandra because he wanted to have Ramachandra as an ally for campaigns in the South.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
her sea port was to ensure a regular supply of Arab horses for his army. In AD 1299, an army under two of Alauddin’s noted generals Ulugh Khan and Nusarat Khan marched against Gujarat. Rai Karan the ruler of Gujarat fled, the temple of Somnath was captured. An enormous booty was collected. Even the wealthy Muslim merchants were not spared. Many slaves were captured. Malik Kafur was one among them who later became the trusted commander of the Khalji forces and led the invasions to South India. Gujarat now passed under the control of Delhi.
After the annexation of Gujarat, Alauddin turned his attention towards Rajasthan. Ranthambore was the first target. Ranthambore was reputed to be the strongest fort of Rajasthan and had earlier defied Jalaluddin Khalji. The capture of Ranthambore was necessary to break the power and morale of the Rajputs. The immediate cause of attack was that the ruler of Ranthambore Hamirdeva gave shelter to two rebellious Mongol soldiers and refused to hand over them to the Khalji ruler. Hence an offensive was launched against Ranthambore. To begin with the Khalji forces suffered losses. Nusrat Khan even lost his life. Finally Alauddin himself had to come on the battle filed. In AD 1301, the fort fell to Alauddin. In AD 1303, Alauddin besieged Chittor, another powerful state of Rajputana. According to some scholars, Alauddin attacked Chittor because he coveted Padmini, the beautiful queen of Raja Ratan Singh. However many scholars do not agree with this legend as this is first mentioned by Jaisi in his Padmavat more than two hundred years later. According to Amir Khusrau, the Sultan ordered a general massacre of the civil population. Chittor was renamed Khizrabad after the name of Sultan’s son Khizr Khan. Alauddin however returned back quickly to Delhi as Mongol army was advancing towards Delhi. In AD 1305, Khalji army under Ain-ulMulk captured Malwa. Other states such as Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi were also captured. After the conquest of Malwa, Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to the South and himself attacked Siwana. The ruler of Siwana Raja Shital Deva defended the fort bravely but was ultimately defeated. In AD 1311, another Rajput kingdom Jalor was also captured. Thus by AD 1311, Alauddin had completed the conquest of large parts of Rajputana and became the master of North India.
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After AD 1309 Malik Kafur was despatched to launch campaign in South India. The first expedition was against Pratab Rudradeva of Warangal in the Telengana area. This siege lasted for many months and came to an end when Rai agreed to part with his treasures and pay tribute to Sultan. The second campaign was against Dwar Samudra and Ma’bar (modern Karnataka and Tamil Nadu). The ruler of Dwar Samudra, Vir Ballala III realized that defeating Malik Kafur would not be an easy task, hence he agreed to pay tribute to Sultan without any resistance. In the case of Ma’bar (Pandya Kingdom) a direct decisive battle could not take place. However, Kafur plundered as much as he could including a number of wealthy temples such as that of Chidambaram. According to Amir Khusrau, Kafur returned with 512 elephants, 7000 horses, and 500 mans of precious stone. The Sultan honoured Malik Kafur by appointing him Naib Malik of the empire. Alauddin’s forces under Malik Kafur continued to maintain a control over the Deccan kingdoms. Following the death of Alauddin in AD 1316, the Delhi Sultanate was plunged into confusion.
Malik Kafur sat on the throne for a few days, only to be deposed by Qutbuddin Mubarak
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Shah. During this period, rebellions broke out in Deogir but were harshly suppressed. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah was soon murdered and Khusrau ascended the throne. However he too did not last long as some dissatisfied officers, led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, defeated and killed him in a battle. Thus only four years after the death of Alauddin, the Khalji dynasty came to end and power passed into the hands of the Tughlaqs.
had helped Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal in his battle against Delhi Sultans. Ulug Khan led an army against him in AD 1324 Bhanudeva II was defeated and his territory annexed. In Bengal there was discontent of nobles against their Sultan. The dissatisfied nobles invited the Tughlaq prince to invade their ruler. The army of Bengal was defeated and a noble Nasiruddin was installed on the throne.
THE TUGHLAQS (AD 1320–1412)
The Mongol invasions from the North-West region were rocking the Sultanate on regular intervals. In AD 1326–27 a big Mongol assault under Tarmashirin Khan took place.
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North West
The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in AD 1320 and this dynasty ruled till AD 1412. Giyasuddin rose to an important position in the reign of Alauddin Khalji. After a brief rule Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad Tughlaq ascended the throne. Under the Tughlaqs the Delhi Sultanate was further consolidated. Many outlying territories were brought under the direct control of the Sultanate.
The Deccan and South
The regions of the Deccan which were conquered by the Khaljis had stopped paying tribute and were proclaiming independent status. Muhammad Tughlaq while a prince (called Juna Khan) led the early expeditions against Rai Rudra Dev who was defeated after a prolonged conflict and Warangal was now annexed under direct control of the Sultanate. Ma’bar was also defeated. Now the whole region of Telangana was divided into administrative units and made part of the Sultanate. In contrast to Allauddin Khalji’s policy the Tughlaqs annexed the Deccan region. Muhammad Tughlaq even decided to transfer his capital from Delhi to Deogir and renamed it as Daultabad. In fact he wanted to control the northern region from this place. Substantial number of nobles, religious men and craftsmen shifted to the new capital. It seems that the idea was to treat it as the second capital and not abandon Delhi. Later the whole scheme was given up. However, the plan improved ties between the north and south. Apart from territorial expansion the social, cultural and economic interactions also grew.
East India Bhanudeva II, the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa
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Transfer of Capital
One of the controversial measures of Muhammad bin Tughlaq was that he transferred his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad). According to Dr. Mahdi Hussain, the Sultan wanted to maintain both Delhi and Daultabad as his capitals. As per Barani, in AD 1326–27, Sultan decided to shift his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad) in the Deccan because it was more centrally located. According to Ibn Batuta, the people of Delhi used to write letters containing abuses to the Sultan, therefore, in order to punish them Sultan decided to shift the capital. Isami say that it was a place at a safer distance from the North West frontier and thussafe from the Mongols. In view of different versions it is difficult to assign one definite reason for this shift. The entire population was not asked to leave only the upper classes consisting of shaikhs, nobles, ulema were shifted to Daultabad. No. attempt was made to shift the rest of the population. Though Muhammad bin Tughlaq built a road from Delhi to Deogir and set up rest houses but the journey was extremely harsh for the people. Large number of people died because of rigorous travelling and the heat. Due to growing discontent and the fact that north could not be controlled from south, Muhammad decided to abandon Daultabad. Muhammad Tughlaq decided to secure the frontier. The region from Lahore to Kalanur including Peshawar was conquered and new administrative control was established. Besides, the Sultan also planned invasions of Qarachil region (In present day Himachal) and Qandhar but did not succeed. In fact these schemes
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In the Deccan and South Vijaynagar empire and Bahmani kingdom became political powers. Large parts of Punjab were occupied by independent nobles. Gujarat and Malwa became fully independent. Rajput states in Rajasthan no longer treated Delhi Sultans as their overlords.
SAYYID DYNASTY (1414–1450 AD) After defeating the army of Delhi in 1398 Timur appointed Khizr Khan as the ruler of Multan. Khizr Khan defeated Sultan Daulat Khan and occupied Delhi and founded Sayyid dynasty. He did not assume the title of Sultan but was comfortable with Rayati-Ala. The author of the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, Yahya Sirhindi claims that the founder of the Sayyid dynasty was a descendant of the prophet.
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resulted in heavy loss. Muhammad Tughlaq was very innovative in adopting new policies. He started a new department for the development of Agriculture. It was called Diwan-i Kohi. Peasants were given financial support to help in arranging seeds for cultivation. This loan was also given in case of crop failures. Another important measure was to introduce token currency to tide over the shortage of Silver. However, this scheme failed causing great financial loss to the sultanate.
Token Currency
Another controversial project undertaken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the introduction of “Token Currency”. According to Barani, the Sultan introduced token currency because the treasury was empty due to the Sultan’s schemes of conquest as well as his boundless generosity. Some historians are of the opinion that there was a shortage of silver world wide at that time and India too faced the crisis therefore, the Sultan was forced to issue copper coins in place of silver. Muhammad introduced a copper coin (Jittal) in place of silver coin (tanka) and ordered that it should be accepted as equivalent to the tanka. However, the idea of token currency was new in India and it was difficult for traders and common people to accept it. The State also did not take proper precautions to check the imitation of coins issued by the mints. Government could not prevent people from forging the new coins and soon the new coins flooded the markets. According to Barani the people began to mint token currency in their houses. However the common man failed to distinguish between copper coin issued by the royal treasury and those which were locally made. Thus the Sultan was forced to withdraw the token currency. Muhammad Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firuz Tughlaq. Under him no new territories could be added to the Sultanate. He managed to keep large areas intact with great efforts. However, the political control of Delhi gradually weakened during the rule of Firuz’s successors. The invasion of Timur in AD 1398 left the sultanate desolate. By the end of Tughlaq rule (AD 1412) the Sultanate was confined to a small territory in north India. A number of regions proclaimed independent status. In the east Bengal and Orissa enjoyed complete autonomy. In eastern UP and large parts of Bihar a new independent kingdom of Sharqis emerged.
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Khizr Khan was the most competent Sayyid rule of the dynasty. After Khizr Khan’s death Mubarak Shah (AD 1412–34) and Muhammad Shah (AD 1434–45) ascended the throne one after another. All of these rulers tried to control rebellious regions like Katehar, Badaun, Etawah, Patiali, Gwalior, Kampil, Nagaur and Mewat but they failed due to the conspiracy of the nobles. In 1445 AD, Alam Shah ascended the throne and became the Sultan. He proved a totally incompetent Sultan. Alam Shah’s Wazir Hamid Khan invited Bhalol Lodi to take charge of the army and after realizing that it would be difficult to continue as Sultan, Alam Shah left for Badaun.
RECONSOLIDATION UNDER LODI DYNASTY (1451–1526)
With the help of a few nobles Bahlol Lodi (AD 1451–1489) took charge of the army, and became the Sultan. Thus he laid the foundation of Lodi dynasty whose rulers were Afghans. The Lodis were the last ruling family of the Sultanate period and the first to be headed by the Afghans. Sultan Bahlol Lodi was a capable general. He was aware of the fact that to establish his control over Sultanate he would require help and support of Afghan nobles. The Afghan nobles wanted Sultan to treat them as an equal partner rather than an absolute monarch. To placate them Bahlol publicly declared that he considered himself one of the Afghan peers and not the king. He did not sit on the throne nor
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did he insist on his nobles standing in his court. This policy worked well throughout his long reign and he did not face any trouble from his powerful Afghan nobles.
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Bahlol Lodi successfully suppressed the revolts in Mewat and Doab. In AD 1476 he defeated the Sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He also brought the ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under the Suzerainty of Delhi. However, he failed to reoccupy Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan.
Mongols were nomadic groups who inhabited the steppes north of China and east of Lake Baikal. They formed a huge nomadic empire under Chengiz Khan in the 12thcentury. From 13th century onwards they repeatedly attacked the Delhi Sultanate. The Sultans as a policy appeased them and also at times confronted. Balban and Allauddin Khalji confronted them with full military might. During Khalji’s time Mongols under Qultlug Khwaja even besieged Delhi and caused a lot of damage. The last significant attack of Mongols was by Tarmashirin during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. A lot of energy and resources of the Sultans were spent in facing these invasions but they could not destroy the sultanate.
After the dealth of Bahlol Lodi, Sikandar Lodi (AD 1489–1517) ascended the throne. Sikandar Lodi showed little tolerance towards the non-mulsims. He re-imposed jaziya on nonmulsims. Sikandar Lodi believed in the superior position of the Sultan vis-a-vis the nobles. He compelled nobles and amirs to show formal respect to the Sultan in darbar and outside and treated them harshly. He re-annexed Bihar, Dholpur, Narwar and some parts of the kingdom of Gwalior and Nagor to the Delhi Sultanate. After the death of Sikandar Lodi in AD 1517 his nobles helped Ibrahim Lodi to become Sultan. His reign proved a period of revolts. Firstly his own brother Jalal Khan rebelled. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi got him murdered. Bihar declared its independence. Daulat Khan the governor of Punjab also rebelled. Sultan’s behaviour caused much dissatisfaction. The rebellions Daulat Khan sent an invitation to Babur at Kabul to invade India. Babur defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in AD 1526 in the battle at Panipat. Summing up the end of the Sultanate, a scholar states “The Sultanate of Delhi, which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain in AD 1192, breathed its last in AD 1526 a few miles away on the battlefield of Panipat”.
Another important attack which shook the foundation of the sultanate was by Timur in 1398. The weakness of the Delhi Sultanate was made even worse by Timur’s invasion of Delhi (1398). Timur was a son of the Chief of Chagtai branch of Turks. When he invaded India he was the master of almost whole of Central Asia. Timur’s raid into India was a plundering raid and his motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans of Delhi over the last 200 years. Sultan Nasiruddin and his Wazir Mallu Iqbasl faced Timur but were defeated. Timur entered Delhi and stayed for 15 days. He ordered general massacre and large number of Hindu and Muslim including women and children were murdered. Before leaving India Timur’s invasion indicated the downfall of Delhi Sultanate. Delhi Sultanate lost control over Punjab. Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the ruler for Multan who controlled Punjab also. After the fall of Tughlaq dynasty he occupied Delhi and became the ruler of Delhi Sultanate. He laid the foundation of Saiyyid Dynasty.
2. Inner Conflict of Nobility
CHALLENGES FACED BY THE SULTANATE
With the establishment of the Mughal Empire the rule of Delhi sultanate came to an end. During more than 300 years of its rule the Delhi sultanate went through various ups and downs but survived as a political force. Here we would like to discuss the major challenges the sultanate faced.
1. Attacks by Mongols and others Since its inception the major threat to the sultanate came in the form of Mongol invasions.
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Three hundred years of Delhi Sultanate witnessed five dynasties ruling over it. The main reason for change of dynasties and deposing of rulers was a constant struggle between the Sultan and the nobility (Umara). Soon after the death of Aibak they started fighting over the question of succession. Finally Iltutimish emerged victorious. Iltutimish created a group of loyal nobles called Turkan-i-Chihiligani (‘The Forty’). After the death of Iltutimish various factions of the group of forty got involved in making their favourite son/daughter as the sultan. In ten years five sultans were changed. After that the Sultan who occupied the throne (Nasiruddin
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long, as the local rulers recognised the supremacy of the Sultan in Delhi, they were allowed to collect taxes and send it to the central treasury as tribute. The central officials in these areas were mainly to help the local rulers in their administrative tasks. With the expansion and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate, new administrative institutions also started emerging. The administrative structures and institutions introduced in India were influenced by the Mongols, Seljukids etc, brought by the new rulers. The existing administrative institutions in different parts of the country also contributed in giving shape to the new system.
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Mahmud) for 20 years hardly ruled and one of the powerful noble Balban was defacto sultan. The same Balban succeeded Nasiruddin after his death. Almost similar events happened after the death of each powerful sultan (Balban, Alauddin Khalji, Firoz Tughlaq and others.) Since there was no well defined law of succession each noble tried to either crown himself or support some favourite heir of the dead sultan. Finally Afghans replaced the Turks as sultan with the accession of Bahlol Lodi.
3. Provincial Kingdoms
Another consequence of this conflict was declaration of independence by various provincial heads in the regions. As a result a number of independent Afghan and Turkish kingdoms emerged. Important ones of such states were Bengal (Lakhnouti), Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan etc. Quite often these states were at war with the Sultanate. The whole process weakened the sultanate.
4. Resistance by Indian Chiefs
The sultans had to face the resistance from Indian chiefs at regular intervals. The Rajput chiefs in Rajputana (Mewar, Ranthambhor, Chittor etc.), Warangal, Deogiri & Ma’bar in Deccan and South, the king of Dhar, Malwa in Central India, Jajnagar in Orissa and a host of smaller chieftains were constantly at war even after successive defeats. All these struggles weakened the sultanate. The Delhi sultanate was considerably weakened after the Khalji and Tughlaq reign. Finally the invasion of Babur in AD 1526 brought it to an end. Now a much more centralised and strong empire under the Mughals established itself in India and ruled for a further period of more than two hundred years. We will discuss it in our next lesson on the Mughal Rule. But before moving to the Mughals we provide you a brief account of the provincial kingdoms.
EVOLUTION OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
When Qutubuddin Aibak established himself as an independent Sultan at Lahore, the available administrative apparatus was continued in the initial phase. The prevailing structure was not altered or disturbed and as
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The Sultans were aware of the fact that they had to rule over a subject population that was largely non-Islamic. Thus the Sultans of Delhi had to introduce particular measures to suit the prevailing conditions in the Sultanate. From the administrative point of view, the local level administration, it seems, was left mainly in the hands of village headmen etc. The large extent of the Sultanate necessitated the evolution of administrative structure separately for the centre and provinces. Thus, during the Sultanate period, administrative institutions emerged at different levels - central, provincial and local.
Administrative System
The government established by the Turks was a compromise between Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently, many elements of the Rajput political system, with or without changes, became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India.
MUSLIM POLITICAL IDEAS
Theological Basis Muslims believe that Islamic society and govermet should be organised on the basis of divine injunctions of the Quran. The sayings and doings of Prophet Muhammad, collectively known as hadis, began to be supplemented with the above. The ulema (Muslim theologians) gave vrious ruligns on the basis of the Quran and the hadis to meet different situations and problems, which are together known as the Sharia (Islamic Law).
Secular Basis Moreover , Zawabit (rules and regulations framed by the Sultans) were also used for a smooth and efficient running of the administration.
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Allah-Prophet Relationship According to the Qurun, the real master and sovereign of the whole universe is Allah: Allah has sent to all lands, through the ages: his prophets for the transmission of his message, Muhammad being the last one. While it is the duty of the governed to obey the ruler, it is equally the duty of the ruler to discharge his functions efficiently.
The real object of honouring the office of the caliph is interesting. Muslims in general regarded it as incumbet on the Sultan to show respect to the caliph, and opposition to the Sultan, who had been recognised by the caliph as his deputy, was regarded as contrary to the Hod Law. Hence the Sultans kept up the pretense of subservience to the caliph just to exploit the popular Muslim sentiments in their favour.
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Caliphate In principle, the entire Muslim fraternity should have only a single monarch. But when the caliphate or the empire of the caliphs became very extensive and disintegrative forces began to gain the upper hand, the ulema or Muslim jurists developed the theory of governors by usurpation and said that whom the caliph did not oppose he approved.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid caliph in Egypt. After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice.
Similarly they held that only an elected head could be the ruler. But when the caliphate became a hereditary monarchy they evolved a new doctrine of election. Now election by eleven or five or even by s single person enjoying the confidence of the people was regarded as election by the people. This legalised nomination by a ruling sovereign as election by the people. In the absence of any widespread uprisings against a ruler it was held that acquiescence was tantamount to approval or election by the people.
Caliph-Sultan Relationship Most of the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were the caliph’s representatives. Most of them included the name of the caliph in the khutba (prayer) and the sikka (coin) and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph. As against this, three rulers emphasised their own importance. Balban used to say that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and called himself the ‘Shadow of God’. Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had retained the name of the caliph in the khutba and sikka , Muhammad made no mention of caliph anywhere. But, despite all this, neither of them had the audacity to call himself the caliph. The only person who had done this was Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Khalji.
But only three Sultans sought, and sacred a mansur or letter of investiture’ from the caliph. The first among them was Iltutmish. Next
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Law of Succession According to Islamic ideals, essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a male adult, suffering from no physical disability, a freedom Muslim, having faith in Islam and acquinted with its doctrines, and he should be elected by the people. However in practice there were several violations of the prescribed criteria for being elected to the throne. Raziya was raised to the throne despite her womanhood. Minority proved no bar in the case of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Qutub-ud-din Aibak’s authority was recognised even before his manumission. Kaiqubad remained the Sultan as a paralytic. Nasir-ud-din Khusrau had no special reverence for Islam and yet he was accepted as the Sultan of Delhi. Alaud-din Khalji frankly admitted his ignorance of the sharia but nobody dubbled him a unfit to rule on that score. As far as election was concerned, it had never existed in Islam. At best, support of a few leading men was regarded as tantamount to election by the people. This farce or peculiar type of election by the people. This farce or peculiar type of election was tried in the case of Iltutmish, Ghiyasud-din Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq. Theory of Kingship The doctrine of farr or farrah (supernatural effulgence or radiance) was first enunciated in the Shah Namah by firdausi, according to whom the God endows the rulers with farr, which symbolises the divine favour. Among the Delhi Sultans, Balban was the first to exhibit his aware-ness of the doctrine when he remarked that ‘the king’s heart is the mirror of the divine attributer’. Later Amir Khusrau observed that Kaiqubad was endowed with the farr. Limits to Sultan’s Authority in the framing of new rules and regulations the authority of the
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formed the main strength and some Indian groups also emerged. The position and power of the nobility varied from time to time as has been mentioned above. Nobles, particularly those who were based at Delhi, emerged as a very powerful group and at times even played a role in the selection of the sultan. The nobility was not a homogeneous class. There were different groups within the nobility and often there were inter group clashes and rivalries. The clash between Turkish and Tajik nobles started during the time of Iltutmish and became intense after his death. The group of chahalgan (group of 40 nobles), which was created by Iltutmish, also emerged very powerful.
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Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the ulema or theologians as Alaud-din Khalji and Muhammad Tughlaq had been able to do. The power of the nobility also blunted their authority to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne, the nobles, and the ulema particularly, dominated him. But during the reign of Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji or Muhammad Tughlaq, these checks proved ineffective. The Sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in complete disregard of the sentiments of the Hindus. And, the numericial inferiority of the Muslims gave them little or no opportunity to interfere with local government. During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan who was helped by various nobles. There were various other offices along with the office of the Sultan. Theoretically, there was a council of Ministers Majlis-i-Khalwat to assist the Sultan.
(i) The Sultan
The Sultan was the central figure in the administrative set up. He was the head of the civil administration and Supreme Commander of the army. He made all the appointments and promotions. He also had the right to remove anybody from the service. He had absolute power in his hand. He was also the head of the Judiciary. He used to confer titles and honours upon people. Theoretically the Sultan had an exalted position but in actual practice different Sultans enjoyed varying power. The position of the Sultan was always under pressure from the powerful group of nobility and Ulema. Sultans of Delhi, particularly the powerful Sultans, adopted various strategies to keep these groups under control. Balban kept the nobles firmly under his control. Thus the personality of the Sultan played a significant role in the administrative structure of the Sultanate. Under the capable and strong Sultans, the administration and the administrative structure functioned well but under the inefficient and weak ruler the same was under pressure.
(ii) Nobility
The nobles were the most important functionaries of the state and enjoyed high social status. In the initial stage they were those commanders who came with the victorious army. Over a period of time their descendants
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Balban was the first Sultan to bring the nobility firmly under his control (interestingly, he had been a part of chalalgan earlier). Qutubuddin Aibak and Iltutmish had considered the nobles at par with themselves. Balban maintained distance from the nobility and enforced strict code of conduct for himself and for the nobility. No loose talk or laughter was allowed in the court. He also emphasized on high blood and made it a criteria for occupying high positions and offices.
With the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate there were also attempts on the part of different sections of the society to join the nobility. Initially it was the preserve of the Turks only. During the rule of the Khalji and Tughlags the doors of the nobility were opened to people of diverse backgrounds. The low caste people, both Hindus and Muslims, joined the nobility and could rise to high positions especially under Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. During the Lodi period the Afghan concept of equality became important when the Sultan was considered “first among equals”. Thus the nobles enjoyed equal status with the Sultan. Some of the Lodi Sultans like Sikandar Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi found this uncomfortable and tried to bring the nobles under their control. The nobles resisted this which resulted in the trouble for both the Sultans.
(iii) Ulema
The religious intellectual group of Muslims was collectively referred as Ulema. People of this group managed religious matters and interpreted religious regulations for Sultan. They were also incharge of judicial matters and worked as Qazis at various levels. It was quite influential group
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and commanded respect of Sultan and nobility. They also had influence among Muslim masses. This group used to pressurize the sultan to run the Sultanate as per the religious laws of Islam. The Sultan and nobles generally tried to run the administrative affairs as per the need of state rather than religious laws. Sultan like Alauddin Khalji could ignore the opinions of Ulema on a number of issues but some followed their line.
Central Administration
This department was set up to look after the military organization of the empire. It was headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik. He was responsible for the administration of military affairs. He maintained royal contingent, recruited the soldiers, ensured the discipline and fitness of the army, inspected the troops maintained by the Iqta-holders, examined the horses and branded them with the royal insignia. During times of war, the ariz arranged military provisions, transportation and administered the army at war, provided constant supplies and was the custodian of the war booty. Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of Dagh (branding) and huliya (description) and cash payment to the soldiers in order to strengthen his control over the army. The contingent stationed at Delhi was called hasham-i-qalb and Provincial contingents were called hasham-i-atraf.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
As already mentioned the administrative system was headed by the Sultan. There were a number of departments which were assigned different responsibilities. These departments were managed by influential nobles. We will provide a brief account of a few departments.
(ii) Diwan-i-Arz
(i) Wizarat
After Sultan, the most important office was the Diwan-i-Wizarat, headed by the wazir. It was a key position in the royal court and his role was of a general supervisor over all departments, though he was one of the four important departmental heads. He was the chief advisor to the Sultan. The main functions of the wazir were to look after the financial organization of the State, give advice to the Sultan, and on occasions to lead military expeditions at Sultan’s behest. He also supervised the payment to the army. The wizarat or the office of wazir also kept a check on land revenue collections, maintained a record of all the income and expenditure incurred by the state and thus controlled or recorded the salaries of all royal servants, handled the charitable donations such as Waqfs, Inams etc. Further, the Mints, the intelligence departments, the royal buildings and other bodies affiliated to the royal court were supervised by the wizarat. The wazir had direct access to the Sultan and it was on his wisdom, sincerity and loyalty that the position of the Sultan depended greatly.
There were several other departments which worked under the wizarat. They were entrusted with specific functions. These included Mustaufii-Mumalik (Auditor General), Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General), Majmuadar (Keeper of loans and balances from treasury). Later some other offices were brought under the supervision of the Wizarat like Diwan-i -Waqoof (to supervise expenditure), Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (to look into the arrears of revenue payments), Diwan-i-Amir Kohi (to bring uncultivated land into cultivation through state support).
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(iii) Diwan-i-Insha
This department looked after the state correspondence. It was headed by Dabir-i-Khas. He drafted and despatched royal orders and received reports from various officers. The Dabir was the formal channel of communication between the centre and other regions of the empire. He was also a sort of private secretary of the Sultan and was responsible for writing the farmans. The Barid-i-Mumalik was the head of the state news gathering and dealt with intelligence. He had to keep information of all that was happening in the Sultanate. At local level there were barids who used to send regular news concerning the matters of the state to the central office. Apart from barids, another set of reporters also existed who were known as Munihiyan.
(iv) Diwan-i-Rasalat
This department dealt with the administration of Justice. It was headed by Sadrus-Sadr who was also the qazi-i-mumalik. He was the highest religious officer and took care of ecclesiastical affairs. He also appointed the qazis (judges) and approved various charitable grants like waqf, wazifa, Idrar, etc. The Sultan was the highest court of appeal in both civil and criminal matters. Next to him was Qazi-i-mumalik. The Muhtasibs (Public Censors) assisted the judicial department. Their main task was to see that there was no public
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infringement of the tenets of Islam. He was also to supervise and enforce the public morals and conduct.
(v) Other Departments
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Apart from these, there were a number of smaller departments at the centre which helped in the everyday administration of the empire. Wakil-i-dar looked after the royal household and managed the personal services of the Sultan. Amir-i-Hajib looked after the royal ceremonies. He used to act as an intermediary between the Sultan and subordinate officials and between Sultan and the public. Sar-i-Jandar looked after the royal body guards. Amir-i-Akhur looked after the establishment of horses and Shahnah-i-fil looked after the establishment of elephants. Amir-i-Majlis looked after the arrangement of meetings and special ceremonies. The Royal workshops (Karkhanas) played an important role in the administrative system of the Sultanate.
consolidation of the sultanate was a process which continued throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. Some of the newly conquered areas were brought directly under the control of the Sultanate and some other areas remained semi autonomous. Thus different Control mechanisms were adopted by the Sultan for these areas. In the areas that were loosely affiliated to the Sultanate, a few officials were appointed by the Centre as a symbol of imperial presence but everyday administration remained in local hands. The interest of the centre in these areas was mostly economic, i.e. the collection of the revenue.
The needs of the royal household were met through Karkhanas. The Karkhanas were of two types - (i) Manufactories (ii) Store House. Under Feroz Tughlaq, there were as many as 36 Karkhanas. Each Karkhana was supervised by a noble who had the rank of a Malik or a Khan. The Mutasarrif was responsible for the accounts and acted as immediate supervisors in various departments.
Department Purpose
Diwan-i-Risalat - Department of appeals Diwan-i-Ariz - Military department
Diwan-i-Bandagan - Department of slaves
Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik - Department of justice Diwan-i-Isthiaq - Department of pensions
Diwan-i-Mttstakhraj - Department of arrears Diwan-i-Khairat - Department of charity
Diwan-i-Kohi - Department of agriculture
Diwan-i-lnsha -Department of correspondence
Provincial Administration
The administration in the areas that were outside the core political area was carried out in a number of ways. It depended on the degree of political control which was exercised over the areas. The territorial expansion and
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The provinces were placed under the charge of the Governors who were responsible for the overall administration of the area. This involved ensuring the collection of revenue, maintaining law and order and keeping rebellious elements under control. He was a deputy of the Sultan in his area. Since the officials were frequently transferred and not familiar with the areas, they were generally dependent on local officials to perform their duties. The collection of the revenue was not possible without the help of the local officials. Thus the governor and the local power blocs worked in close association with each other. At times the combination created problems for the Sultan as the governors used to become powerful with the help provided by the local rulers and rise in rebellion against the Sultan. During the 14th century the provinces were partitioned into Shiqs for administrative convenience. The shiqs were administered by the Shiqdar. Subsequently the Shiqs got transformed into Sarkar during the Afghan period. Faujdar was another officer along with Shiqdar at the provincial level. Their duties are not clearly articulated, and often the role of the two seem to overlap. The Shiqdar assisted the governor in the maintenance of law and order and provided military assistance. He also supervised the functioning of the smaller administrative units. The duties of the Faujdar were similar to the Shiqdar. The Kotwals were placed under the Faujdar.
The other important officers at the provincial level were Barids (intelligence officer and reporter) and Sahib-i-Diwan (who maintained the financial accounts of the provincial income and expenditure).
Iqta System The institution of the Iqta had been in force
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in early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the state. In the caliphate administration it was used to pay civil and military officers. After the establishment of the Sultanate iqta system was introduced by the Sultans. To begin with the army commanders and nobles were given territories to administer and collect the revenue. The territories thus assigned were called iqta and their holders as iqtadar or muqti.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
In essence this was a system of payment to the officers and maintenance of army by them. Gradually rules and regulations were laid down to organize the whole system. Through the years it became the main instrument of administrating the Sultanate. Further the sultans could get a large share of the surplus production from different parts of the vast territories through this system.
tration. The functioning and administration of the village remained more or less the same as it had existed in pre Turkish times. The main village functionaries were khut, Muqaddam and Patwari. They worked in close coordination with the muqti in the collection of revenue and in maintaining law and order etc. A number of villages formed the Pargana. The important Pargana officials were Chaudhary, Amil (revenue collector) and Karkun (accountant). Village and pargana were independent units of administration, and yet there were inter related areas. In certain cases the province had a local ruler (Rai, Rana, Rawat, Raja) who helped the governor in his duties. In such cases the local rulers were recognised as subordinates of the Sultan.
From the 14th century we hear of Walis or muqtis who are commanders of military and administrative tracts called Iqta. Their exact powers varied according to circumstances. In due course the muqti was given complete charge of the administration of the iqta which included the task of maintaining an army. The muqti was to help the sultan with his army in case of need. He was expected to maintain the army and meet his own expenses with the revenue collected. From the time of Balban the muqti was expected to send the balance (fawazil) of the income to the centre after meeting his and the army’s expenses. This means that the central revenue department had made an assessment of the expected income of the Iqta, the cost of the maintenance of the army and the muqti’s own expenses. This process became even more strict during the time of Alauddhin Khalji. As the central control grew, the control over muqti’s administration also increased. The Khwaja (probably same as Sahibi-Diwan) was appointed to keep a record of the income of the Iqtas. It was on the basis of this record that the Sultan used to make his revenue demands. A barid or intelligence officer was also appointed to keep the Sultan informed. During the reign of Muhmmad-bin-Thughlaq a number of governors were appointed on revenue sharing terms where they were to give a fixed sum to the state. During the time of Feroze Shah Tughlaq the control of state over iqtas was diluted when iqtas became hereditary.
Local Administration The village was the smallest unit of adminis-
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MARKET REFORMS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI
The market reforms of Alauddin Khalji were oriented towards administrative and military necessities. Medieval rulers believed that necessities of life, especially food grains, should be available to the city folk at reasonable prices. But few rulers had been able to control the prices for any length of time. Alauddin Khalji was more or less the first ruler who looked at the problem of price control, in a systematic manner and was able to maintain stable prices for a considerable period. It has been pointed out that Alauddin Khalji instituted the market control because after the mongol seige of Delhi, he wanted to recruit a large army. All his treasures would have soon exhausted if he was to spend huge resources on army. With low prices the sultan could recruit a large army with low expenses. Whatever may be the reason for the market reforms, elaborate administrative arrangements were made to ensure that the market control was followed strictly. Alauddin fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattles etc. He also set up three markets at Delhi, the first for food grains, the second for cloth of all kinds and for expensive items such as sugar, ghee, oil, dry fruits etc. and the third for the horses, slaves and cattle. For controlling the food prices, Alauddin tried to control not only the supply of food grains from the villages, and its transportation to the city by the grain merchants, but also its proper distribution to the citizens. A number of measures were taken to see that prices laid down by the Sultan were strictly observed. An officer
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(Shehna) was in charge of the market to see that no one violates the royal orders. Barids (intelligence officers ) and munhiyan (secret spies) were also appointed. Alauddin also tried to ensure that there were sufficient stocks of foodgrains with the government so that the traders did not hike up prices by creating an artificial scarcity, or indulge in profiteering. Granaries were set up in Delhi and Chhain (Rajasthan). The Banjaras or Karwaniyan who transported the food grains from the country side to the city were asked to form themselves in a body. They were to settle on the banks of Yamuna with their families. An official (Shehna) was appointed to oversee them. To ensure the regular supply of food grains to the Banjaras, a number of regulations were made. All the food grains were to be brought to the market (mandis) and sold only at official prices.
Besides land revenue, they paid certain other taxes which prove that taxation during this period was as much, if not higher than, as in the previous period. In other words, the peasants were always living at the subsistence level which was easily denied by the frequent wars, thus resulting in large scale, and not so infrequent, famines.
The second market for cloth, dry fruits, ghee etc. was called Sarai-i- adl. All the clothes brought from different parts of the country and also from outside were to be stored and sold only in this market at government rates. To ensure an adequate supply of all the commodities, all the merchants were registered and a deed taken from them that they would bring the specified quantities of commodities to the Sarai-i-adl every year. The Merchants who, brought commodities from long distances including foreign countries were given advance money on the condition that they would not sell to any intermediaries. In cases of costly commodities an officer was to issue permits to amirs, maliks etc. for the purchase of these expensive commodities in accordance with their income. This was done to prevent any black marketing of these expensive products.
Improvement of Agriculture
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Maqaddams and Small Landlord: They had a better standard of life, for they readily misused their power in order to exploit the ordinary peasants.
The third market dealt with horses, cattle and slaves. The supply of horses of good quality at fair prices was important for the army. Alauddin did away with the middleman or dallal who had become very powerful. It was decided that the government fixed the quality and prices of the horses. Similarly, the prices of slave boys and girls and of cattle were also fixed. But these reforms didn’t last long and after the death of Alauddin these reforms got lost.
RURAL CLASSES Peasantry: The peasantry, known as the balahars, paid one thrd of their produce as land revenue, sometimes even one half of the produce.
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Autonomous Chieftains: They constituted the most prosperous rural section Though they were now a defeated ruling class, they were still powerful in their respective areas and continued to live a luxurious life as in the pre-Muslim period.
The Sultans undertook efforts to enhance agricultural production by providing irrigational facilities and by advancing takkavi loans for different agricultural purpose. They also encouraged peaseants to cultivate cash crops instead of food crops, and superior crops (wheat) in place of inferior ones (barley). There was an overall improvement in the quality of Indian fruits and the system of gardening. Waste lands were granted to different people thereby extending the cultivated area.
The Indian agriculture has always depended on various sources of water both natural and artificial, for its irrigational requirements, viz rain, wells, river, tanks, canals, lakes, etc. Dams, lakes and water reservoirs were some of the important means of irrigation. In south India, the state, local chiefs and temple managements constructed a number of dams over rivers for this purpose. The Madag lake, for instance, was built by the Vijaynagar rulers on the Tungbhadra river to meet the irrigational need of the adjoining territories. Lakes and water reservoirs such as the Dhebar, Udaisagar, Rajasamand and Jaisamand (all in Mewar); Balsan (Marwar) and Mansagar (Amber) etc. served as important sources of irrigation in medieval Rajasthan. Wells, as a common source of irrigation, were uniformly spread in different parts of the country. A number of artificial devices were used to lift water from wells. Pulleys were employed over wells for this purpose. Another device worked on the lever principle. In this method,
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new roads and maintenance of old ones facilitated easy and smooth transport and communication. Sarais or rest houses were maintained on the roads for the convenience of traders and merchants. Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period. Sericulture was introduced on a large scale which made India less dependent on other countries for the import of raw silk. Paper industry had grown and there was an extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand. The royal karkhanas supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver and gold ware. The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi Sultanate.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
fork of an upright beam was kept in a swinging position with its one end tied with a long rope and the other carried a weight heavier than the filled bucket. The Persian wheel which began to be used in India from the Sultanate period, however, was the most advanced water lifting device of this period. In this method, a garland of pots was attached to the rim of a wheel, a gear mechanism was also attached to it, and with the help of animal power this wheel was made to rotate. The Delhi Sultans, in particular, promoted canal irrigation. Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq (A.D 1320–1325) built a number of canals for this purpose. However, Firuz Shah Tughlaq laid the largest network of canals. Four such canals are frequently mentioned in contemporary sources. These were - (i) from Sutlej to Ghaggar, (ii) Opening from the Nandavi and Simur hills to Arasani, (iii) from Ghaggar, reaching upto the village to Hiransi Khera, and (iv) excavated from Yamuna and extended upto Firuzabad.
GROWTH OF COMMERCE AND URBANIZATION
During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum. A number of cities and towns had grown during this period. Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them. Delhi remained the largest city in the East. The growth of trade and commerce was described by contemporary writers. India exported a large number of commodities to the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia and also to South East Asian countries. Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims. Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchants. Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and communication. Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travelers. Barani, a contemporary historian, gives an excellent account of their riches. Political unification of major parts of India removed the political as well as economic barriers. Introduction of the institution of dalals or brokers (dalal, meaning one who acts as an intermediary, is Arbic in origin), facilitated commercial transactions on a large scale. Construction of
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Causes for Changes in Urban Economy
The foremost cause was the immigration of artisans and merchants from the Islamic East to India, bringing with them their crafts, techniques and practices. Secondly, there was an abundant supply of docile trainable labour obtained through large scale enslavement. Finally, the Delhi Sultans established a revenue system though which a large share of agricultural surplus was appropriate for consumption in towns. Contemporary historians like Isami give us a good account of the immigration of artisans and merchants to India. The large number of captive obtained for enslavement in the military campaigns were trained as artisans by their captors, and they later became free artisans by obtaining or buying their freedom. Thus the immigration and enslavement were responsible for the growth of urban centres and crafts, and their sustenance was provided by the increase in the revenues with the establishment of the new land revenue system. The ruling class, who appropriated a large part of the country’s surplus, spent most of it in towns.
Coins of Delhi Sultanate
The gold coins which Muhammad of Ghur struck in imitation of the issues of the Hindu kings of Kanauj, with the goddess Lakshmi on the obverse, are without a parallel in Islamic History. For the first forty years the currency consisted almost entrirely of copper and billon: hardly have any gold coins been struck and silver coins of the earlier Sultans are scarce.
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Iltutmish, however, issued several types of the silver tanka, the earliest of which has a portrait of the king of horseback on the obverse. The latest type bears witness to the diploma in investiture he had received from the Khalifa of Baghdad, AI Mustansir.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Gold, though minted by Masud, Nasir-uddin Mahmud, Balban and Jalal-ud-din Khalji, was not common until Ala-ud-din Khalji had enriched his treasury by conquests in south India. These gold coins are replicas of the silver in weight and design. Ala-ud-din, whose silver issues are very plentiful, changed the design by dropping the name of the caliph from the obverse and substituting the self laudatory titles. The second Alexander, the right hand of the Khalifate. His successor, Mubarak, whose issues are in som respects the finest tof the whole series, employed the old Indian square shape for som of his gold, silver and billon. On his coins appear the even more arrogant titles, The supreme head of Islam, the Khalifa of the Lord of heaven and earth. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq was the first Indian sovereign to use the title Ghazi (Champion of the faith).
gold dinars of 201.6 grains and silver aslis of 144 grains weight. Muhammad bin Tughluq’s gold and silver issues, like those of his predecessors, are identical in type. One of the earliest and most curious of these was struck both at Delhi and Daulatabad, in memory of his father. It bears the superscription of Ghiyas-ud-din accompanied by the additional title, al-Shahid (the Martyr). The early gold and silver, of which about half a dozen different types exist, were minted at eight different places, including Delhi. And at least twenty five varieties of his bullion coinage are known. From inscriptions on the token currency we learn the nams of their various denominations. There appear to have been two scales of division, one for use at Delhi and other for Daulatabad and the south. In the former the silver tanka was divided into forty eight, and in the latter into fifty jitals.
Most of the coins struck in billon by these early Sultans, including Muhammad of Ghur, are practically uniform in size and weigh (about 56 grains). Numerous varieties were struck. The Indian type known as the delhiwala, with the humped bull and the sovereign’s name in Nagari on the reverse, and the Delhi Chauhan type of horseman on the obverse, lasted till the reign of Masud. Another type with the Horseman obverse and the Sultan’s name and titles in Arabic on the reversem survived till Nasir-uddin Mahmud’s reign. The billon coins of Ala-uddin Khalji are the first to bear dates. The earliest copper of this period is small and insignificant. Some coins, as well as a few billon pieces, bear the inscription adl, which may mean simply currency. All copper is dateless.
Muhammad bin Tughluq, has been called the Prince of moneyers. Not only do his coins surpass those of his predecessors in execution, especially in calligraphy but his large output of gold, the number of his issues of all denominations the interest of the inscriptions, reflecting his character and activities, his experiments with the coinage, entitle him to a place among the greatest moneyers of history. For his earliest gold and silver pieces he retained the old 172.8 grain standard of his predecessors. His first experiment was to add to tesem in the first years of his reign,
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The gold of Firoz Shah is fairly common, and six types are known. Following his predecessors example he inscribed the name of the caliph on the obverse and his own name on the reverse. Firoz associated the name of his son, Fath Khan, with his own on the coinage. Gold coins of subsequent kings are exceedingly scarce; the shortage of silver is even more apparent. Only three silver pices of Firoz have ever come to light, but the copper coins are abundant. The coinage of the later rulers, though abounding in varieties is almost confined to copper and billon pieces. During the whole period, with but two exceptions, one mint name appears, Delhi. The long reign of Firoz seems to have established his coinage as a popular meadium of exchange and this probably accounts for the prolonged series of his posthumous billon coins, extending over a period of forty years. Some of these and of the posthumous issues of his son, Muhammad and of his grandson, Mahmud, were struck by Daulat Khan Lodhi and Khizr Khan. The coinage of the Lodhi family, despite the difference in standard, bears a close resemblance to that of the Sharqi King of Jaunpur.
EVOLUTION OF INDO-PERSIAN CULTURE
The establishment of the Delhi sultanate market a new phase in the cultural development of the country. When the Turks came to India they not only had a well defined faith in Islam to which they were deeply attached, they also
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had definite ideas of government arts architecture, etc. The interaction of the Turks with the Indians who had strong religious beliefs, well defined ideas of arts, architecture and literature resulted in the long one with many ups and down.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE UNDER SULTANATE
Development and Growth
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Architecture: The assimilation of different styles and elements to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period. Many of the characteristics of Indian architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers. This was because though the buildings were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them. The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were:
the buildings. Instead, they used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions containing verses from the Quran. Thus the Arbic script itself became a work of art. The combination of these decorative devices was called arabesque. They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such as the bell motif, lotus etc. The skill of the Indian stone cutters was fully used. They also added colour to their buildings by using red sand stone, yellow sand stone and marble.
(i) the dome;
(ii) lofty towers:
(iii) the true arch unsupported by beam:
(iv) the vault. This showed advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. The Sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they erected numerous splendid edifices The use of arch and the dome had a number of advantages. The dome provided a pleasing skyline. The arch and the dome dispensed with the need for a larger number of pillars to support the roof and enabled the construction of large halls with a clear view. Such place of assembly were useful in mosques as well as in palaces. The arch and the dome needed a strong cement otherwise the stones could not be hel in place. The Turks used fine quality mortar in their buildings.
The architectural device generally used by the Indians consisted of putting one stone over another, narrowing the gap till it could be covered by a caping stone or by putting a beam over a slab of stones which is known as the slab and beam method.The Turks eschewed representation of human and animal figures in
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Ilbari were the first to converted temples and other existing buildings into mosques. Examples of his are the Quwwat-ul-islam mosque near the Qutub Minar in Delhi (which had originally been a Jaina temple then converted into a Vishnu temple by som Hindus, and finally into the mosque by the Turks) and the building at Ajmer called Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra (which had been a monastery) an exquisitely carved mehrab of white marble and a decorative arch screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said lo be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli. The most magnificent building constructed by the Turks (founded by Aibak and completed by Iltutmish) in the 13th century was the Qutub Minar at Delhi. The tower standing at 71.4 metres was dedicated to the sufi sant, Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Although traditions of building tower are to be found both in India and West Asia, the Qutub Minar is unique in many ways. It derives its effect mainly from the skillful manner in which the balconies have been projected yet linked with the main tower the use of red and white sand stone and marble in panels and in the top stages, and the ribbed effect. In the Khalji period the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established once and for all. The monuments show a rich decorative character. Ala-ud-din built his capital at Siri, a few kilometres away from the site around the Qutub, but hardly anything of this city survives now. Ala-ud-din planned a tower twice the hight of the Qutub, but did not live to complete it. But he added an entrance door to the Qutub, called the Alai Darwaza. It has arches of very pleasing proportions. It also contains a dome which, for the first time was built on correct scientific lines. The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety. It is marked by the sloping walls
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Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.
Persian Literature The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. Many of them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature. Learned men came from Persia and Persian language got encouragement from the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also encouraged. Some of the Sultans had their own court historians.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
or the batter which gives the effect of strength and solidarity to the building. However we do not find any batter in the buildings of Firoz: Secondly, they attempted to combine the principles of the arch and the dome with the slab and beam in their buildings. This is found in a marked manner in the building of Firoz. In the Hauz Khas alternate stories have arches and the lintel and beam. The same is to be found in some buildings of Firoz’s Kotla fort. Finally the Tughluqs generally used the cheaper and more easily available greystone. Since it was onot easy to carve this type of stone their buildings have minimum decoration. Ghiyas-ud-din and Muhammad Tughluq built the huge palace cum fortress complex called Tughluqabad. By Blocking the passage of the Yamuna a huge artificial lake was created around it. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin built by Muhammad Tughluq, marks a new trend in architecture. To have a good skyline, the building was put up on a high platform. Firoz Shah Tughluq built the famous Hauz Khas (a pleasure resort) and the Kotla (fort) at Delhi.
The Lodhis further developed the tradition of combining many of the new devices brought by the Turks with indigenous forms. Both the arch and the beam are used in their buildings. Balconies, kiosks and caves of the RajsthaniGujrati style are used. Another device used by the Lodhis was placing their buildings, especially tombs, on a high platform, thus giving the building a feeling of size as well as a better skyline. Some of the tombs are placed in the midst of gardens. The Lodhi garden in Delhi is a fine example of this. Some of the tombs are of an octagonal shape. Many of these features were adopted by the Mughals later on and their culmination is to be found in the Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan. Music: The Turks inherited the rich Arab tradition of music which had been further developed in Iran and Central Asia. They brought with them a number of new musical instruments, such as the rabab and sarangi and new musical modes and regulations. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems. The invention of sitar was also attributed to him. The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq. Pir Bhodan, a
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The most famous historians of this period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s TarikhiFiroz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i- Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260. Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He wrote a number of poems. He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaqi- Hind or the Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi verses. Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.He was also an accomplished musician and took part in religious musical gatherings (samas) organised by the famous Sufi saint, Nizamuddin Auliya. Other important Persian poets were Mir Hasan Dehlawi Badra Chach, etc. Apart from poetry a strong school of history writing in Persian developed in Indna during the period. The most famous historians of the period were Zia-ud-din Barani, Shams-i-Shiraj Afif and Isami. Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit works into Persian. His book Tuti Namah (book of the parrot), written in the time of Muhammad Tughluq, was Persian translation of Sanskrit stories which were related by a parrot to a woman whose husband had gone on a journey. Zia also translated the old Indian treatise on sexology, the Kok Sastra, into Persian. Later, in the time of Firoz, Sanskrit books on medicine and music were translated into Persian. Sultan Zian-ul-Abidin of Kashmir had the famous historical work, Rajatarangini, and the Mahabharata translated into Persian. Sanskrit works on medicine and music were also translated into Persian at his instance.
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Al-Beruni - Kitab fi tahqiq ( Indian sciences), Qanun-i-Masudi (astronomy), Jawahir-filJawahir (mineralogy) . Abu Bakr wrote Chach Namah. Amir Khusrau - Khazain-ul-Futuh,
Tughluq Namah, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Khamsah. Firoz Tughluq - Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi. Zia-uddin Barani - Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi. Ibn Battutah Kitab-ul-Rahla. Firdausi - Shah Namh.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
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EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL STATES IN INDIA
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Jajnagar (Orissa) but did not annex it. He plundered Kangra and suppressed revolts in Gujarat and Thatta.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The Delhi Sultanate expanded as a result of the annexation of the states like Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Malwa, various Rajput states of Rajasthan, like Ranthambor, Jalore, Nagore, Ajmer, the Deccan states of Warangal, Telengana, Yadavas of Deogir, and the southern states of the Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra, Pandyas of Madurai, and so on. We have already studied about the various campaigns of Alauddin Khalji and the shift of capital from Delhi to Daultabad in the Deccan, during Mohammad bin Tughlaq's period. Those states that were annexed to the Sultanate formed various provinces and were placed under the administration of the provincial governors. From the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the thirteenth century till its downfall in the fifteenth century, there was a constant interaction between the provinces that were once upon a time independent states and the centre, that is, Delhi. However, rebellions from these areas never seized. We all know that as a prince, Muhammmad bin Tughlaq spent his entire career in crushing the rebellions in the Deccan, Orissa and Bengal.
CHRONICLE
Though these regions were now a part of the Delhi Sultanate, the regional characteristics of language, art, literature and religion remained. In fact, when Islam reached here, it acquired a regional flavour. These states already had settlements of Muslim merchants and Muslims employed in the army. Though there was hardly any regional ruling dynasty, the provincial governors of the Sultanate allied with the local rajas and zamindars and asserted their independence. Most of the regional states that came up after the fourteenth century when the Delhi Sultanate was declining were a result of the rebellions of the governors. The establishment of Vijayanagar and the Bahamani were a result of the assertion of power by the provincial officers, like Harihara and Bukka and Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah respectively. During the same period, Bengal in the east and Multan and Sind in the west became independent. Feroz Shah Tughlaq tried to regain the lost territories but could not do so. He tried unsuccessfully to take over Bengal. He attacked and plundered
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With the death of Feroz Shah Tughlaq in 1338, the decline of the Sultanate began. As we have just mentioned, a large number of local governors became powerful and asserted their independence in the provinces. The relationship between the Sultan and the nobles worsened. The conflict with the local rulers and zamindars as well as regional and geographical tensions weakened the Sultanate further. The declining Sultanate received the final blow with the invasions of Timur in 1398 AD. Timur was a Turk who had come from Central Asia to plunder the wealth of India. Timur entered Delhi and mercilessly killed both the Hindus and Muslims and massacred women and children as well. Fifteen years after the Timur's raids in Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate declined. The Sultanates in Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur near Varanasi emerged as powerful regional kingdom. Gujarat and Jaunpur were constantly engaged in tension with the Lodhis of the Delhi Sultanate (1451 to 1526 AD). New regional states independent of the Delhi sultanate arose in Central and South India too, out of which the prominent ones were the Gajapatis of Orissa, the Bahamanis and the Vijayanagara Empire. The Lodhi Sultans like Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1485) and Sikander Lodhi (1489-1526) tried to keep these regional kingdoms under control. Finally, during the rule of Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526), Bihar declared its independence. Daulat Khan, the governor of Punjab rebelled and invited Babur to invade India in 1526.
GUJARAT
On account of the excellence of its handicrafts and its flourishing seaports, as well as the richness of its soil, Gujarat was one of the richest provinces of the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's invasion of Delhi, both Gujarat and Malwa become independent in all but name.
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However, it was not till 1407 that Zafar Khan formally proclaimed himself the ruler, with the title Muzaffar Shah (1392-1410).
JAUNPUR Jaunpur is now in Varanasi division in eastern Uttar Pradesh on the banks of river Gomati. It was a prosperous province in the eastern part of the Delhi Sultanate. The governor of Jaunpur was Malik Sarwar, who was a prominent noble during Feroz Shah Tughlaq's period. In 1394, Sultan Nasiruddin Mohammad Shah Tughlaq made him a minister and gave him the title of Sultanu-Sharq which means the master of the east. Thereafter, he was known as Malik Sarwar Sultanus Sharq. After Timur's invasion and the weakening of the Delhi Sultanate, Malik Sarwar took advantage of a weak political situation and declared himself independent. Malik Sarwar was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah Sharqi. The Sultan struck coins in his name.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The real founder of the kingdom of Gujarat was, however, Ahmad Shah I (1411-43), the grandson of Muzaffar Shah. During his long reign, he brought the nobility undr control, settled the administration and expanded and consolidated the kingdom. He shifted the capital from Patan to the new city of Ahmedabad, the foundation of which he laid in 1413. He was a great builder, and beautified the town with many magnificent places and bazars, mosques and madrasas. He drew on the rich architectural traditions of the jains of Gujarat to devise a style of building which was markedly different from Delhi. Some of its features were: slender turrets, exquisite stone-carvings, and highly ornate brackets. The jama Masjid in Ahamdabad and the Tin Darwaza are fine examples of the style of architecture during his time.
of the most powerful and well administered states in the country.
The most famous Sultan of Gujarat was Mahmud Begarha. Mahmud Begarha ruled over Gujarat for more than 50 years (from 1458 to 1511). he was called begarha because he captured two of the most powerful forts (garhs), Girnar in Saurashtra (now called junagarh) and cmapaner in south Gujarat. Mahmud Begarha also had to deal with the Portuguese who were interfering with Gujarat's trade with the countries of west Asia. He joined handa with the ruler of Egypt to check the portuguese naval power, but he was not successful.
Many works were translated from Arabic into Persian during his reign. His court poet was udayaraja who composed in Sanskrit. Mahmud Begarha had a striking appearance. He had a flowing beared which reached uptl his waist, and his moustache was so long that he tied it over his head. According to a traveller Barbosa, from his childhood, Mahmud had been nourished on some poison so that if a fly settled on his hand, it swelled and immediately lay dead. Mahmud was also famous for his voracious appetite. It is said that for breakfast he ate a cup of honey, a cup of butter and one hundred to one hundred and fifty plantains. He ate 10 to 15 kilos of food a day and we are told that plates of meat patties (samosas) were laced on both sides of his pillow at night in case he felt hungry! Under Mahmud Begarha, the Gujarat kingdom reached its zenith and emerged as one
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During his period, the ruler of the Delhi sultanate was Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, who tried to annex Jaunpur, but failed. Thereafter, there were constant tensions between the various rulers of Jaunpur and Delhi Sultanate. The Sharqi Sultans made several attempts to conquer Delhi, but they could never be successful. In 1402, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, Mubarak Shah's brother became the Sultan and ruled Jaunpur for thirty four years. Ibrahim was also a scholar, well versed with Islamic theology and law, music and fine arts. He was a great patron of architecture. A distinct style of architecture evolved called the Sharqi style that had some Hindu influence. At its height, the Sharqi Sultanate extended from Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh to Darbhanga in north Bihar in the east and from Nepal in the north to Bundelkhand in the south. It was during the reign of Hussain Shah Sharqi (1458-1505) that a prolonged war with Bahlol Lodhi started. Bahlol Lodhi attacked Jaunpur in 1484 and Hussain Shah had to flee. Finally, Sikandar Lodhi who succeeded Bahlol Lodhi annexed Jaunpur. Hussain Shah died and the Sharqi dynasty came to an end.
KASHMIR
Kashmir is in the northern part of India. In the eleventh century, the rulers were followers of Saivism, and Saivism became the central religion in Kashmir. It was a closed kingdom.
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Ladakh and helped the traders in every possible way. Sultan also paid attention to the development of handicrafts. He sent some people to Samarqand for training of paper making and book binding. Sultan also encouraged stone cutting and polishing and many other crafts. He introduced carpet and shawl making, which make Kashmir famous till day. Sultan also founded the towns of Zaingir, Zainket and Zainpur and laid out the islands on the Dal Lake that can be seen till today. His chief engineering achievement was the Zaina Lanka, an artificial island in the Woolur Lake on which he built his palace and mosque.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Albiruni, the Arab traveller who visited India during this period remarked in his work, AlHind that no one, not even Hindus from outside was allowed access to Kashmir. In 1320s, the ruling dynasty of Kashmir could not check the devastating Mongol invasions. It therefore, lost all public support. In 1339, Shamsuddin Shah deposed the Saiva ruler and became the ruler of Kashmir. From this period onwards, Islam influenced the Kashmiri society. A group of Sufi saints known as the Rishis propagated a religion that combined features of Hinduism and Islam Sufi saints and refugees migrated from Central Asia to Kashmir and further influenced the society and religion. Gradually, the poorer section of the population started converting to Islam. The state encouragement to Islam took place when the Kashmiri Sultan, Sikandar Shah (1389-1413), issued an order that all Hindus especially, the brahmanas living in his kingdom should embrace Islam or leave his kingdom. It is said that these orders were issued at the instance of the king's minister, Suha Bhatt who was a Hindu and had recently converted to Islam.
Perhaps, one of the greatest rulers of Kashmir was Zainul Abidin (1420-1470). He was an enlightened ruler and called back those Hindus who had left the state due to the persecution of Sikandar Shah. He abolished jaziya and prohibited cow slaughter and gave the Hindus important state posts. A large number of temples were repaired and new ones constructed.
Abul Fazl, the court historian of the Mughal Emperor Akbar noted that Kashmir had one hundred and fifty big temples. Sultan Zainul Abidin married the daughters of the Hindu raja of Jammu. Some scholars call Zainul Abidin as the Akbar of Kashmir. Under him, Kashmir became prosperous and he was called the Bud Shah or the great king of Kashmiris. The Sultan contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by constructing dams and canals. Agricultural records were maintained. During the period of famine and other natural calamities, relief in terms of loans and grains and fodder was provided to the peasants. Sultan also introduced reforms in the currency. He introduced market control and fixed prices of the commodities. Traders and merchants were asked to sell the commodities at fixed prices. Sultan also subsidized the import of the commodities which were scarce in the state. To make up for the shortage of salt, he imported salt from
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He was a great scholar of Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Arab languages and patronised the Sanskrit and Persian scholars. Under his patronage, the Mahabharat and Kalhana's Rajatarangini were translated into Persian and many Persian and Arabic works were translated into Hindi. He himself was a poet and wrote poetry under the pen name 'Qutb'.
After him weak rulers ascended the throne of Kashmir and there was confusion. Taking advantage of this, Mirza Haider, Babur's relative occupied Kashmir. In 1586, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal Empire.
BENGAL
Bengal was an important regional kingdom under the Palas in the eighth century and the Senas in the twelfth century. Bengal was the easternmost province of the Delhi Sultanate. The long distance, uncomfortable climate and poor means of transport and communications made it difficult for the Delhi Sultanate to control this province. Therefore, it was easy for Bengal to assert its independence. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq tried to solve the problem by partitioning Bengal into three independent administrative divisions: Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon. However, the problems remained and finally Bengal emerged as an independent regional state in the fourteenth century. In 1342, one of the nobles, Haji Ilyas Khan united Bengal and became its ruler under the title of Shamsh-ud-din Iliyas Shah and laid the foundation of the Ilyas Shah dynasty. He tried to annex Bengal and raided Orissa and Tirhut and forced them to pay tribute. Such expansions alarmed the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, who tried to occupy Bengal several times but were
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Ahmad Shah was influenced by the Jaina architectural traditions of Gujarat. He was an efficient administrator and consolidated the regional state of Gujarat. He subdued the Rajput states, Jhalawar, Bundi and Durgapur. He was supposed to be an orthodox Muslim who imposed jaziya on the Hindus and destroyed several temples. However, the picture was complex. At the same time, he appointed Hindus to important administrative positions. Ahmad Shah fought equally fiercely against the Hindu as well as the Muslim rulers. His main enemy were the Muslim rulers of Malwa. The rivalry between Gujarat and Malwa was bitter and prevented both the regional states from concentrating on larger political gains in north Indian politics. He was famous for imparting justice. He publicly executed his son-in-law who had murdered an innocent. The author of Mirati-Ahmadi has rightly said that the impact of this justice lasted till his reign.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
not successful. One of the important rulers of the Ilyas Shah dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Azam. He was a learned man and promoted Persian literature. He was well known for dispensing free and fair justice to people. It is said that once he killed a son of a widow by accident. The widow filed a complaint with Qazi who summoned the ruler to the court. When the case was decided, Azam told the Qazi that had he not discharged his duties honestly he would have killed him. Azam had cordial relations with China. There was a prosperous trading relationship between Bengal and China. The port of Chittagaong was an important centre for exchange of goods. On demand from the king of China, Azam also sent Buddhist monks from Bengal. Pandua and Gaur were the capitals of Bengal. In 1538, Bengal was annexed by Sher Shah Suri. In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal, and made it into a suba. While Persian was the language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language. The establishment of Mughal control over Bengal coincided with the rise of agrarian settlements in the forested and marshy areas of southeastern Bengal. Soon after, with the spread of rice cultivation, this area became heavily populated with the local communities of fisher folks and peasants. The Mughals established their capital in the heart of the eastern delta at Dhaka. Officials and functionaries received land grants and settled there. Alauddin Hussain Shah (1439 to 1519) was another important ruler of Bengal. He was very efficient, and gave high administrative posts to the Hindus and is said to have paid respect to Chaitanya of the Vaisnava sect. He came into conflict with Sikandar Lodhi and had to make peace with him.
This was a fertile and prosperous province. It had flourishing seaports and was famous for its handicrafts. Alauddin Khalji was the first Sultan to annex it to Delhi Sultanate and since then it remained under the Turkish governors of the Sultanate. After Timur's invasion, in 1407, Zafar Khan who was then the governor became the independent ruler and after sometime assumed the title of Muzaffar Shah. Zafar Khan's father was a Rajput who had given his sister in marriage to Feroz Shah Tughlaq. Ahmad Shah (1411-1441), was one of the important rulers of Gujarat. He founded the city of Ahmadabad and made it his capital in 1413. He built beautiful buildings, like Jama Masjid and Teen Darwaza and beautified the city with gardens, palaces and bazaars.
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Perhaps the most important ruler of Gujarat was Mahmud Begarha. He was called Mahmud Begarha as he had captured two powerful forts or garh, Girnar (Junagarh) in Saurashtra and the fort of Champaner from the Rajputs in south Gujarat. Both these forts were of strategic importance. The fort of Girnar was in the prosperous Saurahstra region and also provided a base for operations against Sindh. The Sultan founded a new town called Mustafabad at the foot of the hill. This town with many beautiful monuments became the second capital of Gujarat. Similarly, the fort of Champaner was crucial to control Malwa and Khandesh. Mahmud constructed a new town called Muhammadabad near Champaner. According to another version, he was called Begarha as his moustaches resembled the horns of a cow (begarha). Mahmud is supposed to have had a flowing beard which reached up to his waist. His moustache was supposed to be so long that he tied it over his head. According to a foreign traveller, Duarto Barbosa, right from his childhood, Mahmud was given some poison as his food which made him so poisonous that if a fly settled on his head, it would meet instant death. Mahmud was also famous for huge appetite. It is said that for breakfast he ate a cup of honey, a cup of butter and one hundred to hundred and fifty bananas. In total, he consumed ten to fifteen kilos of food everyday. Mahmud Begarha ruled for 52 years. He was also a great patron of art and literature. Many
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works were translated from Arabic to Persian in his court. His court poet was Udayaraja, who composed poetry in Sanskrit.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
In 1507, Mahmud led an expedition against the Portuguese who had settled on the western coast and monopolised the trade there, causing immense harm to the Muslim traders. To break the Portuguese trade monopoly he sought the help of the Sultan of Turkey but could not get much headway and finally had to give the Portuguese a site for a factory in Diu. He died in 1511. During the rule of his successors Akbar conquered and annexed Gujarat in 1572 AD.
Narasimha. The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first task was to check the invading Bahmani forces. By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But, Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched on Bidar and captured it.
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Political History
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory. The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for about four decades. Kumarakampana's expedition to Madurai was described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of South India up to Rameswaram. The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab, the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas of KrishnaGodavari delta led to this long- drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only for a brief period (14861509).
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 1530) The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira
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Krishna Deva Raya's Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja. Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar. He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams. After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga
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and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
Administration
Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions. There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature. The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature. Thus the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and remarkable.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well organized. The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration. The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.
wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements. Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period. The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal images. Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions were other sources of income to the government. Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities given by him and military expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed.
The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram. Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Dancing, music,
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Sources
The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties - Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu - ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672. The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya's Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi's Maduravijayam and Allasani Peddanna's Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period. Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire. The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends explaining their tittles and achievements.
Bahmani Kingdom
The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate. In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed
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immigrant Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had settled in the Deccan region recently. Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate better administrative positions. Because of their feuds, the stability of the Bahamani Sultanate was affected. For the first time in India both these kingdoms used gunpowder in the warfare. The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them, Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important. Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from Goa to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna. The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister Mahmud Gawan. One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an important port on the west coast.
One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan. Mahmud Gawan's early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan as a trader. He was granted the title of 'Chief of the Merchants' or Malikut-Tujjar by the Bahamani ruler, Humayun Shah. The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A regency council was set for the administration and Mahmud Gawan was its important member. He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of 'Khwaju-i-Jahan.' The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the record of the achievements of Mahmud Gawan. Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise between the Afaquis and the Deccanis. He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it stability. Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi. On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these important ports was a great loss for Vijayanagar. Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over Goa and Dabhol.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred villages. From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated. This led to the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the capital at Gulbarga in Andhra Pradesh. Its founders Hasan Gangu assumed the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah as he traced his descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named after him, the Bahamani Sultanate. After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control the Deccan region. Therefore, the Bahamani Sultans without any checks annexed the kingdom.
Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammmad Shah, the administrative system was well organised. The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called 'taraf' or provinces. These provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga. Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently Golconda was annexed to Bahamani kingdom. Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar. Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar. Khalisa land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal household. Further the services and the salary of every noble was fixed. Those nobles who kept 500 horses were given 1000,000 huns annually. If short of the stipulated troops, the tarafdar would have to reimburse the amount to the central government. Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or 'jagir' Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs. There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were
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Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an end to the strife in the nobility. In order to curb the military power of the tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one fort of each province was to be under the direct control of the provincial tarafdar. The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or commander of the forts. The Qiladar was appointed by the central Government. However, soon after his death, the governors declared their independence and the Bahamani kingdom broke up. In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some amirs in Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda
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commercial merchants and banders of the era. Thus, Nardeva Soni, a successful merchant, was the treasurer of Hushang Shah, and one fo his advisers. Mohmud Khalji (1436-69), who is considered the most powerful of the Malwa rulers, destroyed many temples during his struggle with Rana Kumbha of Mewar, and with the neighboring Hindu rajas. This rise of mewar during the fifteenth century was an important factor in the political life of north India. With the comquest of Ranthambhar by Alauddin Khalji, the power of the Chauhans in Rajputana had finally come to an end. From its ruins, a number of new states arose. The state of Marwar with its capital at jodhpur (founded 1465) was one of these. Another state of consequence in the area was the Muslim principality of Nagaur. Anmer which had been the seat of power of the Mulsim governors change hands several times, and was a born of contention among the rising Rajput states.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
and Bijapur and Berar established independent sultanates of their own and formed new states. These were the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the Qutb Shahis of Golconda, and the Imad Shahis of Berar and the Barid Shahis of Bidar. They formed a league of states and strengthened them by matrimonial alliances. They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers. Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the Battle of Talikota against Vijayanagar. They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies. The Sufis were greatly venerate by the Banmani rulers. Initially, they migrated to the Deccan as religious auxiliaries. of the Khaljis and the Tughluqs the infant Bahmani kingdom required the support of the Sufies for popular legitimiation of their authrotiry, the Sufis who migrated to the bahmani kingdom were chiefly of the Dhishti, Qadiria and Shattari orders. Bidar emerged as one of the most important centres of the Qadiri ordr. Syed Muhammad Gesu Baraz, the famous Chishti saint of Delhi, migrated to Gulbaraga in 1402-3, enjoyed the greatest honour.
Malwa and Mewar
The state of Malwa was situated on the high plateau between the rivers Narmada and Tapti It commanded the trunk routes between Gujarat and northern India, as also between Gujarat and north and south India. As long as Malwa continued to be strong, it acted as a barrier to the ambitions of Gujarat, Mewar, the Bahmanis and the Lodi Sultans of Delhi. During the fifteenth century, the kingdom of Malwa remained at the height of its glory, The capital was shifted from Dhar to Mandu, a phace which was highly defensible and which had a great deal of natural beauty. Here, the rulers of Malwa constructed a large number of buildings, the ruins of which are still impressive. Unlide the Gujarat style of architecture, the Mndu architecture was massive and was made to look even more so by using a very lofty plinth for the buildings. The large-scale use of coloured and glazed tiles provided variety to the buildings. The best known among them are jama Masjid, the Hindola Mahal and the Jahaz Mahal. One of the early rulers of Malwa, Hushang shah, adopted a broad policy of religious toleration. Hushang shah extended his patronage to the Jains who were the principal
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The early history of the state of Mewar is obscure. Though it dated back to the eight century, the ruler who raised it to the status of a power to be reckoned with was Rana Kumbha (1433-68AD). After cautiously consolidating his position by defeating his internal rivals, Kumbha embarked upon the conquest of Bundi, Kotah, and Dungarpur on the Gujarat Border. Marwar was under Mewar occupation, but soon it become independent after a successful struggle waged under the leadership of Rao Jodha. Kumbha was a patron of learned men, and was himself one. He composed a number of books, some of which can still be read. The ruins of his palace and the victory tower (kirti stambha) which he built at chittor show that he was an enthusiastic builder as well. Hi dug several lakes and reservoirs for irrigation purposes. Some of the temples built during his period show that the art of stome-cutting, sculpture, Some of the temples built during his period show that the art of stone cutting, sculpture, etc., were still at a high level. Kumbha was murdered by his son, Uda, who wanted to gain the throne. Though Uda was soon ousted, he left a bitter trail. After a long fratricidal conflict with his brothers, Rana Sanga (1509-28), a grandson of Kumbha, ascended the gaddi of Mewar in 1509. The most important development between the death of
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Urdu Urdu emerged due to the interaction of Persian and Indian language in the military camps of Alauddin Khalji. The Deccan was the cradle of Urdu and the language flourished first in the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda. The earliest available work in Deccan Urdu is a mystical prose treatise, Mirajul- Ashiqin by saint Gesu Daraz (early 15th century). Shah Miranji Shamsul (Khush Namah) and Burhanuddin Janam (Irshad Namah) of Bijapur, Muhammad Quli and Ghawasi (Tuti Namah) of Golconda were the most famous Urdu writers of the Deccan. Urdu arrived in north India in a more developed form during the Mughal period. Hatim, Mitrza Jan-i-Janum, Mir Taqi, Muhammad Rafi Sauda and Mir Hassan were the most important Urdu writers of north India in the 18th century.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Kumbha and the rise of Sanga was the rapid internal disintegration of Malwa. The ruler, Mahmud II, had fallen out with medini Rai, the powerful Rajput leader of eastern Malwa who had helped him to gain the throne. the malwa ruler appealed for help to Gujarat, while Medini Rai repaired to the court of Rana Sanga. In a battle in 1517, the Rana defeated Mahmud II and carried him a prisoner to Chittor but it is claimed he released him after six month, keeping one of his sons as a hostage, Eastern Malwa, including Chanderi, passed under the overlordship of Rans Sanga. The developments in Malwa alarmed the Lodi rulers of Delhi who were keenly watching the situation. The Lodi ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, invaded Mewar, but suffered a sharp reverse at the handa of Rana Sanga at Ghatoli. IbrahimLidi withdrew in order ot consolideat his internal position. Meanwhile, Babur was knocking at the gates of India.
Thus, by 1525, the political situation in north India was changing rapidly, and a deccisive conflict for supermacy in north India seemed to be ineviatble. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur in the battle of Khanua in 1527.
GROWTH OF REGIONAL LITERATURE
One of the greatest impact that the rise of the bhakti movement during the medieval period had on the cultural patterns of different regions was the growth of regional literature, either through mystic saints or sometime under the patronage of regional states.
Hindi
The Hindi language probably prospered under the influence of Bhakti saints in the early medieval period. First stage of Hindi literature, known as adi kala (1206-13-18) was the richest period in the history of Hindi literature. Major contribution wave made by nirguna and saguna saint- poets and mystic poets. Nirguna saintpoets were Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Sundaradasa, etc. Mystic poets were Jayasi (Padamavati), Nur Muhammad (Indravati), Uthman (Chitravali), etc. Several secular poets like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan also contributed to the growth of Hindi. The Third stage, known as riti kla (riti means love) and covering the period 1643-1850, was essentially secular. The important poets of this period were Kesavadasa, Chintamani, Mati Rama, Bihari, etc.
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Bengali
Bengali literature was mainly in the form of folk songs and influenced by the philosophy of the Sahaja cult. The second stage began with the Muslim conquest of Bengal in the 13th century and continued till the end of the 17th century. Three main trends in this stage were-Vaishnava poetry-important poets were Chandidasa, Chaitanya, Govindasa and Krishnadasa Kaviraja (Chaitanaya Charitamruta in 16th century); translations and adaptation from classical Sanskrit-Kasirama (Mahabharata), Kristtivasa Ojha (Ramayana) and other works; mangal kavya form of poetry - sectarian in spirit, it narrated the struggle of gods against their rivals. Main contributors were Manikadatta and Mukundarama.
Oriya
Although Oriya originated in the eighth century, major works in the language appeared only in the 13th and 14th centuries. Important Oriya writers were Sarladasa (Mahabharata in the 14th century), Balramadasa and Jagannadadasa and Jagannadadasa belonged to a group known as pacha sakha or the five saassociates, of the 15th century. The bhakti movement of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava poets made a lasting influence on Oriya literature.
Punjabi Baba Farid (13th century), a mystic poet was the pioneer of a new school of poetry in Punjabi,
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A major contributions to Punjabi poetry towards the end of the 15th century was made by Guru Nanak. Later Sikh gurus also contributed to the enrichment of Punjabi. Guru Arjun complied the Adi Granth in 1904 and also wrote Sukhmani, one of the longest and greatest of medieval mystic poems. The contribution Guru Gobind Singh is also invaluable. Punjabi prose made immense progress and a number of religious and philosophical works were translated from Sanskrit to Punjabi between 1600 and 1800.
Tamil The literature of the alvars of Vaishnava saints was known as Prabhanda, the most important among them being Nalayiram (consisting of hymns composed by the 12 alvars including Tirumalisia Alvar, Nammalvar, etc.) The literature of the nayanars or Saiva saints was known as Tevaram, important being Appar, Sambhandar and Sundrar. Their works were known as Tirumarai. Kamban's Ramayana also called Ramanataka was written during the Chola period. Sekkilar's Turyttondar Puranam, also known as Periya Puranam, was composed during the Chola period. This is a biography of 63 nayanaras. Pugalendi's Nalavenba was composed in the 15th century.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Gujarati
and the 15th centuries), Bammera Potana (Bhagavatam of 15th century), Vemana (Sataka), Krishna Deva Raya and his poets and Molla (Ramayana by a poetess of a low caste of the 16th century).
The first phase from the 13th to 15th centuries, was marked by two main forms-the prabandha (narrative poem) and the mukta (shorter poem); Important poets of this phase were Sridhara and Bhima, exponents of the first type and Rajasekhara, Jayasekhara and Somasundara who wrote in the second type. The second phase, from the 15th to 17th century, was the golden age of Gujarati literature. Major contributors during this period were Narasimha Mehta, Bhalana and Akho.
Marathi
Marathi literature emerged in the latter of the 13th century. A major contribution was made by saint-poets of the Natha cult (founded by Gorakhanatha) such as Mukundaraja (VivekSindhu). The saint- poets of the Mahanubhava cult also contributed to Marathi prose and poetry (like Lilachrita, Sidhanta Sutropatta, etc.) other important contributors were Jananadeva (Jnanesvari and Amritanubhava are sacred books for Marathis), Eknatha, Tukaram (abhangas), Ramdas and Vamana Pandit. The 17th century saw the compilation of secular poetry in the form of povadas (ballads describing the warfare skills and selfless valour of the Marathas) and lavanis (romantic works).
Telugu
A group of poets called kavitraya were Nannaya (11th century), Tikkansa (13th century) and Yerrapragada (13th and 14th century). They translated the Mahabharata into Telegu. Their other works included Nanraya's Andhra sabda Chintamani and Tikkana's Narvachanothara Ramayana. Other important writers were Bhaima Kavi (Bhimesvara Puranam of the 17th century), Name Choda (Kumarasambhava of the 18th century), Somanatha (Basava Puranam of the 13th century), Srinatha (Srinagaranaisada, Sivaratri Mahatyam, Kasikhanda, etc. of the 14th
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Kannada and Malayalam
Kannada and Malayalam are two such south Indian languages which emerged under the patronage of medieval regional kingdoms. The earliest extant work in Kannada is Kavirajamaraga by Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha 1. The poets known as ratnatraya are Pampa (18th century). Their works are: Pampa's Adi Purana and Papa Bharata. Poona's Santi Purana; Rana's Ajitanatha Purana and Gadhayudha. Narahari, known as 'Kannada Valmiki', wrote Taravi Ramayana, and Virupaksha Pandit wrote Chenna Basava Purana (16th century) The earliest literary work in Malaylam is Unmunili Sandesam, a work by unknown writer of 14 century. Ramanuja Elluttoccan (greatest of all) wrote Harinamakirtanam Bhagavatam Kilippattu, and other works.
ART AND CULTURE
Regional styles of architecture came into vogue usually after these states had thrown off the allegiance to Delhi and proceeded to develop and form to suit their individual requirements. They were distinct form the Indo-Islamic style practiced at Delhi and often displayed definitely original qualities. In the areas which have a strong indigenous tradition of workmanship in masonry, regional styles of Islamic architecture
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produced the most elegant structures. On the other hand, where these traditions were not so pronounced, the buildings constructed for the regional states were less distinctive. In some cases totally novel tendencies, independent of both the indigenous and the imperial Sultanate traditions, are also visible.
Bengal
Gujarat The regional style of architecture that came into being in western India towards the beginning of the 14th century is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat. The regional style flourished for a period of some two hundred and fifty years beginning early in the 14th century. The founders of the Gujarat style of Indo-Islamic architecture were, in facrt, the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
The establishment of an independent Muslim power in Bengal took place within a gap of five years since the capture of Delhi by the Turks. But an independent building style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, developed at the beginning of the fourteenth century and lasted for a period of nearly 250 years. Bengali style spread in all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located within the boundary of the Malwa district which had been the strategic centre of the region due to the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganga and the Mahananda. Here lie the remains of the two principal cities-Gaur and Pandua-which, in turn, enjoyed the status of the capital seat of the regional ruling style of this region we have to depend mostly on the buildings extant in these two cities and a few important examples elsewhere. The Building art of Bengal is generally divided into the following three phases of which the first two are considered preliminary stages and the third its ultimate development into a specific style.
propylon was the keynote of Jaunpur style and occurs in no other manifestation of indo-Islamic architecture.
Jaunpur
The Sharqi kindom of Jaunpur was founded by Malik Sarwar, a noble of Firuz Shah Tughlug, in 1394. In the wake of Timur's invasion and ransack of Delhi. Jaunpur took over from the capital as a centre for scholars and writers. The surviving buildings constructed under the Sharqis are located in the capital city Jaunpur. The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur carries a distinct impact of the Tughlug style., the battering effect of its bastings and minarets and the use of arch-and-beam combination in the openings being the two most prominent features, However, the most striking feature of the Jaunpur style is the design of the façade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty propylons with sloping sides raised in the centre of the sanctuary screen. The propylons consist of a huge recessed arch ramed by tapering square minar, of exceptional bulk and solidity, divided into registers. The best examples can be seen in the Atala Majid and the Jami Masjid. Evidently, the
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There were three different phases of the Gujarat style:- The first phase lasting for the first half of the 14th century marked by the demolition of the Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim buildings. The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showed signs of hesitant maturity of a distinctive style. The third phase was the matured phase of Gujarati architecture.
Malwa
In central India, the development of IndoIslamic architecture remained confined within the Malwa regional which became an independent kingdom at the turn of the 15th century. The regional manifestations of IndoIslamic architecture in Malwa are located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings may also be seen at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar and Mandu have left a rich architectureal legacy, the main buildings being mosques, tombs and palaces. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many features from the Tughluq architecture such as the battered walls, fringed arch and the arch-beam combination. But soon we also notice the emergence of distinctive features which give the Malwa style of architecture a character of its own. Perhaps the most important is an innovative technique by which the two separate structural systems of the arch and the lintel have been combined in Malwa architecture. In no other early type of architecture has this problem of using arch and beam as structural elements been more artistically solved. Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings is the construction of stately
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flights of steps of considerable length leading to their entrances. This became necessary duet to the use of unusually high plinths on which most of the important buildings are raised. This architectural impulse died in 1531 with defeat of the last Malwa ruler, Mahmud II, at the hands of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Malwa was temporarily brought under the Mughals by Humayun in 1535 and was finally conquered by Akhar in 1564.
The Vijaynagar style of architecture was scattered throughout south India, but the finest and most characteristic group of buildings is to be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city, in fact, had a great advantage as a site for large scale building activity in that it abounds in granite and a dark green chlorite stone, both used extensively as building material. The use of monolithic multiple pillars in the temple at Vijaynagar testify this this fact. The expanse of the city of Vijaynagar at the height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km., and it ws enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and many secular buildings such elephant stables and the lotus Mahal.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Deccan
Vijaynagar
The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed in the Deccan from 14th century onwards under the Bahmanis acquired a definitely regional character quite early in its growth. But this architecture followed a different pattern in evolution than other regional styles. As opposed to the growth of regional styles in northern India, architecture in the Deccan seems to have ignored to a very large extent the pre-Islamic art traditions of the region. In practice, the Deccan style of architecture consisted basically of the fusion of; the architectural system in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq form and an entirely extraneous source that is, the architecture of Pesia.
Bidar
The Bahmani capital was transferred to Bidar, a fortress town in 1425 ruled by Ahman Shah (1422-36). Soon the new capital saw a flurry of building activity. Within its walls sprang up palaces with large audience halls and hammams, a madrasa, and royal tombs.
The use of pillars of architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale. Numerous compositions are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the most frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which is attached an unpraised animal of a supernatural kind resembling a horse or a hippograph. Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse-curve leaves at the cornice. This feature has been borrowed into the style from the Deccan and gives the pavilions a dignified appearance. Pillars form an integral part of Vijaynagar style, is elaborated into the volute teminating in an inverted lotus band. The occurrence of this pendant is an index reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended in 1565 at the battle of Talikota when the combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Rama Raya.
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RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
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individual and society by making them rise above the barriers of colour, creed, wealth, power and position.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Since the dawn of history, India has been the cradle of religious movements. In the previous chapters we have religious movements. In the previous chapters we have discussed the vedic and Later Vedic (i.e. Upanishadic) ideas to the emergence of Bhagavatism and other Brahmanic sects, such as Shaivism, Saktism etc. In the early medieval period two parralled movements, in Hinduism and Islam, respectively representing the Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged in India, which reached their fullest development in the fifteenth and sixteent centuries. Both these religious developments have hardly anything to do with the coming of Islam or with the so-called 'Muslim rule in India'. The seeds and th Bhakti movements are to be found in the Upanishads, Bhagvad Gita, Bhagavata Purana, etc. The various Sufi saints had come to settle down in India in the eleventh-twelfth centuries, the earliest and the most well known being Sheikh Muinuddin Chisti, who made Ajmer his home when Prithviraj Chauhan (III) was still ruling over there. The greatest merit of both these parallel religious movements is that they freed the Indian society from the dogmatic beliefs, ritualism, caste and communal gatred and so on. It was in the true spirit of Indian history and culture that both these movements prospered without even the least ill-will an conflict. On the contrary, both contributed to each other's religious ideas and practices. Both these movements were democratic movements, which preached simple religion in the language of the masses and neither craved for political patronage nor bothered for the political developments around them.
CHRONICLE
At any rate, one can easily find many common points in the Bhakti and Sufi Movements. In both, the elements of intellectuality went hand in hand with that of devotion and in both ritualism and ceremonialism were not as important as the search of and love for one Supreme Reality. Love and liberalism were the keynotes of the Sufi and Bhakti movements. Mystic discipline in both was canalised towards the moral advancement of the
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The Indo-Muslim strands gave woven into the texture of India's national existence a new design of 'composite culture' by intertwining the theads of the Bhakti Marg with the Islamic Sufi (mystic) traditions, the Indian social customs with the values of man and social ethics reflected a new ethos. It is not surprising, therefore, to realize that the composite culture in India originated in an environment of reconciliation rather then refutation. cooperation rather than confromation, co-existance rather than mutual annihilation.
SUFISM
Origin
In the medieval Indian environment Sufism was the most interesting aspect of Islam. It came to India before the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi but after the foundation of the Turkish rule, a large Group of Sufis form different Lslamic countries migrated to India and established them-selves in many parts of Hindustan. The early Sufi's traced their ideas to some verses of the Quran and traditions (Hadith) of the Prophet. Tothese, however, they gave a mystic interpretation. Regarding the orgin of the word "Sufi", numerous explantions have been offered. According to one view, the Sufi saints wore garments of coarse wool (suf) as a badge of poverty and from the word "suf" the name of term Sufi has been derived. Generally, scholars trace its origin by the word safa. They say that those who were pious people were called Sufis. Abu Nasral Sarraj. the author of an Arabic treatise on Sufism, derived from suf (wool). Some scholars have traced its origin to the Greek word sophia (knowledge). It appears that the first writer to use the word Sufi is Jahiz of Basar (A.D. 869). According to jami, the use of the word sufi was first applied to Abu Hashim of Dufa before A.D. 800.
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According to Aul-kusheri this word was introduced in A.D. 811. Within fifty years it denoted all the mystics of Iraq, and two centuries later sufya was applied to the whole body of msslim mystics.
The Sufi Thought
The sufis, by their examples, by worda and conduct, set and ethical standard, They attempted to bridge the gulf between orthodoxy and religion of faith and devotions. They spoke the language of the masses and gave impetus to linguistic assimilation and to a cultural synthesis. They played a silent but important part in the propagation of their faith more by their example and service, than through any efforts at importunate persuasion. They imparted Some of the Sufis were scholars and men of vast eruditon and acted as teachers. They won the hearts of the people by their love and liberalism, sincerity of purpose, charity, piety and social service, They exercised considerable influence on kings, officials and nobles for the good of the people. They shunned wealth and power and dept themselves aloof from the din and bustle of worldly life. Through generally liberal and broadminded in outlook, some of the Sufi saints, who were noted for their piety and learning, were puritanical in attitude and uncompromising on questions of strict adherence to the shariat.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Sufism is a common term given to Islamic mysticism. But it was not organised in a single sect and its religious doctrines were also not common; instead they were organised into various silsilaha of religious doctrines of orders. They accepted the Prophethood of Mohammad and the authority of the Quran, but in course of time they absorbed a variety of ideas and practices from different sources, such as Christianity, Neo-Platonism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Hindu Philosophical systems (Vedanta and Yoga). Sufism in its advanced stage was like a "stream which gathers volumes by joining the tributaries from many lands". For instance, the concept of a relationship between God and the Soul as one between the beloved and the lover was adopted by the Sufis in India. Pacifism and non-violence, which were imbibed by the Indian Sufi sains, are also peculiar to Christianity and Hinduism. Some of the ascetic practies, involving the starving and torturing of the body, and ceremonies were also of Indian origin.
(submissioin to the divine will). In passing through these stages of spiritual development, the Sufi felt excessive love and yearing for God. This Sufis had a two-fold objective view, namely, their own spiritual development and the service of humanity, Union of the Human soul with God, through lovin devotion was the essence of the Sufi faith,
The Muslim mystics or the Sufies of the first two centuries of the Hejira era were asceties, men of dee preligious feelings, who laid great stress on the principles of tauba (repentance) and tawakkul (trust in God). These early mystics of Islam were fundamentally inspired by the Quraic conception of a transcendent God. Their contemplation remained confined within the limits of the Quran and the prectice of the prophet. Sufi mysticism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadutual wujud of the unity of Being, which identified the Haq (the createo) and khalq (the creating). This doctrine means that God is the unity behind all plurality and the Reality behind all phenomenal appearances. The Sufis were so absorbed in this idea that a moment's diversion form the thought of the Absolute was uberable to them. In their journey ot cahive union with the Absolute, they had to pass throuth ten stages which were: tauba (repentance), wara (abstinence), Quhd (peity), fagr (poverty), sabr (patience), shukr (gratitude), Khuf (fear), raja (hope), tawakkul (conterntment) and riza
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Sufism was not to be made a means of livelihood. They stressed the importance of earning. Religious literature tells us about many saintly people who earned their livelihood by their professional pursuits and recognised the dignity of labour. Shaikh Ainuddin Qassab (butcher), a disciple of Hazrat Hamiduddin Nagori, was a saintly man, he sold meat in Delhi, Shaikh Abdul Ishaq Gazrioni was a weaver. We are told that many saintly personages were farmers and cultivated fields. Shaidh Qasim Juzri was an agriculturist. Some saints choose to beg in order to crush their ego. It gave them peace of mind, which helped them to concentrate on God. It also made them realise that everything belinged to god and people were the custodians. The Sufis did not encourage celibacy and complete renunciation of the world for attainment of spiritual personality. Their moral precepts and ideal love of God did not mean complete abandonment fo family life. Their moral precepts and ideal love of God did not mean complete abandonment of family life,
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each sect and they lived in and maintained the dhanqahs or hermitages which were vast complexes.
The Sufi Orders (of Silsilas) The Sufis were organised into orders of silsilahs named after the name or surname of the founder of the particular order, such as Chisti, Suhrawardi, Naqshbandi etc. Each Sufi order had a dhangah or hermitage, where people Thronged for spiritual solace and guidence from the Sufi saints. In the sixteenth century there were as many as fourteen Sufi orders in India, as mentioned by Abul Fazl. Of the various orders, largely founded outside India, only two-the Suhrawardis and the Chistis-were the first to succeed in establishing themselves firmly on Indian soil. Two sub-orders, the Firdausi and the Shuttari offshoots of the Suhrawardi order, were active in Bihar and Bengal. Sindh and Multan had become the centres of the spiritual activites of the saints of the suhrawardi order, The chief centres of the Chisti silsilah, the most popular order, were Ajmer, Narnaul, Sarwal, Nagaur, Hansi, Ayodhya, Badaun and other towns of U.P. The Chisti order was very popular and it achieved extraordinary successdue to the liberal and catholic outlook of many of its sints of outstanding personality and long period of their spiritual activity in India. Many of their practices were akin to those of the Hindus and they, more than the members of other silsilahs, adapted themselves to the non-Mulsim environment. It is one of the eternal glories of the Chisti order that it produced great spiritual luminaries like Khawaja Muiniddin Chisti, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Khqaja Fariduddin Masud Ganji-Shakar, Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya and Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi, Shaikh Alauk Haq, Shaikh Adhi Seraj and Nur Qutb Alam of Pandua, Saidh Husamuddin Mnikpuri, Burhanuddin Gharib and Hazrat Gesu Baraz of the Deccan.
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Excepting a few outstanding saints, the Sufis were all married and did not shun the life of a householder. The typical materi alistic approach was discouraged, but the necessities of life had ot be worded for. One was not to sit idle after putting on a loin cloth; but at the same time, one should not devote all the time for earning one's bread. The Sufis were broadk-minded people, who recognised the truth in other faiths. In extending their help to others they made no distinction on the basis of caste or creed. The Sufi saints showed great interest in learning Yoga; and the Hindu yogis and siddhas frequently visited the hermitages of the Sufi saints.
The Sufis in India, particularly of the Chisti and of the Suhrawardi orders, adopted Sama and Raqs (audition and dancing) as a mode of invocation to God. They did not sanction any king of music. Majlis-iSama, which they sactioned, was totally different from MajlisiTarab of musical entertainment. To the Sufis music was a means to and end. Sama exhilarated their spiritual spirit and lifted the veil between them and God, and helped them in attaining the superme stage of ecstatic swoon.
The practice of spiritual preceptorship, known as piri muridi, was also prevalent in Sufismm. Those who enteried into a particular fraternity of Sufi saints were called murids (disciple). The murid had to pledge absolute submission and devotion to his spiritual guide called pir. In the eleventh and twelfth ecnturies, Lahoer an Multan attracted many well-known Sufis from other countries. The greatest figure in the history of sufism in India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti who arrived at Lahore form Ghazni in 1161 and settled down at Ajmer where he died in 1235-36. He was the founder of the Chisti order of Sufis in India. To this order belinged Shakh fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (11751265) who is known in the Sikh tradition as Baba Farid. His mantle fell upon Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325). In the thriteenth century the Suhrawardi order was established in India by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya. The Suhrawardis though that living in Luxury and activities participation on political affairs were not hindrances to spiritual progress. During the fifteenth century two new Sufi orders- the Shuttaris and the Qadiris- were founded in India by Shaikh Abdullag Shattri and Sayyid Ghau Wala Pir, respective. Thus the Sufis were divided in silsilahs or orders named after the founder of
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The Sufis, especially of the Chisti and Firduasi orders, identified themselves with the common masses, their weal and woe, their grinding poverty and distress. It was a part of their discipline to serve the needy and the oppressed. The saints of the Chisti order regarded money as carrion, They subsisted on Futuh and Nazur (unasked for money and persents). Very often they had to strave. Once, when the wife of Baba Farid reported that their son was about to die of starvation, he replied that he was helpless. God has so decreed and he was dying, Bab Farid wore
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wornotu and patched garments, When he died, there was nothing in this house was demolished to provide unbaked bricks for his grave. In the sixteenth century the most notable Chisti saint was Shaikh Salim Chisti of Fatehpur Sikri who was a contemporary of Akbar, and the emperor greatly venerated him.
Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia's successord spread through the country, one to Hansi, another to Gulbarga, a third in Bengal,l and two remained in Delhi, of whom Shaidh Nasiruddin Muhamud (d.1356), who was later known as Chirag-i-Delhi (the lamp of Delhi) was a charismatic saint, whose 100 'conversation' (as reported in Dhairul Majalis) reflected melancholy at the state of affairs in social and economic life, caused by political upheavals, bad administration, price rise and general anarchy,
C IA H S RO A N C IC A D LE EM Y
Although Abul-Fazl in Ain-i-Abbari mentions 14 Sufi silsilas as active in India by the 16th century, the fact remains that in terms of their following and better-organisation, only six silsilas should be recognised as active and fifluential. Of these, the Chistiyay, founded in India by Khwaja Muin-un-din Chisti (popularly known as Khwaja Ajmeri) (though begun by Khwaja Abdul Chisti-d. 966 - in Iran) attracted the largest of devotees, both Muslims and Hindus, and also made a profound impact on the course of the new Bhakti movement among the Hindus that, gained momentum in the 14th century, and sperad out to many parts of the country in the next three hundred years.
congregation of people of all castes and creeds, Hindus and Muslims.
Prominent Sufi Saints
The only other silsila active in the Sultanate period (1206-1526) was the Suhrawardia, with its headquarter in Multan and later extending to Sindh, which was established in India by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria (d. 1192). Then came the Firdausi silsila, mainly restriced to Bihar, that was spread by the prolific wirter of mystic literature Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahua Muniri around the 13th century, followed by the Qadiriya and the Shuttarria silsila in the middle of the 15 the century.
Yet he had a great fondness for Amir Dhusrau, the mystically inclined aristocrat and a versatile genius, who used to send his days with the sultans and nights of devotion at the Khanqah of Nizamuddin Aulia. It is in his poems and ordres, sung over the centuries by the quwwals (religious singers), that saint Nizamuddin figures prominently.
Shaikh Nizamuddin's liberal and tolerant outlook, offended the orthodox clergy but helped the spread of his message throughout the country and gained for him the popular title, Mahboodi-Illahi (the belived of the God). His tomb in Delhi, built by Sutan Muhammud-bin-Tughlak, (despite the Sints wish: "I want no monument over my grave: Let me rest in board and open plain") This remains even after six and a half centuries an constant place of Pilgrimage, and massive
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With the death of Chirag-i-Delhi, the first phase of Chisti silsila ends. One of his successor was syed muhammad Gesu Daraz was a prolific writer of over thirty books on Tasawwuf (mysticism). His love for the poor and the needy and his defence of the rights of man earned him the title of Bandanawaz (benefactor of God's creatures). He was one of the early poets and writers in the Urdu language- a new language that had grown as a synthesis of persian, Turkish and Arabic on the one hand and of the Indian dialects Khari Boli Braj and Punjabi on the other, with its base in Sanskrit syntax and etymology drawn from many sources. His famous couplet, that reflected the credo of the mysticism and bhakti, was one of the first specimens of Urdu Poetry, His one of the famous couplets is: "infidelity is welcome to the infidels and Islam to the Shaikh. But to us lovers, love and the content and harmony of our hearts is enough." The Qadriya silsila was established in Indian by Shaba Nayamatullag Qadiri, and the the Shattaria silsila by Shah Abdullag Shuttari (d. 1458). The former spread mainly in Madhya Pradesh and Gujrat regions. In the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), the last of six major silsilas, the Naqshbandiah was established by Khwaja Baqi Ballah (1563-1603) and its most famous aint was Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi (d.1625) Known as Mujeddid Alif Sani (The Reformer of the 10th century). Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, become the follower of the Qadiri order and visited Mian Mir (1550-1635) at Lahore, When Mian Mir died, Dara become a disciple of his successor named Mullah Shah Badakhshi. Shaikh Ahmed Sarihindi, a contemporary of Akbar and Jahangir, was a great Sufi saint of
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But it is Shah Latif who holds the highest place among the mystics of Sindh. He was the greatest poet and singer of the province, and his songs are sung by people even now. His shrine at Bhit was a weekly meeting- place for both Hindus and
