Ancient Food Technology

TECHNOLOGY AND CHANGE IN HISTORY

Ancient Food Technology Robet I. Curtis

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ANCIENT FOOD TECHNOLOGY BY

ROBERT I. CURTIS

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BRILL LEIDEN · B O S T O N · KÖLN

2001

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Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme C u r t i s , R o b e r t I.s Anc ient food technology / by R o b e r t I. Curtis. Köln : Brill, 2001 (Technology and change in history ; Vol. 5) ISBN 90 0 1 09681 7

ISSN ISBN

Leiden ; Boston ;

1385-920X 90 04 0 9 6 8 1 7

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I'RINTKl) IN ΙΊΙΙ M.Hn.KI.AM)S

TABLE O F C O N T E N T S

List of Abbreviations List of Figures List of Plates List of Maps Acknowledgements Foreword

xi xiii xv xvii xix xxiii

PART O N E PREHISTORY

C h a p t e r O n e : Lower and Middle Paleolithic Periods A. Hominids and Their Tools B. Early Hominid Subsistence Strategies C. Hominid Intelligence

3 4 20 32

C h a p t e r Two: U p p e r Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods A. U p p e r Paleolithic Period B. Last Glacial M a x i m u m C. Epipaleolithic Period and the Rise of Agriculture D. Neolithic Period 1. Southwest Asia 2. Europe 3. Egypt

35 35 48 57 65 65 74 77

S u m m a r y and Conclusions to Part O n e

81

PAR T T W O E G Y P T A N D T H E N E A R EAST

C h a p t e r Three: Egypt 1 A. Cereal Processing 1. Storage 2. Bread and Beer

93 99 99 105

VI11

TABLE O F CON TENTS

a. Milling b. Bread Making c. Beer Production

114 117 131

C h a p t e r Four: Egypt II B. Wine C. Oil D. Animal Processing 1. Butchery 2. Dairy Products 3. Fish E. Sweeteners

142 142 164 165 165 173 173 176

C h a p t e r Five: T h e Ancient Near East A. Prehistoric Period 1. Cereal Processing 2. Wine 3. Oil B. Historic Period 1. Food Technology and the Rise of the State 2. Cereal Processing a. Storage b. Milling c. Bread Making d. Beer Production 3. Wine 4. Oil 5. Animal Processing a. Butchery b. Dairy Products c. Fish 6. Sweeteners

178 180 183 184 187 189 190 195 195 199 205 210 219 226 233 233 234 238 240

Summary and Conclusions to Part T w o

243

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART

IX

THREE

MEDITERRANEAN CIVILIZATIONS

C h a p t e r Six: T h e Greek World: Bronze Age T h r o u g h the Hellenistic Period A. Bronze Age 1. Cereals 2. Wine and Olive Oil 3. Miscellaneous Processes B. Classical and Hellenistic Periods 1. Cereal Processing a. Storage b. Milling c. Bread Making d. Beer Production 4. Wine 5. Olive 6. Animal Processing a. Butchery b. Dairy Products c. Fish 7. Sweeteners

259 259 260 267 274 275 276 276 279 289 294 294 303 313 313 315 316 322

C h a p t e r Seven: R o m e I A. Cereal Processing 1. Storage 2. Milling 3. Bread Making 4. Beer Production B. Wine C. Oil

323 325 325 335 358 370 372 380

C h a p t e r Eight: Rome II 1). Animal Processing 1. Butchery 2. Dairy Products 3. Fish E. Sweeteners F. Refrigeration ο

395 395 395 399 402 417 419

S u m m a r y and Conclusions to Part T h r e e

420

Select Bibliography

435

Index

467

Plates

LIS‫ '!׳‬O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S

Abbreviations of modern works follow those listed either in the most recent issue of L'Année Philologique, or in the American Journal of Archaeology 95, no. 1 (Jan. 1991). In general, abbreviations of ancient Greek and R o m a n authors conform to those listed in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3ry and Technology of Olive Oil in the Holy Land. M y indebtedness to this work will be obvious. F o r a convenient list of olive oil a n d wine installations in Israel d a t i n g b e t w e e n the Chalcolithic a n d C r u s a d e r periods, see David E i t a m , "Selected Oil a n d W i n e Installations in Ancient Israel, ‫ י י‬in IM production du vin et de l'huile, p p . 9 9 - 1 0 3 .

232

Pressing

Separating oil from water

CHAPTER THREE

pressing installations at Tel M i q n e - E k r o n probably functioned in the following m a n n e r . Olives brought to the building were taken to the pressroom where they were placed in the large crushing basin between the two presses. A worker crushed the olives by rolling a heavy cylindrical stone over them. A forkedshaped staff affixed to the stone facilitated the pushing a n d pulling required to manipulate the roller. O n e example found in Ekron measured 0.6 m. in length a n d 0.22 m. 111 diameter. This operation expressed the finest quality oil. T h e crushed olive pulp was then transferred to a container of some sort, probably a straw basket measuring ca. 0.3 m. in diameter (only smaller ones would fit on the "preliminary" type press). T h e basket, or series of baskets, was placed on top of a perforated wooden plank set over the opening of the collection vat. Some installations elsewhere used a collection vat with a wide, shallow depression on top into which a wooden plank or stone slab was fitted. O n top of the basket was placed a wooden board or stone on which the wooden beam applied the pressure. T h e pressing force c a m e f r o m weights suspended from the free end of the b e a m . A w o r k m a n grasping the b e a m and pulling down could add additional force. W h e n the olives were squeezed, the oil drained into a peripheral groove, which channeled the oil to a small hole leading to the collection vat. 105 O n c e pressing was complete, the second step in the process, separation, followed. Although separation m a y have occurred in the collection vats, better efficiency dictated removal to other containers in a separate room so further pressing could continue. T h e oil was removed from the collection vat with ladles of some sort and transferred to clay j a r s placed in the separation room. Here the oil, naturally separating from the water, f o r m e d a layer on top. Collection of the oil could be accomplished in two ways, both of which were apparently used at Tel M i q n e . O n e large vessel, with eleven handles, had two small circular holes bored into its midsection. D u r i n g separation, these holes were plugged. W h e n the plugs were removed, the oil at the top of the container (with probably a small a m o u n t of the water) drained out. Another j a r , termed " E k r o n " type, had a hole near the bottom, which allowed the water to be drained off, leaving the oil in the container. Each type of container probably

105

E i t a m , " O l i v e Oil Industry at T e l M i q n e - E k r o n , " p p . 1 7 1 - 7 3 ; Gitin, " T e l M i q n e - E k r o n : A T y p e - S i t e for the I n n e r Coastal Plain," 32.‫;גן‬Frankel et al, History and Technology of Olive Oil, pp. 3 6 - 4 0 , esp. Figs. 29A, 29B, 31B. At T e l Batash rollers w e r e also used in c r u s h i n g basins, a n d collection vats w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d in a fashion similar to those at Tell M i q n e . T h e s q u a r e collection vats varied b e t w e e n 0.64 m a n d 0.40 m . d e e p , a n d h a d the depression in the b o t t o m . K e i m a n d M a z a r , "7 , h C e n t u r y Oil Presses at T e l Batash,'" p p . 2 4 4 45. For w o r k m e n a d d i n g extra force o n a b e a m press, cf. the p a i n t i n g on a sixth-century B. C . G r e e k vase in the M u s e u m of Fine Arts, Boston. See PI. 23.

TIIE ANCIENT NEAR EAS T

233

required repeated drainage to separate all of the oil and to obtain oil of the highest quality. 106

5. Animal Processing a. Butchery T h e m a j o r food animals in the ancient N e a r East, sheep, goats, cattle, a n d pigs, had been domesticated during the Neolithic period, but by the fourth millenniu m Β. C. the focus of animal husbandry had shifted from domestic to community needs. This was particularly true as an expanding bureaucracy, m a d e up of managers, workers, soldiers, and craft specialists, created large populations concentrated in or near urban centers, which did not produce their own food. Hence, the managing and redistribution of food animals, in the same way as for agricultural products, became a state or temple concern. In the late third milieunium B. C. at Ur, for example, animals served as tax payments supplied to the central authority from outlying areas. Early in the following millennium B. C., the palace at Mari employed two individuals whose j o b was to fatten animals, such as oxen, sheep, and pigs, for religious offerings and for food. M a n y animals were selected for particular traits, such as milk production, meat yield, or wool supply. For these and other reasons, geographic and social, distinct breeds of domesticated animals began to appear. 1 0 7 Literary references to "slaughterhouses," such as operated at Lagash, and finds of sheep bones bearing cut marks, such as those excavated at Ur, dating to the T h i r d Dynasty, indicate that butchery was practiced to provide meat. A Neo-Assyrian relief from the Palace at N i m r u d shows a sheep, placed on a table and about to be butchered by two individuals, one of w h o m (wearing a tall hat) may be the king's chef (Fig. 14).108 Some administrative documents from D r e h e m , near Nippur, Lagash, and Ur indicate that sheep, lamb, and cattle

106

E i t a m , " O l i v e Oil I n d u s t r y at T e l M i q n e - E k r o n , " p p . 173-74; Gitin, " T e l M i q n e - E k r o n in the 7 th C e n t u r y B. C . E . " p. 64, esp. Figs. 4.4 a n d 4.6; Gitin, " T e l M i q n e - E k r o n in the 7 ,h C e n t u ry B. C . City Plan D e v e l o p m e n t a n d the Oil I n d u s t r y , " p. 224. Borowski (Agriculture in Iron Age Israel, p. 120, a n d Fig. 19) briefly discusses an Iron Age II "olive oil refinery" at Beth S h e m e s h . T w o stone vats h a d collection vessels a r r a n g e d o n either side a n d set into m a s o n r y . H e docs not explain h o w the " r e f i n e r y " f u n c t i o n e d , b u t o n e c a n speculate t h a t workers sat or knelt next to the vats a n d scooped u p the oil at the top of the vat a n d transferred it into the clay j a r s . 107 Hesse, " A n i m a l H u s b a n d r y , " pp. 203 22; O d e d Borowski, Every Living Thing. Daily Use of Animals in Ancient Israel (Walnut C r e e k , C A : A l t a m i r a Press, 1998), p p . 5 9 - 8 1 ; Dalley, Man and Karana, p. 80 (animal-fattener). 108 Limet, " C u i s i n e of A n c i e n t S u m c r , " p. 136; Ellison et al, " S o m e F o o d O f f e r i n g s , " pp. 1 7 3 - 7 4 ; M a l l o w a n , Nimrud and its Remains, 1: 9 8 - 9 9 . For m e a t p r o d u c t i o n in Biblical sources, see Borowski, Eveiy Living Thing, p p . 5 7 - 5 8 .

Meat animals

234

CHAPTER THREE

were raised in herds and delivered, alive or dead, to various places for consumption by people of all classes. T h e meat could be roasted, grilled, boiled, or cooked in broths or stews of various sorts. T h e Yale Culinary Tablets, for exampie, mention diverse kinds of broth using goat, lamb, mutton, and even gazelle. 109 Birds also a p p e a r in recipes, but not pig. Although there are famous prohibitions in the Bible against the consumption of pigs, this attitude was probably a late development for a n u m b e r of different reasons. Pork was consumed, although in comparison with the other three ungulates it played a minor role in the diet. Pig bones and teeth, discovered at Ur, Tell Asmar, and Nuzi, were probably the remains of pork consumption. Some of the bones found at U r had been split, apparently to extract the marrow. Pig consumption was apparently significant in the Chalcolithic a n d Bronze ages, and declined in importance as time passed. 110

Milk

b. Daily Products Processed a n i m a l by-products also f o r m e d an i m p o r t a n t part of the ancient N e a r Eastern diet. Chief a m o n g these products was milk. Infants, in particular, drank fresh milk f r o m ewes, goats, and cows. Scenes of herds of cattle, some shown being milked, a n d milking sheds a p p e a r on cylinder seals as early as the late fourth millennium B. C. in southern M e s o p o t a m i a . Since milk spoils soon after exposure to air in the hot climate, it probably did not form a significant part of redistributive stores. It rarely a p p e a r s in administrative texts, but does find frequent m e n t i o n in S u m e r i a n literary sources, which indicate that milk was often d r u n k by the lower classes. It was used as an offering to gods, a n d Biblical sources indicate that it had symbolic value when combined with honey to represent prosperity. Milk was also used for cooking. Its greatest value, however, derived f r o m products that could be m a d e from it and would keep for a considerable period of time: yogurt, ghee, and cheese. Additionally, milk is difficult for adult h u m a n s to digest in the absence of the enzyme lactase, which is necessary to break down the lactose of milk. Milk /

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' Borowski, Every Living Thing, p. 58; A r l i n g t o n , " F o o d s of the Bible, ‫ י י‬p. 818; Bottéro, Textes culinaires Mesopotamiens, p p . 8 1 1 ; Limet, " C u i s i n e of Ancient S u m e r , " p p . 136-37; Bottéro, " C u i sine of A n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a , " p p . 44; N e m e t - N e j a t , Daily Life, p. 159. See also Ellison, " M e t h ods of F o o d P r e p a r a t i o n , " p. 93. For grills used to p r e p a r e m e a t , see S a l o n e n , " D i e Ö f e n , " p p . 104-06. 110 C a r o l i n e Grigson, " P l o u g h a n d Pasture in the Early E c o n o m y of t h e S o u t h e r n L e v a n t , " in Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, pp. 2 5 1 - 5 5 ; Hesse, " A n i m a l H u s b a n d r y , , ‫ י‬pp. 2 1 4 - 1 6 ; Ellison, " M e t h o d s of Food Preparation, , ‫ י‬p. 93; Limet, " C u i s i n e at S u m e r , " p. 137; N e m e t - N e j a t , Daily Life, p. 159; Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, p. 166. For Biblical references to prohibitions against eati n g pork, see Leviticus 11, Deuteronomy 14, Isaiah 6 5 - 6 6 .

TIIE ANCIENT NEAR EAS T

235

byproducts, however, contain lactose in significantly lower a m o u n t s a n d so are m o r e readily tolerated. 1 " T h e inhabitants of the ancient N e a r East fermented milk, primarily of cows a n d goats, rarely of sheep. Fresh milk (Sumerian (;A), sometimes heated, allowed to stand overnight curdles and becomes sour. This product, the rough equivalent of yogurt, forms the base for the other milk byproducts, butter (more properly ghee) and cheese. Detailed record keeping of the productivity of dairy herds by the Sumerians has allowed the calculation that milk from both cows and goats was expected to yield butter and cheese in a ratio of 2:3. 1 , 2 R a w butter is the product of churning sour milk. This process m a y be represented on the mosaic frieze from the temple of Ninhursag at Ubaid dating to the Early Dynastic III period, or mid-third millennium B. C. (Fig. 17). Divided into three parts, the activities shown include a procession of bulls, milking of cows, a n d manufacture of butter. In the third scene several individuals are engaged in processing milk coming from cows shown in a nearby stall. O n e individual (a) holds a large sealed earthenware j a r tilted to one side. His j o b is apparently to churn the sour milk into buttermilk. This can be done by constantly rocking the j a r about on its base for an extended period of time, as is apparently shown here in a scene perhaps paralleled by others on cylinder seals. T h e r e is also some evidence for an upright churn in which the sour milk is beaten with a wooden dasher. According to Sumerian literary texts, churning was often accompanied by singing, probably because the work required to manipulate the vessel over a long period of time was repetitive and so could be quite boring. 1 1 3 The results of churning are liquid buttermilk and solid droplets of raw butter floating on top. T h e butter can be separated from the buttermilk by skimming it off or, as seems to be represented on the Ubaid mosaic (b), by pouring it through a strainer, which captures the

111

Ph. G o u i n , "Bovins et laitages en M e s o p o t a m i e m é r i d i o n a l e au 3CIW millénaire. Q u e l q u e s c o m m e n t a i r e s sur la 'frise a la laiterie' de E l - ' Ô b e i d , " Iraq 5 5 (1993): 138; M a r i a G i o v a n n a Biga, "Il latte nclla d o c u m e n t a z i o n e c u n e i f o r m e del III e II millennio," in Drinking in Ancient Societies, pp. 3 3 3 - 4 5 ; Fronzaroli, " O s s e r v a z i o n i , " p p . 1 2 1 - 2 2 ; M a r t e n Stol, "Milk, Butter, a n d C h e e s e , " BullSumAgri 7 (1993): 100; M a r t e n Stol a n d H. A. H o f f n e r , J r . , " M i l c h (produkte)," in RIA (1994), 8: 1 8 9 - 2 0 5 ; Borowski, Every Living Thing, p p . 52 54; Fischer, '"Milk in Everything C o o k e d ' , " pp. 9 7 - 9 9 ; Potts, Mesopotamian Civilization, p. 144. 112 T o h r u G ù m i , " O n Dairy Productivity at U r in the Late U r III P e r i o d , " JESHO 33 (April 1980): 1 - 4 2 ; Stol, "Milk, Butter, a n d C h e e s e , " pp. 100 02; Stol, "Milch (produkte)," RLA (1994), 8: 192-93; Borowski, Eveiy Living Thing, p. 55. 113 Stol, "Milk, Butter, a n d C h e e s e , " p p . 100 02; Stol, "Milch (produkte)," RIA (1994), 8: 19297; G o u i n , "Bovins et laitages," pp. 141-42, esp. note 42; A r l i n g t o n , " F o o d s of the Bible," p. 818; F r a n k f o r t , Cylinder Seals, P Ì X X I V g; T h o r k i l d J a c o b s e n , " L a d in the Desert," JAOS 103 (1983): 1 9 7 - 9 8 . Milk is sometimes c h u r n e d today by b o u n c i n g a goatskin filled with milk held on the knees, but no ancient c o u n t e r p a r t has been attested.

Butter

236

CHAPTER THREE

c

b

a

Part III

Fig. 17. Frieze from the T e m p l e of Ninhursag at Ubaid, dated to Early Dynastic III Β (ca. 2 5 0 0 - 2 4 0 0 B. C.): Part I: procession of cattle, Part II: milking scene, and Part III: butter making. Drawing based on a east in the British M u s e u m from the original in the M u s e u m of Baghdad. T h e original measures 115 cm. in length χ 22 cm. in height. From Gouin, "Bovins et laitages en Mésopotamie· Méridionale," p. 136, Fig. 1. Courtesy of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq.

TIIE ANCIENT NEAR EAS T

237

thick butter while collecting the p u r e buttermilk in another vessel. A final individual (c) pictured in the mosaic seems to be either cleaning the churn or filling the vessel with raw butter. 1 1 4 T h e Ubaid mosaic does not seem to show what was the next required step. R a w butter does not keep long; it must be clarified to form what is called today ghee (Sumerian / jVLW), produced by boiling the raw butter and allowing it to cool down. Ghee, essentially a liquid, was used espe- Ghee cially as an offering to gods and as an ingredient in numerous food dishes, such as bread and cakes. C r e a m came primarily f r o m cow's milk, a n d its close association with butter can be seen in the n a m e of the dairy goddess, NLN-F-IÀ-GÂR-KA, "the lady of the house of butter and cream." T h e sign for cream was a milk j a r shaded on the neck to represent the area where cream would adhere. 1 1 5 Cheese (Sumerian GA-AR), known from n u m e r o u s literary texts, dictionaries, Cheese a n d administrative documents, came in m a n y varieties, was widely consumed, and, along with ghee, formed an important offering to the gods. T h e process of cheese making finds n o mention in ancient N e a r Eastern literary sources nor is it represented in the art historical evidence, although one cylinder seal may show small round cheeses placed on a mat to dry on the roof of a house. 116 Using the literary records in combination with m o d e r n methods of cheese production, particularly as traditionally practiced in the Middle East, two types of ancient cheese can be identified. First, similar to the m o d e r n product called kisk in Arabic, is that prepared from buttermilk, less often f r o m sour milk, left over from making ghee. Mixed with salt, or perhaps cereals or various plants, buttermilk is allowed to stand in a cloth bag for several days. T h e solid residue remaining after the liquid has drained out or evaporated is rolled into small balls and allowed to dry further in the sun. In times of want, these balls can be pulverized and dissolved in water to reconstitute milk suitable for drinking. 117 T h e second general category of ancient cheese, the "true" cheese, is more problematic for the ancient Near East. T h e m a n u f a c t u r e of this type of ancient cheese is assumed from the prevalence of this product throughout the Middle 114

G o u i n , "Bovins et laitages," p p . 141 44. J a c o b s o n ("Lad in the Desert," p. 199) interprets the U b a i d mosaic as showing the p o u r i n g of milk into the churns, the c h u r n i n g itself, a n d the cleaning of vessels. 115 See, e. g., H. H. Figulla, "Accounts C o n c e r n i n g Allocation of Provisions for Offerings in the N i n g a l - T e m p l e at U r , " Iraq 15 (1953): 8 8 - 1 2 1 , 1 7 1 - 9 2 ; G o u i n , "Bovins et laitages," pp. 14243‫;־‬ Stol, "Milk, Butter, a n d C h e e s e , " pp. 102-03; Stol, "Milch (produkte)," RLl (Ì994), 8: 189-90, 194-98; J a c o b s e n , "Lad in the Desert," p. 198 99. "‫ יי‬Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, Pl. X X I V g. J a c o b s e n ("Lad in the Desert," p. 197), prefers to interprêt the motif, not as drying cheeses, but as a cheese f o r m to hold soft cheese. "‫ ל‬Stol, "Milk, Butter, a n d C h e e s e , " p p . 104-05; Stol, "Milch (produkte)," RIA, p p . 198-99; Borowski, Every Living Thing, p. 56; Holfner, Alimenta Hethaeorum, p. 121 ; N e m e t - N e j a t , Daily Life, p. 158.

238

Steps in modem cheese making and their probable Near Eastern counterparts

Fish and fishing in Mesopotamian society

CHAPTER THREE

East in m o d e r n times and f r o m the interpretation of certain words appearing in Sumerian a n d Akkadian texts. Nevertheless, the association of these words with this type of cheese or with the process used to make it remains controversial. The Akkadian eqidum, later equated to Sumerian GA.AR, for example, may represent M e s o p o t a m i a n true cheese. 118 If true cheeses were produced in the ancient N e a r East, it remains unknown when they were first made. T h e process to produce t h e m would no doubt approximate the methods in use in modern times. T h r e e distinct steps define m o d e r n cheese making: formation of curds by precipitating the protein casein in the presence of lactic acid a n d rennet, separation of the solid curds from the liquid whey, a n d ripening the curds. In the first step, a starter, in the form of bacteria designed to ferment lactose into lactic acid, is added to w a r m milk in order to reduce its p H . In antiquity, buttermilk left over from churning would serve this purpose. Next, the addition of rennet, the contents of or the m e m b r a n e lining the stomach of an unweaned animal, especially a lamb, through the action of the enzyme rennin hastens the curdling of milk and over time precipitates the gel-like curd. Cutting the curd allows the liquid whey to drain out. T h e terms pinnaru and kabu, found in bilingual dictionaries, may refer to Kennet. T h e whey can also be further processed into cheese by curdling at high temperatures in the presence of an acid starter. Cutting, cooking, and again draining removes additional whey and further solidifies the curd. Following a period of "cheddaring," sitting to allow more whey to drain, the soft curd mellows into a stronger consistency. T h e curd is then milled, salted, and pressed into molds to remove still m o r e whey; after which the curds arc allowed to ripen over a period of time. At various stages along the way in making m o d e r n cheeses, particular additives, range of temperature, degree of pressing, length of ripening, and other variables, define the kinds of cheese produced. Ancient N e a r Eastern sources document some eighteen to twenty kinds of cheeses, a m o n g which are those described as fresh, large, small, flavored, sweetened, sharp, crushed, round, and white. 119 c. Fish T h e Tigris and Euphrates Rivers not only furnished water to nourish thirsty crops in the fields, but also yielded fish, which were easily caught in the marshy areas bordering the rivers and canals. Fishermen in southern Mesopotamia 118

Stol, "Milk, Butter, a n d C h e e s e , " p p . 105-08; Stol, "Milch (produkte)," RIA (1994), 8: 198-200. For Hittite cheeses, see H O f f n e r , "Milch (produkte)," RIA (1994), 8: 2 0 3 - 0 4 , a n d H o f f n er, Alimenta Hethaeorum, pp. 121-23. For cheese in the Bible, see Borowski, Every Living Thing, p. 56, a n d Arl ington, " F o o d s of the Bible, ‫ י י‬p. 818. 1,9 M c G e e , On Food and Cooking, pp. 1 1 - 1 2 , 4 0 - 5 0 . F o r identification of a possible cheese mold represented on a cylinder seal, cf. a b o v e note 116.

TIIE ANCIENT NEAR EAS T

239

caught both fresh and saltwater fish, using various means, for example hook and line, harpoon, and various kinds of net. Literary and art historical sources assod a t e important individuals, for example Gilgamesh, and certain deities, such as Ea and Dumuzi, with the catching of fish, while fishing plays a prominent role in several Mesopotamian mythological stories. Fish was an important food throughout the ancient N e a r East, a n d the control of fisheries quickly passed u n d e r temple or state control. 1 2 0 Fishermen at U r in the early second millennium Β. C., for example, leased from the N a n n a temple the right to fish in certain waters by handing over a portion of their catch to middlemen who, in turn, converted the fish into silver to pay the temple. H o w this transaction functioned in detail is unknown, but must have involved the processing o f f i s h in some fashion and the selling of it to consumers. Since most of the fish would not have been consumed immediately and since fish begin to spoil soon after removal from the water and death, they would need to be preserved. Sumerian a n d Akkadian documentary sources include vocabulary terms identifying fish, both fresh and saltwater varieties, that were dried, or — if accurately interpreted salted, and possibly smoked. Fish eggs were apparently preserved separately, and fish were pressed (how is unknown, perhaps in sacks or baskets) to extract oil. T h e r e may also have been a fermented form of fish, called in Akkadian šiqqu, similar to the R o m a n gamm or modern Vietnamese nuoc-mam.12' Archeological evidence confirming these processes, however, is scarce. 111 third-millennium B. C. Girsu (= Tello), in southern Mesopotamia, in an area known as the Region des Bassins, excavators have uncovered amid rubble two large tanks of different sizes, measuring 10.5 m. χ 2.5 m and 5.5 m. χ 2.40 m., respectively. Lying side-by-side, they are connected by a channel at one end. T h e steeply sloping floors render one end considerably deeper than the other. 12(1

M e n d e l N u n , "Fishing," in Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, 2: 316; Borowski, Every Living Thing, pp. 1 6 8 - 7 0 ; Bottéro, " C u i s i n e of A n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a , " fig. on p. 38. For fish in M e s o p o t a m i a n literature, sec, e.g., M . Civil, " T h e H o m e of the Fish. A N e w S u m e r i a n Literary C o m p o s i t i o n , " Iraq 23 (1969): 1 5 4 - 7 5 . 111 this story the goddess N a n s e a p p e a r s as m o t h e r of the fish, a n d is called " q u e e n of fishermen." For evidence of fishponds associated with palaces a n d temples, as well as private ponds, see Radcliife, Fishing', pp. 3 4 9 - 4 4 5 , esp. p. 378, a n d !)alley, Mari and K'arana, pp. 81 82. 121 M i e r o o p , Society and Enterprise in Old Babylonian Ur, p p . 8 9 - 9 1 , 181-83; A r m a s Saloncn, Die Fischerei im alten Mesopotamien nach sumerisch-akkadischen Qiiellen (Helsinki: Suomalainen T i e d e a k a t e m i a , 1970), esp. p p . 2 5 9 - 6 4 ; Jean Bottéro, " K o n s e r v i e r u n g von L e b e n s m i t t e l n , " in RIA (1980-1983), 6: 1 9 3 - 9 5 ; Bottéro, "Cuisine of A n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a , " p. 39; Ellison, "Metli82.‫;כן‬Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, ods of F o o d P r e p a r a t i o n , ‫ י י‬pp. 93 94; I )alley, Mari and K'arana, p p . 1 9 8 - 2 0 2 . For the organization a n d administration of fisheries d u r i n g the T h i r d D y n a s t y of U r , see R o b e r t K. E n g l u n d , Organization und Verwaltung der Ur III-Fischerei (Berlin: Dietrich R e i m e r Verlag, 1990). See also M . L a m b e r t a n d Erich Ebeling, "Fischer(ei)," in RIA (1957-1971), 3: 68 70. For garum, see below, C h a p t e r Eight, p p . 4 0 3 1 1.

Fish processing installations

240

CHAPTER THREE

T h e i r purpose remains unknown, but the suggestion that they were fish tanks is strongly supported by finds scattered nearby of n u m e r o u s bones of fish apparently at one time stacked in piles, remains of fish processing activity. Similar piles of fish bones were discovered in the nearby Tell de Maison des Fruits. These tanks a n d fish remains may constitute evidence for "fish houses," places for processing fish, known from documentary sources. At Uruk, in a room or courtyard associated with a temple precinct, excavators found n u m e r o u s remains of fish bones. Earlier assumed to be the remains of fish offerings, they are now seen to represent residue from fish processing. T h e details of fish preparation are unknown, but Sumerian a n d Akkadian terms refer to scaling, gutting, washing, and splitting fish. Gutting and splitting fish, prior to drying, form familiar motifs in ancient Egyptian t o m b paintings. Documents f r o m Girsu, in particular, indicate that fish, doubtless processed in some form, m a d e up a portion of long distance trade items between Girsu, Uruk, Nippur, and other cities of the region. Remains o f f i s h found in Iron Age J e r u s a l e m and Rosh Zait, in Western Galilee, included fresh and saltwater varieties, indicating trade in processed fish between these cities and areas throughout Palestine and perhaps Egypt. 122

6. Sweeteners Honey

T h e primary sweetener used in the ancient N e a r East came in the form of fruit juices concentrated through boiling, especially the juice of grapes, where available, and dates. These products were frequently denoted in the texts as honey (Akkadian di-špu), but should not be confused with the product of bees, which went under the same term. Beekeeping and the production of honey in Mesopotamia cannot be verified prior to the early eighth century B. C. Shamash-resh-usur, Assyrian governor of Suki and Mari, on the upper Euphrates River in Syria, boasted on a stele that he was the first to import bees and to establish hives in the area. He further proclaims that he knew how to separate the honey from the wax by boiling the comb. This procedure is nowhere

122

H. E. W . C r a w f o r d , " M e s o p o t a m i a ' s Invisible Exports in the T h i r d Millennium B. C . , " WorldArch 5, no. 2 (1973): 2 3 3 - 3 5 ; Salonen, Fischerei, pp. 8 2 8 3 ‫( ־‬fish houses), 258 (fish p r é p a r a tion). O n fish processing in ancient Egypt, see C h a p t e r 4 above, pp. 174-75. Evidence for fish in M e s o p o t a m i a n diet a n d e c o n o m y nearly disappear from the literary record after the reign of H a m m u r a b i , though there is little d o u b t that it continued to play an i m p o r t a n t role. For preserved tunny imported into U r d u r i n g the Neo-Babylonian period, see Ellison et al, " S o m e Food Offerings from U r , " pp. 1 75 76. Assyrian sources note that processed fish f o r m e d part of the tribute c o m i n g from the Philistines. See Borowski, Every Living Thing, pp. 1 7 2 7 6 ‫ ־‬, a n d p. 181, note 11. H e r o d o t u s (1.200), writing in the mid-sixth century B. C., says that in Babylonia three tribes ate nothing but fish, which they had caught a n d dried in the sun.

TIIE ANCIENT NEAR EAS T

241

else attested before this date. Even so, no unambiguous archaeological evidence for beekeeping has come to light in Mesopotamia before the Hellenistic period. Honey consumed before that time must have been imported, expensive, and confined to the upper classes. 123 Shamash-resh-usur states that he imported the bees from the mountain areas of the H a b h a , probably to be identified with Hittite regions of the T a u r u s Mountains of southern Turkey. Apiculture was a longstanding activity a m o n g the Hittites, and bees find mention in the oldest Hattian literary texts. T h e proximity of Palestine to Egypt, where apiculture was firmly established early on, a n d their history of close commercial contacts makes it likely, though not at this time provable, that ancient Israel enjoyed honey f r o m bees as well. 124 As today, cultivated date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L.) grew throughout the ancient Near East, and can be archaeologically attested as early as the early fourth millennium B. C. in Eridu. T h e y find frequent mention in cuneiform sources from the following millennium. T h e y could be eaten, particularly in dried form, or, especially in the form of syrup, used as an ingredient in the preparation of bread, beer, and wine. 125 Installations for date processing (Arabic madbasa), dating prior to the Islamic period, however, have not been identified until recently. Archaeologists have uncovered two installations on the Arabian Gulf, which, when considered together, give some insight into date processing technology. O n the Kuwaiti island of Failaka, not far from where the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, having combined a little to the north, empty into the Gulf, a complex of buildings housed at least two rooms containing equipment possibly used for processing dates. T h e extant setup consists only of a plastered floor sloping toward one wall of the room, where a channel led to the outside and into an underground tank. O n e of the rooms (Room 1) had a screen to filter the liquid before it drained into the tank. D a t i n g to between 1850 and 1500 B.

12:5

Ncufeld, "Apiculture in Ancient Palestine," p p . 2 3 8 - 4 7 ; A r r i n g t o n , " F o o d s of the Bible," p. 819; Ellison, " M e t h o d s of F o o d P r e p a r a t i o n , , ‫ י‬p. 94; N e m e t - N e j a t , Daily Life, p. 160; Dalley, Mari and K'arana, p. 85. I regret that I was u n a b l e to consult the dissertation of A n n e - M a r i e D e b i e s m e , " R e c h e r c h e s sur l'apiculture en Asie A n t é r i e u r e a n c i e n n e : E t u d e i c o n o g r a p h i q u e de l'abeille et essai de reconstitution des a n c i e n n e s techniques apicoles" (Louvain, 1975), s u m m a r i z e d in Revue des archéologiques et historiens d'art de Louvain 9 (1976): 2 6 4 - 6 5 . 121 F o r the Hittites, see H o f i n e r , Alimenta Hethaeorum, p. 123; Forbes, Studies, 5: 87. For Palestine, see Neufeld, "Apiculture in Ancient Palestine," p p . 2 3 8 - 4 7 . For h o n e y in Biblical references, see A r r i n g t o n , " F o o d s of the Bible," p. 819; for Egypt, sec C h a p t e r F o u r a b o v e pp. 176-77. 125 Axelle Rougeulle, "I)cs étuves' à dattes à Bahrain et en O m a n : le p r o b l è m e de l'apparition des t e c h n i q u e s de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n de la d a t t e , " Paléorient 8, no. 2 (1982): 7 1 - 7 4 ; Z o h a r y a n d H o p f , Domestication of Plants in the Old World, p p . 157 62, 208 11; H a r t m a n a n d O p p e n h e i m , On Beer and Brewing, p. 42, note 29. O n d a t e syrup, see also Stol, " B e e r in N e o - B a b y l o n i a n T i m e s , " pp. 156 57.

Dates

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CHAPTER THREE

C., these installations are similar to constructions found at Ras al Q a l a ' a in Bahrain, farther south in the Arabian Gulf, dating slightly later, the mid-second millennium B. C. H e r e wooden logs placed on the floor parallel with each other and covered with plaster created channels between the logs. Mats and wooden frames placed on top of the plastered logs formed a raised support for a pile of dates. As the dates decomposed, the juice would drain through the matting into the channels, which conducted the liquid across the floor toward a collection tank, unexcavated at present but its existence presumed from the similar construction on Falaika. N e a r this building excavators found fireplaces and pots, which m a y have served to process further the date juice. Placing decomposing dates on the floor of a room constructed to convey the juice toward a storage tank is similar to m o d e r n date processing facilities in the area. T h e ancient equipment underwent evolutionary change. T h e earlier installation at Falaika employed wood for the f r a m e on which to sit the dates, while the later apparatus utilized a support m a d e of logs covered with plaster. T h e next step, creating channels and support entirely out of plaster, did not come until the Islamic period. 126 Date-beer

Dates were also used to produce beer. O p p e n h e i m thought that during the early first millennium B. C., an important change in the field of food technology had occurred when, without evidence for a transitional period, dates, not barley, appeared to have become the prime ingredient for beer. He associated this perceived change "solely with a concomitant shift in the consumer population, or, at least, in a p r e d o m i n a n t layer of a previously static population," and cited as additional support the occurrence in Neo-Babylonian texts of new terminology for economically important parts of the date palm. 1 2 7 Stol, on the other hand, believes that the change is more a p p a r e n t than real. Focussing on terms used for beer, he states that in the Neo-Babylonian period the Akkadian term, sikaru, indifferently denoted beer m a d e from barley or from dates. Both types of beer continued to be made, although that from dates was apparently more popular. Billatu or biltu, a thickish mixture m a d e from barley and sometimes called beer, was restricted to cultic purposes, but other barley beers did exist. 128

12(ì F l e m m i n g H o j l u n d , " D a t e H o n e y P r o d u c t i o n in D i l m u n in the Mid-2 n R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, p p . 2 8 8 96; Glynis Jones, "Agricultural Practice in G r e e k Prehistory," ABSA 82 (1987): 115 23; Glynis J o n e s , K e n n e t h W a r d l e , Paul Halstead, a n d D i a n e YVardle, " C r o p S t o r a g e at Assiros," Scientific American 254, no. 3 (1986): 9 6 - 1 0 3 . (i T h e koulouras at Knossos r a n g e in size f r o m 5.1 m . to 6.7 m. in d i a m e t e r ; the d e p t h of three pits a r e k n o w n to m e a s u r e ca. 3.0 m. T h e a v e r a g e capacity, a s s u m i n g a 3.0 m. d e p t h for all, is ca. 112.71 m 3 . T h e five koulouras at Phaistos are smaller that those at Knossos a n d have an average capacity of 55.11 m 3 . T h o m a s F. Strasser, " S t o r a g e a n d States on Prehistoric C r e t e : the F u n c t i o n of the K o u l o u r a s in the First M i n o a n Palaces," J MA 10, no. 1 (June 1997): 7 3 - 1 0 0 ; Paul H a l stead, " S t o r a g e Strategies a n d States o n Prehistoric C r e t e : a Reply to Strasscr (JMA 10 [1997] 7 3 - 1 0 0 ) , " J M 4 10, no. I J u n e 1997): 1 0 3 - 0 7 .

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

T h e aboveground granary complex at the Middle-Minoan palace at Mallia possessed eight circular structures arranged in two rows of four granaries each and the whole surrounded on three sides by a wall. These circular, plaster-lined structures were smaller than the underground koulouras at Knossos and Phaistos, varying in diameter between 3.7 m. and 4.0 m. T h e height of these structures is unknown, but at least five possessed a central pillar that probably supported a roof of some type. Strasser suggests a flat roof. If correct, the Mallia granary complex would constitute a granary type distinct from the usual domed, or beehive, granary c o m m o n to Egypt, such as are represented in tomb paintings from Thebes, Beni Hasan, and Tell el-Amarna, as well as that found at the Palestinian site of Beth Yerah. T h e granary complex at Mallia, however, may be an exception to Bronze Age Aegean granaries that a p p e a r to reflect Egyptian and Near Eastern influence. 7

Koulouras

Early examples of round, dome-shaped buildings, which may have served as granaries, include the mainland " R u n d b a u t e n " of O r c h o m e n o s and Tiryns, both dating to the Early Helladic II period. 8 T h e round structures at O r c h o m e n o s may have served as granaries, but their numbers suggest to Renfrew that they most likely were dwellings. T h e one at Tiryns may have also had a storage purpose, because it possessed plastered interior walls a n d was subdivided into separate compartments. But even this suggestion has its detractors. 9 T h e best example, and the one most closely parallel to eastern granaries, however, is an Early Cylcadic vessel from Phylakopi. M a d e of steatite, the Melos vase, as it is usually called, is a model of a granary complex composed of seven circular bins arranged on three sides of an open court and surrounded by a wall possessing an entrance and gateway. T h e granary compartments are open and so the exact shape of the roof is unknown. A dome-shaped roof seems probable, because in nearly all particulars the model closely resembles the granary complex at Beth Yerah in Palestine a n d the Egyptian granary complexes seen in t o m b paintings and represented by models from, a m o n g others, the First and Second-Dynasty Royal tombs at Helwan and the Fifth-Dynasty model from Giza (PI. 4). In all save the appearance of a central pillar and possible flat roof, the Melos vase also reflects the structural design of the granaries at Mallia. 1 0

Λ4el0s

7

Strasser, " S t o r a g e a n d States," pp. 7 8 7 9 ‫ ; ־‬R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, pp. 292 93. T h e so-called h y p o g e u m f r o m E M III Knossos is excluded f r o m this discussion because it is entirely u n d e r g r o u n d a n d its use as a storage a r e a , m u c h less as a g r a n a r y , is questionable. See R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, p. 288; Strasser, " S t o r a g e a n d States," pp. 7 6 7 8 ‫ ־‬. !) Strasser, " S t o r a g e a n d States, 5 ' pp. 8 3 - 8 4 ; R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, p p . 108 10, 288; M a r t h a H e a t h Wiencke, " C h a n g e in Early Helladic II," AJA 93, no. 4 (Oct. 1989): 505; Sp. M a r inatos, " G r e n i e r s de l'Helladique a n c i e n , " BCH 70 (1946): 338 51. 10 F r a n z O e l m a n n , " D a s K o r n s p e i c h e r m o d e l l v o n Melos," MDAI(A) 50 (1925): 1927‫ ;־‬M a r i 8

vase

‫׳‬264 Ground-stone processing tools

CHAPTER SIX

Evidence for processing cercals in the Aegean is confined primarily to numerous finds of Neolithic and Bronze Age saddle querns a n d handstones and to a few samples of stored grain, such as barley and wheat, for example at Troy, in the T h r a c i a n Chersonese, on Cos, Cyprus, and on Crete at Myrtos and Magasà, on the Cycladic island of Syros, and on the mainland at Mycenae, in various sites in the Argolid, such as Tiryns and Asine, and at Tsangli and Tsani in Thessaly. An intensive study of ground stone tools in the southern Argolid indicates that Bronze Age saddle querns were generally larger than their Neolithic predecessors and resemble closely those found at Lerna, Tiryns, and Asine to the north. T h e reasons for this arc unknown. Saddle querns, usually round, ovate, rectangular, or square in shape, were often made of a hard lava, such as andesite, with a pitted and abrasive surface, imported in raw or finished form from Aegina in the Saronic Gulf. Handstones, m a d e usually of andesite or greenstone, came in a ·‫׳‬

/

ο

variety of shapes, such as spherical, conical, ovate, and irregular, much as they did in the Neolithic Period. Small in size, averaging 0.10 m. in length, 0.09 m. in width, and 0.04 m. in thickness, they display little change over time. A study of ground stone materials from Mycenae dating between the Middle Helladic and Late Helladic III noted a slight change in shape of handstones to a longer and narrower form. T h e tripod mortars, often spouted, appearing at Late Bronze Age Mycenae and Tiryns, were probably intrusions from the Near East where they have been found at Jericho (PL 3) and Ebla." natos, " G r e n i e r s d e l ' H e l l a d i q u e a n c i e n , " 3 4 2.‫;כן‬Strasser, " S t o r a g e a n d States," p p . 8 3 9 0 ‫ ־‬, esp. p. 86; R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, PI. 15, 1; C u r r i d , " B e e h i v e Buildings," p. 23. O n E g y p t i a n g r a n a r i e s , see C h a p t e r T h r e e , p p . 1 0 0 - 0 4 . S o m e E g y p t i a n g r a n a r i e s of the M i d d l e K i n g d o m a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n r e c t a n g u l a r s t r u c t u r e s with flat roofs. O n the g r a n a r y at Beth Y e r a h , see C h a p t e r Five, p p . 197 98. For a similarly r e c o n s t r u c t e d g r a n a r y at O l d S m y r n a , see below, p. 278. 11 M o s t e x a m p l e s of q u e r n s f r o m t h e s o u t h e r n Argolid a r e f r a g m e n t a r y , so c o m p l e t e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e difficult to o b t a i n . T h e a v e r a g e w i d t h is ca. 0.16 m ; those f r o m elsewhere a v e r a g e b e t w e e n 0 . 1 8 m . a n d 0 . 2 0 m . C o m p l e t e e x a m p l e s f r o m L a t e Helladic E r m i o n i M a g o u l a a v e r a g e d 0 . 2 5 m . in length, 0.21 m. in w i d t h , a n d 0 . 0 8 m. in thickness. C u r t i s R u n n e l s , " T h e Millstones,'" 111 Well Built Mycenae. The 1lelleno-British Excavations within the Citadel at Mycenae, 1959-1969. W . 1). T a y lour, Ε. B. F r e n c h , a n d K. A. W a r d l e , eds. Fasc. 27: Ground Stone ( O x f o r d : O x b o w Books, 1992), p p . 3 5 41; P. Nick K a r d u l i a s a n d C u r t i s R u n n e l s , " T h e Lithic Artifacts: Flaked S t o n e a n d O t h e r N o n flaked Lithics," in Artifact and Assemblage. The Finds fioni a Regional Survey of the Southern Argolid, Greece. Vol. 1: The Prehistoric and Early Iron Age Pottery and the Lithic Artifacts. C u r t i s R u n n e l s , D a n i e l J . Pullen, a n d S u s a n L a n g d o n , eds. (Stanford: S t a n f o r d University Press, 1995), p p . 1 1 2 - 2 1 ; C u r t i s R u n n e l s , " A D i a c h r o n i e S t u d y a n d E c o n o m i c Analysis of Millstones f r o m the Argolid, G r e e c e . " P h . D . diss. I n d i a n a University, 1981, p p . 101 16. R u n n e l s (ibid., p. 110) speculates that the increase in size of millstones d u r i n g t h e B r o n z e A g e o v e r w h a t h a d b e e n typical of the Neolithic period m a y indicate t h a t g r i n d i n g w a s taking place o n a l a r g e r scale o r t h a t a n e w s u b s t a n c e ( u n n a m e d ) w a s b e i n g processed. See also L. A. M o r i t z , Grain-mills and Flour in Classical Antiquity ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press, 1958), p. 20; K. F. Vickery, Food in Early Greece ( U r b a n a , 1936; rpt. C h i c a g o : Ares Publishers, Inc., 1980), p p . 15 44; K e i t h B r a n i g a n , Pie-palatial. The Foundations of Palatial Crete. A Survey of Crete in the Early Bronze Age. 2‫ ״‬d ed. ( A m s t e r d a m : A d o l f M . H a k k e r t , 1988), p. 69.

3

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

T h e best source to provide a context to processing apparatus comes from the Late Bronze Age West House at Akrotiri on the island of T h e r a . O n e room on the ground floor was apparently devoted to processing in a m a n n e r that recalls those at the palace at Ebla, but on a m u c h smaller scale. O n one side was a raised platform on the top of which were e m b e d d e d two saddle querns. Excavations in the house have yielded remains of processed legumes and cereals. This material included fragments of hulled barley that seems to have been pounded in a mortar, and samples of finely ground flour. A m o n g the latter were proportionally small amounts made from einkorn wheat and larger volumes coming from legumes and, especially, barley. T w o other rooms on the ground floor served as storage areas, one for long-term storage of grain probably only threshed and then sieved to remove bulk contaminants. T h e second room yielded both wheat and barley flour, and so was probably a sort of kitchen where cleaned grain was processed into a form suitable for cooking and baking. 12 Similarly, one section of the early palace at Phaistos comprised a complex of rooms fitted with benches. T h e bench of one room, in a m a n n e r similar to the installation at Akrotiri, contained a cavity, which must at one time have supported the q u e r n found next to it. 111 an adjoining room one bench associated with a drain and potstand a n d limestone basin built into another bench may indicate preparation of some sort of liquid. T h e stoa of Building J / T at K o m m o s contained four contiguous three-sided bins each associated with a quern. Apparently, the worker — to j u d g e from entries in Linear Β tablets, most likely a w o m a n — sat or knelt behind the quern that was slanted so that ground flour fell directly onto the floor of the bin. These enclosures were apparently designed to contain flour to be m a d e into bread products or gruels. 13 Portable braziers and hearths a p p e a r frequently in M i n o a n houses and palaces; fixed or p e r m a n e n t hearths a n d ovens are less c o m m o n . Middle M i n o a n fixed hearths at Knossos and Mallia take the form of a clay or stucco foundation, circular in shape, in the middle of which is a shallow cavity. Phaistos 12

A n a y a Sarpaki, " A P a l a e o e t h n o b o t a n i c a l Study of t h e West H o u s e , Akrotiri, T h e r a , " ABSA 87 (1992): 2 1 9 - 3 0 , esp. Pis. 12 a n d 13. 13 Several terra-cotta figurines, d a t i n g to L H III a n d f o u n d at M y c e n a e , m a y represent a w o m a n g r i n d i n g on a q u e r n . 111 this case, she stands b e h i n d the q u e r n , a position with parallels f r o m P h a r a o n i c Egypt a n d fifth-century B. C . R h o d e s a n d Boeotia. See B. A. Sparkes, " T h e G r e e k K i t c h e n , " J HS 8 2 (1962): 134. Pylos tablets contain m e n t i o n of a female grain g r i n d e r (mere-ti-ri-ja) a n d grain m e a s u r e r (si-to-ko-wo). C h a d w i c k notes that identification of the cereal g r i n d e r d e p e n d s u p o n the correctness of the r e a d i n g for flour (me-re-u-to), a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n C h a d w i c k himself calls into d o u b t . Sec C h a d w i c k , Documents, p p . 123, 158, 392. Sec also M a r i a C . S h a w , " L a t e M i n o a n H e a r t h s a n d O v e n s at K o m m o s , C r e t e , " in I/habitat Egéen préhistorique. Pascal D a r c q u e a n d R e n é T r e u i l , eds. B G H Suppl. X I X (Paris: D e B o c c a r d , 1990), p p . 2 4 2 - 4 5 ; Polymnia M e t a x a M u h l y , " M i n o a n H e a r t h s , " AJA 88, η θ . 2 (April 1984): 117 (Phaistos), 1 19 (Zakro).

Cereal processing on Thera and Crete

Cooking

266

CHAPTER THREE

and Mallia have yielded as well rectangular fixed hearths with a shallow cavity. Most Late M i n o a n hearths at K o m m o s are pi-shaped and constructed of fiat stones set on edge against a wall or in a corner. Only fragmentary examples of fixed hearths have appeared on the mainland. Although used as well for light, w a r m t h , and focal points for social a n d religious gatherings, hearths also served to cook food. Various types of domestic cooking pots have come to light on Crete and on the mainland, such as triangular cooking pots, pans of various sizes and shapes, mixing bowls, jugs, and cups, m a d e of pottery or bronze. Although size, shape, a n d decoration of cooking vessels varied somewhat over time, the uses of the various cooking utensils changed little. Bronze tripod pots and kettles allowed soups a n d stews to be cooked over a lire placed in a brazier or hearth, while spits served to roast meat. 1 4

Bread

Large p e r m a n e n t cooking installations were once thought to have existed only on the outside of buildings. Discoveries on Crete at Zakro and K o m m o s imply otherwise. T h e central courtyard of the Late M i n o a n I palace at Zakro possessed an elaborate kitchen. T h e room contained processing tools, such as a mortar, for preparing food, and a fixed hearth, portable braziers and grills, and various pots for cooking. Animal bones found in the area give a hint at some of the foods prepared here. 111 the N o r t h House at K o m m o s one structure may have been an oven similar to those of the ancient Near East. The thin layer of clay lining the interior of the stone slabs forming the side walls begins to curve upward and inward at the point above the top of the slabs. If it did form a dome, it is no longer extant. Evidence for indoor fixed cooking installations on the mainland is scant. Vickery notes a d o m e d oven found in the T r o a d inside a house at T h e r m i , and suggests that structures discovered inside houses in Thessaly at Dimini and Sesklo were also d o m e d ovens. 15 T h e direct evidence for bread in the prehistoric Aegean remains meager. If the Mycenaean word a-to-po-qo, found on Linear Β tablets from Mycenae and Pylos, can be equated with the classical Greek word for baker, αρτοκόπος, then

14

Pi-shaped hearths have also been found at Mallia, Khania, Palaikastro, and Knossos. Shaw, "I .ate M i n o a n Hearths a n d Ovens," pp. 231 54; Muhly, " M i n o a n Hearths," pp. 107 22; G e r d a Bruns, Küchenwesen und Mahlzeiten, Archeologica H o m e r i c a II, Q_ (Göttingen: V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1970), pp. 1 8, 2 0 - 2 1 ; Vickery, Food in Early Greece, passim, esp. pp. 88~89; Branigan, Prepalatial, pp. 7 0 - 7 3 . For M i n o a n braziers, see also SchefFer, Cooking and Cooking Stands in Italy, pp. 8 0 - 8 1 . 15 Vickery, Food in Early Greece, p. 49; M u h l y , " M i n o a n H e a r t h s , " p. 1 19 (Zakro); S h a w , " L a t e M i n o a n H e a r t h s a n d O v e n s , " p p . 2 3 8 - 4 5 (Kommos). S h a w (pp. 2 5 2 - 5 4 ) says that h e a r t h s a n d ovens on the G r e e k m a i n l a n d w e r e not "typically" located indoors, a n d suggests that the idea for i n d o o r cooking installations was a n i m p o r t a t i o n f r o m the N e a r East, such as the Levant by way of C y p r u s a n d Egypt, a n d cites recent finds at M i n e t el-Beida, the h a r b o r town of Ugarit, a n d M a r s a M a t r u h , a small island off the coast of Libya. O n the difficulty in identifying G r e e k kitchens, sec SchefFer, Cooking and Cooking Stands in Italy, pp. 9 2 - 9 5 .

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

two conclusions reasonably follow. First, the Mycenaeans did bake bread; and second, bread making was for some individuals a profession. For the bread making process itself, we must rely on supposition from the little physical evidence found to date. Hearths and braziers could have been used to make flat breads by heating the dough directly on hot cinders. Alternately, dough might be placed on a stone or earthenware plate, covered in some fashion, and set on the ashes. T h e presence of a d o m e d oven at K o m m o s perhaps implies the knowledge of yeast and so the ability to make leavened bread. In the same room as the oven in the North House at Kommos, for example, stood a layer of stones next to a three-sided enclosure similar to those in Building J / T . This may have formed a platform for processing foods, such as cereals. Although beer is sometimes listed as a possible drink known to Minoans and Mycenaeans, there is no evidence to support the claim. 16

2. Wine and Olive Oil T h e earliest evidence for the wild grape appears in the Franchthi Cave, in the Argolid, dating to ca. 11,000 B. C. Although it is difficult to distinguish the wild grape from its cultivated form, grape cultivation, along with other fruits, may have arisen in eastern Macedonia, near Sitagroi, during the Late Neolithic period, at least by ca. 2800 B. C. T h e best evidence for it, however, comes from southern Greece, at Lerna, dated to ca. 22002000‫ ־־‬B. C. The Early Bronze Age finds grapes widespread throughout the Greek Mainland in Thessaly, Attica, and the Peloponnese, in the Cyclades, and on the island of Crete. In what manner they were consumed is open to question. M a n y were probably eaten raw, while others may have been dried into raisins, as was done in the days of Hesiod and H o m e r . T h e earliest archaeological evidence for wine comes from Early M i n o a n (ca. 2170 B. C.) sites of Myrtos, on Crete, and Early Helladic (ca. 2100 B. C.) Aghios Kosmas, in Attica. T h e former site yielded a pithos containing crushed grape skins and pips, finds suggestive to some scholars of fermented grape juice or wine. Colin Renfrew connects the appearance in the archaeological record of small cu}:>s and jugs of various shapes with the development of the new beverage in the Early Bronze Age. 17 16

Vickery notes the u n i q u e find of a piece of b r e a d at M a r m a r i a n i in Thessaly. Vickery, Food in Early Greece, pp. 4 9 - 5 0 , 189; Bruns, Küchenwesen und Mahlzeiten, p p . 15-16. For the term for b a k e r in the L i n e a r Β tablets, see C h a d w i c k , Documents, p p . 123, 179 81, a n d Yves D u h o u x , " L e b o u l a n g e r et son pain: l'étymologie d (χρτοκότιος et d ' ά ρ τ ο ς , " AC 4 3 (1974): 3 2 1 - 2 4 . 17 J a n e M . R e n f r e w , " P a l a e o e t h n o b o t a n i c a l Finds of Vitis f r o m G r e e c e , " in Origins and Ancient History of Wine, p p . 2 5 5 - 6 7 ; R u t h Palmer, Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy. A e g a e u m 10 (Liège: Université de Liège, 1994), esp. p. 17; R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, pp. 2 8 1 - 8 5 , 290;

Grapes in the Aegean

268

CHAPTER THREE

/jrf Fig. 18. Cretan hieroglyphic form 1 16, for wine, rotated 180 .

Wine in Minoan and Mycenean texts

T h e wine ideogram appears in early Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A scripts in a form reminiscent of the Egyptian hieroglyph for wine. T h e long-standing controversy over the connection between Egyptian hieroglyphs and Minoan texts, as well as later M y c e n a e a n Linear Β documents, has largely subsided. T h e correlation of C r e t a n wine ideograms, that is, M i n o a n hieroglyphic sign 116 (Fig. 18) a n d Linear A a n d Β forms (*131), with the Egyptian hieroglyph (M43), however, remains debatable. Palmer, for instance, even though she agrees that the M i n o a n s knew the N e a r Eastern writing systems and patterned their own bookkeeping system on them, concludes that the similarity can be explained as merely the identification by both peoples of the trellised vine with the processed product. 1 8 This does not, however, address the question of how the M i n o a n s learned the technical knowledge of viticulture a n d winemaking. An indigenous development of the winemaking process remains a possibility, though unproven. Otherwise, one can easily imagine that commercial contacts of M i n o a n merchants, cither directly or indirectly, with the products of Egypt and Syria-Palestine likewise brought to their attention knowledge of the processes used to produce them, especially where those products derived from food plants already known in Crete. If so, then it also remains possible that the M i n o a n script m a y have incorporated similar ways of representing at least this particular product. A precise determination of w h e n this may have occurred is beyond our reach, but it probably h a p p e n e d in connection with the development of the Cretan hieroglyphic a n d Linear A scripts to organize a n d m a n a g e the resources of M i n o a n palaces early in the second millennium B. C. 1 9

Z o h a r y , " D o m e s t i c a t i o n of the G r a p e v i n e , " p p . 28 29 (contra Renfrew); Hamilakis, " W i n e , Oil a n d the Dialectics of P o w e r , " p. 10, Fig. 2. ()11 d r y i n g grapes, see Hesiod Op. 611 13 a n d H o m e r Od. 7 . 1 2 1 - 2 5 . 18 R u t h P a l m e r , " W i n e a n d Viticulture in the Linear Λ a n d Β T e x t s of the B r o n z e Age A e g e a n , " in Origins and Ancient History of Wine, pp. 2 6 9 85; i d e m , Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, esp. p p . 5, 27 43. 19 O n M i n o a n c o n t a c t s with Egypt a n d the ancient N e a r East, see below, n o t e 20. O n Egyptian influence on M i n o a n scripts a n d wine, see Phillip V . Stanley, " K N U c 160 a n d M y c e n a e a n W i n e s , " AJA 86, no. 4 (Oct. 1982): 5 7 7 - 7 8 ; R o g e r Brock, " A n c i e n t G r e e c e , " in Oxford Companion

THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

26 1

T h e cultivated olive is a late comer to the Aegean, probably arriving from the Levant sometime in the fourth millennium B. C. Some evidence for olives have been found on Crete in Early M i n o a n (EM) Myrtos and Knossos and in a few Middle M i n o a n (MM) sites, but the material cannot be classified as wild or domesticated, since the two are difficult to distinguish. W h e t h e r the lack of evidence derives from the fact that the olive was little used during this time or, as Harriet Blitzer argues, that excavators have not actively looked for evidence is debated. Blitzer suggests that olive oil processing instruments in the E M (3500-2100 B. C.) and M M (2100-1700 B. C.) periods were m a d e of wood or of nondescript stone and so have not survived or are unrecognizable. Textual evidence from Linear A and Β tablets implies a significant importance attached to olive oil, not as a food item but in the form of p e r f u m e , an expensive and eliteoriented luxury commodity. Olive oil, probably transported in stirrup jars or pithoi, formed part of Aegean contacts, including trade, with the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean. 2 0 T h e difficulties inherent in distinguishing oil from grape processing installations, seen in Syria a n d Palestine, make it difficult to identify the archaeological evidence for each in the Bronze Age Aegean as well. So, for example, large clay tubs possessing a spout at the base, found in m a n y places on Crete such as Myrto Wine, p. 464. T h a t t h e r e is no c o r r e s p o n d i n g link to Egypt with olives a n d olive oil should elicit n o surprise, since the Egyptians did not process m u c h olive oil. O n the d a t i n g of the M i n o a n scripts, see P a l m e r , " W i n e a n d Viticulture in the L i n e a r Λ a n d Β T e x t s , " pp. 2 6 9 . 7 5 ‫־‬ 2, ‫ י‬Blitzer, " O l i v e Cultivation," p. 169; H a m i s h A. F o r b e s a n d Lin Foxhall, " ' T h e Q u e e n of All T r e e s . ' Preliminary N o t e s o n the A r c h a e o l o g y of the Olive," Expedition 21, no. 1 (Fall 1978): 46, a n d Fig. 17; Lin Foxhall, " B r o n z e to Iron: Agricultural Systems a n d Political Structures in Late Bronze Age a n d Early I r o n A g e G r e e c e , " A BS A 90 (1995): 241 42; F.R. Riley, The Role of the Traditional Mediterranean Diet in the Development of Minoan Crete. Archaeological, .Nutritional and Biochemical Evidence. BAR I n t e r n a t i o n a l Series 8 1 0 (Oxford: BAR, 1999), pp. 36-55. Oil was also a p p a r e n t l y used in lamps on m i d - t h i r d millennium B. C . Naxos. See Vickery, Food in Early Greece, p p . 26, 51 52; R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, p. 285; R o b e r t Sallares, '!lie Ecology of the Ancient Greek World (Ithaca: C o r n e l l University Press, 1991), p. 306. O n Bronze Age contacts b e t w e e n the A e g e a n a n d elsewhere, esp. Egypt a n d the Levant, see H e l e n e J . K a n t o r , " T h e A e g e a n a n d the O r i e n t in the S e c o n d M i l l e n n i u m B. C . , " AJA 51 (1947): Γ 103; R. S. Merrillees, " A e g e a n Bronze Age Relations with Egypt," AJA 76 (1972): 281 94; William A. W a r d , Egypt and the East Mediterranean World, 2000-1900 B. C. (Beirut: A m e r i c a n University of Beirut, 1971), pp. 71 125; B r a n i g a n , Pre-palatial, p p . 179 95, 2 4 5 - 4 7 ; A. B e r n a r d K n a p p , "Spice, Drugs, G r a i n a n d G r o g : O r g a n i c G o o d s in Bronze Age East M e d i t e r r a n e a n T r a d e , " in Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Ν. H . G a l e , ed. Studies in M e d i t e r r a n e a n Archaeology, Vol. 90 (Jonsered: Paul Aströms, 1991), p p . 2 1 - 6 8 . O n the oil t r a d e specifically, see S h l o m o B u n i m o v i t z , " M i n o a n - M y c e n a e a n Olive Oil P r o d u c t i o n a n d T r a d e . A Review of C u r r e n t R e s e a r c h , " in Olive Oil in Antiquity, p p . 49 53; Halford W . Haskell, " T h e O r i g i n of the A e g e a n S t i r r u p Jar a n d its Earliest Evolution a n d Distribution (MB III-LB I)," AJA 89, 11 ΰ . 2 (April 1985): 2 2 1 - 2 9 ; C y n t h i a W . S h e l m e r d i n e , Vie Perfume Industry of Mycenaean Pylos (Göteborg: Paul Aströms, 1985), esp. p p . 130 53; R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, p p . 290 91.

Olive oil in Bronze Age Aegean

Distinguishing wine from oil processing installations

270

CHAPTER THREE

tos, may have served as oil separators, although their employment in winemaking a n d in washing vegetables or wool has also been suggested. 21 A recent study has classified forty-one M i n o a n wine (or oil) installations into three types. 22 Each facility had two parts, the upper structure, or λήνος, constituted the basin where the fruit was trod or pressed; the lower part, or receptacle, called the υπολήνιον, collected the liquid expressed by hand or feet. T h e most c o m m o n type, T y p e I, comprising thirty-two examples, was of terra-cotta construction and took the form of a truncated cone with a trough-spout at the bottom that protruded over the collecting vessel. 23 T h e receptacle was usually in the form of a terra-cotta pithos, j a r , or basin, usually fixed into the ground. Installations of this type, reported on Crete at Phourni, Knossos, Vathypetro, Mallia, Gournia, Myrtos, Palaikastro, Kato Zakros, and E p a n o Zakros, date from the prepalatial period of the third millennium B. C. through the Middle M i n o a n period. Finds of vats at Phourni stained with must (if correctly identified) and of carbonized grape seeds and raisins at Myrtos and Knossos imply that T y p e I installations processed grapes. O n the other hand, carbonized olive pits discovered in the vicinity of this type installation at Phourni, Myrtos, Knossos, and K o m m o s indicate that they could process olives as well. 24 T h e other two types are extant in only a few specimens. T y p e II installations, of which only three examples have been identified, comprise a rectangular floor 21

Blitzer, " O l i v e Cultivation,' ‫ י‬p p . 166 69; Hamilakis, " W i n e , Oil a n d the Dialectics of Powe r , " p. 18. F o r b e s a n d Foxhall ("Qtieen of All Trees,'" p. 46) note the find of similar tubs in Late Bronze Age G o u r n i a a n d Hellenistic Praesos. See esp. Hamilakis, w h o lists find spots of olive r e m a i n s ("Wine, Oil a n d the Dialectics of P o w e r , " T a b l e 1, p p . 8 10) a n d of B r o n z e Age olive or g r a p e presses or oil separators (ibid., T a b l e 3, p p . 1 5 1 7 ‫ ) ־‬on Crete. 22 K a t e r i n a K o p a k a a n d Lefteris Platon, " λ η ν ο γ μ ι ν ω ι κ ο ι ' . Installations M i n o e n n e s de trait‫ ־‬. P a l m e r ( Wine in the Mycenaean Palace E m e n t des produits liquides, , ‫ י‬BCH 117(1993): 3 5 1 0 1 my, pp. 18 23‫ )־‬h a d earlier recognized the three types of installation. 23 Size of s p o u t e d vats varied t h o u g h the d i a m e t e r usually exceeded the height. M o s t r a n g e d in height f r o m 0.24 m. to 0.29 m . a n d f r o m 0 . 5 4 m. to 6 8 m . in width. See P a l m e r , Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, p. 18. T w e l v e m i n i a t u r e models of the s a m e type have c o m e to light at Akrotiri o n T h e r a a n d f r o m t o m b s at Apessokari a n d Porti o n the M e s s a r a plain on C r e t e . See K o p a k a a n d Platon, " λ η ν ο γ μ ι ν ω ι κ ο ι ," p p . 6 4 - 6 5 . 24 K o p a k a a n d Platon, " λ η ν ο ι ' μ ι ν ω ι κ ο ι ." p p . 7 5 8 2 81 ,77‫־‬. T h e y also indicate that T installations m a y h a v e processed murex for dye. A M i d d l e M i n o a n seal f r o m Chrysolakkos shows a m a n s t a n d i n g in a T y p e I tub, a p p a r e n t l y in the act of t r e a d i n g grapes. N e a r b y stands a pithos. See ibid., pp. 8 6 - 8 7 , a n d Figs. 30. H a m i l a k i s ("Wine, Oil a n d the Dialectics of P o w e r , " pp. 14—19, esp. T a b l e 3) a r g u e s that these type vats w e r e wine installations, if they were associated with collecting vessels, a r g u i n g that receptacles w e r e unnecessary for oil separation w h e r e there was n o need to collect the w a t e r d r a i n e d f r o m the tub. See also Palmer, Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, pp. 18-20. R e n f r e w (Emergence of Civilisation, Plate 15, 2) concludes that the installation at V a t h y p e t r o served to process olives, since b e i n g raised on a pedestal, it "would not be convenient for t r e a d i n g g r a p e s . " H e does allow for the possibility that both g r a p e s a n d olives were processed here.

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

constructed above a fixed tcrra-cotta receptacle. T h e use to which T y p e II was put remains unknown, but its utilization for a liquid of some sort seems clear. T y p e III, with only six examples reported, is a shallow stone basin with narrow spout, forming a pear-shaped base, erected on a platform overlooking a receiving vessel. This fixture may have processed both oil and wine, although the usually shallow basin of this type is perhaps best suited to process olives. At Late M i n o a n K o m m o s , for example, two large installations probably operated to extract oil from olives. These emplacements take the form of a raised platform of stones supporting a circular spouted press-bed made of limestone. Exactly how the olives were crushed in the shallow basins is unknown. T h e flat rims could have supported a basket, and stone weights found nearby may have served to weigh down a wooden b e a m , in an a r r a n g e m e n t similar to lever-andweight presses used in Syria and Palestine. T h e oil would have flowed through the narrow spout and emptied into a collecting basin placed underneath. 2 5 Establishing a chronological range for these processing installations is difficult. T y p e I, the most numerous, may have been developed as early as the prepalatial period of the third millennium B. C., and flourished through the Middle M i n o a n into the Late M i n o a n period. T h e other two types were not as widespread and appear later than T y p e I, with T y p e II found contemporaneous with T y p e I at a few places, such as at E p a n o Zakros a n d Kato Zakros. T y p e III, not found in connection with Types I and II, is a late innovation. 2 6 Blitzer compares these installations, and others in Crete, with the contemporary stone press-bed found at M a r o n i on Cyprus, dated to ca. 1300 B. C., and sees them as indicative of an expansion of olive oil production by a centralized Mycenaean authority as part of a growing eastern Mediterranean trade. O t h e r scholars, however, note that although similar press-beds have been found in Crete, such as at Knossos a n d Palaikastro, n o n e dating to the Bronze Age have been found on the Greek mainland. 2 7 If the T y p e III press-beds at K o m m o s and elsewhere on Crete are remains of 25

S t o n e spouted press-beds h a v e also b e e n f o u n d at Phaistos a n d various f a r m s t h r o u g h o u t C r e t e . Blitzer, "Olive Cultivation," p p . 167-72, esp. Figs. 2 3, p. 168; Hamilakis, " W i n e , Oil a n d the Dialectics of P o w e r , " p. 19. Frankel ( Wine and Oil Production, p. 67) states that the p e a r - s h a p e d press b e d f r o m K o m m o s , as well as e x a m p l e s f r o m V a t h y p e t r o a n d Praesos, w e r e used to press olives. 26 K o p a k a a n d Platon, " α η ν ο γ μ ι ν ω ι κ ο ι ‫ ׳‬, " p p . 7 0 - 7 1 , 7 8 - 7 9 , 8 2 - 8 3 , 8 9 - 9 1 , a n d the "Descriptive T a b l e , " p p . 68 69. Cf. the d a t i n g given in P a l m e r , Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, p p . 18-20, esp. T a b l e s 1.1 a n d 1.2, p p . 2 4 - 2 5 . Cf. Plate 24, below, f r o m f o u r t h c e n t u r y B. C . Olynthus. 27 Blitzer, "Olive Cultivation," p. 172; R u n n e l s a n d H a n s e n , "Olive in the Prehistoric A e g e a n , " p. 305. M a i n l a n d Greeks p r o b a b l y did not k n o w of the olive before the M y c e n a e a n s c o n q u e r e d C r e t e in the m i d - s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m B. C . See Sallarcs, Ecology, p. 306.

Chronology of Cretan oil processing installations

272 Origin of Aegean olive processing technology

Olive oil storage

Aegean wine

CHAPTER THREE

beam presses, the question of origin arises. An answer, however, is not forthcoming from the evidence on hand at present, but their similarity with presses on Cyprus points to a N e a r Eastern origin for the technical knowledge for the lever-and-weight press. Although there may have been a lever-and-weight press operating in Ugarit as early as ca. 2300 B. C., the best physical evidence dates from the tenth through eighth centuries B. C. Fourteenth and thirteenth-century B. C. Ugaritic texts, however, refer to Levantine oil exports to Egypt and Cyprus, a n d the Ugaritic measure for both wine and olive oil, the kdyàr of ca. twenty-two liters, finds mention in Akkadian texts from other N e a r Eastern sites, such as Mari. T h e a p p e a r a n c c of the same measure in Linear A tablets and its possible mention in a Late Bronze Age Linear Β text may also indicate Ugaritic trade in these products with the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n world. T h e fact that the first-millennium B. C. Phoenician word kd appears in Greek by the late seventh century B. C. in the form of a loan word, κάδος, as well as in a Cypro-syllabic Greek inscription of ca. 600 B. C. on Cyprus points in the same direction. T h e knowledge of how to process olive oil, therefore, may have also accompanied the oil itself as part of early trade contacts. 2 8 Several palace complexes have yielded storage rooms with vessels containing liquids of some kind. The magazine at Mallia takes the form of a room with six bays, each containing two rows of large pithoi. Furrows ran from each pithos into two central drains that caught any spillage f r o m the vessels a n d conducted it to a j a r e m b e d d e d in the floor. T h a t this storeroom held olive oil is rendered probable from similar finds at Mycenae a n d Pyios. T h e former palace had a comparable a r r a n g e m e n t in the 1 'House of the Oil M e r c h a n t , " so n a m e d because of stirrup jars impregnated with oil also found there. T h e magazines at Pylos, with pithoi arrayed in like fashion to those at Mycenae and Mallia, yieldcd Linear Β tablets referring to olive oil. 29 Grape-processing installations were located in a n d served predominantly rural areas; the finished product, that is wine, was transported to palatial centers. M y c e n a e a n administrative tablets seem to reflect this scenario as well. Wine was a luxury item, locally produced in rural areas, but enjoyed primarily by the upper classes, except on occasion, usually religious, when it could be consumed

28

M i c h a e l Heltzer, " O l i v e Oil a n d W i n e P r o d u c t i o n in Phoenicia a n d in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n T r a d e , " in La production du vin et de l'huile, p p . 4954‫־־‬. H e l t z e r also argues his point by n o t i n g the similarity in capacity of the kd vessel with that of j a r s f r o m Salamis on C y p r u s , d a t i n g b e t w e e n the seventh a n d fifth centuries B. C., a n d of G r e e k a m p h o r a e of the sixth a n d fifth centuries B. C . f r o m Chios, Lesbos, S a m o s , a n d in the C r i m e a at N y m p h a e u m . For the late third-millennium B. C . Ugaritic lever-and-weight press, see C h a p t e r Five, p. 227. 29

R e n f r e w , Emergence of Civilisation, p p . 2 9 3 - 9 5 ; Vickery, Food in Early Greece, p. 20; C h a d w i c k , Documents, p p . 4 7 6 8 3 ‫ ־‬.

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

generally. 30 N o evidence exists to show that the Minoans or Mycenaeans mechanically pressed the grapes following treading, although the possibility remains, at least for Late Bronze Age K o m m o s , if the inhabitants knew of and utilized the lever-and-weight press for pressing olives. However, λήνοι have yet to be discovered at a M y c e n a e a n site. W h a t kinds of wines Minoans and Mycenaeans produced remain unknown. Although no evidence exists to show that they m a d e both red and white wines, Philip Stanley has suggested that they did distinguish a m o n g qualities. In his discussion of a Linear Β text f r o m Knossos, he notes that ideogram *131, the determinative for wine, was sometimes augmented with the word de-re-u-ko, a term connected with later Greek γλεύκος a n d of uncertain meaning. He interprets dere-u-ko as a word denoting high quality, and deduces that its connection with *131 identified a high grade wine. H e concludes, then, that the Mycenaeans had three grades of wine. T h e best they denoted with the wine ideogram modified by the word de-re-u-ko. An unqualified *131 ideogram identified second class wine. Stanley further argues that *131 is a reduplicated version of *131b, a 1111guistic pattern adopted from Egyptian hieroglyphic to distinguish differences of quality. Hence, the basic ideogram *131b by itself represented the lowest quality wine. It should be noted, however, that other scholars see *131b as designating not wine but a related liquid, either must or vinegar. While Stanley docs not explain the differences in grade, Palmer correlates quality of wine with a partieular stage in the winemaking process. She identifies de-re-u-ko as free-run must forced out of grapes by their own weight before treading. This juice left alone to ferment produces the wine denoted in the text as *131 qualified by de-re-u-ko. She asserts that ideogram * 131 denoted wine m a d e only from trodden grapes, or a mixture of trodden and pressed grapes. She is less sure about ideogram *131b, though she leans toward identifying it as vinegar. 31 Fermentation of wine probably took place in small receiving vats, or most probably in larger pithoi. U p o n completion the wine-filled pithoi were most likely sealed and placed in large storage rooms of palaces or in separate m a g a zines in surrounding districts along with vessels of oil and other commodities. Outside of the few remains of grape pips in E M Myrtos and E H Aghios Kosmas, evidence for wine storage is meager. W h a t evidence there is, such as at 30

P a l m e r , " W i n e a n d Viticulture in the L i n e a r A a n d B," pp. 277 83; idem, Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, passim; K o p a k a a n d Platon, " λ η ν ο γ μ ι ν ω ι κ ο ι ' , " pp. 8 9 96; W a l t e r Burkert, " O r i e n t a l Symposia: C o n t r a s t s a n d Parallels," in Dining in a Classical Context, p p . 7 8. :tl T h e evidence for mechanically pressed g r a p e s in the Bronze Age A e g e a n is questionable. Stanley, " K N U c 160," pp. 577 78; P a l m e r , Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, p. 16. See also P a l m e r , " W i n e a n d Viticulture 111 the L i n e a r A a n d Β T e x t s , " pp. 2 7 4 - 7 5 (vinegar); J o h n C h a d wick, " M y c e n a e a n W i n e a n d the Etymology of ΓΛΥΚΫς," Minos 9, no. 2 (1968): 1 9 2 - 9 7 .

Wine storage

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M M Phaistos, L M Monastiraki, and LH O r c h o m e n o s , is ambiguous, since wine storage can rarely be differentiated from preservation of raisins. T h e socalled " W i n e M a g a z i n e " at Pylos acquired its designation from the discovery in two rooms of n u m e r o u s large pithoi and clay nodules of which four bore an impressed wine ideogram. T h e estimated m i n i m u m capacity of the pithoi in the large inner room is 4,683 liters. Since m a n y of the nodules bore no commodity ideogram, products other than wine m a y have been stored there as well. 32

3. Miscellaneous Processes Butchery

Milk byproducts

Fish

Methods of food processing practiced during the Aegean Bronze Age remain littie understood today because of a lack of definitive archaeological material and the ambiguous nature of the linguistic evidence. Some of these processes may have arisen indigenously; others most likely developed under Near Eastern and Egyptian influence. This is particularly true for the production of olive oil and wine, as well as the storage and processing of cereals. Evidence for processing other food items is practically nonexistent. Finds of animal bones, such as those of sheep, goats, swine, cattle, and other small animals and fowl, plus artistic representations of various animals on cups a n d seals, imply the hunting of some and the domestication of other food animals. Although H o m e r ' s epics and the Linear Β tablets present a picture of a M y c e n a e a n diet heavily weighted toward meat, archaeologists have little investigated cut marks on bones to confirm butchery methods, and no art historical material illustrates the process. Ε vidence for cheese production is little better. Cheese (tu-ro2) appears in a Linear Β tablet from Pylos, while H o m e r provides only scant notice of it. In Odyssey 9.218-49, Odysseus describes how Polyphemus milked his goats, then curdled part of it, and stored the whey in baskets. T his cheese would have been quite soft. N o evidence at this period indicates that the curds were pressed in a mold to form a solid cheese, although Vickery suggests that conical strainers m a d e of clay were used to produce cheese. He also notes the discovery of what m a y have been cheese in a house on the island of Therasia. Physical evidence for the dietary role of fresh fish, at least, includes fish hooks and fish bones, found on Cyprus, Faros, Crete at Phaistos, Tylissos, and Knossos (still in a cooking pot), and on the mainland at T h e b e s remains of edible shellfish. Paintings on walls and pottery as well as seals showing fish and fishermen supplement the archeo32

P a l m e r , Wine in the Mycenaean Palace Economy, p p . 17-18, 143-65. For a discussion of various containers for short a n d long-term storage of différent c o m m o d i t i e s , see Bruns, Küchenwesen und Mahlzeiten, p p . 2 2 3 0 ‫ ־‬.

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

logical material, at least for Minoans. Evidence for dried or salted fish, however, is totally lacking. 33

B. Classical and Hellenistic Peú0ds W h a t transpired in the years between the end of Mycenaean civilization in the twelfth century B. C. and the rise of the Greek polis four centuries later, that is, during the transitional period usually termed the " D a r k Ages," remains difficult to determine. Although scale of agriculture no doubt decreased and became no longer centered on a palace, nevertheless, the image of a complete destruction of the social and economic fabric of M y c e n a e a n civilization may be too strong a scenario. Recent studies have suggested that the period saw more of continuity than of discontinuity, particularly in the area of agriculture. Significant, if not overwhelming, evidence implies a continuation in the types of crops grown and kinds of foods eaten. W h a t changed most were, as Lin Foxhall suggests, areas of agricultural activity that required high levels of labor and capital, such as storage facilities and specialist processing skills and equipment. 3 4 Nevertheless, archaeological evidence and early literary sources, such as Hesiod's Works and Days, show that the succeeding Geometric period, dated to the ninth and eighth cen33

Vickcry, Food in Early Greece, p p . 27 (cheese), 61 73 (domesticated animals), 74 79 (sea food), 8 0 - 8 5 (hunting); Bruns, Küchenwesen und Mahlzeiten, p p . 14—15. B r o n z e knives, frequently f o u n d , could have been used to b u t c h e r m e a t . Ibid., pp. 21 22‫־‬. Butchery of pigs m a y be implied at Knossos, if the " p e n s " were pig sties a n d not granaries. See Boyd, " C o n t e m p o r a r y Perspective," pp. 3 1 4 - 1 6 . O n the i m p o r t a n c e of m e a t in the M y c e n a e a n diet, see also T h a l i a Phillies H o w e , " L i n e a r Β a n d Hesiod's B r e a d w i n n e r s , " ΤΑΡΑ 8 9 (1958): 5 4 - 5 6 ; C h a d w i c k , Documents, pp. 1 9 5 - 2 1 3 (livestock), 5 2 - 5 3 (cheese). Butter finds n o m e n t i o n in the d o c u m e n t s . O n h u n t i n g a n d fishing, see H a n s - G ü n t e r Buchholz, G e r h a r d J ö h r e n s , a n d I r m g a r d Maull, Jagd und Fischfang. Archaeologia H o m e r i c a I I , J (Göttingen: V a n d e n h o c c k & R u p r e c h t , 1973); Riley, Role of the Traditional Mediterranean Diet, pp. 5 6 1 1 7 ‫ ־‬. J . Sakellarakis, " L e p ê c h e u r d a n s l'art préhistorique E g é e n , " Athens Annals of Archaeology 7 (1974): 3 7 0 - 9 0 ; A n n e G u e s t - P a p a m a n o l i , " P e c h e et p ê c h e u r s m i n o e n s : proposition p o u r u n e r e c h e r c h e , " in Minoan Society. Proceedings of the C a m b r i d g e Coll o q u i u m 1981. O . Krzyszkowska a n d L. N i x o n , eds. (Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1981), pp. 1 0 1 - 1 0 ; E d m u n d F. Bloedow, " M y c e n a e a n Fishing in T r o u b l e d W a t e r s , " EMC 31 (1987): 1 7 9 - 8 5 ; for G r e e k z o o a r c h a e o l o g y in general, see esp. the bibliographic essay b y D a v i d S. Reese, " R e c e n t W o r k in G r e e k Z o o a r c h a e o l o g y , " in Beyond the Site. Regional Studies in the Aegean Area. P. Nick K a r d u l i a s , ed. ( L a n h a m , M d . : University Press of A m e r i c a , Inc., 1994), pp. 191 221. 34

Foxhall, " B r o n z e to I r o n , " p p . 2 3 9 - 5 0 . Snodgrass, on the o t h e r h a n d , sees the centuries b e t w e e n the Bronze Age a n d G e o m e t r i c period as a real D a r k Age, with little evidence for agriculture p e r se. H e characterizes the M y c e n a e a n s as p r e d o m i n a n t l y meat-eaters, a n d envisions the transition to a r a b l e f a r m i n g a n d a grain-based diet as slow a n d late developing. A. M . Snodgrass, The Dark Age of Greece ( E d i n b u r g h : T h e University of E d i n b u r g h Press, 1971), pp. 378 80. Cf. also, J . N. C o l d s t r e a m , Geometric Greece (New York: St. M a r t i n ' s Press, 1971), pp. 3 1 2 - 1 3 ; H o w e , "Line a r Β a n d Hesiod's B r e a d w i n n e r s , " p p . 4 4 65.

Greek ‫״‬Dark Age"

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turies B. C., brought the first stirrings of intensive cereal farming and then rapid developments in food processing. O n c e established, or rather reestablished, the M e d i t e r r a n e a n triad of grain, olive, and grape formed the basis of the Greek diet. T h e quantity and quality of archaeological, literary, and art historical evidence for ancient food technology during the Classical and Hellenistic periods far exceeds that of any period up to that time. This is due primarily to extensive archaeological excavations conducted in many places throughout the Mediterranean area, to the degree to which the results of those excavations have been documented, and to the wealth of extant literary sources written in a language well understood and bearing directly upon the subject.

1. Cereal Processing: a. Storage Hesiod, in his Works and Days, suggests that, once threshed, grain should be stored in terra-cotta vessels in the house. Indeed, many Geometric houses, such as those excavated at Emporio on Chios, Zagora on Andros, Phaistos on Crete, a n d Thorikos in Attica, have stone benches with holes for resting clay vessels or stone-lined bins sunk into the floor. 35 Hesiod's description of the poor Boeotian f a r m e r of the late eighth century B. C., although presenting clear evidence for the growing importance of cereal agriculture, gives an incomplete picture of facilities devoted to grain processing at the end of the Dark Ages. T h e earliest and best evidence is the group of clay model granaries dating between the midninth and late eighth century B. C., and found at Corinth and in many sites in Attica, such as Eleusis and Athens. Basing his conjectures on these models, Rodney Young has suggested that Geometric granaries were constructed on a circular base. Flexible wooden branches inserted into the ground were interwoven with other branches up to a certain height to form a wall. At this point the tops of the branches were bent toward the center, gathered up, tied securely, and perhaps thatched. 3 6 If so constructed, they have left no remains. Geometric granary mode! from the

Aeropagus

A m o n g the most important of the Geometric model granaries is the terra-cotta chest with lid discovered in Athens a n d bearing five granaries on its top (PI. 20). Dating to Early Geometric II (ca. 850 B. C.), the granaries formed part of 35

H e s i o d Op. 600; C o l d s t r e a m , Geometric Greece, pp. 308, 313 14. In a G e o m e t r i c house at Iolkos, in Thessaly, excavators f o u n d a layer of e m m e r w h e a t that had been incompletely threshed, leaving the seeds s u r r o u n d e d by the glumes. T h e partially threshed cereals f o u n d in f o u r t h e e n t h - c e n t u r y B. C . Asssiros T o u m b a , in M a c e d o n i a , have already been m e n t i o n e d (above p. 262). See Sarpaki, " P a l a e o e t h n o b o t a n i c a l S t u d y , " p. 225, note 18. 36 R o d n e y S. Y o u n g , Lite Geometric Graves and A Seventh Century Well in the Agora. H e s p e r i a Suppl. II (Athens: A m e r i c a n School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1939), p. 186.

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

the t o m b furniture belonging to a wealthy Athenian w o m a n buried on the north slope of the Areopagus. W h y they should have been placcd in a w o m a n ' s grave is unknown, though they probably arc emblems of wealth advertising the position of the deceased within society. 37 T h e five granaries are reminiscent of those on the Melos vase, though with significant differences. Unlike the latter graΟ ο ο naries, the Geometric vessels are aligned single-file along the top of the lid, not seemingly grouped about an open court. T h e Areopagus granaries are complete, or nearly so, and show a round base and d o m e d roof coming to a peak at the top. Just below the peak the potter has cut into each vessel a small trapezoidal window, above which is a flap protruding at a right angle from the granary wall. At the base of each granary is a pair of holes that do not penetrate to the interior of the vessel. T h a t the vessels represent granaries seems clear from their close resemblance to the Melos vase and similar ones known from the ancient Near East and Egypt. 3 8 T h e function of real granaries, as reflected by the models, likewise parallels N e a r Eastern types. T h e grain was probably carried up to the window at the top by means of a ladder placed against the outside wall and d u m p e d into the granary. It could be retrieved near ground level by a door or window, not shown. T h e function of the two holes located at the bottom of the granaries is unknown, but they seem to reflect construction similar to actual granaries at Lefkandi also dating to the Geometric period. Stone foundations of what may have been three circular granaries have come to light near a Late Geometric house at Lefkandi. As the best preserved structure rises up only three courses, one cannot know the form of its superstructure. Nevertheless, the foundations show it to have been a stone building with a substructure of stone and rubble. T w o parallel rectangular slots, bordered with large stones, penetrated all the way through the base from front to back. These slots recall the two holes seen at the base of the model granaries from the Areopagus burial, and may have served to allow ventilation below a wooden floor on which the grain rested. 39 If this suggestion is correct, it would constitute the first evidence for subfloor ventilation for grain storage so typical of R o m a n gra37

T h a t the n u m b e r of g r a n a r i e s (five) c o n f o r m s to five h u n d r e d bushels (one h u n d r e d bushels p e r granary) a n d so alludes to the w o m a n ' s h u s b a n d o r f a t h e r as a pentakosiomedimnos m a y be a n over-interpretation of these vessels. See Evelyn Lord S m i t h s o n , " T h e T o m b of a Rich A t h e n i a n L a d y , ca. 8 5 0 B. C . , " Hesperia 37 (1968): 7 7 - 1 16, a n d Pis. 18-27. C o n t r a , C h e s t e r Ci. S t a r r , Vie Economic and Social Growth of Early Greece, 800 500 B. C. (New York: O x f o r d University Press, 1977), p. 208, note 58. See also, Y o u n g , Late Geometric Graves, p p . 186 87; C o l d s t r e a m , Geometric Greece, p. 79. 38 T h e a v e r a g e size of the A r e o p a g u s granaries is 0.107 in. in height (one g r a n a r y has its point missing) χ 0.077 m . in d e p t h . See S m i t h s o n , " T o m b , " p. 94. 39 M . R. P o p h a m , L. H . Sackett, a n d P. G . T h e m e l i s , Lefiandi I. The Iron Age. 2 Parts (London: T h a m e s a n d H u d s o n , 1980), 1: Pis. 5 8, 1 1; 2: 2 4 - 2 5 .

Granaries 0/ Lejkandi

278

Grain storage in Attica

CHAPTER THREE

naries. A similar circular structure, though without evidence for ventilation, dating to the late eighth century B. C., was found in the yard of a house at Old Smyrna. H e r e the silo was partially sunk into the ground and lined with stone. At ground level was a door giving access to the inside. T h e top has been conjectured to have supported a d o m e d wooden roof covered with thatch. T h e r e is also evidence for a central post, probably to help support the roof, which may have parallels with the Bronze Age granaries at Middle M i n o a n Mallia. 40 Greeks during the Classical period appear not to have developed large-scale grain storage facilities, in spite of the fear of famine and the growth of urban populations. Their economy was not a redistributive one typical of the Bronze Age, but one based on the small farmer who cultivated, processed, and stored grain and other products, such as wine and oil, on his farm and transported the product to the urban market. Unfortunately, even for places like Athens, which, in the fifth and fourth centuries B. C., imported huge amounts of grain, little evidence can be found for large urban, state-operated granaries. This does not necessarily mean that none existed, only that there are few indications for them. O n present evidence, it seems that the Athenians did not maintain a large central grain reserve; the state paid close attention to the acquisition of grain from Attica or abroad, through private traders, and sought to control its availability, primarily in an unprocessed state, in the markets. Most grain, perhaps even that imported from abroad and in excess of what could be sold within a short time in the markets of Athens or elsewhere in Attica, may have been stored in the countryside on farms or perhaps in cult centers, from which they could be called when needed. 41 Remains of these country silos have yet to be conclusively recognized. J o h n

40

Snodgrass, Dark Age, p. 380; Coldstream, Geometric Greece, p. 313, a n d Fig. 96b. See above p. 263. X e n o p h o n (Oec. 9.3) notes that the well-ordered estate h a d specialty storerooms, such as a cool r o o m for wine a n d a secure o n e for valuable blankets. F o r grain he r e c o m m e n d e d a dry, covered storeroom. For on-the-farm processing, sec Victor Davis H a n s o n , The Other Greeks (New York: T h e Free Press, 1995), pp. 8 5 - 8 6 . Attic population in the fourth century B. C . m a y have reached between 250,000 a n d 300,000, most of which probably lived outside of Athens. See Isager a n d Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture, p. 69, a n d Michael W h i t b y , " T h e G r a i n T r a d e of Athens in the F o u r t h C e n t u r y B. C . , " in Trade, Traders and the Ancient City. H e l e n Parkins a n d Christopher Smith, eds. (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 114. O n famine, see Michael J a m e s o n , " F a m i n e in the Greek W o r l d , " in Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquity. Peter G a r n s e y a n d C . R. Whittaker, eds. (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e Philological Society, 1983), pp. 6 - 1 6 . O n the grain trade a n d markets in the G r e e k world d u r i n g the Classical a n d Hellenistic periods, see Whitby, " G r a i n T r a d e of Athens," pp. 102-28, D o m i n i c R a t h b o n e , " T h e G r a i n T r a d e a n d G r a i n Shortages in the Hellenistic East," in Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquity, pp. 4 5 - 5 5 ; Peter G a r n s e y a n d I a n Morris, "Risk a n d the Polis: the Evolution of Institutionalised Responses to F o o d Supply Problems in the Ancient Greek State," in Bad Year Economics, pp. 103-05. For unprocessed grain (σίτος αργός) in the markets, see Ps-Aristotie Ath. Pol. 51 ; for grain inspectors (σιτοφυλάκες) w h o also supervised the sale in the market not only of cereals but also of Hour by millers, see also Ps.-Aristotle Ath. Pol. 51 a n d Lysias 22.16. 41

26 1 THE GREEK WORLD: BRONZE AGE - HELLENISTIC PERIOD

Young, in 1956, suggested that stone towers of Classical date, some of which had threshing floors associated with them, found in conjunction with farmhouse and court in places like Sounion, were granaries. Comparison with similar circular or rectangular silos, dating between the sixth and third centuries B. C., found at Megara and on the Cycladic islands of Siphnos, Keos, Naxos, and Andros, give a fairly clear picture of their original construction and use. Joists cut into the walls indicate that the towers had multiple stories with wooden floors. T h e lowest level was given over to farm work, while the upper floors served as storage areas. Access to the second floor was often through an opening approached by ladder on the outside. T h e interior of the upper floors, as was often the ground floor as well, was subdivided by cross-walls. Grain, following threshing, was probably stored in containcrs on the upper floors. T h e ground floor, in addition to providing ventilation for the upper stories, when needed could serve as the milling area. More recent studies, while not denying the possibility, however, have questioned the agricultural role of these towers, and have concluded that no one can say with certainty that any particular building type always possessed an exclusively agrarian function. 42 b. Milling Roasting of grain prior to processing, c o m m o n today, has been suspected for ancient cultures as old as the ΡΡΝΛ, but no clear evidence for it has been forthcoming. This is particularly true for barley, which is especially resistant to séparation of grain from husk by simple threshing. T h e Greeks, however, had a dish, called the φρύγετρον, or "barley-roaster," which Sparkes has identified with a shallow dish held by a loop with the t h u m b while the fingers, spread out, support the base. This dish was probably used in h o m e or religious settings rather than in any commercial establishment. Although the fifth-century B. C. author οϊ Regimen indicates that barley was roasted, there exist no descriptions of the process. 43

42

J o h n H . Y o u n g , "Studies in S o u t h Attica. C o u n t r y Estates at S o u n i o n , " Hesj)eria 25 (1956): 122-46; Isager a n d Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture, p. 68. 43 Regimen 2.40. H e r o d o t u s (2.168) m e n t i o n s that the Egyptian king's b o d y g u a r d s received sperial privileges, including a daily allowance of two m i n a e of "roasted g r a i n " (όπτός σίτος). See also Sparkes, " G r e e k K i t c h e n , " p p . 128-29; M a r i e - C l a i r e A m o u r e t t i , Le pain et l'huile dans la Grèce antique (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1986), p. 135. A f r a g m e n t a r y b a r l e y - p a r c h e r of the late f o u r t h c e n t u r y Β. C . was f o u n d in a dining r o o m in the s a n c t u a r y of D e m e t e r a n d K o r e at C o r i n t h . See N a n c y Bookidis, J u l i e H a n s e n , L y n n Snyder, a n d Paul G o l d b e r g , " D i n i n g in the S a n c t u a r y of D e m e t e r a n d K o r e at C o r i n t h , " Hesperia 68, no. 1 (1999): 15. For a late fifth or early f o u r t h - c e n tury B. C . e x a m p l e f r o m the A t h e n i a n A g o r a , see Brian A. Sparkes a n d Lucy T a l c o t t , Black and Plain Potteiy. Vol. X X οϊ The Athenian Agora. 2 vols. (Princton: A m e r i c a n School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1970), pp. 228 29, a n d PI. 96, N o . 1987. Cf. also m o d e r n e x p e r i m e n t s to process cereals b o t h with a n d without prior roasting, in L. Foxhall a n d H. A. Forbes, "Σιτομετρεία: T h e Role of G r a i n as a Staple Food in Classical Antiquity," Chiron 12 (1982): 7 5 - 7 8 .

Parching

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CHAPTER THREE

Like millers of the ancient N e a r East a n d Egypt, the Greeks used the combitechnology nation of m o r t a r a n d pestle to crush cereals to separate the grain from the chaff. Both m o r t a r (δλμος) and pestle (ύπερος) could be m a d e of stone, but were probably more often fashioned of wood. As evidenced in vase paintings and terra-cotta figurines, the latter took the form of an elongated paddle-like shaft, perhaps five feet in length according to Hesiod, that tapered inward in the center to provide a better grip. T he m o r t a r was either a bowl m a d e of wood or stone placed on a raised base or a tall hour-glass shaped platform, m a d e of stone or perhaps clay and measuring, again according to Hesiod, about three feet, with a cavity at the top to hold the grain. M o r t a r s found at Olynthus were m a d e of stone, consisting of a bowl and a base, either in one piece or in two parts. N o pestles were found. T h e process of p o u n d i n g with m o r t a r a n d pestle continued in use even after the development of hopper mills and, later, the a p p e a r a n c e of the rotary mill because their purpose was different. Pounding separated grain from chaff, while milling reduced the grain into flour. T h e m o r t a r and pestle served their function so well that they ceased to develop further during the Classical era. 4 4 Developments in Saddle querns, found in Athens and Corinth and dating to the Geometric of Olive Oil in the Holy Land. J a y C. J a c o b s o n , trans. Arlington, VA: Oléarius Editions, 1994. Frankel, Rafael. Wine and Oil Production in Antiquity in Israel and Other Mediterranean Countries. J S O T / A S O R M o n o g r a p h Series, 10. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999. Frankfort, Henri. Cylinder Seals. A Documentary Essay on the Art and Religion of the Ancient Near East. L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1939. Frayn, J o a n M . Subsistence Farming in Roman Italy. L o n d o n : C e n t a u r Press, 1979. Frayn, J o a n M . " H o m e - b a k i n g in R o m a n Italy." Antiquity 52 (1978): 2 8 - 3 3 . Frayn, J o a n M . Markets and Fairs in Roman Italy. Their Social and Economic Importance from the Second Century BC to the Third Centure AD. O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press, 1993.

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Ία Palais de

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I. G E O G R A P H I C A L I N D E X (Numbers in bold refer to m a p pages) Bahrain Ras al Qala'a: 179. 242 Britain Boxgrove: 17, 37 C a e r h u n : 331 Chestcrs: 324. 337, 340 Dover: 331 Glastonbury: 340 Hadrian's Wall: 330, 337, 340, 350, 371 Housesteads: 324. 331 Hoxne: 17, 37 Ickham, Kent: 324. 350 Inchtuthil: 330 Scolc: 371 South Shields: 324, 330 Vindolanda: 371 China Zhoukoudian: 14, 29, 87 Crete Epano Zakros: 261. 270-71 Gournia: 261. 270 K ‫ ״‬t 9 Zakros: 261, 270 -71 Knossos: 74, 260, 261. 2 6 2 , 2 6 9 - 7 1.265,63‫־‬ 303 ,301 ,273-74 Kommos: 261, 265-67 Mallia: 261. 262-63, 265 66, 270, 272, 278 Myrtos: 261, 264. 267, 269-70, 313 Palaikastro: 261, 270, 313 Phaistos: 260, 262-63, 265, 274, 276 Phorni: 261, 270 Praesos: 261. 307 Tholos: 261, 335 Vathypetro: 261, 270 Zakro: 266 Crimea Chersonese: 411 Mirmekion: 37, 301, 303, 411 N y m p h a e u m : 37, 301 Starosel'e: 27, 37 Tyritake: 37, 301, 4 1 1 - 1 2 Volgograd: 27 Cvprus Kopetra: 308, n. 99; 311 Kyrenia: 37, 287 Maroni: 37, 228, 271 Czech Republic Dolni Vestonice: 37, 43, 46, 51, 88 Democratic Republic of Congo Katanda: 5, 36, 42 Egypt (incl. Nubia)

Abu Ghurab: 176 Abusir: 9 6 , 168 Abydos: 96. 97, 101, 107, 142, 160, 169, 172 Alexandria: 321. 324, 335, 417 Amarna: 96. 104, !19, 124, 129-31, 140, 162, 164, 169-71, 202 Badari: 95 Bcni Hasan: 9 6 , 149, 158 Buto: 9 6 , 162 Cairo: 93, 96 Deir El Gebrawi: 9 6 , 99, n. 18 Deir cl-Bahri: 9 6 , 166 Deir el-Ballas: Ballas: 96. 107, 129 Deir el-Medina: 9 6 , 137-38, 164, 166, 170, 174 Delta: 143 44, 150 Dendera: 96, 111 Edfu: 77 El Kab: 77, 9 6 Elephantine: 53, 94. 96 Fayum: 77, 79, 93, 321 Giza: 96, 122, 137 Hcliopolis: 96. 145 Helwan: 9 6 , 100-01 Hemamieh: 96, 97 Hermopolis: 130 Hierakonpolis: 97, 100, 106 08; 143, 11. 4 Isna: 56, 77. 9 6 K a h u n : 96, 104, 121, 251 Karanis: 324. 335 Kom K: 79, 99 K o m O m b o : 53, 56, 77, 96 Kom W: 79 Letopolis: 143 Maadi: 96, 99, 186 Mahasna: 107 Malkata: 9 6 , 171 Medinet H a b u : 96, I I I Medum: 9 6 , 148 Memphis: 9 6 , 145 Merimda: 78, 9 6 , 123 Mirgissa: 9 6 , 104 Nabta: 77. 96 Naqada: 9 6 , 97 98 Niuserre: 176 Pelsuium: 96, 175, 321 Rifch: 136 Saqqara: xxiii. 96, 100, 115, 117, 120, 134, 146, 148, 151, 174 Tebtunis: 321 Tell cl-Dab‫׳‬a: 9 6 , 153 Thebes: 9 6 , 101, 145, 162, 169 Uronarti: 104, 112 Wadi Kubbaniya: 53 56, 62, 67, 82, 8 8 9 6 Ethiopia Aramis: 5 , 6

.89‫״‬

468

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX

Fejej: 5, 6 H a d a r : 4, 5, 9 Kada Gona: 9 Maka: 6 West Gona: 5, 9 Fertile Crescent: 178 France Abri Pataud: 3 7 , 42, 88 Aventicum: 324, 355; 357, 11. 64 Barbcgal: 324, 350-51, 423, 429 Bay of Douarnenez: 411 C o m b e Grenal: 27, 30, 37 Grotte du Lazaret: 30 31. 37 Kerobestin: 397 Lugdunum: 324, 403 Nemausus: 324. 400 Pech de l'Azé: 31-32, 37 Plomarc'h: 415 Roc dc C o m b : 46 Solvieux: 42 Telgruc: 397 T e r r a Amata: 30 31, 37 Georgia Dmanisi: 15, n. 28, 37 Germany Augusta T r e v e r o r u m (Trier): 371 Haltern: 330, 340 Lehringen: 27; 49, η. 39 Mauer: 17. 37 Rögden: 324. 330 Saalburg: 357, 11. 63 Vindonissa: 324, 330 Greece (incl. Cyclades islands) Aegina: 76, 264, 286 87, 424 Aghios Kosmas: 261. 267, 273 Andros: 261, 276, 279 Argolid: 286 87 AsÌne: 261, 264 Athens find. Attica): 261, 276-79, 282, 290-91, 293, 301, 313, 350, 427 Corinth: 261, 286, 290, 313-14, 318 19 Delos: 261. 282, 288 89, 301 Dimini: 261, 266 Franchthi Cavc: 74, 261. 267 Iolkos: 276 Keos: 261, 279 Lefkandi: 261, 277, 315, 425 Lei na: 261, 264 Megara: 261. 279, 282 Melos: 197, 261, 277 Mt. Hymettus: 322 Mycenae: 260. 261. 264, 266, 272, 301 Naxos: 279 Olynthus: 261, 280 84, 288, 301, 305, 307, 381, 427 Orchomenos: 261, 263 Peparcthos: 321 Pylos: 261, 272, 274 Siphnos: 279 Syros: 261, 264

Tanagra: 261, 291, 429 Thasos: 301, 313, 321 Therasia: 261, 274 Tiryns: 261. 2 6 3 - 6 4 Tromileia: 315 Hungary Vertesszöllös: 17. 37 Iran Choga Mis: 209 Godin Tepc: 106. 179, 184-85. 209 10, 249 Hajji Firuz Tepe: 73, 179. 184 Iraq Abu Salabikh: 179, 195, 207 Arpachiyah: 179. 180 82 Babylon: 179, 221 Drehern: 233 Eridu: 179. 181, 209, 241 Gcbcl Sinjar: 201 Girsu (= Tcllo): 179. 212-14, 217, 239 40, 253 Jemdet Nasr: 179. 190, 192 Lagash: 179. 202-03, 210, 213, 233, 252 Nimrud: 179, 192 93 Nineveh: 179. 193, 203 Nippur: 179. 193, 203, 212, 240 Nuzi: 179. 234 Sagdana: 202 Shanidar Cave: 37. 179. 27 Shuruppak: 179. 196, 251 Tell Abada: 179. 182 Tell el-'Oueili: 179. 181 T e p e Gawra: 105, 179. 181-82, 254 Ubaid: 179, 180 81 U m m a : 179. 212 Ur: 140. 179. 181, 192-93, 202-03, 209, 2 1 1 , 2 1 8 , 233-34, 239 Uruk: 179. 181 82, 185, 190, 192, 195, 208 09, 240 Yarim Tepe: 179. 180 83, 207 Zawi Chemi Shanidar: 6 7 - 6 8 Italy Boscorale: 394 Cosa: 368 Hcrculaneum: 3 2 4 . 343-44, 365, 370, 385 Ostia: 3 2 4 , 333-34, 344 -45, 398, 429 Pithecusae: 315 Pompeii: 324, 341, 344, 347, 365 66, 368, 379, 385, 390, 398, 402-03, 411, 415, 429 Rome: 324. 3 3 3 , 5 8 357,51350 367-68, 395, 398 99, 419, 423-24, 429 Russi: 328 San Giovanni di Ruoti: 324. 349-51 Settefinestre: 324, 372, 395 Stabiae: 374 Venafrum: 350 Vicovaro: 324. 328 Kenya Chemeron: 5 , 7, 9 Chesowanja: 28 Kanapoi: 6, 5

469 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX Koobi Fora: 5, 7, 20, 22 23, 25, 27 28 Lake Turkana: 5, 6, 7, 14 Olorgesaillc: 5, 25 Kuwait Failaka: 179, 241 42 Macedonia Assiros T o u m b a : 261, 262 Sitagroi: 261, 267 Mallorca: 287, 324. 335, 341 Malta: 305 Noil 11 Africa Carthage: 287. 3 2 4 Chcmtou: 324. 350, 423 Chcrchcl: 377 Cotta: 324. 411 El Djcm: 377 Kouass: 318 Lixus: 324, 411 Madaurc: 394 Sullecthum: 411 Tcstour: 50 Palestine (incl. Lebanon, Israel, Jordan) Abu Noshra: 37, 47. 88 Achzib: 179, 205 Ain Mallaha: 37, 60 Aphek-Antipatris: 179, 223 Arad: 142, 179, 186, 197 Beth Shemcsh: 179, 198, 203 Beth Yerah: 179, 197 Bir el-1 Abel: 179, 197, 251 Caesarea Marittima: 379 Dothan: 179, 198 99, 201 Ein Aqev: 37, 53, 59, 86 'En Besor: 96. 107, 11. 36; 186 Gibeon: 179, 185, 225 Gilgal: 37. 67 Golan Heights: 179, 187 Hayonim Cave: 37. 40 Hazor: 179, 198, 228, 231 Jericho: 37. 65, 67 68, 142, 183, 186, 198, 201, 250 Jerusalem: 179, 240 Jisr Banal Yakub: 30 Khirbet Iskandcr: 179, 207 Lachish: 142, 179, 186 87, 198 Maresha: 37, 308 09, 381. 384 85 Mushabi: 60 Nahal Oren: 37, 67 Nahal T a n n i n i m : 350 Netiv Hagdud: 37, 65, 67, 86 ( )halo: 37, 59 Rosh Zait: 240 Shechem: 179, 199. 201 Shiqmim: 179, 180 81 Shiqmona: 228, 231 Ta‫׳‬annck: 179, 198, 223 Tel Batash: 179, '228 Tel esh-Shuna: 142, 179. 186 87 Tel Megiddo: 179, 187 89, 198

Tel Michal: 179, 224 Tel Miqnc-Ekron: 179, 228 32. 247 Telcilat el-Ghassul: 179, 180-81, 187 Tell Beil Mirsim: 179, 198, 228 Tell Dan: 179, 198, 228, 231 Tell el Ifshar: 198 Tirai Yehuda: 228 Ubeidiya: 15, 37 Ugarit (Ras Shamra): 37, 179. 180 81, 223, 227 28 YVadi H a m m e h : 37. 60 Pantelleria: 287, 335 Russia Avdeevo: 37, 44 Koslenki: 37. 44 46 Mczin: 63 Sardinia Mullargia: 324. 336, 424 Sicily incl. nearby islands Agrigento: 394 I.ipari Islands: 314 Morgantina: 280, 287, 289, 324. 336, 341 Syracuse: 321 T o n a r a del Cofano: 41 I South Africa Florisbad: 53 Swartkrans: 5. 28 Spain incl. nearby islands) Ambrona: 24, 37 Atapuerca: 17. 19. 37 B‫״‬el ù : 324. 41 1, 413 Gades: 319, 411 L'Ali de Bc11in1aquía: 373 74 l » s Redes: 319 New Carthage: 324, 403 Numantia: 324. 337 Punta de l'Arenal: 41 I, 413 Rhode: 324, 412; 413, 11. 40 Santa Pola: 412 Torralba: 24. 37 Troia (incl. Caetobriga): 324. 411; 411, 11. 37; 412 Syria Abu Hureyra: 37. 202, 245 Bouqras: 66 Carcheinish: 179, 182 Damascus: 221 Ebla: 201 02, 212, 226, 250 Mari: 179, 192. 195; 197. η. 33; 207 08, 210, 212. 221, 223, 226, 233, 240, 272 Mureybit: 37. 63, 88, 191 Sclcnkahiyc: 214, 11. 66 Tel Brak: 179, 209 Tell al-Raqa'i: 179, 196 Tell Hadidi: 179, 214, 217 1VII Halaf: 179, 180, 201, 286 Tell Mcfesh: 182 Tanzania Lacioli: 5. 6 Olduvai Gorge: 5, 7, I I , 15, 20 21, 23, 27, 85

470 Thera Akrotiri: 261. 265 Turkey (Asia Minor; incl. nearby islands) Bogazköy (Hattuša): 179, 1 9 2 , 2 2 0 Byzantium: 37. 17 18 Cabira: 324, 348 Çayônii: 179. 186 Chios: 261. 297, 305, 376 Gordion: 37, 218, 286 Halicarnassus: 318 Kos: 261. 297, 318 Kültepe: 179, 220 K u r b a n Höyük: 179, 219 Lesbos: 261, 294, 297, 318, 376 Nisyros: 287, 424 Parion: 318 Phaselis: 37. 318

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX Rhodes: 297, 301 Samos: 318 Sinope: 297 Smyrna: 261, 278 Tell Turin: 181 Thasos: 297, 376 Titris Höyük: 219 Ukraine Dobranichevka: 3 7 , 44 45, 63 Mezhirich: 3 7 , 44 45; 50, n. 44; 88 M w lodova: 31, 3 7 , 44, 50, 53, 86 Pushkari: 3 7 , 44 Zambia Kalambo Falls: 5, 30

II. G E N E R A L I N D E X alcohol: 88 drunkenness: 139, 294, 376 animals cattle: 70, 7 4 - 7 5 , 79; 79, n. 132; 97, 165, 180 81, 233, 274, 313, 395 domestication: 68 70, 75, 79 fish: 50, 56, 59, 62, 64, 77 79, 83, 89, 97, 173 74, 2 3 8 - 3 9 , 2 7 4 - 7 5 , 316, 402 gazelle: 68, 78 goats: 7 4 - 7 5 , 97, 180- 81, 233, 274, 313 m a m m o t h : 44- 45, 47, 82 pigs: 70, 74, 97, 166, 181, 2 3 3 - 3 4 , 274; 275, 11. 33; '314, 395, 397; 397, 11. 5 sheep: 70, 7 4 - 7 5 , 97, 180 81, 233, 274, 313 abattoir: see butchery A m r a t i a n culture: 97 amurca: 307, 3 2 7 - 2 9 , 381, 393, 426 Annius Octavianus Valerianus, L.: 358 Antipater of Thessalonica: 348 Ashurbanipal: 203 Ashurnasirpal II: 193, 203, 208, 222 Atimetus: 399 autolysis: 407

KAŠ (Akk. Šikaru): 186, 211; 211, 11. 58; 212, η. 62; 2 1 5 - 1 6 , η. 68; 242 šeššar (Hittite beer): 219 unfiltered: 2 1 7 - 1 9 ; 217, η. 73 beer siphon: 139-40, 218 ζύθος (ζϋτος, βρΰτον, πΐνον): 294 T h r a c i a n beer: 294 Gallic beer (cervesià): 370 Spanish beer (caelia a n d cerea): 370 brewers: 105, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 371 breweries (Sum. E-BAPPIR): 2 1 3 - 1 4 , 217 brewery model: see models characteristics of beer: color: 219 potency: 139, 294 taste: 219 b e e r in society: beer a n d morality: 213 b e e r drinking: 140, 191 beer in Egyptian hieroglyphs: 108 10 beer in p y r a m i d texts: I 10 deities associated with: 111 ( H a t h o r a n d Menqet) economy: 111 12; 112, 11. 48; 370 71 taverns: 213 biltong, see butchery boiling: see fire bouza: see b e e r making

B a d a r i a n culture: 9 5 - 9 6 bag press: see mechanical technology baker: see bread making bakery: see bread m a k i n g b r e a d making: Egypt: 117 31, 134 35; ancient N e a r beer-bread: see b r e a d making East: 2 0 5 - 1 0 ; Greece: 266 -67, 2 8 9 - 9 4 ; R o m e : b e e r making: Prehistory: 88, 105; Egypt: 131-41; 358-70 ancient N e a r East: 2 1 0 1 9 ‫ ; ־‬Greece: 294; R o m e : priority of b r e a d or beer: 105-06 370-71 processes: priority of bread or beer: 105 06 grinding grain: see mechanical technology earliest evidence: 105, 210; 217, 11. 72 sieving: see milling processes: kneading: m a n u a l : 118, 127, 136, 205, 362 65 b e e r making with bread: animal power: 3 6 2 - 6 4 malt (MUNU; Akk. buqlu) a n d malting: 106, 132, water power: 363, n. 75 138, 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 249 making dough: 106, 117 19, 205, 358, 365 diastase: 215 leaven: 118, 363, 365 maltose: 215 flour: 117, 200, 203, 265, 286, 3 6 0 - 6 2 beer-bread (BAPPIR; Akk. bappiru): 135, 137 38, bread molds: 214; 215, n. 68; 216 bedja molds: 118-19, 121 23, 209 sieving: 106, 132 conical molds: 123 24 mashing: 135-36, 2 1 6 - 1 7 ; 217, n. 71 trough-shaped: 123 m a s h tun: 107, 136, 214 (Akk. namzitu), 216 bevelled-rim bowl: 209 wort: 132, 136, 249 baking: fermentation: see fermentation storage: 137 h o m e baking: 290 91, 3 6 7 - 6 9 beer making without bread: 137 -38 ashes: 106, 367 types: 139, 184, 192, 2 1 0 - 1 2 , 214 clibanus: 3 6 8 - 6 9 ; 369, n. 88 (dapjì(1nu (beer of mari): 219 eschara290 .‫״‬ b o u z a 2 4 9,140,38137,132-34sub .‫ ׳‬testa: 368 d a r k beer (ΤΙΤΛΒ; Akk. titapu): 219 bakeries (Grk. άρτοπώλιον; L a t. pistrinum)·. 105, date beer (billatu or biltu): 241- 42 122, 209 10, 293, 344, 347 48; 347, n. 46 filtered: 217 large-scale baking: 129-31, 3 5 8 - 6 0 , 4 3 0

472

GENERAI. INDEX bakers: 105, 117, 130, 209 10; 210. 11. 55; 266, 293 (female), 358 61, 423 άρτοκόπος: 266, 293 a-t0-j)0-q0·. 266 crustularius: 370 duláarius: 370 libarius: 370 fiisior. 358, 360, 370 pistrix: 361

C a n n i b a l H y m n : see pyramid texts cereals domestication: 66 barley: 56, 59, 66, 71, 74, 77. 99, 107, 131, 138, 186 81, 183, 193, 199, 200, 205, 262, 360 wheat: bread: 74, 199, 360 club: 74 d u r u m : 74, 199 einkorn: 62, 66, 71, 74, 183 e m m e r : 66, 74, 99, 107. 114, 138, 180, 183, 199, 200, 205, 215, 262, 360 cervesarius: 371 cheddaring: see dairy products cheese: see dairy products crushing: see mechanical technology curd: see dairy products

ovens: 125 27, 129 30, 195, 208; 208, 11. 51; 215. 248, 266 67, 289 90, 366 69 box ovens: 125, 127, 129 d o m e d ovens: 266 67, 208: 208, 11. 51; 215, 429 Junius: 366 69, 429 ίπνίτης: 290 ίπνός: '293, 429 πνιγεύς: '290 uduii: 216 dairy products: butter: Prehistory: 69; Egypt: 173; ancient Near r o u n d ovens: 125, 127. 130 East: 2 3 5 - 3 7 ; R o m e : 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 laburr. 184, η. 9; 207 butyrum: 399 400 laimur. 205, 207 08; 368, 11. 87 ghee: 237 bread: (Sum. NINDA; Grk. άρχος; Lat. panis) types: 119, 2 0 5 - 0 7 ; 205, n. 48; 209, ,289-90‫ ־‬cheese: Prehistory: 6 9 , 76; Egypt: 173; ancient 369 70 ' N e a r East: 2 3 7 38: Greece: 2 7 4 , 3 1 5 16; beer-bread: see beer making Rome: 399 402 flat bread: 207 ceramic sieve: 76 leavened bread: 208 cheddaring: 2 3 8 mamphula: 368, n. 87 cottage cheese: 4 0 1 0 2 pants quadralus: 365 curd: 238, 315, 4 0 0 - 0 2 in Egyptian economy: 111 12; 111, 11. 48 GA-AR ( A k k . eqidum)·. 2 3 7 - 3 8 in Egyptian hieroglyph: 108 10 mold: 2 3 8 , 11. 119 (ancient N e a r East), 4 0 1 - 0 2 brining: see preservation (Rome) bulgur (burghul): 196, '203 rennet: 238, 315, 400 01 butchery: Prehistory: 15, 47, 81, 8 5 8 7 ‫ ; ־‬Egypt: tu-ro,: 274 165 73, 2 5 2 - 5 3 ; ancient N e a r East: 2 3 3 34, type's: 238 252 53; Greece: 274; 275, n. 33; 313 14; Rome: whey: 76, 315 395 99, 432 milk: Prehistory: 69, 76; Egypt: 173; ancient birds (Egypt): 167, 171 72 spatchcocking: 171 cattle: blood: 69, 167 68, 172 73 b u t c h e r (Rome): 398 (macellaritis, lanius) butcher shop a n d abattoir: Egypt: 167 69; ancient Near East: 233; R o m e : 398 (laniena) butchery tools: Prehistory: 15, 47, 81. 85 87; Egypt: 169-70; Greece: 313 14; R o m e : 399 carnarium: 397 (smoke house), 398 (meat rack) fat rendering: 172 73 meat markets (Rome) Jorum boarium: 395 forum suarium: 395 macellum: 396, 398. 402 processed meat: 171-72, 3 9 8 - 9 9 fish: Prehistory: 56; Egypt: 171; ancient N e a r East: 2 3 8 - 4 0 ; (;recce: 2 7 4 - 7 5 , 314 gutting: 240 scaling: 240 splitting: 240 washing: 240 butter: see dairy products

N e a r East: 69, 234; Greece: 274. 315: R o m e : 399-400 buttermilk: 235, 237 milk boiler: 76, 401 Delian mill: see milling dental-wear pattern: '21'22, 51, 7 0 - 7 1 . 117 detoxification: 52, 88 dispu (Akk.): 240 , Disputation Between the Millstone and the gul.gulstone': 201 distillation: see refrigeration donkey mill: see milling drying: see preservation Enkidu: ' 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 enzyme hydrolysis: 407 Eurysaces: 358, 3 6 3 - 6 3 , 365 66, 429 evaporation: see refrigeration

Jar. 360 fermentation: see preservation Fertile Crescent: 178 fire: 28 34, 54, 81, 87 88, 121, 248, 429 30

GENERAL INDEX processes: baking: see bread making boiling: 82, 88, 170 71, 248 cooking: 2 9 - 3 1 (earliest use), 65, 73, 77, 82, 88, 195,' 2 6 5 - 6 6 , 429 heating: 374 (miliarium) parching; see milling roasting: 47, 88, 170, 195 apparatus: boiling pits: 47 fire drill: 121, 248 griddles: 120, 248 hearths: 30 32, 43 47, 60, 65, 75, 77, 79, 87, 97, 195, 2 6 5 - 6 6 ; 266, 11. 14 kilns: 182 ovens: see bread making pot boilers: 46, 88 spits: 47 fish sauce: see preservation Fomacalia: 369 forum boarium: see butchery forum piscatorium: 402 Jorum suarium: see butchery garum (Grk. γάρον): see preservation 'gat: 225 26 gearing: 357. 11. 63 Geoponica: 297, n. 75; 298, n. 77; 4 0 5 - 0 6 G e r z e a n culture: 97 GEŠTIN (Akk. karanu): 186, 220 ghee: see dairy products Gilgamcsh: 193, 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 , 239 granary: see storage grinding: see milling Halaf culture: 180 81 h a n d a x e : 15 H e r o of Alexandria: 3 1 1 1 2 hominids: Australopithecus afarensis: 4, 67, 10, 22 Australopithecus ajricanus: 6, n. 4; 7; 7, n. 10; 22 Australopithecus anamensis: 6 Australopithecus «ahn: 7, 9 - 1 0 ; 24, 11. 51; 27, 11. 62; 81

Australopithecus ramidus: 6; 6, 11. 6; 7 diet: 2 1 - 2 3 , 25, 8 3 84 Paranthropus boisei: 7; 7, 11. 10 Paranthropus aethiopicus: 7 Paranthropus robustus: 7; 7, 11. 10; 8, 10, 22, 28 Homo: archaic Homo sapiens: 18 19 diet: 23, 25 Homo antecessor. 17 Homo heidelbergensis: 17 18 Homo sapiens neanderthalensis: 17 19, 30; 35, 11. I; 40, 51, 70 Homo sapiens sapiens: 8, 11. 12; 18 20, 40, 44, 50, 57, 63, 70, 73, 81, 82, 87 Homo erectus: 8; 8, nos. 12-13; 10, 14-15, 17; 17, 11. 30; 18 19. 26 27, 29; 29. 11. 71; 33‫־‬34, 40, 81, 85 86 Homo habilis: 7, n. 1 1 : 8 1 0 , 14, 18, 32, 34, 81

473

honey: see sweeteners h o p p e r mill: see milling Iwrrea: see storage House of the Vettii Pompeii): 388 ' H y m n to Ninkasi': 213 16; 215, n. 68; 217, n. 72 ice: see refrigeration 'iceman': 77 intelligence: and brain size: 8; 8, n. 14; 10, 40 cognitive fluidity: 34, 63 communication: 33 34, 40, 44 planning: 33, 42, 45 Isis Gitniniana: 333 lulus Vitalis: 398 kanou (or kamou): 143, 165 KAS (Akk. šikaru): see beer making K e b a r a n culture: 59, 68 koulouras: 263 KU.SIM: 192

kvass: 218 'Lamentation O v e r the Destruction of Suiner a n d U r ' : 211 laniena: see butchery λήνος: see wine making

madbasa: 241 m a n n a : 207, 11. 49 μ ά ζ α : 289 markets (Roman): see butchery mastaba of K a e m r e h u : 114, 11. 54; 134 meat-eating: see hominids a n d Homo mechanical technology: 246 48, 425 crushing: non-rotary methods: feet: 188; 188, n. 19 (κρουπέζαι); 304, 381 (canalis et soled) pestle: 187, 304 tudicula: 381 rotary motion: rollers: 304, 372 73 moin olearia: 381 trapelum: Greek: 288 89, 305 09; 309, 11. 99; 431 R o m a n : 3 0 5 - 0 7 , 309, 372, 381 82, 420, 423, 428, 431 terminology: columella (iron pivot): 306, 309, 382 cupa (wooden handle): 306 miliarium (central post): 306, 382 modiolus (socket:: 306, 382 mortarium (container): 306, 309 orbis (crushing stone): 306, 309, 382 grinding: see milling kneading: see bread making pounding: see milling pressing: ancient Near East: 185, 187 88, 225 32, 247 48; Greece: 2 7 1 - 7 2 , 307 1 2 , 4 3 1 32; R o m e : 378, 3 8 2 - 9 3 , 432 earliest evidence for the oil press: 227

474

GENERAI. INDEX

pressing without a press: 227 press weights: 231 32 types: direct screw press: 393, 421 lever-and-drum press: 385-90, 4 2 1 - 2 2 lever-and-drum press with a screw: 390 91 lever-and-screw press: 391 92 lever-and-weight press: 228 31; 229, 11. 102; 231, n. 103; 247, 271-72, 302, 307-11; 308, n. 99; 384, 420 lever-and-weight press with a winch: 309-11 wedge press: 3 8 4 - 8 5 terminology for R o m a n oil press (torcularium): 385-93 ara (press bed): 385 arbores (piers): 385, 388, 390 coclea (screw): 390 ligula (tongue): 385 orbis (circular wooden piece): 385 prelum (wooden beam): 385 stipites (uprights): 385, 390 sucula (winch): 388 vectis (handspike): 388 squeezing: see also wine making bag (sack) press: origin: 148-50 simple bag press: 148-50; 150, n. 26; 154-58, 247 with wooden frame: 148-50; 150, n. 26; 158-60, 247 as a hieroglyph: 143, 146 Megarian ('Homeric') bowl: 282 84, 291 milk: see dairy products milling: Prehistory: 84-86; Egypt: 1 1 4 1 7 , 2 5 0 - 5 1 ; ancient Near East: 199-204, 250-51; Greece: 279-89, 427 29; Rome: 335-58, 427 29 bureaucratic oversight: 111- 12, 358-60, 366-67 millers: 360, n. 69 ‫י‬ millhouses: 201-03, 250-51 mill song: 281, 338, 348 -49 processes: grinding: 51, 53, 5 5 - 5 6 , 60, 62, 75, 85 86, 115-16, 124, 182 84, 200 01, 280-81, 335-58, 361 reciprocal motion: grinding slab: 55 'basined' grinding slab: 53, 86 quern: 60, 64, 67 68, 71, 75, 79, 8 5 - 8 6 , 115-16, 124, 129, 180, 293, 427 bifacial: 67 flat: 67, 86 saddle: 76, 80, 82; I 15, n. 57; 116, 183-84, 199, 201-03, 264 65, 280 82, 284, 427 trough: 67, 82, 86, 183 mill: slab: 281 Olynthian hopper mill (mola trusatilis): 282-87, 335 36, 340, 4 2 7 - 2 8 rotary motion: 280, 287;89287‫׳‬,n. 53; 288, 11. '54; 336; 336, n. 26; 341 hand mill: '288. 336 40 origin: 33637‫־‬

terminology: bridge-tree: 340-41 - catillus (upper stone): 339 - handle: 339 40 - hopper: 3 3 9 - 4 0 - meta (lower stone): 339 modern experiments with: 340 rynd: 339 spindle: 339 - man 01‫ ־‬animal-driven mill: 341 Delian mill: 288 89, 422 Morgantina mill: 341-45, 428 - donkev mill (mola asirtaria): 287, 336, 343 48, 428' origin: 343 size: 344; 344, n. 41 terminology: - catillus (upper stone): 341, 343, 345, 347; 347, n. 46; 358 - hopper: 341, 345; 347, n. 46 meta (lower stone): 341, 344-45, 347; 347, 11. 46; 358 - rynd: 347 - spindle: 341, 345 water mill: 348-58, 429 earliest evidence: 3 4 8 - 5 0 types: - drop tower: 353, n. 58 horizontal: 3 5 0 - 5 2 - vertical overshot: 350-52; 352, n. 56; 355 - vertical undershot: 349, 351 52; 352, 11. 56; 355 terminology: - axis: 356 - bridge-tree: 3 5 6 - 5 8 - catillus: 356-57 hopper (Jimdibulum): 35556‫־‬ latern pinion: 3 5 6 - 5 8 - meta: 356-57 rynd: 356 - spindle: 357 - tympanum dentatum (flywheel): 356 57 gearing: - 'geared up 1 : 357, n. 63 'geared down': 357, n. 63 major installations: - Athens: 350; 357, n. 63 - Barbegal: 350, 353-58, 423 - Chemtou: 350, 352-53, 423 Rome: Janiculum: 350-51; 355, n. 61; 367 Baths of Caracalla: 350-51, 357, 367 San Giovanni di Ruoti: 349 51 parching: 80, 88, 107, 115, 199-200, 250, 279; 279, n. 43; 369, 371 barley roaster (Grk. φρύγετρον): 279; '279, η. 43; 430 parching oven (Lat. fomax): 200, 369 pounding: 51-53, 55, '59-62, 75, 84-86, 114-15, 199, 250, 280, 293, 360 61 mortar (Grk. ολμος) and pestle (Grk. ύπερος): hand operated: 52, 54-56, 60, 64, 75,

GENERAL INDEX 84 85, 108; 114, n. 54; 124, 180-81, 199, 201, 250, 280, 293, 360 61 composite mechanical: '280, n. 44 - water powered: 360. 11. 44 sieving: 116 1 7 , 2 0 0 , 2 9 1 , 3 3 8 , 3 6 1 62 sieves: - cribrum: 363 - κόσκινον: 291, 293 models: Aeropagus granary model: 276-77 Egyptian tomb models: É1 Kab: 100, 11. 21 Helwan: 100 Saqqara: 100 T h e b e s (Meket-re): bakery-brewery: 116, 125 27, 134-37, 202 slaughterhouse: 167, 11. 77; 168 69, 171, 173 granary: 103, kitchen boat: 127 29; 136, 11. 127 Melos vase: 263, 425 Moretum: 338, 362, 368, 423 Morgantina mill: see milling mortar: see milling multiregional evolution: 19 Mycoderma aceli: see wine making namzitu: see beer making N a q a d a culture: see Gerzean Natufian culture: 60 62, 68, 71, 82 negotiator allecarius: 403 negotiator cervesarius: 37 1 Nile River: 9 3 - 9 5 Nonius Zethus, P.: 345, 347, 362 nuoc-mam: 409 oil processing: Egypt: 164 65; ancient Near East: 187-89, 226-33; Greece: 267 74, 303 13; Rome: 380-94 Difficulty in distinguishing oil from wine processing installations: 164 65, 269-70; 270, 11. 24; 301, 372-73 crushing: see mechanical technology pressing: see mechanical technology separation: 188, '232 33, 311-12, 3 9 3 - 9 4 décantation: 394 hot water: 311 12 rendering: 227 skimming: 394 spouted tubs: 269-7'2, 312 storage: 198, 11. 35; 269, 272 olive oil: uses: 164 65, 187 89, '269, 303-04, 380 base for perfumes and medicines: 227, 269, 304, 380 cooking: 227, 304 illumination: 227, 304 religion: '227, 380 ' O u t of Africa': 19 oven: see bread making overflow décantation: 394 Papyrus Ebers: 177

475

Papyrus Harris: 145; 175, n. 107 parching: see milling Patulcus Felix, Sexlus: 347, n. 46; 370 pestle: see milling pistrinum: 360; see also bread making pounding: see milling pottery: 66, 72-73, 82, 88 preservation: drying: beef: 171 (Egypt), 3 9 6 - 9 8 (Rome) fish: 89 (Prehistory), 175 (Egypt), 2 3 9 - 4 0 (ancient Near East) fowl: 172 (Egypt) fermentation: 147 4 8 , 2 1 6 17 beer making: 106- 08, 131 32, 136 3 9 , 2 1 6 - 1 7 , 249 additives: 106 07, 132 (hops), 139, 242, 250 barm: 106 yeast: Saccharomyces winlocki: 1 18 Saceharomyces cerevisiae: 131, 363 grain: 88 89,' 118, 205 honey: 418 wine making: 117 48 (modern method), 160 61. 248, 2 7 3 ' 7 4 , 300 (in wine skins), 378 79 yeast (Saccharomyces ellipsoideus): 147 salting: beef: 396 98 (Rome) fish: Prehistory: 88; Egypt: 175, 321 ; ancient Near East: 239-40;'Punie: 319 20: Greece: 316 21; Rome: 402-17, 432 33 similar to salting pork: 397, 404 fish eggs (bolargo): 175 salt-fish (Grk. τάριχος; Eat. salsamentum) types: 317, 403 08, 413, 415; 415, 11. 47 physical appearance: 4 1 4 - 1 6 fish sauce (Grk. γάρον; Eat. garum similar to modern sauces of Southeast Asia: 406 07 types: '239, 317, 403 06; 405. 11. 24; 406, 11. ' 27; 414 15 salting installations (Grk. ταριχεία): 175 (Egypt), 240 (ancient N e a r East), 321 (Greece), 4 1 1 1 3 (Rome) salting vats (cetariaé): 412 13 uses of salted fish products: 415 16 commerce: ancient Near East: '240; Rome: 403 04, 416 17 modern fish salting technology: 407 09 dry sailing: 408 brining: 408 fish-to-salt ratio: 409 botulism: 414, 11. 44 fowl: 172 (Egypt) pork: 397 (Rome) smoking: 56, 89 pressing: see mechanical technology Primus Secundianus, M.: 403 Puabi (Queen): 203, 218 puis: 361 pûrâ: 2 2 5 - 2 6 pyramid texts: 144, 148, 149 (Cannibal Hymn)

476

GENERAI. INDEX

quern: see milling ration lists: 203 refrigeration: distillation: 254 55, 424 evaporation: 253 54 ice: 253, 296, 374, 419 rennet: see dairy products roasting: see fire rotary motion: see milling SABITL213

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salsamentum‫׳‬. see preservation salting: see preservation Sec wreck: 287, 341 sedentism: 46, 64 servant statues: 115 16; 117, 11. 66; 123 Shalmaneser III: 203, 222 Shamash-resh-usur: 240 41 sieving: see milling siligo: 360 Sinuhe: 129 Siris: 213 smoking: see preservation soldiers: 203, 337 38 soul house: 124, 11. 95 squeezing: see mechanical technology 'Standard of Ur': 221 222 stelae: Count Indi: 110 W a h a n k h Intel‫ ־‬II: 110, n. 44 storage: Prehistory: 45, 65, 75, 78 79, 87; Egypt: 97' 104, 251 52; ancient Near East: 180 82. 190, 195-99, 251 52; Greece: 260-63, 265, 276-79, 425-26; Rome: 325 35, 426 underground storage: Prehistory: 45, 65, 75, 78 79, 87: Egypt: 79. 97, 99; ancient Near East: 180, 182 83; Greece: 262-63, 424; Rome: 325-27 aboveground storage: ancient Near East: 196 99 (beehive granaries) Greece: 262, 276 79 Sub-floor ventilation: 277, 279 Rome: 327 35 precedents: 328; 328, 11. 10; 334 raised floor: 327 29 military granary (horreum): 329 33, 426 timber: 330 stone: 3 3 1 - 3 3 civil granary: 333 35 sub-floor ventilation: 328 29, 4 2 5 - 2 6 granary models: see models grain preservation: grain storage in spikelet form: 262 pests: 103, 327; 327, 11. 7 amurca·. 327 29 large granaries: centralized in Egypt: 99 101, 104 05 centralized in ancient Near East: 192, 195 97 lacking in Attica: 278 Rome: 333 [Horrea Galbana, Horrea Agrippiana) Ostia: 333 llorrea Epagathiana, Grandi Horrea Karanis (Egypt): 335

subsistence strategies (prehistory) broad-spectrum diet: 53, 61; 61, 11. 79; 83 food sharing (= central-place-foraging): 25 hunting: 24 hunting-fishing-foraging: 27 multiple foraging: 27 refuging: 25 resource defense: 26 resource transport: 26 routed foraging: 25 scavenging: 24 25, 27, 81, 83 summarized: 83 84 sugar: see sweeteners sweeteners: dates: 241 42 honey and hives: Prehistory: 88; Egypt: 176 77 (honeycomb); ancient Near East: 240 42; Greece: 322; Rome: 417 19 sugar: 417 symposium: 222 (ancient Near East), 2 9 5 - 9 6 (Greece) tabun: see bread making tannur. see bread making τ α ρ ι χ ε ΐ α : see preservation τάριχος: see preservation technology: ancient, general: xxv-xxvi food technology: and bureaucracy: 249-50, 360, 362, 366-67 and development of writing: 108 10, 191-92 and efficiency: 245 46, 421 and nutrition: Prehistory: 70-73, 84; Egypt: 117, 140 41; 141, n. 144;'245; Rome: 409' 10 and rise of the state: 243 defined: xxv-xxviii distinguished from agriculture: xxvii distinguished from husbandry: xxvii in Greek 'Dark Ages': 275 stagnation: 424 unintended consequences: 71 73 technology transfer: Egypt: 142 43; Graeco-Roman: 263, 268, 271 72.'286 87, 289, 305-06, 315-16, 320-21, 336 37, 349 50, 384, 404, 4 2 1 - 2 2 temples: Seti I: 160 Sun Temple, at Xiuscrre, Abu Ghurab: 176-177, n. I l l tools and tool use: bow and arow: 64, 77, 97 digging sticks: 36, 64 Levallois technique: 18 microwear analysis: 52, 61 sickles: 61, 66, 80, 181 tool kits: Acheulian: 15, 85 86 blades: 35 36, 87 Mousterian: 18 Oldowan: 9, I I ; 14, 11. 23; 52, 85 86 ι ϋ ΰ | use: 9 10; 10. 11. 19; 49; 49, n. 39; 82, 85 tombs (Egypt : Akhethetep: 99, 11. 18 Amenemhct: 99, 11. 18; 101

GENERAL INDEX Amcnhotep II: 172 Antefoker: 99, n. 18; 101, 117, 120, 123, 136, 196 Asa: 99, n. 18; 121 Baqt III: 149, 153, 158, 160 Chnemhotep: 160 Hor-Aha: 173 Ipy: 173 Ken-amun: 117, 124, 127, 136, 145, 171 Kha: 172 Khacmwasct: 151 Khentika: 162 Khenty: 116, 120, 136 Khety: 101, 103 Meket-re: 103, 116, 125, 127, 134, 136, 168 69, 171, 173, 335 Mereruka: 151 Nakht (Deir cl-Bahri): 166 Nakht (Thebes): 151 Nefer and Ka-hay: 151, 157 58 Nefermat and Atet: 148 Nianchchnum and C h n u m h o t e p : 99, 11. 18; 120-21, 154, 157. 171 Pabesa: 176 Paheri: 99, n. 18; 101, 150 Petosiris: 153 Ptah-hotep: 100, 146, 154, 157, 175 Puyemrc: 157, n. 43; 169 Rameses III: 106, 120, 127, 171 Re'-em-kuy: 99, 11. 18; 115, 117, 121, 136, 175 Rckh-mi-re* : 151, 176 Scorpion I: 142 Tchuti-hetcp: 154. 11. 37 T e d : 110 Thutmoses III: 172 Ti: 100, 116, 118, 121, 175 T o m b 2105 (Saqqara): 100, n. 21 T o m b 3477 (Saqqara): xxiii; 172, n. 98; 174 T u t a n k h a m u n : 115, n. 57; 162 Unas-Ankh: 101, 196 Userhet: 151, 11. 31 torcularium: see mechanical technology Irapetum: see mechanical technology treading: see wine making trichinosis (in Egypt): 166; 166, 11. 73 Ubaid culture: 181 82 Ubaid Mosaic: 235 37 ΰπολήνιον: see wine making umami: 416 Umbricius Scaurus, Α.: 403 underflow décantation: 394 Villa of the Mysteries (Pompeii): 388; 391, n. 131 vinegar: see wine water mill: see milling whey: see dairy products wine making: Prehistory: 73; Egypt: 142 64; ancient Near East: 184 87, 219 26; Greece: 267 74, 294-301; Rome: 3 7 2 - 8 0 earliest evidence: 73, 184, 267 68 (on Crete), 3 7 3 - 7 4 (in western Mediterranean)

477

difficulty in distinguishing wine and oil processing installations: 164 65, 269 70; 270, 11. 24; 301, 372 73 processes (ancient : drying grapes: 297 treading: 149 54, 223-26, 246 47, 279 99, 302 03, 376 78, 430 31 vats: 150-54 ληνός: 270. 273, 299, 430 tacus vinarius: 376 receiving vessels: 270, 299 ιύπολήνιον singing: 151; 225, n. 92 pressing: see mechanical technology fermentation: see preservation tartaric acid: 73, 147, 184 aging: 300 01 blending: 162; 162, 11. 54 storage: 161 62; 162, n. 55; 184, 222, 273 74, 379 vinegar: 161. 273, 380 Mycoderma aceti: 161 transport containers: amphorae: 300 01, 379-80; 380, η. I 15 barrels (cupae): 377, 379 inside lining: 380; 380, 11. 115 j a r seals: 142, 161, 184, 380 Levantine wine jars: 142-44 processes (Biblical): '225 26 processes (modern): 146 48 types of wine: 144, 162 64, 220, 273, 295, ' 299 300, 378 Hittite wine: 219 21 color of wines: 147 48, 153. 163 64. 2 2 0 : 2 2 1 . II. 81; 299 300, 378 protropum: 376 77 vina operaria: 37(5 non-alcoholic grape drinks: defiutum: 376, 378 lorn: 378 mustum: 37678 de-re-u-ko: 273 possum: 376 sapa: 376 wine in daily life: beverage of the elite: 145 4 6 , 2 2 0 2 3 , 2 9 4 97, 374 commerce: 186 87, 221, 296-97, 379 80 psykter. 296 religion: 144 45, 220 23 Dionysus: 296 Ssm.w (Shcsmu): 143, 148-49, 165; 165, n. 66 wine in hieroglyphs: Crete: 268' Egypt: 146 women: Prehistory: 31, 65, 72, 83; ancient Near East: 194, 202-03, 213, 244; Egypt: 115, 124, 127, 129, 140; Greece: 265; 265, 11. 13; 281, 291, 293; 293, 11. 68; Rome: 349, 361 wort: see beer making Yale Culinary Texts: 193 94, 234

478 yeqeb: 225 26 Zenon: 321

GENERAI. INDEX Zimri-lim: 253 Zosimos: 133, 371

Plate 1. Limestone mortars and pestle from Site E-78-4, Wadi Kubbaniya, Egypt, dating ea. 18,500 16,500 B. P. Courtesy of Fred Wendorf and the Combined Prehistoric Expedition.

Plate 2. Milling stone with slab-shaped surface and disc-shaped handstone from Site E78-3 at Wadi Kubbaniya, Egypt, dating ca. 18,500 16,500 B. P. Courtesy of Fred Wendorf and the Combined Prehistoric Expedition.

Plate 3. Basalt mortar and pestle from the city m o u n d at Jericho. T h e pestle, dating to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period (8500-6000 B. C.), measures 11.3 cm. in height χ 7.3 cm. in diameter. Inv. No. 1955.123. T h e tripod-footed mortar, dating to the Early or Middle Bronze Age (3300-1550 B. C.), measures 7.3 cm. in height χ 18.3 cm. in width Inv. No. 1955.134. Both from the collection of the Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University, Jericho Excavations, 1952 1958.

Plate 4. Limestone model granaries from the Fifth-Dynasty T o m b of Ny-Kau-Inpu, at Giza. Average measurements of granaries are 12.4 cm. high, 6.4 cm. wide, 6.6 cm. long. T h e base measures 4.5 cm. high, 40.1 cm. wide, 18.0 cm. long. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Inv. No. O l M 10643.

Plate 5. Reed and rush sieve from Lisht, North Pyramid. Between the Twentieth and Twenty-second Dynasty. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1914. Inv. No. 15.3.1124.

Plate 6. Limestone servant statue of a w o m a n grinding grain on a saddle quern. From the Fifth-Dynasty T o m b of Ny-Kau-Inpu, Giza. Note the cloth covering her hair and the attempt to rest the left foot on top of the right one. Height, 27 cm.; width, 11.5 cm.; length, 38.7 cm. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Inv. No. O I M 10638.

Plate 7. Wooden model of bakery-brewery shop (with roof removed), from the TwelfthDynasty T o m b of Meket-re, at Thebes. Note the two women grinding grain on raised quern in background, and different shaped loaves of bread at lower right. Courtesy of T h e Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum Excavations, 1919-20; Rogers Fund supplemented by contribution of Edward S. Harkness. Inv. No. 20.3.12.

Plate 8. Triangular-shaped loaves of bread from an Eleventh-dynasty tomb at Thebes. Courtesy of T h e Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1925. Inv. No. 25.3.230-35.

Plate 9. Limestone statuette of the son of Ny-Kau-Inpu stoking fire to bake bread. From the Fifth-Dynasty T o m b of KyKau-Inpu at Giza. Figure measures 19.3 cm. high, 9.3 cm. wide, 9.4 cm. long; stack of bread molds: 10.0 cm. high, 7.7 cm. wide, 9.5 cm. long. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Inv. No. O I M 10634.

Plate 10. Limestone relief from Amarna, but found at Hermopolis M a g n a , showing scenes from the royal kitchens. Lower left, baking bread; upper left, brewing beer. Doorways separate the two activities. Late Eighteenth Dynasty, ca. 1350 B. C. It measures 21.5 cm. in height χ 54.0 cm. in width χ 3.7 cm. in depth. Courtesy of the Brooklyn M u s e u m of Art, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund. Accession No. 62.149.

Plate 11. Limestone servant statue of a brewer, from the mastaba tomb of Zasha at Giza. Dated to the Sixth Dynasty, ca. 2250 B. C. It measures 36.0 cm. in height, 12.4 cm. in width, and 20.8 cm. in depth. Courtesy of the Roemer and Pelizaeus Museum, Hildesheim.

Plate 12. Eleventh-Dynasty servant statues from Deir el-Bersheh showing five men brewing beer. Courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Inv. No. 1933.1446.

Plate 13. Sixth-Dynast)‫ ׳‬spouted beer vat of polished red clay, from Giza. Height: 31.5 in; Diameter: 38.0 in. Courtesy of T h e Metropolitan Museum of Art; received from T h e Boston Museum of Fine Arts in Exchange for Duplicate Material, 1937. Inv. No. 37.6.6.

Plate 14. Limestone stela of a Syrian soldier drinking beer through a sieve. Eighteenth Dynasty, Tell el-Amarna (?), ea. 1350 B. C. It measures 29.5 cm. in height χ 24.0 cm. in width. Courtesy of the Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, SMB, Berlin. Inv. Ν ϋ . 14122.

Plate 15. Terra-cotta wine jars from the Tomb of T u t a n k h a m u n . Courtesy of the Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

Plate 16. Wooden model of butcher shop (with roof removed), from the Twelfth-Dynasty T o m b of Meket-re, at Thebes. Note meat drying on the rack in the upper story at rear. Length: 76.0 cm.; Width: 58.0 cm.; Height at back: 45.5 cm; Height at front: 51.5 cm. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920. Inv. No. 20.3.10.

Plate. 17. Saddle quern and rubber, probably granite and smooth limestone, respectively, from Jericho. Dated to ca. 7lh millennium B. C. Courtesy of Lawrence Keppie and the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. Inv. No. 99-35-171-GA.

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Plate 18. Reverse side of Neo-Babylonian (sixth-fifth cent. B. C.) clay cuneiform tablet, recording terminology and ingredients of beer and steps in its brewing. Height: 5 1/8 111. width: 4 1/2 111. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Purchase 1886. Inv. No. 86.11.368.

Plate 19. Impression of a Sumerian quartz cylinder seal with banquet scene. Early Dynastic III (ca. 2600-2300 B. C.). Inv. No. LI 993.006.017. Courtesy of J o n a t h a n P. Rosen Collection, New York, New York. Item presently on loan to the Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.

Plate 20. Terra-cotta chest with lid decorated with five granaries. Found in tomb of wealthy woman on Areopagus in Athens. Dated to Geometric II, ca. 850 B. C. Note the holes at the base of each granary. Average height, 0.107 m.; depth, 0.077 m. Inv. No. P.27646 A+B. Courtesy of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, Agora Excavations.

Plate 21. Hopper-rubbers found in excavations at Olynthus. C o m p a r e the rectangular hoppers of Nos. 1-4, and 7 with the oval ones of Nos. 5 and 6. From Robinson and G r a h a m , The Hellenic House. Part VIII of Excavations at Olynthus Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1938), PI. 80.

Plate 22. Satyrs treading grapes to make wine. Side Β of an Attic black-figure amphora, ca. 5 4 0 - 5 3 0 B. C. It measures 0.43 m. in height χ 0.284 m. in diameter. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund. Inv. No. 01.8052.

Plate 23. T w o men processing olives on a lever-and-weight press. Attic black-figure skyphos, ca. 5 2 0 - 5 1 0 B. C. It measures 0.102 in. in height χ 0.153 m. in diameter. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund. Inv. No. 99525.

Plate 24. Circular stone oil press bed with spout, from Olynthus. From Robinson and G r a h a m , 7he Hellenic House. Part VIII of Excavations at Olynthus (Baltimore: J o h n s Hopkins University Press, 1938), PI. 83, 1.

Plate 25. Piece of salt-fish (salsamentum) found in the Punic Amphora Building at Corinth. Courtesy of American School of Classical Studies in Athens, Corinth Excavations.

Cil UONUM

Plate 26. Rotary handmill from the Roman fort at Chesters (not Corbridge as indicated), on Hadrian's Wall. Courtesy of English Heritage Photo Library. Inv. No. 530.

Plate 27. Pompeian bakery at Reg. VII.ii.22 (Casa dei Fornai), showing the oven (left) and four donkey-driven rotary grain mills made of basalt. Note the ancient repairs on the catillus of the first mill.

Plate 28. Funerary Relief of P. Nonius Zethus, from Ostia, showing left) a donkey mill of Pompeian type and (right) tools of the miller, such as fine and coarse sieves, modius, and measuring rod. Courtesy of the Direzione Generale Musei Vatican!.

Plate 29. Barbegal Water Mill. W a t e r from aqueduct entered from left, divided into two channels, and powered two series of eight mills erected on different levels descending the slope of the hill. Photograph by Antoine Chéné. Courtesy of C.N.R.S., Centre Camille Jullian.

Plate 30. Sarcophagus of L. Annius Octavius Valerianus. T o p register shows scenes (left to right) of ploughing the field and harvesting grain. Bottom register depicts (right to left) grain transported to the bakery in a cart drawn by two oxen. T w o men turn a rotary mill to grind the grain or else operate a kneading machine, in either case the sculptor has misrepresented the apparatus. A baker places dough into a domed oven (fiirnus) to bake into bread. Courtesy of Direzione Generale Musei Vatican!.

Plate 31. Kneading Machine from the bakery at Reg. VII.ii.22, in Pompeii. Note holes in the sides for the insertion of wooden rods, which served as "teeth" to assist in kneading the dough, and remnants of the metal piece used to secure the wooden vertical shaft. Photo courtesy of J o a n and Kevin fucker.

Plate 32. Fragment of a sculpted relief showing workers, nude below the waist, treading grapes in a long tub supported by legs on each end. A worker with a basket of grapes approaches from the right; on lower left a basket of grapes sits waiting to be emptied into the treading vat. Must pours through two lion-headed spouts into dolia, where it will ferment into wine. Inv. No. 10432. Courtesy of Direzione Generale Musei Vaticani.

Plate 33. Third-century A. D. R o m a n sculpted relief showing the reduction by boiling of mustum to make defrutum. Figure at right pours wine from an amphora into a dolium. Second figure goes to fill up his pitcher to transfer the mustum to a kettle, at left, placed over a fire and tended by a third figure. T h e fourth figure (background) carries firewood. Inv. No. 2212. Townley Collection. Courtesy of the British Museum.

Plate 34. R o m a n basalt rotary crushing basin, or trapetum, used to crush olives. Found in a villa at Boscoreale, now in Pompeii. T h e wooden cupae are modern. Author's photo.

Plate 35. Reconstructed wine/oil lever-and-drum press from the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii. Note the large posthole just below the ram's head that may have accommodated a screw mechanism. Author's photo.

Plate 36. Relief of butcher shop, from Ostia. Courtesy of the Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia. Inv. No. 133. Museo Ostiense.

Plate 37. Altar of Atimetus, side view. T w o men stand beside a cabinet tilled with variously shaped knives and cleavers being offered for sale. Courtesy of the Direzione Generale Musei Vaticani.

Plate 38. Cheesepress from Balmuildy Fort on the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Dated ca. A. 1). 142 165. It measures ca. 150 mm. in diameter. Courtesy of Lawrence Keppie and the H untenan Museum, University of Glasgow. Inv. No. 99-35-1 71-5A.

Plate 39. Late fourth-century A. I), fish-salting vats at Santa Pola, in Hispania Tarraconensis. Courtesy of Benedict Lowe.