Aerospace Food Technology

December 31, 2017 | Author: Bob Andrepont | Category: Project Gemini, Apollo Program, Nasa, Flight, Space Exploration
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NASA book on space food....

Description

NASA

AEROSPACE FOOD

TECHNOLOGY

A conference



held

at

i

g

SP-202

NASA

SP-202

AEROSPACE FOOD

TECHNOLOGY

J

I

The |

principal

Aeronautics Sciences

!

South

at Florida

addresses and

Space

the

Center

at

a conference

cosponsored

by

Administration

and

the

National

for Continuing

Education

of the

in St. Petersburg,

Florida,

April

15-17,

the

National

Academy University

of of

1969.

Z =

B

! |

B m

a

z :z m m

g

m m

m

m 1 m

3

Scientific OFFICE

and Technical Information Division OF TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION

NATIONAL

AERONAUTICS

AND

SPACE

1970 ADMINISTRATION Washington,

D.C.

For

sale

Springfield,

by

the Virginia

Clearinghouse 22151

for -

Price

Federal $3.00

Scientific

Library

and

of Congress

Technical Catalog

Information No.

74"602069

FOREWORD

In my introductory lems

held

at the

in any alien physical space

remarks

University

of South

environment

for a long

and psychological. program

However,

still

with

us today.

not resolved.

strides

will

It is gratifying vances

can be eaten

ness

it can easily

be eaten

ance

of unnatural

or unfamiliar

role

in the

the NASA into

organization research

special

future to solve

reassess the

areas

the current

problems

to the

publication

that

"the

as well

as other

maintain

subjected been

made

major

of man

1965,

both in the

are,

manned

in most

and well-being

stresses

since

Prob-

accomplishments.

in 1964 the health

to the made

support

problems,

has been

we discussed

Waste

of space

en-

and with

proper

future. have been

with

manner

presented

during

is the tendency

toward

a spoon

under

will facilitate

the

or fork.

conditions

this use

If food has

meeting

enough

of weightlessness.

elimination

of ad-

of natural

cohesiveThe

of the psychological

foods

stress

avoidthat

a diet. on Space

Nutrition

of the in this

in nutrition. such

The

of plans the astronaut

not possible of the papers

Space

Science

conference,

panel

as acceptability

status

of feeding

it was

I noted

progress

that

have

and Related

of multitudinous

that will

advances

i.e.,

of and participation program

problem

Although forward

the Panel

landing

missions

reports

in a conventional

the use of such

much

One advance

manner,

foods

years

he is being

in the near

feeding.

in a conventional

Although

while

that several

in space

that

accompanies

mission

R is true that

to note

and new concepts

solution

a diet

in Space

in 1964,

on the

lunar

manned

way to provide

be made

Fla.,

intervening

a manned

The

vironment

great

the

on Nutrition

Tampa, depends

of longer

on a long space

research

period

witnessed

problems

of a crewmember is still

Florida,

" During

and we have

the nutrition

instances,

to the Conference

has

it has

reviewed

and palatability

for space on long

for the panel presented

diets

has

played

long followed

the work of diets.

and help

space

only a minor with

underway The panel

identify

the

keen

and also will

research

interest looked

in the near most

likely

missions.

to participate at this

Board

in the

opening

session,

we look

conference.

C.O. CHICHESTER Chairman, Space Nutrition Panel of the Space Science Board National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council

°..

111

CONTENTS Page

WELCOME

......................................................

John

S.

Allen

xi

INTRODUCTION

..................................................

Walton

L.

Jones

SESSIONI SPACECRAFT

Chairman:

THE

APOLLO

FOOD

Malcolm MANNED

L.

.......................................

Robert

L.

FEEDING

SYSTEMS

REQUIREMENTS

........... 21

IMPROVING

MANNED

ORBITING

LABORATORY

FOOD

..........

Flentge OF

E.

31

SPACE

FEEDING

SYSTEMS

..............................

Vanderveen

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MANNED

Frederick SYSTEMS

LABORATORY

AND

EVALUATION

F.

G.

CONCEPTS

FOR

LABORATORY

THE

FEEDING

SYSTEM

FOR

37

THE

................................

Doppelt OF

43 MANNED

ORBITING

LABORATORY

FEEDING

Roth

APPLICATIONS C.

NEW

ORBITING

ANALYSIS

Norman

Paul

Humphreys

Welbourn

QUANTIFYING

APOLLO

W.

15

ORBITING

USAF

J.

Smith

Jerry

J.

PROGRAM

PROGRAM

Rambaut

SYSTEM

....... 57

PROGRAM

REQUIREMENTS

........................

SESSIONII SPECIAL

PROGRAMS

Chairman:

Frank

B. Vorls Pag e

OPERATIONAL

EXPERIENCE

J. D.

FOOD

SERVICE

ON

NUCLEAR

SUBMARINES

..........

63

Bloom

PSYCHOLOGICAL SUBMARINE

EFFECTS PERSONNEL

OF

SUBSTANTIAL

AND

APPETIZING

MENUS

FOR 65

Charles TEKTITE R.

F.

I FOOD W.

FOOD

Gell DEVELOPMENTS

.....................................

73

Scarlata

PLANS

FOR

Louella

C.

SEALAB

HI

ADVANTAGES,

PROBLEMS,

Edward

........................................

79

Peterson AND

EXPERIENCES

WITH

IRRADIATED

FOODS

........

87

S. Josephson

SESSIONIll AIRLINE

EXPERIENCE

Chairman:

AIRLINE

VERSUS

Paul A. PAN

JAPAN

Treuchel

FEEDING

.....................................

AIRWAYS:

PRESENT

105

Buck

AMERICAN J. P.

SPACE

R.

WORLD

AND

FUTURE

PLANS

..............

109

Treadwell

AIR

LINES:

Toshimitsu

PRESENT

AND

FUTURE

PLANS

.........................

112

Ikegami

SESSIONIV FOOD

Chairman:

FOOD

DEVELOPMENT Robert

MEAT-TYPE R. vl

L.

M.

AND

EXPERIENCES

TECHNOLOGY

Herbert

Shepler

...............................

117

Weiss FOOD

Pavey

DEVELOPMENT

AND

EXPERIENCES

......................

121

SESSIONIV

(CONTINUED) Page

GENERAL FOOD

FOODS

PRODUCT

PROBLEMS Ben

F.

DEVELOPMENT

AS RELATED

TO

AEROSPACE

125

.................................................

Buchanan

SESSIONV LONG

MISSION

DURATION

PROGRAMS

Leo

Chairman:

Fox

133 FOOD

SYNTHESIS Jacob

BY

pHysiCOCHEMICAL

METHODS

.........................

Shaplra

BIOLOGICAL

141

FOODS

Doris

Howes

...............................................

Calloway 145

LONG-TERM

SPACE

Clayton U.S.

S.

ARMY

REQUIREMENTS

.............................

Huber

FOOD

Herbert

MISSION

A.

151

R&D

PROGRAM

......................................

Hollender

SESSIONVI

EQUIPMENT/SYSTEM

Chairman:

INTEGRATORS

Joseph

N.

Pecoraro

169 WERNER

SELL

Werner

EQUIPMENT

DEVELOPMENT

..............................

Sell 171

AIRBORNE

MICROWAVE

Calvin

Hagberg

OVEN

and

David

DEVELOPMENT

............................

Graft 175

DESIGN

COI_SIDERATIONS

William

FOR

MICROWAVE

HEATING

OF

SPACE

FOOD

...........

Stone 177

INTEGRAL

HEATING

John

M.

Mahlun

747

LOWER

EQUIPMENT

DEVELOPMENT

..........................

183 BOEING C.

V.

LOBE

GALLEY

SYSTEM

INTEGRATION

....................

Lindow

vii

SESSIONVl (CONTINUED) Page FOOD

SYSTEM

L.

W.

CLOSING Walton

viii

INTEGRATION

RESPONSIBILITIES

OF AIRFRAME

MANUFACTURERS...

193

King REMARKS L.

Jones

.................................................

203

WELCOME

The Technology National

University

Conference Academy

one in 1969,

through

the

focus

NASA

Space

! am advanced

a review

confident food

that research

years

Flight

Program.

conference technology

and

from

the

utilization It is therefore

experience

of the spectrum

honored

Aeronautics

intervening

of nutritional

and

again

space-food

operational

this

is once

by the National

of practical

of improvement From

unique

a wealth

Manned

Florida

In the

of the accumulated

on the problems

ference,

sponsored

of Sciences.

present

the

of South

and

aspects and depth report

advanced for

future

to be the host Space first

will provide

Administration conference

experience fitting

in 1964

has

been

technology

papers

a valuable

accumulated to bring to bear

missions. presented

springboard

at this for

con-

new and

studies.

dOHN S. ALLEN President University of

z

to the

development

space

Food

and the

and appropriate

manned

of the technical

of a Space

South

Florida

INTRODUCTION

There

have

been

decades.

Any housewife

with very

little

referred

were

effort,

offer

which

swimming

and trout by our

from

direct

from

Other

areas

of progress

are equally

step

forward like

made

and use

at this time

in the rapid

in NASA are as concerned with airline

representatives

atmosphere

and in space.

preparation

We have it to be quite

good,

recent

program.

First,

needs

of this program

of course, are being

for in-flight

adequately

feeding

bite-sized

foods

have

which

eaten

with a spoon was

was

zero-G

conditions

in-flight

feeding

and was program

In general, the type

of food being

and dispensed. tolerable

generally

SPACE

of this

in these

provided.

This

by the astronauts

is made

possible

many of our

airlines

are

technique

represents

a

in the pro-

for the

advances

Inasmuch

as we

to working

in food preparation

closely

both

of food technology

in the

however, proved

and found

to the needs

program.

of our

It appears

of any nutritional

Freeze-dehydrated,

involved

later

of food.

technology

is no evidence

one attempt

of Florida,

PROGRAM

of the Apollo

missions;

now

earlier

groves

I look forward

in the development

There

citrus

be

of course,

This

improvements

to be successful.

used

considered

that the

problem

rehydratable,

in one instance

and

a moist

to be successful

even

to be one of the highlights

food

under of the

to date.

astronauts provided.

However,

on a mission

seem

been

met.

the

24 hours

and its suppliers

activities,

the applicability

of our country,

be discussed

volumes

several

that may rightfully

which

from

will

industry of large

are the requirements

foods

bill of fare,

topic

AND THE

progress

so let us now examine

space

and techniques

surveyed

airline

for additional

TECHNOLOGY

fresh

in the last

any day of the year,

in the center

ovens.

this

as with space

as we strive

briefly

microwave

the

many

For instance,

and dispensing

with aeronautics

FOOD

noteworthy.

a meal

lobsters

fruit This

Although

to compliment

those

vineyards,

states.

of airborne

in food preparation.

contains

of Maine,

northwest

system.

in the development

have

coast

of food technology

to serve

even

and French

transportation

significant

I would

of the

and which

restaurants,

off the

field

It now is possible

air

pioneering

they

Our better

the lakes

in the general

nourishing

both American

in the cold waters

excellent

gram,

to this.

is quite

fare.

wines

strides

can attest

to as gourmet

regularly

remarkable

have They

a system

lasting

accepted

the techniques

recognized

that is perfectly

a number

now being

used

the constraints

under

tolerable

on a 2-week

for in-flight

which

food must

mission

feeding

and

be stored

may be quite

in-

of months. xi

In a recent men

were

kept

test

of life-support

in a closed

cabin

oxygen

for

60 days.

and water

systems,

to test

closed-loop

ability

of astronaut-type

quality

as well

as the appearance

change

in type

of food had a noticeably

As a final directly

from

food

over

comment

at the University

of South

Florida:

are

people

be made;

many

pathway

of investigation.

parallel

fashion

to make

any choice.

remarks

have

in some

measure

power

was

of 184 lb. the other

first

they

hand,

determined booster

By 1958

placed

that, power

Saturn

was

a pacing

at tremendous

possibly

the most

the part

of the individuals

handled

in proper

cost,

as was

the human-oriented technology. may

be no faster

once

than

basis,

goals

establishing be stated.

and development be as easily

our progress

quirements

xii

requirements as were

of an appropriate

of food program

for booster

research

in a time

that

these

time,

goals program

a payload

States,

9,

booster

and

on

It wa,_ quickly

November over

missions

of space,

1967,

when

power

was

( I consider personal

of payload

that

the

no longer

critical

food,

may

lunar

exploration

this

the

to be

dedication weight

on

can be

as directly

problems

are

represent

likely

on to be

a pacing

and interplanetary

flight

food technology. technology,

it is essential

in this

decade

goals

focus

in fact,

First,

should

I with

booster

in the exploration

the question

to be a pacing

but must

1958.

repre-

of NASA,

The United

tremendous

of advanced

The

which

variables.

extended

?

area days

lb.

in facilities, with

PROGRAM

Sputnik

31,

until

mission

landing power.

of 2926

prevailed

of providing

to a lunar

previous

first

other

orbited

The triumph

the problems

research

but I do feel

TECHNOLOGY

progress

investment

toward

with

at the present

Russian

Now it appears

the providing

Our commitment

achieved

case.

to

a multiple

the knowledge

on January

long-duration

The problem

an appropriate

situation

for the with

our progress

If we now consider for

the

have

be investigated

1964,

here

of how we will

we have

In the early

a payload

of the program)

Now,

to quote

must

the Russians

successfully.

concerning

problems.

On this

This

in concert

questions

1957,

a tremendous

involved.

idea

provision

a technological

program.

or to exceed

characteristic

perspective

to denote

into orbit

launched

with

important

The important technology

was

longer

like

conference

no clear-cut

since

the

A periodic

I would

and thus

FOOD

of 31 lb into orbit

technology.

rocket

4,

to match

that

passes.

at a 1964

methods

made

predict,

subjects.

program,

become

do we have

technology"

to place

as time

of the

we have

these

has been

of a particular

payload

attempts

achieved

rocket

able

an initial

in our

V booster

"pacing

into the palat-

as one would

was

today.

On October

were

nor

insight

the problem

to be that

progress

afforded

Chichester,

IN AN ADVANCED

in the progress

technology.

for solving

the criteria

experiment

space-food

it appears

four

of this

morale

C.O.

Co.,

purpose

important

on the

in our

McDonnell-Douglas

found,

As the flights

appropriate

the term

a pacing

It was

Dr.

seems

REQUIREMENTS

factor

art

flights.

that

also

increasingly

moment

suggested

remain

In NASA we use a limiting

been

I recognize

RESEARCH

sents

space

we do not have "

experiment

effect

of the

"At the

by the

the primary

period.

positive

The consensus

since

the

of the chairmen,

for long

methods

Although

an extended

on the state remarks

to feed

conducted

of food becomes

closing

going

the

components

what that

in essence

be considered.

the

implications

long-range dictates

for a food technology

be delineated

are

nonetheless. The level

research the research

program Second, of requisite

will

not

the refunding,

thenecessaryfacilities, andtherequiredpersonnelshouldbedefined. In brief, a level of effort mustbe describedwhichis appropriatefor theachievement of theresearchgoals. Thisprocedure is preciselythatof the SaturnV programwhichledto the development of suchfacilities as Michoud Operations. Inworkingtowardtheprescribedgoalsof anadvanced foodtechnology program,it will be necessaryto makecertainadjustmentsin our philosophyof research. Oneimportantchangewill involvegreatlyincreasedattentionto the socio-psychologieal variablesrelatedto foodintake. I am sureeveryonein attendance todayrecognizesthatoverlongperiodsof time thesevariablescould becomeof greaterimportancethantheactualnutritionalstructttreof thefood. RESEARCH BENEFITS Nowlet us assessthebenefitswhichwill accruefrom a concertedprogramto advancethe technology of foodprovisioning. Thefirst benefitis obvious. NASAwill beableto providesustenancefor astronautsonlong-durationmissionswhichwill domuchto ensurethattheyreturn in a healthyconditionandin goodspirits. Thisis no meanfeatandis onewhichJustifiesanextensive researchanddevelopment program. Anotherbenefitwouldbeassistancein thefield of advanced technology for airline feeding. As a third benefit,therewill bea direct economicreturnto our nation. Newfoodprocessingtechniques will createadditionalemployment opportunities.Twoof thelater sessionsin this conference will touchonthis topic. Thecreationof newindustriesis an importanteconomicresult of technological advances. Finally, therewill be a direct personalbenefitto theworld, andthis maywell bethe most importantconsequence of extended researchin foodprocessing.In a recentpaper,Dr. Wernher yonBraunstatedthat"Wemustadopta morehard-headed attitudeandconsidernot onlywhethera spaceprojectis technologicallypossible,butwhetherit haspromiseof contributingto the economy or the strengthof thecountry." Thecontributionof our foodprocessingresearchshouldbe significant. In 1955thearablelandper personin theworld wasgenerallyagreedto beabout1-1/4acre. By theyear 2000AD it is estimatedthatthis acreagewill decreaseto a little morethan1/2 acre per person. This trendis causingconsiderable concernamongworld leaders. Inasmuch as foodproductivityis notevenlydistributedovertheworld, thepossibilitiesof seriousfaminein certainareas is quitereal withinthe foreseeable future. Anyincreasein our understanding of waysto produce, prepare,store, anddistributefoodwill beof tremendous importancefor all nations. I haveattemptedto stressthedirect importanceof this conference to NASAandto longdurationspacemissionsunderconsiderationfor thefuture. At the moment,weconsidertheareaof foodpreparationandin-flight feedingto bea pacingtechnology for futuremannedspaceflight. We alsorecognizethat, in solvIngtheproblemsin this field, youwhoare heretodaywill makea contributionnotonlyto NASAandtheairlines butalsoto theeconomyof the UnitedStatesandultimately tothe well-beingof all nations. ,

WALTON L. JONES Director, Biotechnology and Human Research _Oivision NASA Office of Advanced Research and Technology xiii

SESSIONI

SPACECRAFT

CHAIRMAN:

J.W.

Director, NASA

Office

PROGRAM

Space of

Manned

HUMPHREYS

Medicine Spaceflight

The present

conference

Administration, Florida.

the

crews,

today

and we address

in order

is evident

history

Despite

some

I am not perturbed

and fly only unmanned

A man

traveling

sire

to explore

onment

and that

effectively

operate

provision

a detailed

there

this

in Apollo,

of Apollo

7,

7),

though Wally

they

traded

all.

Certain

mind

Apollo

9.

this the

The problem that

we have

stated

were

liked

said

it so much,

I think

viding

they

that they

except

seems

is provided.

of a diet, to consist It must

made

they

and that

14 days

appraisal

of nutritional

of finding

and I think

for flights

and,

reactions

60,

or

in Apollo that

did not eat at the

so-called

(Borman, in Gemini

and

occurred

in

method

90 days'

the crews

in addition,

crews

any good,

requirements,

we know the

up to 20,

a way to influence

palatable,

they

the crew

for

The

(or was

but the astronauts

had flown

I sus-

is understandable.

it wasn't

Similar

at least

we have.

that

it in Apollo.

standard,

and

the food.

food

8 by giving

not present

encountered

Gemini

packages,

for the potatoes;

that

and this

as the

disposal.

I shall

with

envir-

and he needs

and waste

strange

in Apollo

good

be made

his duties,

We have

this.

he can

In Mercury

so new.

vociferously

all the

did mind

a reasonably

same

so to

His de-

that

to all of you,

the food,

rather

even though

is not yet a permanent

essentials

the

sampled

improvements

and Anders)

didn't

perhaps

essentially

about

down,"

a machine

comments.

was

continue

a habitable

or dissatisfaction

project

space

will not tolerate

water,

it is not particularly

and his crew

which

problems

food was

they

brief

will

needs

performing

known

man

discom-

a few necessities. Man

as food,

is well

the entire

complained

that

such

great

"put man

He needs

while

following

9 have

around,

"wetpack," Lovell,

their

the

and I think

8, and

Shirra

in space

no great

because

problems

Even

of food

really

true

destination of life

but rather

were

was

his

man

man

with

with the

endure

I think

I think

is with

standpoint.

we should

because

Space

of South

concern

can and will views,

factors.

and

directly

that

his motivation.

many

necessities

account,

Gemini

a great

the history

man

only to be provided

furnishes

to reach

for certain

Since

pect

involves

from

who say

operations,

needs

and to learn

We work

opposite

by those

my primary

future.

that

Aeronautics

and the University

for NASA,

to the program

from

speak,

National

of Sciences,

Medicine

ourselves

in space

by the

and in the near

to explore.

to explore.

Academy

of Space

in space

It certainly fort

National

As Director

as he works

is sponsored

although of produration.

to eat the food

worthwhile.

Thepresentmethodof spacefeedingseemsto besatisfactoryfor thenearfuture; at least it will sustainlife. I believe,however,thatwe shallnotbelimited to compressedfood, dehydrated food, etc. forever. Weshallcertainlybeusinglarger volumes of foodin thefuture. Thereis alwaysthepossibilityof assemblingspacecraftfor long voyagesoff the Earth, in orbit, or evenfarther awayandonthesevoyagestherewill alsobedifferentenvironments.Cookingwith anelectric stovetodayis impossiblebecauseof thegaseousenvironment of the spacecraft,butthatmaynotalwaysbethe case. ZeroGmayor maynotbe continued,andI suspectthatin the longrun it will not. Thesedifferentenvironments will giveus opportunitiesto usetechniques differentfrom thoseemployed today. Weshall still havea preparationproblem,but I believethatthe preparationtime previouslycriticized by thecrewswill notbe soimportantas the crew numbersbecomelarger andthevoyagesbecomelonger. TheApollocrewsare very busy,butI believethatthis is onlytemporary. Certainly, whencrewsreacha large size, food-servicepeoplewill berequired. We shall still have,however,a foodpreparationproblem,andwe shallstill havea storage problemor a productionproblem. I think it is essentialthatwegainthe attentionof theentire community- academic,industrial, andgovernmental - andkeepattention focusedonthis mundane subjectof feeding. Development of subsystems involving food, water, andwastemanagement hasnotkeptpacewithbuildingofboostersand othersophisticated systems. Wemustdemandadequate attentionto timsesubsystems. TheApolloApplicationsProgram(AAP)embodies anentirely newconcept.It is thebeginning,the embryonicmoveor step,towardtrue understanding of manand his reactionsin space. In Mercury, the objectivewasto projectmanintospace andreturn him safely. In Gemini,it wasto determinewhethermancouldmaneuver andwork in space. Apollohashadonlytheobjectiveof flyingmanto theMoonand bringinghimbacksafelywith somelunar samples. Wehavenot yethadanopportunityto beginto studymanin flight, butthewholeAAPprogramis thebeginning of a newera - one,if youlike, of orbitinglaboratoriesor orbitingobservatories. It will bemuchmoredifficult andmuchmorecomplexto producea feedingsystem whichanswersthe requirementsof experimentalprotocolsandalsois compatible with the spacecraftenvironment andis withinthe stateof theart. Certaintradeoffswill benecessary.Thereare a greatmanymedical,biological, andbehavioralcomponents involvedin theAAP, habitabilitybeingoneof them. Wewantto knowthefactorsthatcanmakeman'slife a little morepleasant andmakemanmoreeffectivein the spaceenvironment.Upto now,hefiguratively hasbeenflying aroundin the rumbleseatof a ModelT Ford (a ModelA in Apollo), but thetime to improvehis situationhascome. Wecannotdothis logicallyuntil weunderstand moreabouthim andhis reactions. I wouldlike to restressthe pointthatthefoodsystemis not a systemthatcan beconsideredalone. For example,the foodsystemhasa very closeinterface,and

is dependent to a large extent,uponthewatersystem. In Apollo, wehavefuel cells whichproducewaterandanexcessof hydrogen gas;asa result, wehavehada large amountof gascomingoutof thewatergun. In Apollo9, thewatergunproducedabout60 percentgasand40percentwater, whichmeantthatthecrewfilled their foodbagwithgas. Whentheybegantohydratetheir foodtheyencountered a great manybubbles,andtheyswungtheir bagsaroundin orderto try to eliminatesome bubbles. This methoddidnotworkat all well - theresult waslargegasbubblesin placeof smallones. Thisis onlyoneof themanyproblemsencountered.If onesystemis notfunctioningproperly, anotheronecannot;thereis notquitea dominoeffect, but almost. Thewastemanagement systemis alsoa very importantone. Thecrewmendo notwantto defecatebecause theyhatetousethehand-heldstraddletrenchweare supplying,andI donotblamethem. This straddletrenchis a bagwitha stickyrim ontop, andit is difficult to placeit correctly. Themenare loathto usethe system,anduntil thesystemis improvedtheyaregoingto continueto beloathto useit. Wehopea bettersystemwill beonboardin theMOL, theAAP, andother futureflights. Oneitem whichhasnotbeenwidelymentioned is thatin our systemthefood disciplineof thecrewmembers hasbeenpoor. I havesaidthis to them,so I will say it in public: Foodandwaterdisciplineis something thatsoldierslearn early or they donot survive. Thespacecrewshavenotbeenvery disciplinedabouttheir eatingtheyhavepicked,traded, anddoneas theypleased. Thatis permissibleif noscientific metabolicinformationis to beobtainedbutfooddisciplinemustbeenforcedin flight if weare to determinewhethera systemis goodandhowit shouldbechanged. It is particularlyimportantin thoseflights in whichwehaveexperimentalprotocols that_mustbecompliedwith. Muchhasbeensaidaboutdisposalofthewastes- thebags,theexcessfood, etc. Onflights in whichweneedto knowtheweightof remainingfood, it is importantthatnothingbediscarded. Asyouwell know,so far wehavedesignedall spacecraft andsystemssothattheywill returnto Eartheverythingnotconsumed in space, withtheexceptionofurine dropletsor a little wastewater. I questionwhetherit is the intentof thespacetreatythatwebeforcedto returnto Earthall the trashaccumulatingonspacevoyages,andthepointis currentlyunderinvestigation.Wehave enough trash onEarth;wouldn'tit beniceto discardsomeof it somewhere else7

J.

4

W.

Humphreys

THE APOLLO

The Cooper

orbital

gram,

engineers

contained

no pathogens,

constitute

with under

complete

the

planners

that

gained

began

circumstances.

Any

and in-flight

solid

handling

led to

to the

foods

which

then

acceptability,

and and

Gemini

pro-

and packages

high energy,

which

and stable in zero

atmospheres,

systems

and

and digest

be consumed

oxygen

in the system

of food,

Prior

could

and

Schirra,

consume

and formulate

vibration,

and Gemini

faults

of the definitions

could

low residue,

packaging

The Apollo

Carpenter,

and components.

launch

vacuum

man

to design

Center

Spacecraft

Glenn,

indeed

low volume,

withstood

or saliva.

Manned

in food packaging

in earnest

lightweight,

SMITH

of astronauts

food systems

withstood

understanding

NASA

and Apollo

which

water

MALCOLM

The experience

nutritious,

temperatures,

flights

system

and biologists

spacecraft

possible

Program

of the Gemini

acceptable,

I I

PROGRAM

for food

food in space.

the evolution

were

Mercury

demonstrated

and liquid

FOOD

gravity,

and would

evolved

were

at

re-

the best

now can be attributed nutrition

as they

to in-

apply

to

spaceflight. The vironment,

foods

and ground-based

metabolic

requirements

cisely.

Food

Volunteers

ate

in-flight

all this,

gone

wrong?

in our

lack

of complete

are

a familiar

is built

A "good"

spacecraft

around

good

flavor

of nutrients

foods

and

Program.

that

metabolic

Apollo

may food

were

with

be bigger, system

and satisfy

foods and stowed

successfully.

obvious

that

lost a part

of eating.

weight.

What

of the problem

Man and his eating

food presented

to the consumer and safer

is one which

meets

system

requirements

hunger,

are

in the particular

and dehydrated

designed packaged,

versatile

balance

basically

accuracy.

more

diversion,

was

specially

and invariably

faster,

pre-

microscopic

produced,

good

estimated

or psychological

completed

become

en-

and calculated with

of these

foods

provide

food system

The compressed

begins

exceed

physiological

of the psyehophysiology

stimulate that

balanced

did not eat, it has

nutrition

spacecraft

texture,

to maintain The initial

Gemini

hindsight,

manner.

without

spacecraft,

provided

measured

and missions

the astronauts

understanding

A "good"

and

The flight

launched

Good

were

with a variety

menus.

changed.

one.

rations

controlled

provided

of the

The nutrients

of up to 56 days

20-20

requirements

subjects.

were

were

With

physical

Daily

not easily

the previous

a familiar

test

however,

have

habits

were

their

Spacecraft

Despite

lies

for periods

astronauts

to select

on the spacecraft.

could

human

exceed

and dimensions

the food The

which

often

of the astronaut.

weights

aberrations. from

and packages

that

relaxation,

readily

security,

prepared,

than but

that

and adequate

in

have

quantities

environment.

the same ready-to-eat

as

that cube

which

was

provided

foods

included

meat,

for the fruit,

dessert, andbreadtypes. Theuniformshape,highcaloric density,andvarietyof flavorsmade thefoodideallysuitedfor theengineeringrequirementsof spaceflight. Dehydrated fruits, beverages,salads,desserts,meats,andsoupswhichrequiredwaterfor rehydrationprior to consumptionwereavailable. These"rehydratables"werepackaged in a speciallydesignedlaminated plasticbagwhichhada valvefor waterinsertionat oneendanda tubeor zero-Gfeederat theother endthroughwhichthefoodscouldbeconsumed.The3/4-in. diameterof this feedertuberestricted the maximumfoodparticle sizeto1/8by 1/4in. A processto simulatea morenaturalmeattexture hadresultedin a significantimprovementin flavor compared with thatof theearly Geminiproducts. Packagesof thesefoodswerearrangedin mealunitsbaseduponnutrientbalanceandastronaut selection. Eachmealwasoverwrapped in analuminum-foil-plasticlaminatewhichalsoservedas a garbagebagfor in-flight stowageof usedfoodpackages after eachmeal.Thediet wasdesigned to provideeachastronautin thecommand modulewith his estimatedenergyrequirementsof 2800 Kcal/day,16to 17percentprotein, 30to 32percentfat, and50to 54percentcarbohydrate. Certainfoodswerefortified with calciumlactatetoprovidea daily calciumintakeof 1000gm anda calcium-to-phosphorus ratio ofapproximately2 to 1. This approachtofoodmanagement hadbeensuccessfulonthe14-dayflight of Gemini7 andhadbeenverified bynumerousground-based altitude-chamber studiesconducted by theUSAF andNASA. A numberof deficiencieswereapparentin thebaselineApollofoodsystemand development effortsto improveindividualrationcomponents for theApolloApplicationsProgram werebeingsponsored by NASAat the U.S. Army NatickLaboratories. Theadvances in foods andfoodsystemswhichwerebeingrealizedas a result of the USAFMannedOrbitingLaboratory (MOL)Programwereavailableto NASA. Theseprogramscontinuetobecloselycoordinated for themutualbenefitofbothagencies. At thetime of thefire whichresultedin thelossof theApolloI crewandspacecraft, thefoodsystemmetall of theengineeringconstraintsof themissionwhile providingadequate nutrients. Most"creaturecomforts"suchas improvedfoodsandpackaging,however,were relegatedto thelongerdurationflights (28and56days)of theApolloApplicationsProgram. As a result of the spacecraftfire in January1967,eachspacecraftsystem,subsystem,andcomponentreceivedthoroughreevaluationandanalysisto identifyandreducethehazardsof flammablematerials. Sincenonflammable foodsare animpossibility,our attentionwasdirected towardfindinga packagingmaterialwhichwouldnot supportcombustion in a pureoxygenenvironment. At this pointin time, responsibilityfor design,procurement,andspacecraftintegration of flight foodswastransferredto the MedicalDirectorateatthe MannedSpacecraftCenter. Prior to this, our onlyresponsibilityin aerospace foodsystemsbadbeenin foodandnutritionresearch with rather tenuouscontrolof theactualflight item. Extensivechanges in thetypesof foodandpackaging will beimplemented in anorderly mannerfor the forthcomingApolloflights. Thesechanges are necessarybecause:(1) In-flight foodconsumption is inadequate to maintainmetabolicbalance(negativeenergy,lossof tissuefluid, andelectrolytes); (2) mealpreparationandconsumption requirestoomuchtime andeffort; (3) waterfor reconstitutionof dehydrated foodsis off flavorandcontainslargequantitiesof

undissolvedhydrogenandoxygengas; (4) functionalfailures occurin rehydratablefoodpackages; (5) a systemof foodsandpackagingwhichis morefamiliar in appearance, flavor, andmethodof consumption is needed,and(6)in-flight illnessandanorexiamustbereduced. Thedemands for improvementhavenotemanated from theastronautswith quitethe strengththatthenewsmediawouldleadonetobelieve. In fact, thedemands havecomefrom ourselvesandtheprogrammanagersoncewerealizedthatanimprovement waspossibIethatwould result in a crewthatwouldeatmoreduringthe missionandmaintaina higherlevel of morale. Theimprovedfoodsandpackaging whichhavebeenintegratedinto theApollofoodsystemare not newto us or therest of theconsumerandscientificcommunity.For instance,the first real breakthroughoccurredwith themostmundane andseeminglysimpleprocedurethatthe Apollo8 crewperformedonChristmasDayduringman'sfirst successfullunarorbital mission. Borman, Lovell, andAndersopened a thermostabilized flexiblecanof turkeychunksandgravyandate with a spoon! Thedishrequirednowaterfor rehydrationsincethenormalwatercontent(67-percent by weight)hadbeenretained. This crewhadexperienced considerable problemswith nauseaand vomiting,a water supplywith excessivegasandobjectionable flavor, andanexcitingmissionof critical spacecraftmaneuversto escapethepull of Earthgravityandachievelunar orbit. They wereabout250000milesfrom homeonChristmasDayandfacedthepossibilityof beingunable to escapethepull of the lunargravity andthepossibilityof reenteringtheEarthVsatmosphere at ananglethatwoulddeflectthembackinto Earthorbit with nochanceof reentrybeforefuel or oxygensupplieswereexhausted. Themealwasquitea moralebooster. Duringthepreflight menuselectionperiod, the crewhadspecificallystatedtheydidnotwantto havethewetpackontheir mission. This was probablya result of their desireto preventunrealisticdemands onthe systemandpersonnel supportingtheir mission. TheChristmasdinnerof theApollo8 missionwasin onesensea last-minuteaffair; i. e., actualplanningof thecomponents didnot start until 3 monthsprior to flight, but, in truth, developmenthadstartedseveralyearsbeforefor NASAandmilitary rationuse. Thewetpack turkeyandgravywasa heat-sterilizedproductin a flexiblepackage.Similarproductshadbeen underdevelopment andfield-testedby the U.S. Army NatickLaboratoriesas possiblereplacementsfor the cannedcombatrations, with theideaof reducingpackage weightandallowingthe field soldiergreatermobilitywhilecarryingtheflexiblecontainersin his pocket. Theterm wetpackcameintouseto describeanddifferentiateit from thenominaldehydrated Apollofoodswhich require theadditionof waterfor rehydrationprior to consumption.This typeof foodhadnotbeen usedbecauseof a numberof disadvantages of foodwithnormalmoisturecontent. Sincemoisture is availablefor bacterialgrowth,heatsterilizationanda failsafehermeticsealis required. The weightof a wetpackwith its 60to 70percentmoisturecontentis approximatelyfour timesgreater thanthatof thecomparabledehydrated product. Vacuumpackagingis virtually impossiblein a high-moisturefoodandtheabsolutevacuumof outerspacecouldcauseruptureof thepackage from internalgasexpansion duringspacecraftdecompression.Thepossibilityof C1. botulinum

toxin

also

causes

lem areas

was The

nation

justifiable carefully

success

of several

compared flavor

rehydration

lation

of water,

"little" there

has

that

freeze-dehydrated

will

rehydrated tables

food with

of these

and thereby are

of a spoon

and eating

from

aircraft

sils

in that

have

been

completely

accurate

sults

indicated

liquid

food

flight

was

that

spacecraft the

would

rehydratable

on Earth,

system

for worst

case

on the Apollo

support

stainless-steel affair. with

The

turkey

and gravy

the program

spacecraft. ible pouch)

The

The crew

were

of this

of space spoon

provided

significant

ate their feat

"canned"

in that

some

of

went

ease

and gravy

of the most

liquid

difficult

and vege-

concern

using

feeder

tube

to open

the package

of life (heat

constraints

of 9

spoon

spoon

to

and by forces

and adhesion. by requirements

food

systems

was

of opening

or valve

support

processed

dispersal

the

that

business

not been

the re-

is controlled

in space

who have

not a

on the Apollo

to see

highly

and uten-

for

constrained

and were

Force

are

condition,

with

their

of weightAir

tests

cohesion,

was

U.S.

packages,

motion

action,

about

of scissors

and integration turkey

undue

progress

to those

to the

Simulations

and utensils

programs

with

a

and flavor.

aircraft

it is easy

of gravity

had no zero-G

wetpack

has

The main

access

feel

and new

package

by the

foods, these

experimented

significant

a pair

five

meat

of the weightless

capillary

calmly

include

allow

impulse.

packages

even

and Apollo

that

will

conducted

While

In retrospect

is not apparent

food development

and the

crew

tension,

the crew

was

swing

as monotonous

This

mouth

without

of open

The most

when

significance

use

the Gemini

extreme

of dehydrated

Numerous

duration

in the absence

situations.

equipment spoon.

for

Unfortunately,

items.

be successful

That

surface

instalthese

food package.

end which

no simple

own tests.

would

8 mission

age of thermostabilized The only

since

just

package.

had been

patterns.

food package.

e.g.,

design

was

flight

difficulty.

situation.

become

and acceptable

in our

Subsequent

be successful

negligible

to prepare

cabin.

tedious

10 we shall

the pieces

a spoon

of the short

test

without

the nominal

Food

realized

our

throughout

eating are

that

incom-

Overcoming

and this

rehydratable

of the wetpack

with

because

ease and

and frequent

type

For Apollo

on the other

in weightlessness

and

relative

not require

in any

food would

familiar

some

in parabolic

with

water

food system

opening,

a more

package

program

simulation

accomplished

eat from bowl

tested

while

prob-

to a combi-

the texture

to consumption.

of the nominal

large

over

an open

in high-performance

this

eating

does

in a "spoon-bowl"

opening

have

preferred

prior

approach.

to that

potential

line.

be packaged

With

were

food package;

and the wetpack

on all wetpack

zippered

a spoon.

foods

The use lessness

will

they

zero-G

all food be of the wetpack into

based

at one end similar

can be larger

Many

that

of these

can be attributed

of spacecraft

of a successful

the all-dehydrated

be in the large

what

by the

manipulation

back

a system

which

9 missions

and smell

item;

part

to bring

with

foods

valve

difference

see

Each

to the flight. 8 and

afforded

and

to require

not easy

as that

inlet

could

waiting,

a tendency was

prior

products.

by the characteristics

is an important

We realize

water

not affected

of these

in the Apollo

containment

kneading,

been

objectionable

and solved

The men

complete

the use

of the freeze-dehydrated

irritants

the pendulum

evaluated

factors:

food was

plete

over

of the wetpacks

with the

of the

concern

for

a pack-

rehydration.

and a 10-cent pleased

with

intimately

equipment

involved

in manned

and packaged to space

the whole

in a flex-

food development

werelifted in a matterof minuteswhilemanfirst circled theMoon. The of thoseconstraints: (1) Vacuumpackagingof all fooditems (2)

Positive

(3)

Caloric

density

(4)

Tedious

procedures

Design in the

Gemini

those

used

able

for,

This

astronaut

all,

to prepare

a really

of the

command

vacuum in this food

module

conditions test

quite The

supply.

30 percent

by volume.

food package

during

inlet

This

valve.

the package

rehydration.

sence

of gravity,

in the

food package

liquid

food

schedules

liquids

ing point

of water

the water

supply all

the package

dispenser,

quate

water

mately off-flavor flavor

technique than

would

vapors

water

system. manned

test and

The astronauts every

morsel

because

but averaged

and liquid

of

of gas

in the

approximately

gas periodically

from

the

the food-package

food were

not work

readily

in orbit

and attempts

in

in the ab-

off gas

result

water

separated

since,

to vent

for food rehydration

prevent

155 ° to 135 ° F. cabin

the food. and that

supply

is added

could

trapped

in venting

temperature

is very

of 5 psta.

The net result

of water

to improve

with

of the materials

food.

reported

gas.

used

bubbles

in the

the

tem-

to the boil-

quantity

of gas

the

several

food is not

the water flight

tubing.

supply

crews

throughout

cycles

and still

have

procedures. The Apollo

in

and by

of gas dispersed after

chlorination flexible

close

of this

of bursting

) All three

due to the water

to reduce

as possible

Also,

that

if launch

of food rehydration,

is expelled

to the point

9 crew

undissolved

gas

the rate

of the small

be distended

was not entirely

possible

The higher

and as much

(The Apollo

were was

because

contact

system

implemented

is not hot enough

70 percent

due to some

water

pressure

rehydrated

intimate

the food package

water

fuel-cell

One of the modifications

water

is incompletely

in the water

is probably

the gas

since

to the thermal

of foods

by depressing

the

of reliance

an 8-day

virtually

the

permit

deal

water

to

accept-

assumption

for this

weightlessness.

accomplished

of adequate

in the

the water

required

to rehydrate

30 percent

from

is that

which

water

insertion

at the nominal

of the

hot and usually

heavier

to be maintained.

of the hot water

time

no longer

modifications

perature

the

This

a great

simulate

by venting

similar

as gas.

minor

were

problem

because

would

and consumed

not consistent

those

be highly

in Apollo

exposed

in rehydration

quite

that

during

was

than

to believe

reason

tested which

however,

was

was

were would

We placed

We had good

system

difficulty

to venting.

are

to allow

as well

Only

Venting

satisfactorily

prior

beverage.

exhaustively

not,

this

that foods

to be available

2TV-1/101)

gas

solved

the Apollo

stringent

of the fuel-cell-generated

were

some

more

We had begun

system.

the food

of undissolved

worked

a chilled

could

with

actually for Apollo

that

systems

Spacecraft

experienced

The crew

by gravity

with

The test

The quantity

water

systems

pleased

crew

fact

the reliability

(designated

well

were

and packaging

of the water

support

of space.

were

provided.

water

life

system

accepted

hot meal

had proven

All spacecraft

a few

by rehydration

of any consequence.

and quality

simulators

food

in foods

the hot and cold

the characteristics

ground-based

resulted a generally

no problems

after

are

consumption

for food preparation

It was

present

food during

for the Apollo

Program.

on Gemini.

ourselves,

of liquid

items

of food

requirements

and would

upon

containment

following

from

not have was

the ade-

approxi-

reported This

an off-

9 crew

foundthewatersodistastefulthattheyconsistentlydrankwaterthathadbeenfirst mixedwith one of thebeveragepowders. Thelist of accomplishments thatwecanpointtoafter onlythreeApolloflights is more extensivethantheintroductionof morefamiliar foodsandmethodsof eating. Notquitesodramaticbutequallyas difficult andsignificantwasthedesignof a nonflammable mealoverwrap whichalsoservesas a barrier to moistureandoxygen,a methodof mealorientation,anda garbage bag. Thequantityandvariety of rehydratablebeverages hasbeenincreasedandmodificationsmade to improvethereliability, use, andsizeof therehydratablefoodpackage.Foodandpackaging processing,testing,andinspectionprocedureshavebeenextensivelyrevisedin conjunction with theUSAFMOLdevelopment prdgram. A newapproachto supplyingfoodto anastronautin a full-pressuresuit in a possibleloss of cabinpressurehasbeendeveloped andflight qualified. This contingency feedingsystememploysa pontubewitha valveto controlliquidfoodflow. It is insertedinto thewaterinlet valve of a nominalrehydratablefoodpackageononeend,andat theotherendis put througha port in the pressuresuit helmet. Thecrewmembersqueezes andsucksliquid fromthe foodpackagethrough thepontubeandintohis mouth. A valvein thepontubeallowsgradualequalizationof the suit pressure(3.5psia)with thevacuumof thefoodpackagewhichhelpstopreventruptureof the foodpackagedueto suddenpressurechange. Thefoodpackageis further restrainedbya zipperednylonbagto preventinadvertantrupture. TheApollofoodsetsalsoprovideanoral hygiene kit whichcontainsa tubeof edibletoothpaste,toothbrushes,anda spoolof dentalfloss. In listingtheseaccomplishments, wedonotimplythattheyconstitutethefinal answerto a requirement. Eachcanandwill beoptimizedfor future flightsin spiteof theheavyactivity requiredto support missionsthatare launchedon2-monthcyclesandtheausterestaff of personnelavailabletowork with thesystemsandproblems. In addition,for thefutureApolloprogramfooddevelopments will centeraroundmore thermostabilized wetpacks,a larger variety of intermediate-moisture foods,a spoon-bowl package thatwill allowlargerpiecesof dehydrated foods,anda liquidnutrientdispenserfor extravehicular useonthe lunarsurfacethatwill supplement thenominallunarmodulefoodsupply. Theacceptance andeffectiveness of thefoodsystemfor a particularflight canbeevaluatedby thequantityof foodconsumed,thefunctioningof foodpreparationanddispensingequipment,postflightdebriefingcommentsby thecrews, changesin bodyweight,andbiochemicaland psychological measurements.Thesemeasurements leavea lot to bedesiredin bothobjectivity andaccuracy. Wehaveobservedthatthe natureof preflightbriefingonthefoodsystemhasa direct effectontheoverallacceptance of thefoods. Themorethoroughlythecrewsunderstand thepurposeanddesignof foods,packaging,andmenus,the morelikely their reactionin flight will befavorable. Wemustrely heavilyuponthe evaluationgivenby theconsumerbut a favorablepostflight commentcannotbeconstruedto meansuccess. Postflightinventoryof returnedfoodsandpackages andexamination of the pilot's logare notwithoutinherenterrors. Frequently,critical mission tasksmustbeperformedanda crewmemberwill findit necessaryto eat foodsprogrammed 10

(and

color

coded)

changes

are

not

dehydrated was

ing

and

not

always

require

was

and Apollo

noted

extra

inevitable

point

traded

foods

food

in the an

the

offer

meal. was

and

for One

weight

the

salad

objective

measurements

and

these

of freeze-

preference

denied.

These rates

occurs

a package

The

to trade

changes.

metabolic

of foods

7 mission

entire

weight

of normal

swapping

Apollo

for

and

is body

examination

and

Russian

and

more

observed

postflight

body are

of little

use

item

to be

consumption

weights

it.

we

to expend carried

into which

on rhythmic

I.-BODY

WEIGHTS

The

successful

will

for the

can

fluctuations

and

(F-28,

APOLLO

APOLLO

7

8

APOLLO9

i

F-14,

day

(F-O)

supply been

corrected

insuring and

on hunger

INTAKE

Launch F-5)

be

to provide not

intake trading

have

FOR

show

occurrence

caloric

food

weight

intakes

of food

weight

designed

CALORIC

Av preflight

of

not

Body

Mission

caloric

unconsumed.

metabolism,

AND

and

losses

methods

be

intake,

mission

losses

must

in body

amount

Weight

returned

changes

values

the

to minimize and

food of

I.

discover

space

demands

estimated

Weight

effort

the

with

miserably.

must

much

food

determine

for

to date.

duration,

in table

failed

program,

along

not

criteria

spaceflight First,

Gemini

mission

could

we have

after

TABLE

only

the

shown

we

if our loss

of

during activity,

because

weight

based

for

The

one

been

of the

missions

that

is

need

men. At

have

mission

arbitrary

body

the

careful

to

Preflight

be

other

measurebe

mislead-

which

are

available.

correlation

are

could

effectiveness

As

three

of the

recorded.

salad

than

of the

one

always

tuna

greater

ment

for

that volume

of the

crew

attributed

recorded

on

by will

of the

of a flight

man

It will prevention

every

of

American

providing be

first

to each

upon

no

illness

occurred.

depended

food

or

of in-flight

that

only

little

better

food

consumed. food

It is

of prime

importance

the

quantity

of critical

item

It is if that

to maximize nutrients

stimuli.

FIRST

weight,

THREE

APOLLO

Energy,

ib

Recovery (R+O)

MISSIONS

Recovery 1 day

plus (R+I)

Kcal

(Av daily in-flight caloric intake)

CDR

195

194

188

191

1966

CMP

153

157

147

151

2144

LMP

157

156

148

154

1804

CDR

169

169

161

163

1477

CMP

169

172

164

165

1688

LMP

146

142

138

139

1339

CDR

161

159

154

156

1924

CMP

181

178

173

181

1715

LMP

164

159

153

157

1639

11

It has the quantity

not been

of food stowed

are

color

late

the precise

coded

(red,

or will

tasks

and prepare

log book.

system

of missions

in the early tasks

at all

foods

that

for

have

situation.

are

of little

approach,

we have

available,

and being 12

our

weight

by all

that

three

the

astronauts

our

with

the last

gas

periods,

the flavor

their

as a sole

source

maintain

require

reevaluation,

intensive

meals

efforts

alone

to portion

Efforts are

and

an acceptable

and procedures

well-balanced

the

of energy,

and fruits.

to launch.

water, meta-

since

most

to calculate

pre-

not adequate

and balance

dis-

The only

cocktail,

beverages

prior

aggra-

to drink

rehydratable

few days

period

of the water. fruit

one of the crew

a real

and a very

not able

powders,

use

7 and 8

and performance this

supply

was

of

9 presented

disappeared

the crew

to mask

Apollo

of food during

in the water

the beverage

To help

diet

thought

Symptoms

of Apollo

gradually

the

precluded

has

to correct

inflight

be to no avail

are

to define

to make

food

nutrients

Therefore, and increased

in the Apollo emphasis

or be able environment.

As we gather

which

in the flight

those this

these

environment placing

improvement which

information

with this

program

we are

foods

food problems

of actual

made

have

to im-

understand-

of the man.

definitive

on systematic

to predict,

content

the foods

Program

crew's

in-flight

requirements

an equally

efforts

Concurrently

the nutrient

and provide

and food systems

the

to define

undertaken.

nutrient

if we did not have

it is in our

improve

the requirements

and critical

requirements

new face,

procedures,

flights

program

overall

nutrient

flight

on a significant

food preparation

research

to determine,

taken

long-duration

and to define

in the

by one of the crew

and emphasize

critical

an active

manipulation

of the

him their

to provide

simplify

acceptable.

training

during

and

requirements

consumed

consumption

in several

were

preflight

food program

to define

dietary crew

crewmember's

occurred

foods

items

gave

to nutrition,

foods

psychologically upon

of each

estimate

in his

food is not eaten.

before

all would

the physical

that

available,

approach

possible

mission

one considers

disease

some

purpose

astronauts.

crewmen

lost

space

now,

were

all three

if the

accurately

flight

required

so when

illness.

rehydratable

of these

It is no secret value

the foods

totype

exchange

the deviation

of in-flight

the problems During

for this

requirements

If the

ing of our

to stop

to calcu-

records

degrees

Of course,

intense.

supply

it appears

crewmembers

this

food

but the symptoms

flight,

to using

the other

preflight

this

most

The limited

Also,

prove

satisfactory.

satisfactory

balance,

cise

is a good total

matter will

varying

experienced

of the flight,

and resorted

and electrolytes bolic

viral

highly

were

were

peaches.

time

usually

and understandably

of the

experienced

and vomiting

During

flavor

water

be a simple

not have

We know food packages

the crewmember

astronaut

What we obtain

knowledge

that

astronaut.

and individual

and it should

if he does the

reliable,

stages

was

the situation.

agreeable

on.

have

Nausea

of mission

are

meal

for each

Meals

It is inevitable

happens,

intake

returned.

astronaut

man's

this

and gastrointestinal

crewmembers.

vated

men

astronauts

respiratory

problem

another When

food

of the mission.

Apollo upper

consumed.

and an accurate

the course

for each

is not completely

these

food consumption over

from

his meal.

the precise

and the quantity

or blue)

of food

eat an item

This

to measure

preflight

white,

quantity

foods

types

possible

and proEven nutrients

to determine functional

less

if it

and

emphasis

of foods, the best

packaging, chance

on food acceptance,

of

nutrientdefinitionandmodificationsto maintainmetabolicbalanceis accomplished.Ofcourse, the

conventional

in natural distant

foods future

metabolic

foods

spacecraft

will

always

in the precise

is that

they

on food acceptance. ceptable consumer

the most

exclusion

food supplies

The best

available

be used.

manner

One of the most habitats,

are

to the complete

waste.

and machine served

familiar

frequent

neglect Food

in a spacecraft, and his particular

that

likely

candidates,

of synthetics. may

Indeed,

be partially

food that

will

but we have

derived

most

a food must

makes

and desirable

it familiar

mistakes

to recognize prepared

made

the subtle

in the finest

a submarine, environment

by food

or even are

for missions from

efficiently

To be acceptable

system

differences

restaurant in the home

no parochial in the

chemical meet

planners, that

not-too-far-

regeneration

the requirements

be processed, in the

interest

prepared,

first

and

place.

especially

will have

of of man

significant

in town will

not necessarily

if the overall

characteristics

for unique impact be acof the

not considered.

i

13

MANNED

ORBITING

FEEDING

The

SYSTEM

feeding

or developed

and

a great

acceptability,

flight.

and reduced

has been

able

of a space

food;

each

will

be individually

foods

item

of long-term

must

chamber

Convenience levied pilot three

in a spacecraft.

venience trieval

and preparation

Rehydration come

measured

average

time

is the time one item

i

for all

with

items

and

each

an overall

cell

must

open, average and

of the food

overwrap stowage

panel by the menu

It is realized

that

the

time

is a requirement

food nowadays,

least

of all a

the food for a day is divided (table

set.

and thus

I).

In order

Ten minutes (including

that

is allowed

consumption

into

con-

for the reand waste

meal.

factors

water

time,

been

and a total

be 5 minutes

time

preparing

of beverages

have

are

6-day-cycle

pilot.

and morale

preparation

the main

and inject

time

package

Any one itemcan

The food packages food,

for

and handling

quantities.

to retrieve,

to spend

meal,

trained

not be consumed.

consumption,

to minimize

snack

is allowed time

will

requirements

of each

of 45 minutes

nutrients

of accept-

the development

be measured

Each

of each

menu

number

by a small,

tests.

to the preferences

and a separate time

crew-feeding

for a shorter

during

will

pre-

be placed

so a 6-day

A sufficient

of acceptability

system.

must

be necessary

scale

design

requirement

emphasis

is required

on a 9-point

degree

and

acceptability,

In an effort

6.0

true

runs

No one likes

meal,

can be measured,

stowage)

The

or sufficient

system.

a main

at least

by a computer

influences

on the feeding

snacks,

be rated

cycle. test

of

sys-

spacecraft

This

food monotony,

3- or 4-day A screening

would

result

feeding

on the feeding

30 days. greater

than

to prevent

the usual

the menu.

simulator

tailored

of the foods

not the

on the the

restrictions

Much

are

imposed

of mission,

be fed for

of the flight.

is essential

than

must

impose

Force

Air

(MOL)

are

type

two men

WELBOURN

States

requirements

travel

of the length

L.

Laboratory

particular

that

of development.

be acceptable

The

of space

to fill

Orbiting

these

to it.

nature

rather

be available

results

Rather,

repetition

established

must

stages

Manned

and convenience

foods

at two different

United

MOL requires

because

on the variety,

cycle

I

external

of the

challenge

Variety

REQUIREMENTS

for the

the very

The mission sents

JERRY

system.

or factors

and engineering,

I

requirements

by the feeding

tem by conditions

LABORATORY

take

in determining

convenience,

up to 10 minutes

or less.

to be rehydrated,

The manipulation

if necessary,

and as

time

is a maximum

such

be-

but the

allowance,

of 5 minutes

which for any

of 2 minutes. are liner

to be color

coded

will be identified

to identify as

to day

each

crew

member's

of use.

15

TABLEI.-TYPICAL MOLMENUFORA DAY Item

Grossenergy,Kcal

Item

Grossenergy,Kcal

MealA

MealD

4 Baconbars 4 Pineapplecubes 4 Strawberrycerealcubes Meal

102 130

4 Apricotcubes 4 Peanutcubes

132

123 355

8 Cinnamon

97 372

B

Beverage

4 Brownies

111

Shrimp

cocktail

149

Tea,

gravy

193

Grapefruit

112

Orange

313 878

Pineapple-grapefruit

274

Total

138 412

Av Kcal/day

Beef and Corn

bar

Chocolate

143

toast

pudding

composite 195

Cocoa

with

lemon

and sugar

31

drink

80

drink

80 drink

Orange-grapefruit

80

drink

80 546

t

Meal 4 Pineapple

C

fruitcake

4 Coconut

cubes

SPACECRAFT The system. work

design

The

MOL will

areas.

one for

This

each

and other inches,

pilot.

accessory is a nylon

4 by 17 inches be empty vide

Kcal/g

above Inside

and will

to store

allowance weigh

This packs,

the food enough

1.17

2563

liner

wastes

packaged

Ib; 0.53

contains

certain

is, from food

constraints

will

eat,

food

separate

into

16 cells.

for one man 2 days.

for one man lb.

from the

dispensers,

is approximately

the first

, or about

on the feeding

one above

the water

which

for one day is 1.7 lb

CONSTRAINTS

compartments,

is divided

that

539 g

the pilots

compartment,

for one man

about

where

two food stowage

each

liner.

to store

impose

the compartments

hold two ration

in which

it must

has

items.

and will be used

195 cu in.

a food installation,

An area

menu

2579

AND ENGINEERING

of the spacecraft

console

food stowage

The weight 4.9

have

feeding

this

Av wt food/day

DESIGN

and engineering

kcal

the other

other package

100 ° F and 100 percent, helium 16

with

a pressure

foods

must

withstand

respectively, of 5 ± 0.2

maximum

Each

cell

is about

for two days.

and an atmosphere psia.

6 by

One cell

The compartments

If the food

contains

of the total

the desired

weight,

and relative

of 70 percent

oxygen

humidity and

will

pro-

for one day.

33 percent

temperature

opener,

25 by 15 by 17

is left

for packaging. The packaged

and

of

30 percent

Thewateris providedby thefuel cell, or control

of microbiological

of providing The

cold

ferred

22.6 water

fluid

system

oz of potable

is dispensed

at the rate

water

has

a daily

apply

termining

the

known, will

has

in 1-oz

pressure ml per

for

suppression

system

is capable

increments.

maintained

Both

within

are

trans-

26 to 33 psia.

The

crewman.

by the flammability

in the spacecraft.

set

feeding

system The

travel

II are

in the

becomes

been

TRAVEL

of space.

in table

as constraints

adequacy

ration

2600

SPACE

of space

but the figures

tritional the

voids

and conditions

be used

the delivery

restricted

materials

a special

the weightless

stress

and the hot,

of about are

provides

a pH of 6 to 8 and the

There

and

are

offgassing

established

requirements

standards

for de-

requirements.

Man requires through

capability

to all nonmetal these

with

ion generator

has

at 40 ° to 70 ° F and at 145 ° to 155 ° F at any one time.

increments

oz/min

materials

and a silver

The water

water

in _-oz

of 5 fluid

The packaging which

contaminants.

when

he travels

food must

on our

computer

best

selection

important

at 27 to 34 percent

experience of menus

The

of man to date.

of 30 days.

are

These

for individual

10 to 15 percent

environment

adequate.

requirements

for a flight

fat,

in an artificial

be nutritionally

on the metabolic

based

especially

CONSTRAINTS

and

of

requirements

crew

members.

Caloric

protein,

effects

not completely

Nu-

distribution

of

50 to 58 percent

carbohydrates. TABLE H.-RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT ALLOWANCES FOR AEROSPACE ESTABLISHED BY USAF SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE, BROOKS

Gross Energy, Kcal

Type

Allowances/Kg lean body wt

RATIONS AFB, TEX.

Fat,

N,

Ca,

P,

Mg,

Na,

C1,

K,

mg

mg

mg

mg

mg

mg

mg

mg

1500

160

18

27

9600

800

1200

240

2800

3500

2300

15 500

1200

1800

400

4400

5000

4000

neither

produce

_ __ 45

4

50

60

40

Allowances for average 60-Kg lean body vet/ man Mini

2600

78 000

Maxi

The foods cause

must

constipation,

diarrhea,

ing the simulator There the

rehydratable

size

or sizes.

be compatible

tests are

portions.

or any other

at the School

no firm

with

the pilots; gastrointestinal

of Aerospace

requirements

at this

These

are

factors

that

being

they

upset.

Medicine time

is,

This

can be best

and the crew-feeding

as to the studied

must

size

of the

to determine

determined

nor dur-

tests.

individual the best

gas

bites and most

of food or efficient 17

Strict foodsafetyis a requirement room

for the

cessive

production

exposure

of ingredient for

of foods

origin

MOL foods

other

of MOL

are

foods

to oxygen

and

production

given

in table

of all

space-feeding

is required,

as is minimum

and moisture. history

HI.

In addition,

for each

They

are

programs.

item.

as or quite

microbiological

similar

to those

ex-

records standards

used

for

Count

permitted

Total

not greater

than

10 000/g

Total

not greater

than

10/g

Fecal coliform count

Negative

Fecal Streptococci count

Not greater

Coagulase positive Staphylococci

Negative

in

5g

Salmonellae

Negative

in

5g

one travels

the formation for the

sulfate

has been

in a closed

of gas, days

under

(1)

Packaged (a)

Evacuated

20/g

food wastes

must

be treated

of any noxious

The

agent

chemical

to pre-

or toxic

sub-

8-hydroxyquinoline

Peel

(b)

Heat-seal

(c)

Burst

The packaging

and packing

re-

sealing

with purified

or less each

mercury

package

nitrogen absolute

or pack

at 2 to 3 psig

and

pressure.

is subjected

to a vacuum

test.

200 g/in.

strength,

pressure,

to the usual This

width

at 50 mm/min.

g/in.

width

than

travel

under

quality

control

consists as follows:

at 50 mm/min.

9 psig.

be put on a spacecraft

of space

tests,

1850 greater

food cannot

testing.

and acoustical

3 times

to 2 mm

strength,

the rigors

in addition

packaged.

material:

(a)

qualification

vibration,

than

or production

conditions.

be specially

and flushed

16 to 24 hr after

The packaged

items,

must

evacuated

Packaging

withstand

spacecraft

lg

food and overwrap:

integrity (2)

in space,

of microorganisms,

ambient

travel

then (b)

growth

environment

in

used.

Foods for space are:

quirements

18

keep

Total coliform count ..........

stances

flight

must

to avoid

Total aerobic plate count ........

When

food

in processing

STANDARDS ASSEMBLY

Microorganism

it will

The

of a clean

spaceflights.

TABLE III.-MICROBIOLOGICAL FOR MOL FEEDING SYSTEMS

vent

delay

the producer

end food

the same

The use

of four

unless

the conditions

it has been it may

and inspection tests,

the 30-day

during

tested

encounter. production,

environment,

to ensure Therefore, must acceleration,

that the undergo

(1) Chamber

environment,

(a) Evacuate (b) Repressurize

pressure

and hold

with heated,

30 percent

(2)

30 days:

to 50 _

temperature

gas composed

reaches

95 ° _+5 ° F.

of 70 percent

oxygen

and

helium.

(c)

Temperature

cycled

(d)

Completion

- examine

Acceleration:

humid

until

20 times package

5G forward

two perpendicular

between

axes

cps

on each

ambient

temperature.

and food for defects.

and 2G aft when

lateral

95 ° F and room

food

or 5G along

in operative

three

mode

orthogonal

and 0.5G

axes;

test

along

duration,

2 rain. (3)

Vibration:

10 to 2000

of three

principal

orthogonal

axes;

test

duration,

3 min. (4)

Acoustical:

In order to have

good,

118 to 128 db over

to obtain

realistic

food production

space

foods

production

documents

that

documents

is a requirement

six typical meet

the

CONCLUDING These they

are

sign

it may

the requirements

restrictive,

improvement to change

are

a good

be possible

feeding

to gain

can be made

some

around system leeway

in the feeding

many

for each of our

bands.

specified

item.

requirements

The development

it is necessary of adequate

space-

system. REMARKS

which

the

can still in weight

system

octave

feeding

system

be provided. and volume.

by changing

must

By proper In cases

a requirement,

be designed.

Mthough

management where attempts

and

de-

a significant will be made

the requirement.

19

QUANTIFYING

AND

IMPROVING

ORBITING

awarded

LABORATORY

The contract

for the Manned

in September

1967

experience

was

the food was

based

heavily

Since

the

flight

mization

feeding

upon

and produced

The

MOL feeding

simulator

Ample

States

Corp.,

(MOL)

St.

Joseph,

Gemini

Gemini late

again

and simulator

flight

Feeding

flight

System

flights

Assembly

time

was

NASA flight

were

food

anticipated

but

experience.

in 1968.

During

this

for maintaining

reversed,

Foroe

Air

At that

Apollo

testing

has

FLENTGE

Mich.

flights.

until

and the

time,

NASA relied

space-feeding

MOL feeding

expertise.

system

opti-

experience.

contract

documentation

would was

by the

MOL

is a straightforward allegedly

exists

apparent. to assure

schedule.

to conduct

document.

in sufficient

to define

detail

the feeding

The Gemini

to allow

systems

It became

GFP

The

point

qualified

production

and flight

aboard

manned

used

denotes

first

that

early

production

was

in 1968

started

the

a comprehensive,

integrated

in this

Government

schedule.

furnished

property

for validation

items

after

School

official

effort listed

the U.S.

of Aero-

notification

was

foods

these Army

of

became

a necessity

on the 1967

in

to requirements

of the space

In September from

The

in response

soon

quantification

of the food

foods

initiated.

of sufficient

quantification

included

system

for food

studies

the lack

evident

were

an order

simulator

and accurate

items

of MOL feeding

matter,

Office.

At this

complete

where

procurement

these

Systems

Forty-five

as follows,

that

be a simple

requirements.

painfully

Natick,

United

of the

and quantified,

expectation

studies

food

order

the

Medicine

defined the

is defined

l

on the basis

NASA's system

L.

flights. With

space

from

ROBERT

Laboratory

7 the flow of information

benefited

I

system

food production

has

qualification. Gemini

MOL

of Apollo

system

Orbiting

on the manned

NASA did not fly a feeding quite

FOOD

to the Whirlpool

primarily

designed

MANNED

in

MOL contract foods

were

Laboratories,

Mass. Rehydratable

foods

:

(1)

Applesauce,

instant

(freeze

(2)

Banana

(3)

Beef and gravy,

(4)

Beef with

(5)

Beef

(6)

Butterscotch

(7)

Canadian

(8)

Chicken

and gravy,

(9)

Chicken

and vegetables,

dehydrated)

pudding dehydrated

vegetables,

pot roast,

dehydrated

dehydrated pudding

bacon

and applesauce,

dehydrated

dehydrated dehydrated

21

(10)

Chicken

salad,

dehydrated

(11)

Chocolate

pudding

(12)

Corn

bar,

cream

(13)

Corn

chowder

(14)

Fruit

cocktail

(15)

Peach

(16)

Salmon

(17)

Sausage

patties

(18)

Shrimp

cocktail,

(19)

Spaghetti

(20)

Toasted

(21)

Tuna

style,

dehydrated

(bar)

bars salad (pork) dehydrated

with oat

meat

sauce,

dehydrated

cereal

salad

Beverages: (22)

Cocoa

(23)

Grapefruit

(24) Orange (25)

drink, drink,

GFP

GFP

Orange-grapefruit

drink,

(26) Pineapple-grapefruit (27) Tea

and

Bite-size foods (28)

drink,

GFP

sugar

:

Apricot

cereal

cubes

(29) Apricot

cubes,

GFP

(30)

Bacon

(31)

Beef

(32)

Beef,

(33)

Brownies,

(34)

Cheese

(35)

Chicken

(36)

Cinnamon

(37)

Coconut

(38)

Date

bars bites,

dehydrated

sandwiches, bite

toast,

dehydrated

(bite (bite

size)

size)

GFP

(41) Pineapple

cubes,

(42)

Pineapple

fruitcake

(43)

Sausage

(44)

Strawberry

(45)

Toasted

GFP (bite

dehydrated

cereal bread,

(bite

GFP

cubes,

size)

(bite

dehydrated dehydrated

cubes,

bites,

(bite

size

sandwiches,

fruitcake

(40) Peanut

dehydrated

sandwiches,

(39) Gingerbread

22

GFP

size) (pork)

cubes

cubes,

dehydrated

(bite size)

size) size)

By September 1968someof thefooditemshadbeenchanged andthe followingfoodswere onthe schedule.GFPdenotesGovernment furnishedproperty;FI denotesfoodwith improvedto enhance texture,flavor, stability, andrehydratability;IDdenotesanitem droppedbecause it wasdeemedimpracticalto producebecauseof manufacturing problems,acceptability,and stability;andR&Ddenotesa fooditem deemedsalvageable andreturnedto the laboratoryfor upgradingandimprovement. Rehydratable foods: (i)

Applesauce,

(2)

Banana

(3)

Beef

and gravy,

(4)

Beef

with

(5)

Beef

pot roast,

(6)

Butterscotch

(7)

Canadian

(8)

Chicken

and gravy,

(9)

Chicken

and vegetables,

(10)

Chicken

salad,

(11)

Chocolate

pudding

(12)

Corn

bar,

cream

(13)

Corn

chowder

(14)

Fruit

cocktail

(15)

Peach

(16)

Salmon

(17)

Sausage

patties

(18)

Shrimp

cocktail,

(19)

Spaghetti

(20)

Toasted

(21)

Tuna

Beverage

instant

pudding,

(freeze

dehydrated)

FI dehydrated,

vegetables,

FI

dehydrated,

dehydrated, pudding,

bacon

FI

FI

FI

and applesauce,

dehydrated

dehydrated,

FI

dehydrated,

FI

dehydrated,

FI

dehydrated

style,

(bar),

FI

bars salad

with

(pork) dehydrated meat

sauce,

dehydrated

oat cereal salad

s:

(22)

Cocoa

(23)

Grapefruit

(24)

Orange

drink, drink,

GFP

GFP

(25) Orange-grapefruit

drink,

(26) Pineapple-grapefruit (27) Tea

drink,

GFP

and sugar

Bite-slze foods

:

(28) Apricot

cereal

cubes

(29) Apricot

cubes,

GFP

(30) Bacon (31) Beef

GFP

bars bites,

dehydrated,

FI 23

(32) (33) (34)

Beef,

sandwiches,

Brownies, Cheese

sandwiches,

(36)

Cinnamon

toast,

(37)

Coconut

(38)

Date

(39)

Gingerbread

(40)

Peanut

(41)

Pineapple

cubes,

(42)

Pineapple

fruitcake

(43)

Sausage

(44)

Strawberry

this

point,

sistencies

were

(bite

bites,

A brief

explanation

The early

foods

were

posed

of these

a unique

and testing

Army

Natick

to serve

technologists

in defining

action.

Food

Laboratory

as specifications.

At

the inconsistencies

The most

obvious

incon-

was

contracting

testing

procedures and uncertainty

to interpretation

contractor

had been

as a sound

of sampling

changing

of the production

basis

plans

contract

to

modifi-

specifications.

The as

the challenge

reviewed

the production production guides.

on which

and quality

but admittedly

thoroughly

However, reflect

foods.

flight

for food

system

assumed

flight

from

that

these

in the documents.

us workable,

and reliability.

did not adequately

The

served

foods

as

feeding

in formu-

The food production

responsiveness

the MOL

history

methods

and optimize

into

described

gave

time.

changes

by NASA for procuring

and timely

foods

Reevaluation

experience

at this

used

development

unrecorded

not in any way to be construed guides

to administer.

and product

of previously

had been

problem.

to produce

experience

NASA to modify intense,

were

and awkward

is warranted

Office

allowed

production

requirements.

increased

incorporation

Systems

or content.

definitization.

inconsistencies

guides

in format

incomplete

with

required

NASA food-production

in workability

were lacked

experience

and attempted

Micr.obiological improved

U.S.

not standardized

techniques

The documents

end-product

confusion 24

of these

incorporation

were

provisions

of these

of NASA production

niques.

and the

standardized

corrective

requirements

spaceflight

Previous

in light

Corp.

not suitably

guides

to the MOL

imperative.

presented

realistic

dehydrated

the responsible

assurance

the flexibility

specifications

(pork)

and suggesting

guides procedures.

as represented

subsequent

size)

cubes

were

of analytical

and production

was

(bite

cubes,

(5) The production

cation

ID

ID R&D

the Whirlpool

end-product

(4) Updating had lagged.

flight.

size):

ID

GFP

bread,

guides

quality

(3) Food

However,

ID

size):

:

(2) The

guides

(bite

dehydrated

(1) The food production

lation

size):

(bite

size)

size):

cereal

system

ID

GFP

to involve

guide

(bite

dehydrated

(bite

cubes,

from

size):

GFP

fruitcake

we undertook

of the production

dehydrated

dehydrated

cubes,

the production

(bite

ID R&D

sandwiches,

Chicken

Representatives that

size:

(35)

(45) Toasted

agreed

dehydrated

bite

to determine assurance

incomplete, during

the Gemini

techniques, methodology,

provisions

sampling

raw

tech-

flights ingredients,

and they

added

and

Thefirst deliveryof MOLsimulatorfoodsrepresenteda besteffort onthepart of the contractor to producea productas it wasintended.Thedocuments usedto producethis besteffort werepartially correctedprior to foodproductionbut wereextensivelyrevisedandupdatedafter the secondMOLfoodsimulatorstudyin June1968. Theexperiencegainedfrom thetwoMOLfood shipmentsprovedvaluabletobothMOLandNASA. Webeganto realizethatif weeverintended to describefoodsandfeedingsystemsbefore the fact,we would need considerable effort expended on documenting feeding

and quantifying

systems

directed

was

to expend

Assembly

the

monitoring

at the

Natick

logical

development

contract,

torial

the end products.

toward was

The contractor

choice

to assume

effort,

under

updating

this

the

out through

the

the Apollo

Consequently,

development

and definitizing

and is carried

effort.

for both

portion

of the

production

documents.

Aerospace

Feeding

Whirlpool MOL

Corp.

Feeding

Technical Systems

MOL was

System

and edi-

Liaison

Officer

Labs.

The effort

to date

has

resulted

in 24 rewritten

documents:

Title

Document

(1)

Beef,

rehydratable,

dehydrated

(2)

Beef,

bites,

(3)

Chicken

and gravy,

(4)

Chicken

and vegetable,

(5)

Chicken

salad,

(6)

Cinnamon

(7)

Cereal

(8)

Toasted

(9)

Cocoa

dehydrated

fruit

4C

dehydrated

7B

dehydrated

10B

dehydrated

cubes,

bread

(bite

dehydrated

cubes,

beverage

dehydrated

Freeze-dehydrated

fruit-cocktail

(12)

Puddings

(13)

Sugar-coated

(14)

Fruitcake

(15)

Pea

(16)

Tea,

(17)

Dehydrated

(18)

Corn

(19)

Applesauce,

instant,

frozen,

(20)

Potato

frozen,

dehydrated

(21)

Cracker

(22)

Drink,

(23)

Beverage

breakfast,

(24)

Imitation

ice cream

The objectives of all

(apricot,

(bite

23B

size)

24B

(bite

27B bar

28B

butterscotch,

flakes

and toasted

and

chocolate)

29C

oat cereal

30B

size)

sweet,

34B

dehydrated

w/sugar soups

37B

chowder,

style,

cubes,

35C

and lemon (corn

cream

soup,

bar

banana,

corn

pea soup)

38B

dehydrated

41C

dehydrated

46A 49

compressed

natural

fruit

of this

space-food

size)

26B

(11)

bar,

21B

powder peach

instant

size)

(bite

Freeze-dehydrated

bar,

8B

dehydrated

toast,

Number 3C

(10)

the content

and

51

flavored,

powdered

53

powdered mix,

effort

production

54

dehydrated,

have

been

documents,

cubed

threefold:

55 (1)

to standardize

(2) to establish

realistic

the format

and

end-product 25

requirementsand food production quirement

quality

improvements

ing endeavor, crew

and simulator

is largely

at the USAF given

(1)

Human

of foods : factors

preparation, (2)

ing heat,

gained

that

use

With consideration system

that would

modified

foods

criteria

give

submission

tion panel

evaluating

it is subjected

into the

whether

are dependent

samples

foods

foods

be flown

The MOL Feeding

System

With no real

flight

experience

of the contractor

elements.

Gemini

foods

advances

allowed

us to incorporate

being

squeezed

from

flexible

ing the package

still

posed

critical

flights

pouches. problems.

took on less

Coatings importance

conditions,

includ-

the success

has

panel of the

and the requirement sensory

evaluavaluable

when a decision

stating

that all

as to

quite

designed

heavily

human

upon the

factors

reexamined.

preparation

to control

to

reproducibil-

into the foods

that did not require

and MOL.

were

results

of the results,

and evaluating

characteristics

panel

to assure

we relied

for Apollo

developmental

Accurate

and the analysis

period,

that had been

practical

is sought.

in determining

with Apollo

such

and time provides

is to be able

and improved

of new and

that a trained

for evaluation. test,

pattern

an evaluation

to consider

valuable

however,

foods

or failure

evaluate

proven

nutrient

to design

obliged

a provision

has

natural

a definite

temperatures

in the MOL contract

Bite-size

the

environmental

contract

need,

more

Improve-

of food

testing

the design

upgraded

foods.

has

the method

to additional

and the technologists

that had been

nical

Gemini

data early

space

flights

when we consider

we undertook

proves

to a sensory

name but a few variables. The most critical ity between different testing organizations.

Apollo

studies

in determining

constructively

to controlled

The information

of the panel,

the manned

to furnish

We were

we could

Assembly

in the MOL menu

vibrations.

to predict

or subjected

have

accomplished

part

criteria,

Experience

subjected

are to be submitted

upon the size

to

and MOL

in the simulator

of our present

to adverse

applications.

of the foods.

the food should

and production

feeding

of recommendations.

stability

of a meaningbe used

improvements,

involved

from

and acoustical

information

of high-cost

space

inclusion

storage.

of the aforementioned

in space

as the number

for timely

insight

26

feedback

an important

packaging,

us sufficient

for use

re-

to be a fluid and challeng-

we presently

subjects

can be best

and waste

vacuum

test

and palatability

play

continue

of the foods

Recent

for aerospace

criteria

will

(3) Nutritional composition of the food or its ability the set volume and weight constraints.

within

the establishment must

in the

critical

for timely

experience

food technology

from

Medicine.

of the food when light,

demands

system

The improvement

consumption,

Stability

moisture,

The most

that the mechanism

This

experience,

into the acceptability

ment and modification following requirements

retrieval,

input.

of Aerospace

insight

improvements

shortly.

and simulator

MOL feeding

upon the reactions

School

us added

of the

to NASA flight

study

dependent

is assurance

Both flight

technological

be completed

food system.

quantification

responsive

(3) to reflect

will

is preserved.

system.

and workable

Ultimate

today

foods

feedback

and

effort

documents

in space

ful and comprehensive a practical

provisions,

The rewriting

for food production

of proven assure

assurance

documents.

that

Techwere

after

crumbling

openin the

Space development has

given

food as we know

and testing

effort.

us a food system

acceptable

to simulator

foods.

Apollo

flight.

The

it today

that

incorporated

original

45 space

Rehydratable

of a cooperative

experience

coupled

is essentially

sound.

Formulation

and in limited some

crew

of the more

food items

testing

desirable

in the MOL

schedule

with

have

simulator changes

been

immediate have

NASA/MOL and flight

that

have

incorporated advancements

grown

to 54 food

experience

proven into

more

the MOL

in each items:

foods:

(1)

Applesauce,

(2)

Banana

(3)

Beef

and gravy

(4)

Beef

and vegetables

(5)

Beef

pot roast

(6)

Butterscotch

(7)

Canadian

instant

(freeze

dehydrated)

pudding

pudding bacon

and applesauce

(8)

Chicken

and gravy

(9)

Chicken

and vegetables

(10)

Chicken

salad

(11)

Chocolate

pudding

(12)

Corn

bar

(cream

(13)

Corn

chowder

(14)

Fruit

cocktail

(15)

Peach

(16)

Salmon

(17)

Sausage

patties

(18)

Shrimp

cocktail

(19)

Spaghetti

(20)

Toasted

(21)

Tuna

(22)

Cheese

soup

(23)

Cream

mushroom

(24)

Veal

(25)

Pea

(26)

Lobster

(27)

Beef hash

(28)

Cream

of chicken

(29)

Potato

soup

(30)

Sugar-coated

Beverages

the result

Production

subjects

has

is essentially

style)

bars salad

and meat oat

sauce

cereal

salad

soup

in barbeque

sauce

soup bisque

soup

corn

soup

flakes

:

(31)

Cocoa

(32)

Grapefruit

drink 27

(33) Orangedrink (34) Orange-grapefruit drink (35) Teaandsugar Bite-sizefoods: (36) Apricotcerealcubes (37) Baconbars (38) Beefbites (39) Datefruitcake (40) Pineapplefruitcake (41) Sausage bites (42) Strawberrycerealcubes (43) Toastedbreadcubes (44) Sugarcookiecubes (45) Smoked beefbites (46) Orangecereal cubes (47) Custardcubes (48) Creamedchickenbites (49) Cheese crackercubes (50) Barbeque beefbites i51) Cinnamon toastedbrea_._ cubes (52) Grahamcrackercubes (53) Lemoncerealcubes (54) Beefstewbites Throughout the space-feeding program,from maltedmilk tabletsin thefirst Mercury flights to ourpresentdehydrated andthermostabilized foods,reliability andsafetyhavebeenthe watchword.A goodportionof reliability canbeattributedto foodpackaging.Thefoodprocessing itself contributeslargelytothe initial foodqualityandthefood'sability to resist extremesof environmentwhenpackaged properly. Classically,therefore,spacefoodsare designedandproducedto assurehighlyreliablefoodsafter long-termstorage. Wewishto assuremaximumflexibility offoodavailabilityfor anyflight configuration. At the presenttime the foodswefly routinelywill withstandtemperaturesof 100° F for 6 monthsor longer, andmanyof the foodswill withstandupto 1 yearat 100° F. Dehydrated foods canbeexpectedtobe subjectedto theseconditionswithoutseriousdetrimentto theflavor, but their acceptabilityis certainlynotimproved. NASAis presentlyin theprocessof a comprehensive 2-yearstudyof spacefoodstabilityandnutrientanalysis. Theresults shouldgiveus valuableinformationaboutthe expectedchanges in foodonlong-durationspacemissions. Bycombining severalof themoredesirablestorageenvironments,e.g., by freezingdehydrated foods,wecan expectto extendthe storagelife of currentfoodssignificantly. Frequentlyweare approached with the "new"conceptof usingreadypreparedconvenience foods,eitherfresh, refrigerated,or 28

frozen. Stabilityremainsthe gates

these

foods

to short-term

MOL and assistance facility

afford

be quantified from

the

ments

the

and

foods

available

quality

characteristic

research

optimized.

staff

to the

U.S.

Extraneous

expected

to endure

Army

Natick

quantification

Laboratories

food-processing

an environment

procedures.

that defies

and rele-

usage.

an environmental-control

food processing

for

planned

NASA made

to construct will

ill-defined

wherein

contamination The ultimate

long periods

facility. studies

of storage

will

of processing

help

or exposure

financial

Construction

can be controlled results

sufficient

of this

variables

and frequently

define

and

omitted

specify

to rigorous

may

require-

environmental

conditions. Variety active.

and improvement

New-generation

reapplied

to the

rations

have

closely

allied

and unique

next

been with

feeding

spacecraft generation

studied the

of foods will

applications

allow

continue much

of spacecraft.

for many

space

will

food

years

we anticipate

of our food

Compression

by the

development

as long as technology

U.S.

effort,

development

in food

research

and research

and miniaturization

Army

Natick

Laboratories.

should

serve

as a sound

is

to be

of operational This base

effort,

for the new

for the future.

29

m

EVALUATION SPACE

The

FEEDING

design

and

restrictive.

the

effect

of

for

space

missions

the

ultimate

the

Many

of

This

future tion,

feeding

preference

evaluation,

sumption,

and

efficient

use

production nation;

the

MOL

Baseline

Feeding

was

jointly

of this

systems.

The

studies

of the

which

and

benefits volume

food,

human

evaluation

and

factors,

was

and

numerous

to attain;

however,

USAF

used

the

factors

School

food

which

developed made

of Aerospace

Laboratory

any

(MOL)

in meeting

into

afforded

its

up

Medicine

Systems

Office

30-day

of individual

provided;

(3)

waste,

the

flight

systems

and

areas:

simplicity,

(1) (2)

interface,

potential ease

new

re-

criteria

included

components,

the

environmental

of handling,

and

for evalua-

acceptance of food

which

for

Gemini/

life-support

food

measurement

of systems the

expanded

to develop

food;

foods,

reliability

in the

and

four

by

rating

packaging

deficiencies

30 days,

divided

the

|

difficult

were

Consequently,

to be

for

value

included

vehicles

NASA.

allowances,

which

not

components

to identify

nutritional the

were

Orbiting

verification

included

psychological

by

Medicine

of space

The

System

were

a functional

other

Manned

supported

evaluation

systems

verified.

the

Aerospace

limitations.

and

completely

the

of

feeding

binding

by

of metabolic, (4)

not

*

independently

packaging

were

VANDERVEEN School

the

created

assigned

of weight

and

upon

was

effort

included

USAF

E.

taken

associated

to perform

space which

I

Base

objectives

systems,

d.

specifications

systems

evaluating

The

the

I

placed

interactions

ancl

Force

quirements.

Apollo

of the

specification

Air

task

SYSTEMS

specifications

feeding

at Brooks

OF

and constudy

of

timeline contami-

safety.

PROCEDURES

| The

m

which

procedures

used

in this evaluation

are too detailed to cover

pressure

chamber

(shown

planned

for the MOL

in fig. i).

vehicle,

(I) Chamber

range:

range:

(4) Partial pressure (a) Wafer

vapor

The

Briefly,

environment

27,000

(refs. 1 and

accomplished

was

2)

in a low-

approximately

that

Hg

30 to 60 percent of the constituent atmospherie pressure:

Approximately 182 mm

(c) Helium

partial pressure:

76 mm

(d) Carbon

dioxide: was

was

of this chamber

ft or 258 to 260 mm

partial pressure:

research

this research

articles

23 ° to 25 ° C

(b) Oxygen

This

in published

as follows:

pressure:

(2) Temperature (3) Humidify

entirely here.

are described

<

I. 6 percent

supported

by NASA

i0 mm

gases: ± 3

or 70 percent or 18 to 20 percent or

<

Defense

5 mm

Hg

Purchase

Request

A-1374A

(RD-7) 31

Figure

32

1.

-Low-pressure

chamber

used

to

evaluate

space

feeding

systems.

Volunteer selection

criteria

interviews Feeding

used

The

the USAF

medical

Each

study

subjects

were

to inspect

Three used

four

required

entrees,

hydration

characteristics

of powdered

of main-meal each entire

food,

note

entrees,

subject

was

each

changes

and measure

required

to keep

quirements

based

to consume

all

study.

Their

nutrients. tensive

were

on lean

foods

after

the MOL

measure

measure

of the food following of the

note

measure

time

required

of

re-

the hardfor

rehydration.

foods

they

the size

foods,

subjectively

for

In addition,

failures, in bite-size

entrees,

Baseline

environment

consumption.

and other

of the foods,

(ref. Prior

weight

were

likes

4).

designed

and dislikes

immediately

The digestibility these

foods those

are

were

rehydration In addition,

day by day throughout

reported

all subjects

were

composition, Positive

standard

maintained

however,

balances

magnesium

marginal

levels

variable;

this

these

for

for were

were

foods

are

within noted

calcium, variable

of these was

rations

nitrogen,

the

elements

attributed capable

TABLE

were

prior

to the

into the study

study

4 days

re-

also

required

start

menus

of the with

of the study

the subjects

any changes

were

in table are

were

for

given

the use 8

an ex-

associated

with

dining

the entire

attributed

and phosphorus

These

the study.

demonstrate

Balances

adequate

I.-UTILIZATION

life

data

to the level were

Body weight

period.

this

for sodium

Changes

of activity

maintained.

range;

subjects.

5 to 10 percent

halls.

32-day

in the negative

of certain

I.

approximately

in military

in the food.

of providing

subjects

every

is shown

served

to the inactivity

nutritional

AND DISCUSSION

The values

and frequently

The

formulated

to detect

1 kg throughout which

individual

of 12 days

performed

nutrients

utilized.

their

3).

the 32-day

examination

well

then

were

following

of the major

exceptionally

(ref.

for a period

balances

and psychological

to meet

measurements

to be tested

Metabolic

to and

physical

body

a menu

RESULTS

that

and personal

to evaluate

in the low-pressure

a log of his impressions

provided

which

individual

of a computer

and

as subjects;

examinations,

of crumbling

temperatures

selected

study. The subjects

than

leaks

main-meal

in color

aptitude

food item

evidence

were

accomplished

who lived

for air

observe

from

were

subjects

and

Command

results

to rate

and main-meal

of bite-size

Training

studies

the food packaging

food bites

ness

Air

records,

motivation.

Systems.

required

from

were

concerning

32 days. were

airmen

for

in body

for potassium

attributed

and chloride Overall,

changes

in the chamber.

Balances was

that higher

it must

to the

were

highly

be concluded

support.

OF NUTRIENTS Metabolic

study

Nutrient

X

XI

XII

Protein

92.9

94.8

94.6

Fat

96.5

97.5

97.3

Energy

95.8

96.8

96.9

Energy

91.5

Metabolizable, 92.0

in % 92.5 33

Thefoodacceptance andpreferencestudiesmustbeanalyzed with extensiveconsiderations. All foodratingswereabove6 onthe9-pointhedonicscale. However,it mustbepointedoutthat noneof thesubjectsweretrainedin ratingfoods,andeachsubjectwasaffordedtheopportunityto eliminateunIikedfoodfrom his menu. Previousresearchin this areahasshownthatfoodacceptanceandconsumption are notdirectly equatable.If allowedfreedomof choiceandrejection, certainfoodsrated9 ona hedonicscalewill notbeconsum#d at the 100-percent level, whereas somefoodsratedlower than9 are routinelyconsumed at the100-percentlevel. In thesestudies withonlyfreedomof choicepermitted,all subjectshadnoproblemin comsuming100-percent of their menu. Thesubjects'logsandcritique formsprovidedmanycommentsconcerningfoodtexture, flavor, andcolor thatare worthyof note. Therehydratableentreeswerecriticizedfor lossof texturewhenforcedthroughthefeedingport of thezero-Gfeeder. Thesubjectsalsofelt thatthe color of foodswaslessthandesirablebeforehydration,particularlythespaghettiandmeatsauce andthe salmonsalad. Additionalgreenvegetables wouldprovidemorecolor. Manysubjectsnoteda changein flavor andtasteontheir return to groundlevel. They indicatedthatthefoodhadmoreflavor wheneatenat 1 atmosphere of pressure. Suchflavor changeshavebeennotedfor precooked frozenfoodsalso. It maybeassociated with odorsconeentratedin the chamber,or theremaybesomephysiologicalchangeassociatedwith tastein the low-pressure,alteredgaseousenvironment. Inthe studyof systemsinterfaces,seriousincompatibilitieswererevealed. In the secondstudy,flight-qualifiedpackaging wasused,and14.4percentof thezero-Gfeedersfailed. Thefailureswereof threetypes: (1) Delamination with subsequent ruptureof sealinglayer, (2) leakagearoundtherehydrationvalve, and(3) valvefailure dueto impropertoleranceon O-ringgroove. Thedelamination wastheresult ofpooradhesivein a lot ofpackagingmaterial. All thedeficiencieswerecorrectedandthefailure rate waslessthan1 percentduringthethird study. Thedelamination wasavoidedby theuseof a newlot of packagingmaterialwhichwasproducedjust prior to use. It waslater shownin ourlaboratoriesthattheadhesives usedin the film laminateare moisturesensitive. Eventhemoisturein roomair wassufficientto rendertheadhesivesineffectiveovera 60-dayperiod. Theleakagearoundtherehydrationvalvewascorrected bythe useof shrinkableTeflonto securethevalvein thepackage. In evaluationof the utilizationofweightandvolume,it wasshownthatpackagingconstituted35 percentof total weight. Theindividualpackages of foodwereof a shapewhichprohibitedefficientuseof theallowablevolume. Thetimelineanalysisof foodpreparation,foodconsumption, andwastemanagement revealsexcessiveexpenditureof time for thesefunctions. Theindividualmealtimerangedfrom 18to 42minutes. Proceduresfor rehydrationandconsumption of foodsare especiallycomplicated anddifficult toperform. Duringperiodsof intenseactivity, the tendency to avoidfoodsrequiring rehydrationis great. Frequently,subjectsreportedthattheywouldstart eatingbite-size foods whilewaitingfor themainmealentreesto rehydrate. Thisprocedurewoulddecreasetheir appetitebecausemanyof thebitesweresweetdessertitems. 34

Another rehydratable

problem

foods.

cold

foods

lack

of insulation

of the

were

frequently

measured

above

afforded

55 ° F.

system

on hot foods

The extent

by the package

design were

of heat

and the time

is the

transfer

routinely

exchange

required

lower

was

for

of heat than

100 ° F while

attributed

rehydration

in

to both

the

and consumption

food.

material

provided

resilience

which

could

all the food; =

with the feeding

Temperatures

The package

this

associated

feeders.

excellent

quantity

which

would area

waste.

the waste

on insufficient

data

during

collected

during

from

voided

these

bowel

face

studies

of regular

revealed

that

The data

was

that will

used in table

II show

is a 50-percent

small

is the pro-

for storing rather foods

feeding that

TABLE Study

II.-FECAL

DATA

FOR

32-DAY

METABOLIC x

number

Number

the this

reduction

number with

in both

measurements

to preclude

the

of

discomfort

STUDIES xII

xI

59

specimens

Number of days between specimens

58

52

2.2

2.5

2.2

Dry matter (g/subject/day)

16.4

20.6

16.0

Fecal moisture (g/subject/day)

30.7

44.3

31.3

Moisture (% of specimen)

65.2

68.3

66.2

In considering

the human

but complicated.

discussed

above.

was

to be both

found

they

extrusion.

|

reliable

exist

provide

both

In comparing

Subjective enough

used

for space

there

used.

the package.

interfaces

not eat any

reduced.

to remove

of an

they would

were

of materials

the amount

from

They

presently

food,

be removed

frequently

(food

in the zero-G

the use

of systems

level

effort

necessitated

topic

defecations.

produced

left

and the equipment

confided

control.

and the quantity

could the

G is difficult,

The foods

matter

this

In addition,

food

every

was

This

stowage.

residual

made

entrees

food

under

frequent

bowel

of fecal

subjects

resilience.

with

to a high

The

since

if all

have

defecations.

the consumption

of specimens

is important

in zero

in gastrointestinal amount

feeder).

substantial

problems

contributed

of consideration

than

to have

of themain-meal

The pilots

frequent

and the

flatus

feeder

not be needed

Voiding

intake

promote

results

food

is crude.

nutrient

of defecations

number

of residual

important

of metabolic

excellent

of the zero-G

5 to 10 percent

from

found

for the food but created

however,

agent

will

protection

food was

out of the zero-G

Another

suspect

for the

not be squeezed

antimicrobial

and treating

used

and the design

The

duction

material

The time

In addition, time

factors required

the treatment

consuming

area,

the present for manipulation

of residual

and difficult.

food

baseline during to prevent

The antimicrobic

system

was found

preparation degradation agent

used

and

to be highly eating

upon to treat

was

storage the residual 35

foodis

sealed

the tablet

in a separate

and its insertion

the subjects

found

the

threat

to the eyes;

different bacon

sizes

by 1.6

cm

1.1-cm

0.9-

by 2.8-cm

0.5

of food

to rehydrate.

the fruitcakes rate

were

hydration Teflon

of materials the

studies,

to hold

food,

of foods

the valve

in the bag, in the bag.

Cut material It was

foods.

also

a constant

There

by 2.5-cm

toast;

had difficulty was

difficult

These

foods

are

(1/4-

) cinnamon

the size

and

changed

in shape of these

able

by using

a computer

were

was

and size foods

several

by 1- by 1-in. 3.2

cm by 2.5

in placing

the larger

if the depth

and the

more

ideal.

of the bite

was

installed

bags

was

increased,

smaller; defined

and natural;

and hardness

and methods

foods

shrinkable

the

quality

removal were

and

a balanced

of

improved

(3) bite

improved;

for planning

As a

The rewith

convenient (2)

cm.

verified. (i)

as

at the

25 kg/sq

made:

more

such

closing

functionally were

and require

Some bites

A valve

to provide

integrity

defined

were

was

system

and made

dry

1 cm in diameter

of the beverage

texture

are

is approximately

system

widened

the

was

program

foods

manner:

relocated

making

considered

a punch

in the feeding

in the following

tablet

composition

Using

the feeding

changes

mouthpieces

times

cu in. was

for bite-size

to the package,

nutritional menu

by 2.5-

of the bite

of

studies.

of bite-size

important.

too hard.

studies,

redesigned

improved,

also

of 0.40

hardness

of these

rehydration

were

hazards.

in these

The subjects

it was

distribution

and fingers.

by I 1/8-in.

The removal

Once

even

safety

lips

0.6-

by 7/8-

was

for being

and the antimicrobic

by reducing

cubes;

crushing

the following

was

was

minor

and shape

bites.

initial

potential.

to assure

occurred

size

(3/8-

volume

the optimum

container

eyes

(ll/16-in.)

in the mouth

criticized

At the conclusion of these

on subjects'

The

A maximum

of 10 cm/min,

result

cuts

of a tablet.

in.

The volume saliva

fumble

presented

) sandwich

and chewing.

than

a high

also

is the

of food bites:

in the form

into pieces

of the

of consideration

(1 1/4 by 1 by 5/8-in.

greater

bag has

feeder

no injury

by 2.1-

package

to break

occasional

however,

in the mouth

was

caused

area

squares;

bites

the used

difficult

of the zero-G

mouthpiece

Another

of the primary

into

the tablet

The design around

area

sizes

(4)

the

and accept-

established.

REFERENCES 1.

Vanderveen, Flight.

2.

3.

J. Res.

Vanderveen,

4.

COSPAR

Allen,

T.

Chapin,

R.

gramming

36

J.

of

Aviation

E. ; and Allen, and Technol.

T.

E. : Evaluation

(Prague,

H. : Evaluation

Briefs

AFSCRP

of Foods

Czechoslovakia), of Human

Medical

Aerospace

E. ; Anway, of Aerospace

M.D.

; Lozano,

Rations.

Mar.

Space

Flights.

Systems

for Manned

Orbital

1968. Proc.

of the XII Plenary

Meeting

May 1969.

H. : Measurement Officers.

for

of Feeding

80-1,

Body

Fat:

Med., P.

A Quantitative vol.

34,

1963,

Method p.

A. ; and Vanderveen,

SAM-TR-68-115,

Nov.

1968.

Suited

for

Use by

907. J.

E. : Computer

Pro-

) cm

DEVELOPMENT

OF

FOR

THE

NEW

FEEDING

During

ORBITING

the

initial

THE

phase

of the

feeding

systems

were

evaluated

1965

to 1967,

at which

time

the Gemini

was

in its development

application. space

With

Medicine

Orbiting

for possible flight

States

Air

Laboratory

use.

program

There

of the

and the

United

USAF

Manned

phases.

the assistance

(SAM),

DOPPELT

Force

LABORATORY

space

gram

F.

SYSTEM

FOR MANNED

FREDERIC

CONCEPTS

was

was

time

Natick

frame

of this

30-day

Spacecraft

Center

and

feeding

Laboratories,

was

the Apollo

system

the

(MSC),

existing

evaluation

yet to be completed

no qualified

U. S. Army

NASA Manned

The

(MOL) program,

pro-

for space

USAF

an indepth

School

of Aero-

review

was

held. It was use

on the

determined

MOL.

It was

by concentrating system.

occur

development further

the Apollo in refining these

that

of increasing

complexity

great;

planning

when

space

flight

was

system.

was

supported

the efforts

tems

engineering.

The

the delineation

14-day

Gemini

systems,

Gemini

feeding

crew

7 flight

system

was

was

configured

along

were

of nutritional up to that

date

the

in this

paper, a normal

in the days

of Mercury,

development

most

system.

As has

been

to meet

certain

requirements;

an total

space

capabilities,

incorporated

crew

were

detailed heat,

feeders

no small test

control

that

rational

of zero-G

significant

feeding

unknowns

and contractors

the development

the

of the

be

progression

The

the agencies

and environmental

in

to Apollo.

systems

etc.

NASA

it should

Nevertheless,

mission,

of which

The

agencies.

flights

NASA

our efforts

both

stressing

requirements,

capabilities,

and

for

feeding

most

part

of the

foods,

on MOL,

as an integral

of NASA and all

of dehydrated

Gemini

but a dream.

system

systems

MOL and

be obtained.

to Gemini

30-day

to hours,

the feeding

was

lines

Mercury

the feeding

credit

performance

one of which

developed

be considered

by both

in Apollo

not be detailed

of it in terms

that

The application

systems,

support

in minutes

could

for use

so as to benefit

will

initially

developed

for use

benefit

system

from

would

be derived

technology

in increments;

to develop

to date

could

mutual

feeding

were

It is to the great

materials,

frame,

system

of the already

of that

systems

to conceive

have

advantage

be interwoven

accomplished

necessary etc.

spacecraft

could

systems

made

requirements,

packaging

Gemini

measured

constantly

It was

time

the

of accomplishment

was

feeding

the componentry

of feeding

spaceflight

were

greatest

flight

concepts history

remembered

the

and expansion

efforts

the

Gemini/Apollo

on improving

during

Although

the

that

development

expanding

attempt

felt

efforts

Through

would

that

sysand

effort.

in space

of

and lifeelsewhere,

vibration,

the and 37

bacteriologicalcriteria, nutritionallevels, proceduraluserequirements,usein the confinedcompartmentof theGeminispacecraft,andutilizationof fuel-cell waterat its spacecrafttemperature of 80° F werebut a fewof theenvironmental criteria. In August1967,after industryproposalevaluation,WhirlpoolCorp.wasselectedto developandproducethe MOLFeedingSystemAssembly. This feedingsystemwasto becomposed of foodsubstances preparedin the formof dehydrated biteswhichwereto beeatenin thedesiccatedstateandtoberehydratedduringtheprocessandvariousdehydrated foodsandbeverages whichwereto berehydratedprior to eatinganddrinking. Therewereapproximately40items availableat thattime. TheU.S. ArmyNatickLaboratoriessupplied"SpaceFoodPrototypeProductionGuides"for WhirlpoolCorp. to incorporateintoproductionspecifications.Hotwaterto 155° F andcoldwaterto 40° F wasto beavailablefor therehydration. Twenty-sixhundred cal/man/daywasfeltat thattimetobe thecaloric requirement. Microbiologicalstandards,as developed by the U.S. Army NatickI-aboratories,wereapplied. Maximumorganolepticacceptability wasto besought. Thefoodwasto bepackaged in the Geminideveloped zero-Gfeederswith a mouthspout andhydrationvalvearrangement.Thefeederswouldbescissor-opened andthefoodandliquids squeezed into themouth. Thebite packages wouldbescissor-opened andthebites individuallyremovedfor eating. Rehydratables andbeverages werein 5-oz-capacitybags. Bite-foodbags varied in size. Foodvolumeandweightwerelimited to 195cu in. and1.7 lb/man/day. An antimicrobialagentwasattachedto eachrehydratablefoodpackage. Proceduralrequirementsdetaileda desireto minimizepreparation,feeding,andwastedisposaltimes. In orderto makeefficientuseof theitemsavailable,a 4-daymenucycleof three smallmealsof 10minuteseachandonelarge mealof 45minuteswasdesired. Mineralcontent wasbasedontherecommendations of theNationalResearchCouncil. Thecaloric distributionwas to be27to 34percentfat, 10to 15percentprotein, and50to 58percentcarbohydrate. It wasfelt that, in order to utilize thetechnicalcapabilitiesof SAM,the U.S. Army NatickLaboratories,andNASAMSCmostproperly, the MOLSystemsOfficeshouldsetupa quarterlyconferencetobeattendedby all theseagencies.Thiswouldhandleappropriatetechnical inputsandthesequarterlyfoodplanningconferences wereheldfrom 1967to 1969. Their format hasrecentlybeenslightly changed so that the MOL Systems Office and NASA MSC are cochairmen for the Government Mass.,

in March

government-agency

system,

Dr.

Vanderveen,

initially Major 38

This

close

toward

metabolic

system

entitled

by adding

and newly

entitled

relationship

contract

"Evaluation information

developed

held

about

items,

and Improving

meeting

effective

and enlarging Feeding

and improving Manned

MOL and been

of foods.

has

detailed

of the zero-G of acceptance

rehydration Orbiting

NASA.

validating

the variety Systems,"

the reliability

to the battery

have

at Natick, in integrating

of the users,

the objectives

of Space

adding

its last

singularly

requirements

and improving

of the food,

"Quantifying

which

has been

and future

specifications, paper

Group

of the Whirlpool

characteristics

food items in a paper

working

Working

the present phase

in a preceding

considered Flentge,

Technology

production

of the feeding the

Food

the development

developing

the validation delineating

1969. efforts

During this

Agency

feeders,

data

for both

information.

Laboratory

Food,

"

hasdetailedefforts in developing productionspecificationsanddiscussedthe enlargement of the food-itemlist. In particular, morehigh-nutrientsoupsandpuddingshavebeenadded,andthe qualityandtypeof biteshavebeensignificantlyenlargedandimproved. By August1968it wasfelt thatMOLhadanacceptable feedingsystemwhichcouldbe usedfor 30-dayflights, but certainproblemareasremained,or at leastbecamemoreobvious. SinceMOLwasstill in its development phases,anattemptwasmadeto detailtheseproblemareas and, in thetime remaining,to solvethem. Additionally,theseproblemswouldbecommonto the upcomingApolloflights, andsolutionsfor someof themorereadily solvableproblemareascould certainlybeof benefitto Apollo. Also, valid flight informationwouldbe gatheredduringthe , Apolloflights andwouldbebeneficialin bringingto light anynewproblemareas. It wasrecognizedthatmorenaturalfoodsshouldbedeveloped - rehydratablemeatchunks, morevegetables,andhigh-nutrientcoldliquids, to namea few. Thecompressed bites shouldbe normalizedin sizeso thata bitewouldbenormalto the mouthin bothshapeandconsistency. Alsofoodsshouldbeutilized in a moreusualmanner,asdessertitems, croutonsto beusedwith soups,etc., andnotbeviewedas themaincaloric constituentof anyonemeal. Food-storage timesshouldbe morecompletelydeterminedandimprovedsoas to givemaximumselectability whereflights occurover extended periodsof time. In theareaof packaging,it wasclear thatthedeliverysystemmustbeimproved. The complexityandunnaturalness associatedwith thehandlingof multiplesmallpackages andsqueezingtherehydratablesandliquidsindividuallywasbothcumbersome andtime consuming.The advantage of hotandcoldwaterwasnotcompletelyrealizedsincepreparationandrehydration timeswerelongandthethermalconditioningof thefoodwascertainlydegradedbecauseof the time requiredfrom preparationto actualeating. Themultiplicity of packages presenteda problem in formulatinga normalmenuplan. Morerealistic useof the antimicrobialagentwasneeded sincesignificantweightwasinvolvedin incorporatinga pill in eachpackage,andtime wasinvolved in removingit, placingit in thepackage,crushingit, etc. Drinkingmethodswereunnatural; liquidsweresqueezed into themouthby rolling upthepackagelike a toothpastetube. Thecrew no longerwascrampedintoa smallcabin,as in Gemini,andcouldnowafford thefreedomof intravehicularmovement.For thefirst time a feedingstationwouldbeutilized and,in general, living wouldbe morenormal. Thepackage-to-food ratio wasprohibitiveand,therefore,notonly costlytobooster[capability but severelylimited theimportantflexibility of mealplanning. Asan example,2900Kcalof foodwouldrequirethefull 195euin. of spaceand1.7 lb allotedand wouldcontainonly88cu in. of actualfood. Becauseof theenergyrequirementsandthe sizeof our crewmenit wasrecognizedthatas muchas 3200Kcal/man/daymightberequired. If two large crewmenflewat the sametime theycouldnothavetherequiredamountof food. Certainly, foodrequirementsshouldneverbea criterion usedfor astronautselection. Also, of course,crewproceduralrequirementsspecifiedreductionin time andproceduresandthedevelopment of moreflexiblemealgroupingto offer maximumflexibility to the flight timelinepeople. Additionally,wastehandlingmostcertainlyneededto be simplified. 39

Withtheseareasdelineatedandwith thegrowingconfidence thatwasacquiredduringthe Geminiprogramas to fooddeliverymethods,a prototypepackagesystemwasdeveloped by WhirlpoolCorp. Thispackagewouldallowspoonfeeding. Withlarger spacecraftvolumesavailableand moreknownaboutthe handlingof foodsin zerogravity, this oldtechnology of eatingwith a spoon, whichhadbeen,naturally, consideredby manygroupspreviouslybothwithin industryandNASA, couldbecomea reality. This conceptwasevaluated by MOLin a zero-Gflight test runat WrightPattersonAir ForceBasein August1968. Thetest revealedthatthemethodwasindeedfeasible. Foodsubstances adherewell to thepackage,spoon,etc. Eatingis simpleandrapid. Simplerflexiblehydrationvalveswere evaluated andprovedfeasible. Theentireeatingprocessprovedtobea morenaturalone;food packages couldbelineduponthe consoleandfoodspooned from eachpackage with ease. The packageremainedopenandfoodresiduecould be wiped off the spoon in the scooping process on the opening and

band.

Foods

the quantities

corporated on Apollo

in the

throughout

the

to the task

placed

wetpack

Christmas

like

to point

were

System

of constructive

the

menu

cycle

itself.

of the

test,

complete

As a part

and Brown

of SAM,

of diet

item

active

be close

to those

feeding

was

on Apollo

The food

itself

immediately

8 and more

its overall

where

new concepts

daily.

could

be seen

and successfully

completely

system into

by Dr.

in-

incorporated

however, impact design existing

total

systems

which

to have

has

at least

into

be attributed

all

eaten,

as

as part

of

the food

out by Drs. helped

the

required.

im-

evaluate The crewmen

however, either

Hall

us to de-

learned two crewmen

was

requirements, that

it was

carried

1969,

themselves

finally,

The crewmembers

to note

some feeding

is available,

to be feasible,

undertaken

and its

:.. his paper

on the time

proven was

concept

to state

were

2800 to 3400 cal/day

could

food as

incorporated

information

energy

in January

devoted

and,

has been

were

retained

judged

their

to too high a caloric

to

starting

intake

LBM/man/day.

feeding

like

examinations

In order

daily

gains

They

menu,

directly

crewmen

of this,

on each

of the day's

It is of interest

analysis

RotL

of 4 days.

rationally.

foods.

by our

As an example

important more

of from

All the weight

this

participation

have been

dental

Their

in orbit.

to incorporate

I would,

intake

of spoon

direct

as part

comments

in selecting

engineering

that

for a period

itself,

to gather

of 42 Kcal/Kg

the concept

which are discussed Feeding System."

cases

concept

Program.

cycle

and texture

a caloric

weight.

value

complete

able

size

anticipated

systems

system

tem and

at the table.

of the food and commented

daily

and exercised

estimates

With A complete

bite

once,

or gained on our

menu

Their

understanding

at least

remained

based

This

Development

of the meal

who were

compressed

weights

eating

eaten

great

evaluation

as part

each

mouth.

dinner

fed a complete

item,

portance

as when

in the

out the

an individual

design.

4O

desired

MOL Food

crewmen

termine

be mixed

9. I would

four

could

many

"Systems

the next

by Whirlpool

rational

possible

ramifications,

Analysis

of Manned

of the objectives

Orbiting

of redefining be constantly

maximum

benefit

can be derived

of requirements

taken.

the MOL of

Laboratory

the food delivery

It must

review

was

the details

system.

if an integrated

step

so as to redesign

kept from

in mind

that

incorporating

and objectives

is

sysin

undertaken.Therefore,WhirlpoolCorp.wasdirectedto doa completetradeoffanalysisas part of this study. This requireddetailedobjectivesandrequirementsdelineationandprioritization. Foodstoragedimensionsbecamea primefactorandnutrientmodularization anddimensionalmodulartzationbecamea necessity. Normaleatinganddrinkingmethods,rationalcombinations of foods,minimizationof time, moreappropriatepackage-opening techniques,realistic usesof antimicrobials, simplerwastestowage,decreasingthenumberof packages involved,normalization of compressed bites, increasingthevolumeof eachliquid, decreasingthesizeof thepuddings, enlargingthecapabilityto carry 3200Cal/man/dayif required, retention of thermal heating and cooling newer

of the

food till

food types, It is,

food

itself

tions,

therefore, in-orbit

such

- all became

as meat

chunks

therefore,

recognized

its variety

but also

stowage,

approach

for

and

eaten

etc.

and feels total ease

The

important

and high-nutrient that

the

acceptability. of readjustment

maximum It also

offers

use

has

recently

of foods maximum

liquids,

involves

and convenience

Office

Additionally,

cold

food acceptability

time

MOL Systems

it now offers

factors.

flexibility

necessarily not only

of preparing evaluated

and packaging, flexibility

to incorporate must

and eating, this

for planning

of the

size

new feeding

more

be considered.

the quality

of por-

systems

convenience,

and,

purposes

and allows

if required.

!

41

SYSTEMS

OF MANNED

ORBITING

ANALYSIS

Corp.

is using

(MOL)

program.

feeding

man

to attempt

It is my hope

individual

on years

shotgun

replica

cerned.

of the

The

food

195 cu in.

in this

2900-Kcal

inefficiencies sible,

Some and others,

of the

nature volume

"shoe

box"

of 3.7

could

not be efficiently

foods

form

foods

presented

the acquired

out by using

did not relate

integral

Orbiting

Laboratory

of the problem

than by a shotgun In my opinion,

and Apollo

system

feeding

emerged

as packaging

However,

per

of

approach which

is

programs,

in the contract

and

day for

food items

each

The average because

of food,

a

oriented

and

confood

of the

of packaging

when

were

astronaut's

volume

as an

of

dehydrated

food-shape

as efficiently

as pos-

of 195 cu in.

related

irregular

However,

Whirlpool

of the art.

volume

day of food

in.

to shapes

of foods

used

components

used

in MOL was

in a theoretically

with the baseline

either

from

development

attempts

water

are

problem entrance

stowage

dimensions

to the valve

and tended

as molds

for freezing

for producing

thick,

in the menu

in the package.

system,

was

volume.

systems

to crush

The 195 very

this

efficient

storage

space

First,

foods

samples. feeding

prior

The which

to drying.

However, system.

portion,

The dimensions

in intimate

work,

used

was

contact. rehydratable was

carried

These

cans dimen-

a bar,

the size

it dimensionally

in the baseline

they were

merely

in-

which

the arbitrary

In general, nor

regular

the package tablet

arbitrary.

products

fairly

The rehydratable

waste-stabilization

development

standpoint;

These

together.

integrator.

serving

or nutritional

them

purely

experimental

of the

foods.

bite-size

were

original

not a satisfactory

storage

to package

foods the

bite-size

and a hard

experimental

requirement

the engineering work.

from

Apollo

made

of the rehydratable

of any available

from

of the current

difficult

to any specific

of no value early

when

more

and handy

can and 1 in.

factor

other man

current cans

sions

of a Spam

and

pattern

their

inexpensive

Gemini

insofar

were

per

and sizes

were

state

volume

rather

components.

of 2900-Kcal°

available

of valves

at efficient

Spam

system

overall

88 cu in.

allocated

poppit-type

shapes

this

the dimensions

an even

all attempts

Second, foods

1 shows

a hard

understanding

the

88 cu in.

by 8.3

facilitate

which

utilized.

no regular

corporated

menu

approach

for the Manned

on both

storage

1 Corporation

system

MOL baseline

inefficiencies

by 6.3

will

system,

system,

packaging

of storage

FigUre

only

the allocated

cu in.

shape

was

the

a total

a baseline

baseline

filled

to the

for

feeding

or hardware

the

feeding

allocated

menu

in this

completely

defied

Gemini

MOL system

approximately

to advance

Wh_rlpoo

systems-analysis

spacecraft

items

papers,

the

discussion

of a total food

in other late

this

as a contractor

do little

As mentioned exact

that

improved

will

the overall

in light

of experience

approach

is to present

to improve

in a spacecraft

of developing based

of my discussion

SYSTEM

ROTH

NORMAN G.

I

LABORATORY

FEEDING

The purpose

I

system

an were

a carryover 43

_T--

11 1

3 4

16

i___

15 16

3 4

5 16

I

$

16

t

I

I

t 1

1

5

II 7 8

Edge

Figure

1. -Dimensions

The baseline point if properly sired.

used,

Considerable

the foods.

MOL foods were acceptable but under actual data presented

Our task at Whirlpool

acceptable

feeding

concerned

with the nature

44

of current Apollo bite-size

system

under

previous

by previous

was to perform actual

of this systems

spacecraft analysis

foods.

view

of all

Dimensions

from both the nutritional system

application

speakers

attest

a systems

and the basic

are in inches. and organoleptic

they left something

to the fundamental

analysis

conditions.

cubes

stand-

to be de-

acceptability

of

which could lead to an overall

The remainder conclusions.

of this paper

will be

First, is

involved

broken they

lines serve

let us look

in the system. are

At the center

not within

to describe

at the interface

the

scope

the total

charts of the

(figs.

chart

2 and 3) so that we can understand

is a typical

of the feeding-system

system.

After

this

look

rehydratable

contract,

but they

at the overall

system,

food are

all

package. shown

that The

because

the analysis

was

undertaken.

En romen, /

r

//

/

EnviroJnment

/

'

/

"

..-(_1

Size

] co.'i.r.tion I

/

_

" ">('/

>-- ' I _o_,_=.,,on I \

/

/ /

I

|

attachment

[

I

I

\

/

]

I

u_,t.i_tion

\ \

r St:bi,,t ,

_

/

Y

/

/ _ole

\

l

\ _

I

rehydration

-|,_ack_ ....

I1-"-" L,

"/

\ \



_

1

protection

_

Food

\

"

1 I

I

,If / NN

/

'Handling

\ \

Figure

2. -Feeding-system

interface

chart. bite-size

Rehydration packages.

interfaces

not applicable

to

45

Q

ment

Temperature

I

Factors

Vibration

Removal

Means

!

Crushing

Force

I

Dimensions

]

Configuration

[

Dispensing Protection C onfigu ration

Material Shock

Accelation

Oxygen Moisture Acoustical Ener

Quality

I

Food

Light

Color,

Odor

]

Portion

Size

]

Dimensions

Temperature

Rehydration_ Palatability

Nutrition

Taste

]

Texture

]

Variety

[

and

Acceptability

Increment Volume

Nutritional

Rehydration

Appearance

_Figure

46

[

3.-Interface

constraints

imposed

on foods.

[

Overall

provide (For

goals,

(1)

Optimize

(2)

Provide

about

the

example,

spacecraft packages

all

meat

items

goals,

Make

Eliminate

(3)

Allow

(4)

Provide

and beverages, These system.

should

for normal efficient

of all types

interchangeability. goals.

However,

(2)

Identification

of all foods

(3)

Accessibility

of all foods

(4)

Efficient

(5)

Ability

to open

(6)

Ability

to add water

(7)

Containment

(8)

Compatibility

(9)

Overall

safety

(10)

Overall

noncomplexity

(11)

Anthropometric

integrity,

i.e.,

food-waste

criteria

are

food of the

same

class.

to: on the fixed

dimensions

for the nutritional

of the

modularity,

in two dimensions,

with the third

valves

and disinfectant

tablets.

eating.

of foods,

other

including

constraints

rehydratables,

v_ere imposed

bites,

by the

and institutional in increasing

modified

that the portion This

resulted

of "main

of meat-

portion

dish"

in a decrease

the values

should

normal

recommendations

size

a comparison

size

and reliably

spacecraft

not all

of the nutritional

to reflect

of 22 to a maximum

in itself

easily

and emergency

but certainly

food-portion

menus;

foods

pack

with an analysis

the portion

I shows

easily

to rehydratable

illustrative,

resulted

Table

a package

environments

compatibility

military

an average

of food to the atmosphere

and meals

with all normal

food portions

It also

of loss

handling

in a ration

to modify

items.

minimization

and close

tive was

decreases.

many

of food would

included:

began

noted

modularization

class

food items.

as hard

spoon-and-bowl-type

the basic

based

of individual such

max{mum

were

to allow

sizes.

)

dimensions

and efficient

System

of dessert

being

fixed

adjustments

with

The study

mended

and still

protuberances

of a given of another

standpoint

to do this,

for weight

inefficient

serving

the size

strictly

or portion

interchangeable.

the packaging

have

to:

serving a serving

as any other

modular,

(1)

The foregoing

day from

from

were

satisfactory so that

were

These

standpoint

be nutritionally

In order food

to allow

(2)

should

food packages

compartment.

variable

content

in brief,

all

the food to provide

modularization,

nutritional

and contained

dimension

from foods

nutritional

same

Overall (1)

in brief, baseline

and dietetic sizes.

number

aspects.

This was

as a guide. food items

in total

done

Generally,

and decreasing of food packages

The initial by using this

objec-

standard

modification

the portion

sizes

required

per man

of 16.

of portion are

inclusive.

based

sizes

in the current

on use of normal

menus

portion

and soup-type

foods

increases

help to eliminate

some

of the valid

with

sizes.

those

in the

Generally,

and that of dessert-type complaints

of too many

recom-

it can be foods sweets

in the menu.

47

TABLE

I.-COMPARISON

OF DRY

PORTION Current portion

Food item

Weight, g

WEIGHT_

AND

MOL sizes Volume, cu in.

VOLUMES

Modified portion Weight, g

MOL sizes Volume, cu in.

Cereals Sugar-coated

corn flakes ..........

36.8

5.63

42.9

6.57

Toasted oat cereal ..............

24.0

9.24

36.0

13.87

Applesauce

35.0

6.99

20.0

3.99

21.0

7.25

21.0

7.25

19.0

7.25

22.2

8.47

22.5

7.25

22.5

7.25

3.46

Fruits

Fruit

...................

cocktail

Peaches

.................

.....................

Vegetables Cream-style

corn

..............

Puddings Apricot

......................

70.0

5.94

4O. 8

Banana

......................

70.0

5.24

40.8

3.06

70.0

5.93

52.5

4.45

70.0

5.51

52.5

4.13

41.0

6.80

41.0

6.80

42.0

6.80

42.0

6.80

42.0

6.80

42.0

6.80

31.0

6.80

20.7

4.54

35.0

6.80

46.7

9.07

29.0

6.80

58.0

13.59

27.0

6.80

45.0

11.33

22.0

6.80

58.7

18.14

21.0

6.80

56.0

18.12

38.0

6.80

63.3

11.32

29.0

6.80

58.0

13.59

40.0

5.80

40.0

5.80

24.5

6.80

40.8

11.32

46.0

8.81

69.0

13.22

27.5

1.88

38.5

2.57

30.0

6.59

52.5

11.53

35.0

5.19

49.0

7.26

39.0

7.46

54.6

10.44

49.0

6.10

58.8

7.32

40.0

4.42

56.0

6.19

42.0

3.56

58.8

4.98

84.0

7.12

Butterscotch

..................

Chocolate

....................

Salads Chicken

.....................

Salmon Tuna

...................... .......................

Shrimp

cocktail

................

Meats Beef

and

Beef

hash

gravy

Beef

pot roast

Beef

with

.................

vegetables

Spaghetti Veal

.................

....................

with

meat

in barbecue

Car_adian

.............

bacon

Sausage

patties

Chicken

and

..............

sauce

...........

and applesauce ................

gravy.

..............

......

Soups Cheese

......................

Cream

of chicken

Cream

of mushroom

Cream

of tomato

Lobster Pea

bisque

............... ............. ...............

.................

........................

Potato

......................

Beverages Cocoa

Tea

.......................

8.2

........................

• 56

13. I

.84

19.7

i. 27

31.5

2._5

37.8

2.46

54.6

3.52

66.3

4.28

64.4

4.05

78.2

4.92

Drinks Fruit

Fruit

drinks

drinks

Grapefruit

48

- class

- class

drink

1 ............

4 ............

- class

4 .........

21.0

39.0

46.0

1.37

2.52

2.89

After

analysis

modularlzation, study the

of the

indicated

that

modularization,

optimum

a maximum

MOL requirements.

table

food

to determine

the next

utilization

of 16 packages

Volume

per

requirements

step

was to perform

of the available day,

for this

stowage

distributed

as

distribution

a dimensional

space.

shown

were

The nutritional

in table

II, could

determined

to be as

meet shown

III.

TABLE

Type

II.-DETERMINATION

OF MODULAR

Portions ration

of food

INCREMENTS Modular increments per ration

Volume factor

per

J

Rehydratable

28

Liquid

20

Bite

16 64

TABLE

Type

HI.-FOOD

AND PACKAGE

Maximum food and package vo lume, cu in.

Average food and package volume, cu in.

Average food volume, cu in.

of food

ASSUMPTIONS

Rehydratable

8.0

14

19

Liquid

3.5

10

11

Bite

3.5

4

5

The first ages.

Spacecraft

engineering interface

task

was

the

packages

within

the best

dimension Figure

5 shows

a few of the

number

indicates

width

and the second

age high.

dimensions this

shown

overall

dictated

in figure

dimensional

for individual

) All configurations

considered

to determine

constraints

fit within

were

VOLUME

food

from

4.

the optimum

that

There

limit.

possible

are

The

packages

the ration

this

1 by 1 through

height;

shape as

many

tradeoff

configurations

indicates

(defined

obviously

first

within

modular

food for

possible

study

for the

was

food pack-

1 man

for 1 day)

dimensions

performed

for

16

to select

system. studied.

e.g.,

(In these

2 by 1 is 2 packages

10 by 1 were

examined;

sketches, wide

configurations

the

first

by 1 packover

11

not feasible.

Tradeoff

factors

(1)

Package

(2)

Availability

used

in the

study

were:

access of space

for mounting

rehydration

aperture 49

in

(3) Compatibilitywith hot-water-probeenclosure (4) Anthropometriccompatibility (5)

Maximum

package

(6)

Bite

(7)

Number

(8)

Minimum

acceptable

bite

volume

(9)

Maximum

acceptable

bite

volume

(10)

Flexibility

of bite

cross

depth

section of bites

('11) Permissible

per

modular

serving

serving

face

volume

sizes

as function

of thickness

T Ration Pack

3.7-in. Height

Depth 6.3-in. Width

_,_ -[

feeding system

Figure 4. -MOL

All factors were

were

assigned,

into the total

assigned

and any single mathematics,

spacecraft

system

which

does

not permit

from

further After

sion

was

package order use

of formed

for individual 5O

no-go

constraint, access

in the tradeoff

configuration

but I would

a thorough

selected

to make

ratings

like

eliminated

to present

the hot-water-probe to the hot-water

study.

a particular

one example. cavity

probe

In addition,

dimension.

Figure

dimensions.

for rehydration

go-no-go

numbers I cannot

6 illustrates

Any package obviously

go

a fixed

dimension

would

be discarded

the

5 by 1 dimen-

consideration.

dimension

for nutritional

numerical

assembly.

the bars,

as optimum

system was

most

body

can only be mentioned of the MOL food

rehydratables, efficiently,

desirable.

between

of different

which

modularizati0n bites,

work most

analysis,

for

for all foods,

modularity men

systems

foods sizes

With and and,

a variable

for ease therefore,

packages.

and beverages,

a loose

here,

fill of rehydratable length

An adjusting different

This

as shown

dimension, portion calorie

foods, loose sizes intake

resulted in figure

in a 7.

rather

than

fill would

of a given

In

allow

menu

requirements.

/

/

/

7

////

/ odule

./

[ Module

I

,/ //

Module

(d) 4 x 1 Module

/

/,/

//

V

le

(f) 2 x2

,_

Module

le Figure

5.-Some

food-package

configurations

studied.

51

Mouthpiece

1.125

Figure

6.-Hot-water-probe

cavity

dimensions.

J

-_-I

j

m

L

I

L__ 3.6

' Figure

52

7. -Dimensions of package module. Dimensions are in inches.

Dimensions

are

in inches.

TableIV shows,with samplesof Apollofoods,thatloose-fill foods(aftervacuumpackaging} require nomorevolumethanformedbars. Themodularpackagingrequirementalsodictateda change in shapeofthe bitesfrom shapespreviouslyshownto wafersabout½in. thick by slightly over 1 in. square. Fortunately,this shapeis in generalagreementwithAir Forcedentalresearch results onoptimumsizeof bites. TABLEIV.-COMPARISON OF FORMEDANDPARTICULATEFOODVOLUMES Volume,cuin.

Fooditem

Guide

weight,

g Formed

Shrimpcocktail

31

Beefandvegetables

22

Spaghetti andmeat sauce

21

Chickenand

21

vegetables

After were

selection

performed

of dimensions

to establish

separate

tradeoff

studies

closure

concepts.

The

of the modular

the basis were

first

rehydration

(1)

Maximum

diameter

(2)

Maximum

length

(3) Requirement

for package performed aperture

for adapter

to mate

(5)

Reliability

(6)

Potential

for

leakage

around

probes

(7)

Potential

for

leakage

during

kneading

packed

4.771

5. 381

8.665

5.259

4. 832

7.444

4.710

5. 320

7.933

5.137

4. 893

7.872

4. 710

4. 893

7.811

4. 710

4. 893

7.689

4. 771

4. 527

8.177

4.283

4. 832

8.238

4.527

4. 771

8.055

4.466

4. 893

8.482

4.527

5.137

9.031

5. 747

5.137

8.299

5.442

5. 259

8.665

5. 564

5. 259

8.909

5.625

packages,

similar

In the case the rehydration

systems

tradeoff

of the rehydratable aperture

studies package,

and package-

included:

with water

Self-closing

Vacuum

7.811

by selecting

(4)

fill

5. 015

designs.

concepts

Loose

bar

probes

feature

53

(8)

Feasibility

(9)

Valve-food

(10)

Material

(11)

Tooling

requirements requirements

The package-closure

The

concepts

Compatibility

(2)

Capability

(3)

Cross

(4)

Tendency

to be soiled

(5)

Simplicity

of operation

(6)

Capability

to be opened

with

one hand

(on console)

(7)

Capability

to be opened

with

one hand

(hand held)

concepts

(1)

face

over

end of package

of opening

were

then

package factors

functional

package

to be folded

and bite-size

were

with

section

The tradeoff cepts

included:

(1)

selected

Beverage

interference

by food removal

used studies

utilized

factors,

in developing were

performed

in selecting

system

the overall

factors,

the

rehydratable

in a similar most

and program

feasible factors.

package

concept.

manner. rehydratable The

food package

functional

factors

conwere:

Manipulation (a)

Insertion

of water

probes

(b) Rehydration (c) (2)

Opening

and reclosure

Temperature

maintenance

(3) Rehydration (4) Access

to food

(5)

Compatibility

(6)

Total

operation

factors

were:

The system (I)

Weight

(2)

Volume

(3)

Reliability

The program

factors

(1)

Schedule

(2)

Unit cost

(3)

Tooling

The tradeoff the same

aperture

three (I)

time

gloves

requirements

were: (time

to qualification)

cost factors

factors.

utilized

The functional

in selecting factors

the

most

were:

Manipulation Ca) Initial

54

with unpressurized

seal

opening

(b)

Insertion

and removal

of clamp

(if any)

(c)

Insertion

and removal

of straw

(ff any)

feasible

beverage

package

concepts

were

(2) Rehydrationaperture (3) Terminalseal (4) Safety(protrudingtabs) (5) Easeof microbiologicalstabilization Thesystem

factors

were:

(1) Weight (2)

Volume

(3) Reliability The program

factors

(1)

Schedule

(2)

Unit cost

(3)

Tooling

The

same

The functional

Cube

(3)

Crumb

Weight Volume

(3)

Reliability factors

(1)

Schedule

(2)

Unit

(3)

Tooling

bite

package

concepts.

cost

been

total

greatly

been

through

rules. the

system.

specific

developed.

These

design

and have

met

and flexibility

concepts These

as one does Design

system.

a thorough

systems

analysis

and

Preliminary

design

concepts

have

concepts the basic

on Earth. concepts

been

goals

of the

of food portions

for packaging

design

have

concepts

foods

for the foods

provide

are

the

beverages,

modular

and pro-

consumed

for greater

inPackag-

within

foods,

completely

Rehydratable

study.

usable

rehydratable are

thoroughly

with

a

flexibility

compatibility.

the progress or radical

improved,

a straw.

anthropometric

system.

Design

much

discussion,

MOL feeding

requirements

has been

in a manner

beverages,

feeding

increased.

have

the foregoing

on the

spacecraft

of the ration

foods

from

performed

for a new baseline

of the packages

(if any)

cost

has

eating

devices

to qualification)

study

improved

grated

(time

you can gather

has been

now start

feasible

were:

As I hope

ground

most

were:

(2)

During

the

the

retention

(1)

and bite-size

and

in selecting

retention

factors

ing efficiency

spoon;

utilized

were:

and reclosure

with the

for

were

{b) Opening (2)

tegrated

vide

factors

of accessory

evolved

ration

cost tradeoff

Insertion

The program

been

to qualification)

Manipulation (a)

The system

(time

factors

(1)

tradeoff

were:

Of the changes

On the basis developments

systems

analysis,

in food production

of the

systems

leading

analysis, to provision

no attempt techniques.

was The

the designers of all the

made

to establish

detail

design

systems

engineers

and food

technologists

can

as a complete

inte-

components

have

set

55

APOLLO

APPLICATIONS

I

PAUL C. RAMBAUT

REQUIREMENTS

I

NASA

Center

PROGRAM

Most mission

of you are

which

ever,

will

succeed

it is only recently The AAP

space

station

orbital

will

an Apollo

are

telescope

which

will be left

primarily

medical

The food Mercury,

Gemini,

different utilize

for

system

be different

satisfactory system, profile

and are

system. better, source,

(2)

the

much This

but is rather yet also The

reasonable

to allow

spacecraft

will

impose

Two primary ing system. criteria provides

First,

which

make

the equipment

than

of a need

will

factors:

upon

the foods

objectives there

inside

spent

mission

mission

will

the

have

same

SIVB

two AAP

flights

from on our

used

part

that

things

pressure

to

the AAP

used

system

by the AAP

as good

storage

feeding

in the past to achieve

any previous

indeed

on

to make

is substantial

foods

upon

that

not

mission

flight

feeding

conditions

as a good

are

a better

will be

conventional

food

experiment.

will

meet

AAP

missions

missions

a set

of requirements as well

profoundly

on habitability,

environment the

first

employ

requirement

feeding

a food system

the

and

objective.

flight

for

or

adapter,

The first

there

placed

station,

which

we consider

as of the constraints

that

the

and packages.

of the AAP

is an experiment

a habitable

the flight

of a medical

of the

will

a desire

Some

conditions,

to make

56-day

The requirement (1)

upon

The

different

is a pressing

How-

IB rocket.

second

in reality

space

It is actually

missions.

from

history.

docking

9 months.

an astronomy

the requirements

of the objectives

Saturn

the NASA

A three-man

This

a multiple

The

not stem

a long

Earth.

All missions

has

so there

be one which

the

of about

between

(AAP),

hardware.

of AAP.

of the

practicable.

for the conducting

solidified.

essence

system;

rigorous

or less

be substantially

does

a novel

has had

module,

be 56 days.

will

imposed

of more

system

in the light

This

two major

stringent

feeding

each

concept

above

a period

the third

of standpoints

because

over

wherever

from

is not because

true

on AAP

of flying

requirements

more

is the

state

hardware,

a number

service

in a deactivated

or MOL.

stems

from

and

Program

available

ml.

assembly.

to be used

the sake

Apollo

200 n.

to the orbital

whereas

Applications

more

or SIVB stage,

two will

missions,

Apollo,

simply existing

in orbit

been

Spacecraft

of currently

about

stage,

added

system

use

will be flown

the other

mount

has

the

workshop

second

long and

Applications

of a command

AAP missions

be 28 days

The Apollo

in orbit

consist

of the

the Apollo

upon

The orbital

fuel tank

with

its configuration largely

be assembled will

Three

tank,

that

workshop.

hydrogen

familiar

Apollo.

is based

assembly,

an orbital

will

probably

Manned

SIVB which

are

postulated

will put this

influence

which in this hypothesis

the design

is designated

M487.

experiment.

The

to the test.

The

of the feedCertain experiment habitability 57

of anyenvironmentis in largepart a functionof its foodsupply. It is theintentof M487to make absolutelycertainthatthereis nothingaboutthe foodsystemor anyothersystemwhichwill unnecessarilydetractfrom habitability. TheAAPfeedingsystemis oneofthe mostcritical elementsof theoverall life-support systemof theAAPorbital assembly. Properfoodconsumption is essentialfor sustainingthe healthandperformanceofthe astronauts.Thequalityof thefoodandtheeasewith whichit may bepreparedandconsumed will havea profoundeffectuponthegeneralpsychological,as well as thephysiological,well-beingof thecrew. Foodwhichmaybenourishingbutwhichis nothighly palatableandwhichis difficult to prepareandconsumemayadverselyaffectthe moraleandperformanceof theastronautsandwill beincompletelyconsumed. A secondprimeobjectiveof AAPis to obtainmedicaldata. A large complement of medical experimentation will beimplemented onAAPin ordertoassesstheeffectof spaceflightupon thehumanandto gatherpredictivedataregardinghis ability to withstandweightlessspaceflightof very prolongedduration. Onepart of this experimentalpackageis designedto assessthe effect of spaceflightuponmusculoskeletal function. Thecoreof theexperimentis essentiallya very preciselyperformedbalancestudy,whichis designatedM070. Sucha balancenecessarilydepends uponvery accurateknowledge of the inputandoutputof majormetabolites. Thefoodmustbesufficientlywell definedthatthis knowledge of nutrientintakemaybe derivedfrom minimalinflight datawhichwill berecordedduringthecourseof theexperiment. Thecrewwill adhereto a prearrangedor nominalmenuplanchosenby theprincipal investigator in advance.Therewill beavailablethecrewman'sdaily logof itemsleft unconsumed or of items consumed in a sequence whichdiffers from thenominalmenu. Wewill haveaninflight loggedrecordingandvoicetransmissionregardinganyresidual,partially consumed food:ternwhichcontainsmorethanI percentof theoriginal massof food. Sincetheseinflight massmeasurements imposea burdenon thecrew, it is highlydesirablethatthefoodpackagebegraduatedin a manner whichwill allowa visualestimationof foodmassremainingwithoutmassmeasurement.As additional data,wewill haveassurancethatthewatercontentof anyrehydratablefooditem will not differ from thatprescribedby theinstructionsonthepackage. Wealsoproposeto placeontheAAPfeedingsystema numberof nutritionalrequirements. It is essentialthattherecommended dietaryallowances of all vitamins,minerals, essential fatty acids, andaminoacidsbemetor exceeded by thenominalmenuwhencompletelyconsumedby thecrew. Thedietwill besodesignedthat eachcrewmanwill consumeeachdayabout 800mg of calcium. This mightbeaccomplished eitherby distributingthecalciumevenlyin a constant

calcium-to-calorie

which the crewmember a similar manner.

is most

The food flavor, For purposes governing sure 58

of designing

criterion

ratio

likely

texture, the AAP

for any increase

that the nutritional

throughout

requirements

the food or by incorporating

to consume

first.

and appearance

will

feeding

system,

or decrease of the crew

Dietary

be varied

complete

met

phosphorus

to obtain

consumption

in food variety. are

the calcium

complete

be controlled

in

consumption.

will be considered

Complete

as efficiently

will

in items

consumption

as possible

the

will

without

en-

food

waste. Menusandfooditemswill bevariedin moisturecontent,flavor, texture, nutrientcomposition, andparticle size in a mannerwhichwill ensurecompleteconsumption.Wewouldlike to avoid unnecessary variety. Consideration will begivento a modularfoodconceptwhichwill consistof a fewbasicitemswhichcanbe manipulated to providethe necessaryvariety in flavor, texture,moisture, particle size, etc. Thebalanceexperimentwill imposea requirementfor as muchhomogeneity as possible. Ideally,rehydratablefoodswill behomogenous to theextentthatany1-percentsampleof anyfood in a particularpackagewill constitutea representativesampleof thatfood. Thisrequirementwill applyto thefoodbothin wet anddry state. Thereforerehydrationoffooditems musttakeplace completelyanduniformly. All fooditems to be included in the AAP menus will be of known chemical composition. The permissible of items

variance

fed,

the intake

but it must

of each

99 percent

over

be packaged

1 percent

wise tion.

the foods

must

allow

flexibility

manipulating which

will

menu and

I have

gone

to conduct

just

choices

which

through

meets

will

ing system,

we must

The food must,

The foods

and

Telescope

will

experimental

be weighed

encourage

complete

requirements

the required

which

However,

be given

programs

will

envelope

or otherconsump-

of M070

will

seem

largely

the primary

of habitability.

If there

with the provision

sorts

numerous

the type

of course, which

of vehicles;

Mount.

and yet to means

of

be developed

on the

basis

of food

to arise

from

the effort

requirement

is to provide

are experimental

of a palatable

a

requirements

flight

allowance

of at least

withstand constitute the

double

and experimental

of environment

the rigors

in which

menu,

those

re-

of a launch

foods with

of which

the Multiple

the food will

will

its associated

will

will

at their

maintain

extremes,

to

stresses. be launched

Adapter,

will be maintained

conditions,

on the feed-

be expected

I speak

Docking

be stowed

Temperature

these

requirements

and the a nitrogen

between

40 °

and allow

8 months.

for food and flexible the caloric

these

system

Module,

1 psi.

to withstand

of at least

in which

the feeding

Command

of at least

be able

for a period

The weight

nutritional

The containers

The food must thereof

the provision

which

must

As

to remain.

demands

upon the food packages

and 85 ° F. variation

to the crewman.

consideration

a lot of requirements

levied

food packages

different

pressure

available

Computer

incompatible

consider

function.

Apollo

be readily

of a package

At

not be imposed.

Now that we have

in three

the

consumption.

progresses.

experiment.

out to be obviously

quirements

within

food known

to ascertain

complete

content

items,

requirement

facilitate

and experimental menu

as the flight

will

in a manner

of the crew's

an inflight'metabolic

system

that turn

choice

consumed

be packaged

upon the number

1 percent.

must

of the original

to the nutritional

the food supply generate

reported

feeding

in the

which

will depend

with an overall

to within

of any food package

exceeding

to adhere

period

in a manner

all food residue

In order

of any food item

to be compatible

a 56-day

of the contents

estimated,

composition

be low enough

nutrient

The food will least

in the nutrient

needs

packaging of the

crew

will

be generous

in the form

of dry

in that it will food.

The

permit packages 59

employedto protectthefoodwill

constitute

only

10 to 12 percent

of the weight

of the food plus

packaging. The choice

of the kinds

ability

of a food-heating

device

There

will be a food-management

of a conventional

eating

I have

outlined

will

hopefully

I might

elicit

reflect

compatibility medicine. progress opportunity regard.

that

such

which We shall we obtain

as Apollo

is from

within

the requirements which

much

been

has

I like

future

the

oven

more

flexible

by the probable

and a food-cooling

SIVB which

said

of experimental which

will

provide

device many

furtive

orbital

avail-

(to 40 ° F).

of the

These

to rapid and

on AAP,

greater

to glean

to endure ventures.

and amenable

of much

one for the other, humans

system.

requirements

All experiments

allow

feeding

will be flown

it is essential

not compromise

first

flight

imaginative

a precursor

present.

will

both

sets

enterprises

which

of an AAP

are

to believe,

AAP will

our

considerably

amenities

location.

of the two experimental

to these

is made

as a microwave

area

solutions

AAP is,

formation

6O

of food

i.e.,

on AAP

but we shall mission

in-

habitability

possible

are

optimize

profiles

supposed

to come.

all information

carried

implementation.

of the

things

requirements

and

Before from

the

of importance the quantity

as removed

we

in this of in-

from

AAP

SESSIONII

SPECIAL

CHAIRMAN: Chief, NASA

Office

of

Human Advanced

PROGRAMS

FRANK

B.

Research Research

VORIS Branch and

Technology

I d

OPERATIONAL-EXPERIENCE

I

FOOD SERVICE ON NUCLEAR SUBMARINES

It is timely aboard

nuclear

officers

were

missary

officers.

specialty tastes

sons.

selection

is assisted

by recognition

dishes.

There

relatively

Equipment

is similar

is minimal

and to assure devices

from

stats

and avoidance vents

frigerant

coming

storage

used

Water able.

The

care

is taken

Leaks

not to distill

and solutions

this

need

water

bags,

have

in outer can have

items

no relevance or inner

space,

a profound

tanks

are

influence

recipe group

to take

serving

care

of

100 to 150 per-

advanced

prolonged bacterial

planning standing

is reof creamed

contamination.

be taken

to prohibit

would

elements.

boxes

a potential

with

include

Cooking

All

possibly mercury

odors

are

and dry-storage source

monitoring

are

thermoexhausted

of halogenated

power

(reactor During

areas.

The rehydrocarbon

is required.

the abundant

harbors.

and still

and storage in-port

capability

avail-

batteries).

periods

Special

appropriate

bacterial

made.

the sanitary

be a subject

to the space must

toward

must

heating

and discharged

could

with

Examples

is by equipnlent

through

weighted,

of com-

Navy

and minority

in provisioning

to prevent

sources.

atmosphere

in polluted

storage

effort

and freeze

problem

of water

is discharged

Any one of these

whether

minor

of potable-water

in synthetic

chill

and careful

duties

by the

birthdays,

charged

efforts

with

provided

medical

traps.

of refrigerant

consumption

waste

contact

are

to eliminate

special

heat

grease

include

is a relatively

Liquid placed

facilities

Frequent

major

examination

in direct

or galley

preparation

and

of senority,

service

is encouraged.

of poultry

with

appropriate

is freon.

contamination.

cooking

lack

in food

with collateral

of flexibility

foods

so special

in food

in contact

submarine

holidays,

latitudes dense

experience

of their

Guidelines

of any ship

powered

of Teflon

containing

Food

wide

is taken core

of the

matter.

for food preparation,

electrically

by reason

of national

of ration

to that

sufficient

are

material

through

Use

attention

toxic

air

are

crews.

to you about operational

speak

easy

Research

Medical

Laboratory

to the romance

is a relatively

BLOOM

Submarine

primarily

Variety

Particular

heating

introduced

of the various

quired.

officer

In the past,

commonly

Space

items

a medical

submarines.

Menu service.

that

D.

through

system.

Solid

a garbage

ejector.

of a lengthy

mission.

eat and that

tank

discussion.

It is quite failure

on the completion

clear,

to consider

wastes

and debris

Many of the however,

carefully

that

are

problems man,

all aspects

of

of the mission. 63

PSYCHOLOGICAL SUBSTANTIAL

AND FOR

z

EFFECTS

|

CHARLES

F.

GELL

I

MENUS

APPETIZING

SUBMARINE

OF

Research

Submarine Medioal Laboratory

PERSONNEL

|

I ship

is,

this

stage

Comparing

the

feeding

to a large

degree,

like

of development

and the space

vehicle

food and being

unhappy

ships

to say,

prepared

and in comparative whether The

fresh

a happy

meat

storeroom

space

to carry

background

music.

late

and stimulate

the

and

its inconveniences,

process

for the

many

years

one as early

snackers

and that

reports sional

were men

sailor.

amounts

that

other

"happy

human

ships,

because,

a morale

coffee

in both trait

space-

shop.

At

the submarine

of enjoying

" and

good

"good-feeding

as we all know,

factor

the disadvantages

that

a rather

insofar

As an example,

habits

ships.

food

"

tastefully

as all military

by data,

men

are

icebox

patterns while

a submarine

The space

fleet

type.

This

relatively

constricted

space

cise

habits

significantly

so as to reduce

his

A relatively

old study

that

2400

a man

calories

per

to titilspaceship

will

require

to equalize.

were

disquieting. great

preference

narrative

there

for

Two

between-meal sweets.

observations

is a great

the feeding

format

large

vessel,

is 5 cu yd on an FBM

can very energy

in 1949 which

day

which

rather

submariners

try

and

on the eating

submarine,

been

they

imposes

engineering

is a relatively

limited.

conducted

for

for the

merely

a day,

to modify

is definitely

state

sufficient

space,

the present

with

is,

a

These

of profes-

basis.

24 hours

appear

dining

this

with a great were

daily,

that

have

that

available

a kitchen,

attitude;

the weightless case

include

adequate

we compare

said

in fact,

goods

chef

technological

on a temporary

an open

French

carbohydrate

and,

which

relatively

of submariners

and one in 1951, largely

facilities,

with bakery

weighted

of spaceship

was

hotel

the

When

as 1949, diet

have

of the crew.

of the feeding

feeding

reported

than

of food stores,

man

quirements

a standup

ship

a bakery

cooks

we have

given

certain

with

ships,"

complete

machine,

in submarines

Although, get fatter,

has rather

appetites

not supported riding

as "taut

is quite

The ship's

their

restaurant

the usual

of a projected

is unpalatable.

development

reports,

those

comparison

abundance

large

astronauts,

reports

with

who display

a good-feeding

cream

plus

of further

Some

submarine

or afloat.

an ice

even

to invite

confined

is also

submarine

freezer,

a good-sized

described

ship

ashore

modern

men food

are

Needless

concerned

is little

are

if their

of a modern

comparing

there there

In the Navy

capabilities

used

man was

weU affect

the

output,

and

oxygen

consumption

needed

in turn,

during

tendency

for fat boys

of the average the cubic type

individual's reduce

submarine

space

and only

to

for

each

2 cu yd on a

physical

exer-

food requirements.

as an index

a temperate-zone

of calorie cruise

rein a

65

fleet-typesubmarine. Shultein 1951(ref. 1)reportedfromthe Submarine MedicalResearch LaboratorythatanArctic cruiseof 42daysanda complement of 80menutilized4480cal/man/day. Actually, a 5200calorieequivalentper manof foodhadbeenprovided. Theaverageweightgain per manwas½pound. Anotherfactorthatcouldhavesomeinfluencein modifyingeatinghabitsona submarine is the shifts in carbondioxideconcentration.Carbondioxidetendsto buildupin a submarinebeff,veenair scrubbings.Thereare some200particulatesubstances in theair which,with thedayto-dayslightpressurevariationsof thevariousgaseoussubstances, mayhavesomeunknown effectsuponappetiteandfoodpreferences. Still anotherfactor thatmayaffectfoodintakeby theindividualis thatin submarinesthe olefactorystimulusis relatively high. Thedifferencethreshold(JND,"just noticeabledifference") is correspondingly high so thatit takesa "wallopof odor" for the submarinerto say, "I smell something." Theodorsof stalecigarsor freshlypeeledonionsare notordinarily noticedbecause the denominatorofWeber'sfractionis so high: DeltaI I An interesting olefactory sory

research stimulus

modalities

area

level

that

have

= (Noticeable (Absolute

increment) level of smell)

not been

exploited

has

upon

gustation

fully in view

When

34 percent;

educational

pertaining

the

chow

lines,

asked

most

66

effect

does

relationship

the high of the

absolute

two sen-

frequently

or failed

of submarine

life

(The number mentioned It should to qualify life

than

qualified they

most

of responders "most

be noted for any

liked" that

number

of the sample

80 percent;

find

anywhere sample

in the

aspect a larger of reasons

of 186 men

portion

who failed

of the

indicated who qualified.

24 percent. For

3).

life was sample that

85 percent

Along

to qualify listed

It can be seen

ex-

"I believe that

distributions

by f. )

of submarine

(ref.

follow-

61 percent;

collected.

" indicated

"true"

the percentage

pay,

to the statement,

and those

is indicated

gave the

excitement,

been

Navy,

responded

submariners liked,

and

to food have men

men

extra

and thrills

related

and 256 enlisted

of the enlisted

who were

221 enlisted

of men,

25 percent;

and opinions

you'll

OF FOOD service,

class

of 185 officers

of submarine 4).

the submarine.

disqualified aspect

ref.

beliefs

and 90 percent men

submarine

a better

eat is the best

enlisted

aspects

(see

the fifth aboard

when

what

resulted

sample

for

with

distributions

the submariners

RELEVANCE

opportunities,

to the prevailing

response

of the officer lar

volunteered

Identification

food,

the

why they

2):

Data ample,

asked

(ref.

good

what

? PSYCHOLOGICAL

ing reasons

is,

of the intrinsic

simiwere

in table

in table

I

I that

the food served of 175 men

the food was

who were

a "much

liked"

TABLEI.-ASPECTSOF SUBMARINE LIFE REPORTED AS MOSTLIKEDBYQUALIFIEDANDDISQUALIFIED SUBJECTS Qualified group

Most-likedaspect

Disqualified group

f

%

Closeinterpersonalrelations High-caliberpersonnel

49

26

32

18

27

15

34

19

Good duty

27

14

15

9 10

Money

26

14

17

Food

13

7

22

13

Friendship

8

4

14

8

Travel

and adventure

5

3

8

5

conditions

4

2

9

5

Operations

4

2

8

5

Morale

7

4

1

1

16

9

15

9

Working

Other

things

186

Total

175

Chi square p (9df)

a Since

18.52

a

< 0.05

one of the

categories

expected

were

values

combined, FOOD

The laws approximations

cruise.

diesel-powered

Guppy of total),

products

legumes

Although

able,

on the

85-day

men,

and civilian

10 tons

of meat,

tables,

bread,

total submerged

rate

of data

during

scientists

consumed

935 lb of ice cream

buoyancy

kind

a 42--day

available.

For

patrol, 2137

1038

(2 percent),

and

data

from

most

87 men lb of cereal

Ib of sweets

two

and volume be available example,

consumed

nuclear

of the Triton, of provisions, mix,

3547

(13 percent),

and lesser

that

prior

to a

lb of meat 1132

lb of

445 lb of food products

submarines the

require

in an older,

(6 percent),

726 lb of miscellaneous

modern

of the 38 tons 460 Ib of cake

to its mass weights

(6 percent),

circumnavigation

mix,

last

of various

are

(38 percent),

foods

5, the

Consumed

of foods

of this

food-consumption world

of Foods

the submarine's

943 lb of fruit

356 lb of fatty

than

OF SUBMARINERS

Kinds

6219 lb of vegetables

(7 percent),

(3 percent),

(4 percent).

and

submarine

less

9 df.

consumption

Examples II type

was

PREFERENCES

relating

of the expected

long-submerged

(21 percent

of physics

for morale

leaving

Amounts

dairy

f

%

are

225 officers,

not availenlisted

including

1300

lb of coffee,

amounts

of canned

vege-

and so on.

67

Changes in AppetiteandFoodPreferencesDuringProlonged Submerged Cruises Reference5 containsindividualsubjectiveestimatesof thedaily foodconsumption ofa randomsampleof the Nautiluscrewduringa 2-weeksubmerged cruise. Fromtheplotsof averages for this sampleof 30menit appearsthatfoodconsumption remainedrelativelyconstantalthough therewasa greatdealof individualvariabilitywithin thegroupfrom dayto dayas thecruiseprogressed. In thedecadesince1959,morethan40FleetBallistic Submarines (FBM's)havebeen commissioned.Manned by twocrewsof approximately125officersandenlistedmen,this classof submarineshasbecomethe centralfocusfor a greatdealof research,includingappetiteanddietary research. Therefore,therest of thepaperwill presentdatacollectedfrom FBM'sduring protractedsubmerged cruisesin excessof 50days. Whena dietarystudywasconducted onboardtheUSSNathanHale(SSBN623) duringone patrol, 50enlistedvolunteersprovideddataconcerningdaily foodintake,daily mealandsnack distributions,Weeklyappetitechanges,weeklyfoodpreferences,puretastethresholdsandbody weightvalues. Thesedata(abstracted andslightly modifiedfromref. 6)are givenin tableH. TABLEH.-SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OFAPPETITEDURING EACHWEEKOFSTUDY

Week

Muchbetter f

%

1

their

%

f

%

2

7

15

37

2

4

5

11

0

0

2

1

2

0

Nu mbe r of subjects, N

f

%

79 2

4

0

0

47

30

64 10

21

0

0

47

3

51

84

8

13

0

0

61

5

10

31

63 12

24

0

0

49

0

5

10

33

67

9

18

2

4

49

1

2

5

10

32

67

8

17

2

4

48

1

2

3

6

37

75

7

14

1

2

49

appetite

that,

in general,

remained

reported

their

the

same.

appetite

from

f

Muchworse

%

of the sample 68

Better f

It is seen that

Appetite Same Worse

two-thirds However,

to be worse

to three-fourths as the cruise than

reported

or more

progressed it to be better.

of the crew

reported

disproportionately Responses

more to a

a direct questionpertainingto whichmealsa mancharacteristicallyate indicatedthatas thesubmergedcruiseprogressedmorepeoplemissedthenoonandeveningmealswhilefewermissed breakfast. Somerather grossinformationpertainingto changesin specificfoodappetiteduringextendedperiodsof submergence canbeinferredfrom a comparisonof therelative frequencywith whichthe samesampleof crewmembersindicatedthe 'best" andthe "leastliked" foodsat different timesduringa 7-weekcruise. Thesedatapertainingto foodpreferences(abstractedandslightly modifiedfrom ref. 7)are containedin tableIII. TABLEIII.-BEST ANDLEASTLIKEDFOODSELECTIONS Prepatrol (control)

Foods f

Second

Meats

f

[ I

liked

selections

% Best

115

74.2

week

117

Fifth

%

Seventh

week

f

%

week

f

%

81.8

119

90.9

108

78.3

Green-yellow

veg.

19

12.3

9

6.3

10

6.8

11

8.0

Carbohydrate

veg.

14

9.0

13

9.1

12

8.2

11

8.0 1.4 4.3

Legumes

2

1.3

2

1.4

2

1.4

2

Desserts

5

3.2

2

1.4

4

2.7

6

Total

Least Meats

147

143

155

Selections

138

selections

liked

23

16.8

18

13.6

0

0.0

16

12.9

Green-yellow

veg.

82

59.9

65

49.3

66

57.4

57

45.9

Carbohydrate

veg.

23

16.8

37

28.0

38

33.0

40

32.3

9

6.5

12

9.1

11

9.6

11

8.9

Legumes Total

The authors tables, liked

point

in that as the

order.

cruise

In short, not remarkably pect

out that

report

tion,

"If you could

distribut

already

ions

liked"

also

concluded

on patrol.

of the environment,

study

"most

and

"least

liked"

is the possibility

foods

that

are

124

consistently

carbohydrate-type

meat

and vege-

vegetables

are

less

progresses.

changed

FBM

the

Mentioned

the

Additional

115

132

137

Selections

but,

data

bearing

mentioned order

of these

dinner

choices

that

in general

The changes

in any event,

are

that

6).

from for each

week

are

difficult

not considered

of specific

food preferences

The authors (this)

do occur

motivation

of a nature

on the question (ref.

the hunger

menu, of the

simply what course

asked

would are

your

the

to relate

is

to any one

as-

alarming. are

50 men

choices

abstracted

of submariners

contained

to answer

be ?" in table

in an the

ques-

Frequency IV. 69

TABLE

IV. -ANSWERS

Food

TO MENU,

QUESTIONS "IF WHAT WOULD

YOU COULD ORDER DINNER YOUR CHOICES BE ?"

FROM

1

Number 2

in week6

3

6

4

4

5

5

4

35

36

38

41

37

36

37

3

2

3

0

4

4

4

item

of men 3

choosing 4

item 5

(THIS)

7

Appetizer Kadota

figs

.........

Seafood

cocktail

.......

Herring

with

sour

aspic

.........

cream

Salad Tomato Avocado Red

kidney

bean

16

13

16

17

16

17

16

16

17

15

17

17

17

18

11

14

15

13

14

12

12

13

16

15

17

21

14

14

23

20

21

23

18

20

26

10

9

10

13

7

Soup Cream

of tomato

Beef

.......

broth

Potato

.......

8

9

Entree SpaghettiCold

cuts

..........

Pork

sausages

Vegetables Rice

22

24

26

25

24

22

27

15

14

15

16

16

15

14

7

7

6

8

9

i0

7

8

8

........

(2 choices)

.............

Spinach

...........

Carrot

.....

15

18

7

5

3

5

8

7

29

24

10

15

7

8

Cabbage Corn Broccoli Potato

............ ........... ............

6

15

9 11

10 11

7

8 13

9 13

7

7

5

10

11

8

8

26

24

23

29

28

13

16

16

16

16

12

12

7

10

Beverage Black

coffee

Coffee

with

Coffee Coffee

.........

20

22

22

25

27

26

26

sugar

16

15

13

15

14

13

15

_ith

cream

5

7

10

6

7

5

6

with

cream

and

sugar

-

-

2

11

28

31

28

29

26

31

29

11

9

13

13

14

10

12

6

5

5

9

6

1

Dessert Banana

7O

pudding

Assorted

cheeses

Assorted

nuts

........ .......

5

7

CONCLUDING It can reasonably (1) The abundant

Navy

be assumed apparently

and appetizing

critical

rarely

food

(3)

Mom's

Except

for

and

character.

procedure

such

for the

provide

as may

appear

Hopefully,

on the

results

of the

has

are

in the

matter

paper

that:

of supplying

it is one

high quality.

One

to be good.

of food aboard

been

a submarine

of foods

unearthed

seem

detailing

neurotics.

sailors,

seems

to be

to be of a normal

is quite

of engineering

6 are

best

space

is due to the

ship

which

will be unsatisfactory.

atmosphere

presented

habits

thorough.

in space

congenial

eating

no doubt,

a rotating

feeding

a more

erotic

This,

which

periphery,

in reference

sailor,

is not overdone.

submarine

provide

its present

supposed

Choice

confirmed

in its outer

study

in the present

to the submarine

from

ingestion

snacking

in some

Moon will

concern

open.

NASA is capable

G loading

residence The

until

sailors

they

the

literature

of potential that,

a moderate

because

is always

be found

submarine

by its

it degenerate

deviations,

submarine

presented

to be a major

should

the icebox

of the data

cruises.

Between-meal

selection

It would can

though

No specific

and preferences

well

dinners

moderate

even

satisfactory

arise

Sunday

a review

done

not seem

could

not immoderate

(4)

does

attitudes

compliments

has

food on prolonged

(2) Although in which

from

REMARKS

for

by quoting

eating.

the

abstract

eat abnormally

high

of that

report: "Some

previous

reports

and

their

of carbohydrates

that

would

lead

one to expect

patrol

for long periods.

Hale

(SSBN623)

ported

beliefs.

a moderate

great

diet oral

A detailed

to evaluate It was

amount

indicated

that

habits

include

health

problems

dietary

that

the

The FBM

of between-meal

between

meal

in submariners; health

findings

crew

snacking.

crewmen

many

and oral

the problem.

found

submarine

snacks.

If true,

particularly

study

was

essentially

done

ate an essentially

these

in those

aboard

disprove

amounts

the

facts

on

USS Nathan

the previously

re-

diet

only

well-rounded

with

"

REFERENCES 1.

Schulte,

2.

Youniss,

John

Apr.

Richard

Weybrew,

King,

Patrol

Weybrew,

6.

Kropp,

in the Arctic.

MRL

Rept.

No.

171,

No.

H.B.

278,

Nov.

MRL Rept.

of Disqualification

Submarine

Duty

and Its Relation

to

1956.

: Approaches

Service.

Correlates

B. : Psychological

MRL Rept.

August

Members.

Rept.

for

to the No.

321,

Study Oct.

of Motivation

of Officer

1959.

in the Submarine

Service.

MRL

Rept.

No.

1957.

Submergence.

Summitt,

Submarine

T. : Some

Benjamin

and Oral

MRL

of Motivation

B. ; and Molish,

for the

Aug.

5.

Success.

Benjamin

Bert

291,

7.

of a Submarine

P. : An Investigation

School

Candidates 4.

Study

1951.

Submarine 3.

H. : A Dietary

D. ; and

Hygiene James

Status K. ; and

NSMC

No.

Shiller,

Rept.

and Psychophysiologteal

281,

Feb.

William

in Submariners. Shiller, No.

William 539,

July

Effects

of Long

Periods

of

1957.

R. : Personal NSMC

Rept.

R. : Dietary

Habits No. Habits

and Diet 528,

May

in Relation

to Periodontal

1968.

and Related

Factors

in FBM

Crew

1968. 71

TEKTITE I FOOD DEVELOPMENTS

Tektite Research, with

I is a multiagency

the National

participation

which

Aeronautics

by the U.S.

furnished

the

and and

Coast

undersea

industry

R. W.

I

General

program

Space

jointly

The prime

and assisted

SCARLATA Electric

sponsored

Administration,

Guard.

habitat

I

and the

contractor

in program

Co.

by the

Office

Department

is the

planning

of Interior,

General

and

of Naval

Electric

scientific

Co.,

mission

coordination. On February floor the

in Great four

April studies;

is nearly

time

to the scientific

sight

cleanup

of fish

a picture

U.S.

Virgin

Islands

and occupied

a new world's

record

for

returned

to the surface

activity

developed

the underwater

for living,

operations,

expected

to require

mission.

The scientific

biologic

and geologic swimming

of this

sea

by changed

story.

) An overall

the system,

studies.

scientific

The scientific

evaluations, unknown

man's

first,

description

mission

and behavioral hazards

ous

similarities

that

in both

studies

of long-term between

the crews

categories

take

were

The habitat tion.

Each

cylinder

compartments

have

cupola

for additional

consists

of two,

scientific

as well

plexiglas observation

on

appliances,

cook-

apply

more

of undisturbed

(Perhaps

"psychological

needs"

the

fish,

tempting

for food,

mission

but that

and habitat

will

on food.

into the sea.

of sleep biology, of men as the

to zooplankton marine

under sharks

programs

Almost

biomedical

Stresses

and barracuda.

may

aqua-

distribution

geology,

stress.

every

be summarized

included The numerby stating

along.

DESCRIPTION

interconnected,

is 12_ ft in diameter 2-ft-diameter

marine

environment HABITAT

On

scientific

could

studies

of the scientific

analysis

and aerospace

their

in situ

mission

group

diving

the hydrospaee must

the

of an isolated

saturation

team.

MISSION

scientific

from

18, 1969,

the emphasis

aquanauts

Bay.

and the constraints

long-term

significance,

crew's

with

preparation,

the

in Lameshur

the

of marine

habitat

so that

involved

specimens

By March

by a single

58 days

Food

time,

mission

to the ocean

record.

and maintenance. minimum

diving

over

engineering

I was

had

with

descended

the habitat.

saturated

Co.

SCIENTIFIC

naut

scientists

diving

of the program,

Tektite

of Interior

saturation

and lobsters part

Department

the previous

were

and other

is the latter give

double

of design

and

lobsters,

team

Electric

ing,

U.S.

Bay in the

the aquanaut

General simplicity

four

had established

1969, this

1969,

Lameshur

aquanauts

15,

15,

and is divided observation of underwater

18-ft-high

cylinders

into upper ports.

installed

and lower

Atop

on a base

compartments.

one cylinder

secAll

is an observation

life. 73

TheSurfaceControlCentersupplies11.6CFHof air to thehabitat,whichmaintainsthe oxygenlevel at 160mmpartial pressure. This exchange of air is 0.34percentof thetotal volume. Onecanconsiderthehabitata 99.66percentclosedatmosphere.Carbondioxide(CO2)is scrubbed withbaralyme. Thatsea-waterpressurein themainhatchis equaledby the 2_-times-normal atmosphericpressureof thehabitat,permitsthis hatchto remainopenthroughout themission. Aquanauts enterthehabitatby openingthesharkcagedoor, swimmingthroughthebase tunnel,andclimbinga ladderthroughthemainhatchintothewetroom. Scuba equipment andwet suits are removed,rinsed, andstoredin closets. As cleanlinessanddrynessare very important to health,a shower,hair dryer, andclothesdryer are put to constantuse. Wetanddry laboratoriespermit dissection,preparation,andexaminationof specimens.Thewater, air pressure, communications, andelectricumbilicalsfrom theSurfaceControlCenterenterthewet roomnear theladderof theengineroom. Uponclimbingtheladderintothe engineroom, oneseesthelarge EnvironmentalControl Systemin the center. It containsheat-exchanging, dehumidifying,filtering, andCO2 scrubbing systems. Theelectricpowersystemandcontrols,a largefoodfreezer, a washbasin,a toilet, anda hot-waterheaterare installedalongtheroom'sperimeter. Theinterconnecting tunnel leadsto thebridge. Thebridgeprovidesfor stationmonitoring,communications, andscientificequipment. A NASAatmosphericanalyzercontinuouslymonitorsnitrogen,oxygen,water-vapor,andCO2 partial pressures. Portablebackupatmosphere monitorsare usedto checktrace gasessuchas carbonmonoxide(CO)andacrolein. A mastercommunications panelinterconnectseachhabitat compartment,the SurfaceControlCenter,andwaystationsin thesurroundingwater. Additional communications systemsincludeopenmicrophones,a sound-powered phone,anda regularphone for talkingto surfacepersonnel.A dualtelevisiondisplayis usedto monitorcrewactivitiesin eachcompartment andnearbyunderwaterareas. Downtheladderfrom thebridgeare thecrewquarters. This sectioncontainsfour bunks, refrigerator-freezerandoven-stovecombinations, anda counterwith a built-in sink. Radioand televisionprovideeveningentertainment whilethecrewsit onfoldingchairsandeatdinnerat a fold-awaytable. Underneath therug is anemergency hatchwhichpermitsthecrewto escapeto nearbywaystationswithemergencyair bottles. RESEARCH TEAMCONCEPT Crewparticipationbeganearly in theprogramwhenthe researchteamconceptwasdeveloped"to encourage teameffort andspirit withthe singlepurposeof a successfulmission" (ref. 1). Initially, this conceptwasdesignedso thatthecrewcouldcontributeto all phasesof missionplanningandoperations.However,interestspreadandall theengineersweresoondeeply involvedin developing Tektiteonschedule.Thetime between proposalsubmittalandthe start of 1 theoperationalmissionwas 14_months.

74

FEEDINGSYSTEM Initial SystemConstraints Foodequipment originallyconsistedof a combination"GriddleandPressureCooMng Fixture" developed for torpedoboatsduringWorldWarII. The freezerstored16cu ft of foodand therewasanadditional2.2 cuft of frozenfoodstoredin thecombinationrefrigerator-freezer. Sincethehabitatenvironment wasapproximatelya 99.66percentclosedatmosphere with limited scrubbingandfiltering capability,cookingwaslimited initially to heatingfood,pressure cooking,occasionalbaking,andbroiling precooked meats. Pressurecookingwaseliminatedduringa test sessioncalledthe "live-in. " Thecookingfixture wastoocomplicatedandall cooking wouldbeunderpressurein theregularmissionregardlessof thecookingvesselin use. Frying foodrepresented a primary sourceof contaminants.Inthefrying process,animalfatswere brokendowninto COandacrolein. Early in the closed-atmosphere studiesby the GeneralElectric Co., COwasfoundto appearandslowlyincreasein a two-gasspacecraftsimulator. Detailedinvestigationsfoundthat smallamountsof COwerecontinuously producedin thebodyandexhaled(ref. 2). Sjostrand demonstrated thatit occursthroughthebreakdown in hemoglobin (ref. 3). Manexhalesabout 10cc of COper day. If theoxygencontentis lower thannormal,andthe CO2 contentincreased, the formationof COis increased(ref. 4). Thefour aquanauts couldproduce40cc of COper day. Theoretically,onthebasisof human-produced COalone,theAir Forcesafetylimit of 25ppmfor continuous occupancy wouldbe reachedonthe 60thday. Actually, theCOlevel stabilizedearlyat 20ppmandremainedthere throughoutthemission. The0.34percenthourly changein thehabitatatmosphere wasgivenas theprobablereasonthatCOdidnot buildupandpasssafetylimits. Menu Themenuwasdeveloped througha seriesof iterationsbeginningwitha 5-dayrepeating menu. As expected,theaquanauts complained of novariety andthevegetables wereevaluated as "like occasionally." An Air Force "foodfor spacetravel" report (ref. 5)hada 30-daymissionmenuthatwas distributedto the crewfor comment. Thecrewcommented,"This is morelike it, butcouldn'twe havechili, enehaladas, tacosandtamales?" TwomembershadstartedSealabIII trainingandhad heardthatpreviousSealabcrewslost their senseof tasteduringthemission. Their theorywas thatspicyfoodwouldhelppreventeverythingfrom havinga blandtaste. Thesespicyfoodswere assignedto snackprovisioning,sinceit wastoo lateto obtainaccuratecaloric contents. An additionalrequestwasthat25percentof all mainmealsbe frozenTV dinnersbecause3 hoursof swimmingwouldmakethecrewtootired to preparemeals. Finalrevisionsto ttiis menuoccurredduringthe3-daytrainingperiodin December. Fresheggswererequested,but nooneknewif theycouldsurviverapidpressurechanges.At leastonemealeachweekwouldbe fully preparedby thecrew, andwouldincludemuffins, 75

biscuits, or layer cakes. Againnooneknewwhetherstandardbatterwouldrise properly in oven.

Following

higher

atmospheric

to the next

this

meeting,

one

pressures

batter

food company

had never

if the first

cake

searched

been

reported.

did not rise

properly.

the literature They

and found

recommended

that

adding

the

baking

baking

under

powder

Training Two pamphlets, were

developed

assure

that

and included

proper

growth

cool

water

manual thus

and

(ref.

an excess

and steadier

supply

training

prevents

neither of water wet

to underwater

the liver

from

rendering

could

by eating

too many

Eating

and also

protein

calories nor

of 80 ° F was

foods

provide

extra

like

heat

meat

while

U.S.

starches

animal

unless

for

immersed

The

beforehand

through

protein

eat-

in

Navy diving

and sweets

will provide protein

and

a longer

digestion.

Requirements

swimming

swimming

occur

to

(For example,

animal

not the answer.

Concepts,"

emphasized

diving.

were

hyperglycemia

Food

were

of how to keep warm

rate

of 1 mile/hr,

in snacks

be in the

were

water

not considered

the

aquanauts

considered

for more

sufficient

than

an important

would

3 hours

caloric

expend

as the crew

daily.

factor

360 would

The minimum

since

the crew

wore

suits. Food Since

Frozen-food were cluding

frying

was

priorities

supposed dozens

hamburger,

were

eggs,

and bread.

This

of the mission

director

16,

Sunday

told

them

but went are

more

Second pie was

quested

along Third

the first

with week,

month

to celebrate

started,

several

9 half-gallons

change

it was

was

stored.

provisions,

unable

that

to find

Note : the crew

an approved

items

procedure

to eat.

food

were

of ice cream,

anecdotes:

the crew

ready

Although

food

in the following

evening,

frozen

and TV dinners.

in an interesting

week,

missing,

the

an apple

crew pie

requested suddenly

the missing

started

toward

food.

The

did not follow

appeared

by the dumbwaiter.

fresh

daily

the

pref-

eggs.

on the television Additional

eggs

monitors. were

re-

and vegetables.

the crew

an aquanaut's

began

requesting

wife prepared

30th day underwater.

more a beef

fresh stroganoff

foods. dinner

in-

and 24 pounds

Mexican

since

priorities

to the crew.

to the habitat

their

purchased

resulted

where

milk

were

steak,

the mission

important

week, sent

foods

as described

to snack

End of first

crew

to veal,

48 TV breakfasts,

erences

This

given

of fresh

Feb.

menu

also

Selection

all fried

before

week

test

not permitted,

to be complete

cake,

of the first

76

concepts

and carbohydrates

additional

temperature

food

"Basic

led to discussions

of a maximum

be continuously

'' and

Sugar

of dextros

One thousand

Basic

and applied

Caloric

calories.

I>reparation

) This

of insulin.

On the basis

Food

manual.

understood

hours. that

in Frozen

protein

maintenance.

several 6) warns

causing

was

with animal

for

Facts

in the

nutrition

ing carbohydrates body

"Basic

At the end of for the

of

the end

Duringthe secondmonth,foodlists weresentto thesurfaceonthe averageof threetimeseachweek. Preliminaryreports from thecrewindicatethateatingturnedoutto betheir majorentertainment. Pre-preparedmealswerepoor. Individuallypreparedmealsweregood. Therewere lntermittantannoyances with therefrigerator andstove. Wedonotknowpresentlywhetherthese annoyances werefailures or a functionof thehighatmosphericpressurein baking. If Tektitewereto bedesignedoveragain,thefollowingchanges wouldbe made:

are

kept

(1)

Add a fast

(2)

Develop

recipes

(3)

Monitor

food

cool, (4)

In addition

Provide

food kept

for

with

(3)

Does

the complex

sense

(4)

Should

cooking

be assigned

(5)

Space

to Mars.

to the

and frozen

only

frozen

foods

foods

are

cooking

equipment.

into more

appetizing

frozen,

meals.

refrigerated

foods

a food subsystem. consider

foods

the following

remain

safe

questions:

to eat and palatable

?

Could

frozen

?

of the appetite

are

iron

properly.

frozen

part

as a voyage

that

to develop

Salmonella

scientists

and a waffle canned

the future,

What

is a function of taste

of food

really

change

as the primary

concerned Food

about

preparation

preparation

cooking

odors

?

?

activity

crew

and

of one crew

member

on such

long-duration

inactivity

and cooking

could

use

6 hours

?

every

space day.

Is

? interplanetary

for the

challenge

foods

to see

(2)

Future

the

to turn

shipments

changes,

infected

the answer

enough

designed

How long can different

become

this

a toaster,

a food expert

to these

missions

baker,

and nonfreezable

(i) eggs

potato

crew

spacecraft

to have

canned

is to provide

and frozen

foods

and orbiting

foods

for

technical

advances,

delicious

dinners

into

many

space

stations

meals.

Tektite

training, in closed

recipes,

are

expected

started

to be large

in this

and menus

direction,

to make

basic

but canned

atmospheres.

REFERENCES 1.

Miller,

2.

Schaefer,

May

Gerald: 15,

Sjostrand,

Clemson,

5.

Taylor,

nautik

6.

Anon.

T. : The

and

Cohesiveness.

Gen.

Elec.

Co.

Memo,

Formation

4,

no.

Vol.

133,

; Finkelstein,

Capabilities

and

Space

Flight,

Monoxide

by the

Decomposition

of Carbon

: Toxicological

vol.

A.A.

in Manned

Bioastronautics.

The

Mac-

1964.

Scandinav.,

C.J. 1,

Current

Compatibility

Requirements

(New York),

Physiol.

4.

July,

: Gaseous

Co.,

Acta

Crew

1968. K.E.

millan 3.

Tektite

26,

No.

Aspects p.

338,

of Hemoglobin

(in Vivo)._

1952.

of Sealed

Cabin

Atmospheres

of Space

Vehicles.

Astro-

159.

B. ; and Hayes, Future

Needs.

R.E.

: Food

ARDC-TR-60-8,

for

Space Andrews

Travel: AFB

An Examination (Washington,

of D.C.

),

1960. : U.S.

Navy

Diving

Manual.

l>t.

1,

Navships

Rept.

250-538,

1963.

77

FOOD PLANS

FOR SEALAB

[II LOUELLA C. PETERSON Navy Subsistence Office

The food Whereas

most

foods"

service

foods

home

for

use.

tations

many

the-sea

favorite

foods

Officer

had proven

there

was

problems

simply

sent The

cases

of chili

weather than

shopper,

used

Bond,

for

day:

From

to them

steadily.

tion with

enough

been

for the Office

they

are

in supermarkets

despite

chili,

for

the cooking

limi-

will

meals

aquanauts

balls,

stressed

beef

Sealab

by Captain

III phase

of the

had not participated

how the experience

eat

stew,

and

foods fond

little

experiment

menu.

to provide

meals

It was

to 10 days,

3 weeks

under

Sealab

the men

I

Someone

fortunate

because

Soalab

of the many

stocked

probably

Sea-

opera-

For

concern. for

foods,

for

these

Because

of minor

Bond,

man-in-

system.

food was

else.

Navy's

during

service

of Mexican

George

in food plans

gained

food

and no planned

canned

but with

varied

annoying divers

to time they

were

Although

menu

prepared

consisting

of nourishing,

problems

the men

and wouldn't

the

I with

that

bad

had had more

of canned satisfying

encountered food when

requested

that

wanted

some

roasted,

tired

of meat-and-gravy

combination

cook

on the top,

and

the aquanauts

averaged

meals

toast

a 5-1b weight

it,

and some was,

in the 45-day

they

fingers

foods

according

operation.

perhaps

dishes.

There

gain,

were times

or fried

meats

Their

pancakes

and peanut there

foods

to Captain

six or seven

grilled,

burned,

dehydrated

butter

was general

no a

be sent

down

scorched consumption dissatisfac-

the food. In May 1966,

system

has

the experiment

the 21-day

II, the provision

the

because

on the bottom rose

Sealab

time

foods

to be extremely

tamales,

a reasonably

meals;

and

flights.

"tomorrow

because

even available

and meat

space

food.

one of the most

organized

foods"

atmosphere,

spaghetti

program

before

to buy

shortened

of this

are

for

considered

"today

on board,

food and an organized

service

who happened

conditions

enough

fries,

in detail

of good food

and

cook

planned

are

HI are

and many

no rated

familiar

explained

divers

con carne

feeding

Subsistence

to be resolved

Although was

defined

one of the

sea.

has

missions

for Sealab

Investigator

the Navy

Bond

space

as that

men.

and for

the importance

no clearly

technical

planned

French

and Principal

II, Captain

tions

during

helium-nitrogen-oxygen

of Navy

Since

III is as interesting

use

III will have

and

for variety

program. I or

Sealab

hamburgers

Medical

for

foods

by the pressurized

The need Chief

all

Sealab

and institutional

though

chicken, other

for

or planned

public,

restaurant Even

imposed

of fried

labs

used

by the general

available

planned

for

Sealab

HI,

when Captain

the

Navy

Subsistence

Bond and

Comdr.

Office Jackson

was

requested

Tomsky,

to develop

On-Scene

a food service

Commander

for 79

SealabIH, briefedus aboutfutureplansandfurnishedsomegroundruleswhichwouldaffectthe foodservicesystem. For successive12-dayperiods,five 8-manteamswouldlive in andworkoutof a habitat in oceandepthsof 450to 600ft off SanClementsIsland,Calif. Duringthe 60-dayoperation,experimentsin oceanography, physiology,deep-seaoceansalvage,equipment performance,and constructionwouldbecarried out. Because of thephysicaldemands,thecomplexityof tasksthe teamswouldundertake,andthe psychological effectsof living undertheseunusualconditions, CaptainBondrequestedthatmealsfurnish4500caloriesper manper day, besatisfying,andbe as normalas possiblewithin thefollowinglimitations: (1) Therewouldbenoratedcook;theaquanauts wouldtaket-turns preparingmeals. (2) Sincetherewouldbea predominantly heliumatmosphere in thehabitattherewouldbe nofresheggcookery,no frying, andnogrilling, in orderto avoidproductionof toxic gasesin the Sealabenvironment.Theheliumatmosphere wouldalsodull the men'ssensesof smellandtaste. (3) Foodswouldbeunderpressuresof upto 270psi; canscontainingdry lightweight foodswouldcrushto thepointthat theycouldnotbeopened. (4) Therewouldbe onlylimited storagespacefor food:7 cu ft chill, 27cu ft freeze, and 75cu ft dry storage. Replenishments wereto beheldto theminimumthatwouldnotseriously compromisethe makeupof themenu. In additionto menus,preparationinstructions,loadoutandreplenishment schedules, recommendations onfoodpreparationequipment,andcoordinationof requisitioning,procurement, andpositioningof all foodsupplieswereneeded. Figure1 showsSealabIII. Theoverall lengthis 62½ft; its width, 19ft; its height,38ft; andits weight,299tons. Thegalleyis in the centersection. Dry storageis overheadin the sectionto theright of the galley, andthefreezeris in the lowerright section.Galleyequipment consistsof aninfrared oven,a 4-burnerelectric hotplate,a smallrefrigerator, andhotandcold runningwater: Thesleeping/dining areais in thesectionto theright of thegalley. Figure2 showsanartist's conception of the surfacesupportshipandSeaIab III. TheUSSElk River (IX - 501), built originallyas a LandingShip,MediumRocket,wasmodifiedto supportunderwaterprograms suchas SealabIH. This shipprovidesstowagefor thevariousgasesrequiredin the Sealabexperiment, thecommand andcommunications centerfor SealabIII, thephysiologicalmonitoringand medicalcenter, twodeckdecompression chambers,andtwopersonneltransfercapsules.Figure 3 showsthedeckdecompression chamber. Theplancalls for four mento entereachchamber for compression to a pressureof 270psi (requires24hr). Then,four menwill entereachpressurizedpersonneltransfer capsule(fig. 4) for descentto thehabitat. Whentheyarrive there, the SealabIII FoodServiceSystemwill beput tothetest. Indeveloping anyfoodplan, thefirst logicalstepis to determinerelativeacceptance of differentfoods. SincetheNavyExperimentalDivingUnit is locatedabouta blockawayfromthe NavySubsistence Office, it providedanideal, thoughunusual,site for a test galleyand,in addition, a cooperativegroupof taste-testpanelists:Navydiversin trainingfor SealabIII. Thefirst acceptancetestsconducted wereontheexcellentfreeze-dehydrated entreesdeveloped by theArmy 8O

!

Figure1.-SealabIII.

Natick Laboratories points

for the

of stowage,

amazingly cause

tested.

For

they

small

Next,

first

stability,

good,

of the

rejected

piece

maximum

out because

out and approved

selected

precooked

frozen

that

would

stated

often

as once For

and

they

Patrol

completely

(in their

and ease tubes

Ration.

of preparation.

for use.

tested

Using

rendered the oven,

entrees. to eat

some

were

ideal

the divers

as

III food plans

Sealab

entrees

under

entrees

Although

the similar

frozen

seepage

and canned be willing

These

of reconstitution

were

helium

as far

opinion)

of precooked

speed

checked

and

them

size

Microwave

ruled

Range

and ease

the acceptances

necessary.

and were

Long

selected

of these

entrees,

simulated them

inoperable.

of them

Were

canned

as often

these

entrees

An infrared

as twice

were oven

was

of Sealab

oven was

acceptance highly

a week,

be-

entrees.

conditions

entrees

were

concerned

a microwave

and conducted

rated

the stand-

the entrees

of different

atmospheric

we prepared

The divers

thought

appearance and

from

III

then

tests

on

acceptable

and many,

as

a week. maximum

Sealab

IH, we developed

12-day

stay

stowage

on the bottom.

efficiency

a 6-day-cycle Remembering

and for simplification menu. that

Each the

team Sealab

will

of the food service repeat

II aquanauts

the cycle had

tired

once

system

aboard

during

its

of meat

and

gravy 81

Figure 82

2.-Artist's

conception

of surface

support

ship

and

Sealab

HI.

Figure

combinations, that were was

the

we made packed

without

frankfurter;

help

both

The

was

precooked

to satisfy uncertain

that

related

to Sealab

III's

atmospheric

infrared

oven,

additional

acrolein

production

find a way to serve

acrolein tested sulted. roast

frozen hazard.

When

in atmospheric Other pork

loin,

most

serve

roast

turkey,

Sealab

6-day Swiss

steak,

those are

common

are

the precooked

the

of Sealab

pot roast beef

stew,

were

category

fried

chicken

included

in the

because

of a problem

were

concerned

menus

We found in aluminum into

the bun.

chili

spaghetti

con carrie, and meat

heated that

But we were

l]I and no problems

of beef, and

also

though,

III atmosphere.

fat renders

in this

entrees,

hamburgers

officers

them

meat

meats

meats.

for awhile,

medical

or easy-to-prepare

popular

or gravy,

and familiar

and wrapping

is heated,

menu

and most

so we experimented.

buns

simulating

frozen

Two other

sauce

When

hamburgers,

the hamburger

in the

ham.

in the Sealab

in hamburger

precooked

hamburgers

conditions. off.

chamber.

obtainable

for plain

be a problem

entrees

easily cooked

desires

we could

conditions

suitable

without

the aquanauts

hamburgers

to find

and frozen

fat rendered

would

decompression

boneless

the divers'

It was

cooked

effort

gravy.

another

and hamburgers, and will

a special

3.-Deck

that

in the

resulting

determined placing

to the pre-

foil eliminated This

the

method

was

with acrolein

re-

beef

shortribs,

balls. 83

Figure

Since after

several

decided along hash

fresh

egg cookery

was

failures,

Sealab

II aquanauts

to take with

the work

precooked

and creamed

all in either

fresh

produce

to send

mail

plenished

of the food

items

in the

supplies

The instructions by-step

84

directions.

foods,

list

guide

to prepare

cooking

with

and cheese

varied, menus

each

(vegetables,

cereals,

The aquanauts

forms. by means

Fresh

to support

the first

for

Teams

4 and

pancakes.

we

These, corned

beef

breakfasts. desserts, bread

beverages, and

some

teams,

5 and perishable

etc.

that

support

will

is used

ship.

and perishable foods

bread be re-

schedule.

of the will

of each

hour" eat

needed

on what

three

regular

for

to do first meals

8 generous

portions.

and how to proceed, together

each

day.

)

pretrimmed

container

and the surface three

Although,

of pancakes,

and canned

of a pressurized

items foods

ham,

and satisfying

the habitat

and quantities

"cook

omelets,

challenging.

version frozen

hearty,

4 days

was

precooked,

between

Frozen

items

planning a "crepe"

and forth

frozen

to an approved

menus will

back

menu

able

plain

every

capsule.

breakfast

or ready-to-heat-and-eat

will be furnished

be preloaded.

according

toast, provide

and other

out,

out of their

French

ready-to-eat

transfer

were

will

items

will

ruled

beef,

All dry-storage and produce

and worry

frozen dried

The rest are

4.-Personnel

Preparation with stepA fourth

meal,

consisting

of soup

wants

Fruit

it.

between-meal

use

Daily

the

cocoa,

are

checks

during

menu

items

along

with

Other

will be available

coffee,

and tea are

on usage

aquanaut than

evaluations

the operation.

the aquanauts data

or snacks, milk,

on each

planned.

in the physiological

meals

service

sandwiches

also

for each

man

provided

to prepare

in sufficient

when

quantities

he for

if desired.

weight

decompression cluded

and

juices,

will

weight

check,

in Sealab

III.

In addition, complete

of individual

for 3 days

in order

food acceptance items

will

permit

before

compression

no nutrition-related No doubt

there

to document reports. an objective

studies

will the

and for

be verbal

acceptance

An analysis evaluation

3 days

have been reactions

after into

of individual of these of Sealab

reports III's

food

system.

85

ADVANTAGES, AND

PROBLEMs,

I

EDWARD

l

EXPERIENCES

U. S.

OF

I appreciate

having

and the opportunity by between

16 years

and programs

of attending

to you about

$40 and

Natick

Army

although

Laboratories

the Aerospace

irradiation-preserved

$50 million

which,

Food Technology

foods.

of expenditures

of the

not of this

magnitude,

:reference

1: "Soviet

I shall

U.S. are

cover

a program

Government

planned

Conference

during

or are

the last

underway

in 74

countries. The following

5 flights

became

the

flights,

mixes,

quotation first

radiation-preserved ture

the privilege

to talk

supported

other

FooDs

IRRADIATED

JOSEPHSON

S.

men

meats

Soviet

as well

is from in space

wrapped

scientists

as meats,

to eat

irradiated

foods.

in polyethylene

film,

to substitute

irradiated

expect

for the vacuum

cosmonauts

freeze-dried

The

as well

aboard

four

foods

which

recent

cosmonauts

as dried

vegetables,

the

meats fruit

Soyuz

had with

in cans.

salads,

now constitute

4 and

them

On fu-

and dry

the basic

soup

diet

of

cosmonauts." The Soviets

see the

in space.

I propose

to present

can decide

whether,

and to what

uals

and

subject

small

groups

is included

advantages the current extent,

in isolation

in refs.

of irradiati0n-preserved status

of this

irradiated

foods

and where

resupply

foods

process will

in support

of manned

for food preservation

fit into

feeding

is not possible.

so that

systems

(More

flights you

for individ-

information

on the

2 to 10.) IONIZING

RADIATION

Definition Ionizing particles

radiation

or electromagnetic

molecules

of matter.

(or electron)

and gamma

hits,

effect,

ripening

of fruits,

suggests

that

ner

energetic force.

the nuclear

particle

calling

which

may

rays

projectile subjects

The organization

are are

ionizing

or to destroy

as a fast-moving

which

there

radiations

and those

ing the desired

waves

Although

The way in which for direct

for food preservation are

is the employment energetic

a number of il_terest

radiations

act

for indirect

hits.

be to inhibit

strikes

the molecule(s) of electrons

within

is not clearly Both

each

of such

defined.

There

types

probably

of these

food

electrons)

near

electrons

classes

of tubers

causing

its target.

to strip

subatomic from

atoms

radiation,

or

only beta

in food processing.

sprouting

microorganisms (or high-speed

enough

of different

of fast-moving

strike

during

the vital

which

it passes

molecule

spot

much

the

theory

that

transient

and many

to achiev-

in the same

suggests

to an intense,

calling

to slow down

The direct-hit

theory

is disturbed

theories

contribute

storage,

spoilage.

The indirect-hit

are

man-

the highly electrical

molecules

along 87

thepathof

the

molecules

enter

particle

become

almost

producing

as

their

secondary

products,

molecules

in the cell,

"excited"

instantly

or ionized.

into reactions

end products free

radicals

thus

enlarging

of the more

shown

in table

I.

mitted

by food

are

frigeration that

of fresh

and peroxides,

relay

rupted;

these of fruits

foods

radiation

will

a few days

to shorten

not spoil

slow

rehydration

toes an irradiation dose to less than 4 minutes.

time

of 8 megarads

have

molecules

of the cell.

The unstable

in turn

can keep

to other

certain

and in bulbs

and papayas these

foods

shorten

vegetables. cooking

time

from

will

be dis-

of sprouting.

Ex-

doses

shelf

life

I is the use

For

re-

functions

as onions

because

trans-

approximating

to intermediate

in table

are

without

physiological

an extended

not included

of dehydrated

for years

such

for as long as 1 year

of food

and pathogens

of acceptance

doses,

potatoes

and give

can

organisms

a degree

irradiation

One application

and cooking

ionized

to the treatment

spoilage

and seafood

mangoes,

ripening,

weeks.

free

neighboring

the disturbance

radiation

all food

still

storage

bananas,

down

to several

will

as white

during

as tomatoes,

state,

of injury.

poultry,

At the lowest such

and with chemistry

of ionizing

doses,

meats,

in tubers

will

such

irradiation

cooked.

scope

reactive

to Food Preservation

of the consumer

sprouting

and

applications

prepackaged

food freshly with

posure

from

killed;

and on the plate

associated

ionizing

At the highest

one another to the

the area

promising

highly

strange

Applications Some

with

new substances

notably

In their

example,

of

ranging of irradiation

with

approximately

diced

pot2-

20 minutes

Advantages The irradiation foods

during

undergo

process

the course

minimal

is attractive

of the treatment.

changes

in texture,

food is almost

advantage

is that

under

process

the waters,

in the air,

Another serve

a wide

packaged

variety

flour

methods

by ionizing

of the food and snacks

serve

or cook-and-serve

trend

for greater extensions

vegetables and are and shellfish. 88

in a range

meat,

convenience, without

of sizes

to large

roasts

fresh

well

with

and personnel

processed

rise

in the

irradiated

foods

of the consumer

food freshly

(beef,

prepared.

of the consumer

and possibly

even

the process from

The

on land,

lamb,

pork),

to pre-

future

of the sea

radiation

and reduction

longer

of potatoes

or weeks

in the case

and hams,

of products

or sandwiches,

in days

to pre-

turkeys,

and anticipated

at the bottom

can be used

crates

and dimensions

present

by ionizing

measured

is,

ranging

of slices

in preparation, are

that

The variety

Foods

3 to 5 years

" The

on the plate

on the plate

and shapes

in the form

refrigeration

food

process.

so that

from

is its flexibility;

form,

simplicity

a "cold

temperature

space.

fit in very

Astronauts

items.

is only a slight

and color

indistinguishable

and chicken.

radiation

in ready-to-eat

from

sacks,

fish,

industry.

meals

shelf-life

of the process

or 100-pound

of sliced

odor,

we can put freshlike

and in outer

of foods

in 50-

to sandwiches be preserved

advantage

there

It is considered flavor,

the irradiation-preserved of this

because

that

can

processing

can have

their

or as warm-and-

are

compatible

of labor for

the

in the kitchen.

certain

of meat,

with

fruits poultry,

The

and finfish,

TABLEI.-SOMEPOSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OFIONIZINGRADIATION TOTREATMENTOFFOOD [Informationtakenfromref. 2] Meansof attaining Dosage, Mrad objective Food Main objective Group a4 to6 Destruction of spoilage Meat, poultry, fish Safe long-term a and many other highly perishable foods

organisms pathogens particularly botulinum

preservation without refrigerated storage

and any present, C1.

Meat, poultry, fish and many other highly perishable foods

Extension of refrigerated storage below 3° C

Reduction of population of microorganisms capable of growth at these temperatures

0.05

to 1.0

Frozen meat, poultry, eggs, and other foods, including animal feeds, liable to contamination with pathogens

Prevention poisoning

Destruction Salmonellae

b0.3

to 1.0

Meat and other foods carrying pathogenic parasites

Prevention of parasitic disease transmitted through food

Destruction of parasites such as Trichinella spiralis and Taenia saginata

0.01

to 0.03

Cereals, flour, fresh and dried fruit, and other products liable to infestation

Prevention of loss of stored food or spread of pests

Killing or sexual sterilization of insects

0.01

to 0.05

Fruit and certain vegetables

Improvement of keeping properties

Reduction of population of molds and yeasts and/or in some instances delay of maturation

0. I to 0.5

g

Tubers (e. g., potatoes), bulbs (e. g., onions), and other underground organs of plants

Extension storage

Inhibition

0. 005 to 0.015

h

Spices and other special food ingredients

Minimization of contamination of food to which the ingredients are added

aThere

is evidence

d

bA higher

dose

may

that a lower be needed

dose

of food-

of life

might

if pathogens

of sprouting

Ito3

Reduction of population of microbes in special ingredient

suffice with

of

for certain

greater

cured

resistance

products. to radiation

are

present.

89

Withionizingradiationwecanprovidefoodshighin nutritivevalueandfoodshighin moralevalue. Wecanprovidebetterqualityfoodthanhithertopossible. Thefoodcanbedisease free, thatis, free of all pathogens associated with food-bornediseases. Wecanprovidea larger variety of foodssuchas fresh fruits andshelf-stablemeatsandpoultrywhichhavethecharacter of freshfood. Becausethefoodcanbeprepackaged andprecooked at oneplaceprior to irradiation, the costin money,time, andlaborfor foodhandlingall thewayto theultimateconsumercanbereduced. Further reductionsin costresult from reducingrequirementsfor refrigerationandrefrigerationmaintenance.Spoilagelossesfrom insectinfestation,sprouting,or refrigerationbreakdown will beminimized. Byprovidinga broaderspectrumof foodsthroughintroductionof irradiated items, discordfrom foodmonotony,particularlyduringlongvoyages,will bereduced. LegalAspects Ionizingradiationis thefirst entirely newmethodusedto preservefoodsinceNicholas Appertdiscoveredthermalcanningin 1809. Theirradiationprocessis thefirst majorfoodpreservationmethodto appearsincefoodregulatoryagencieswereestablishedat thenationallevel in many countries. In the Administration also has legal

United

There Among

States

are

the laws

several

is legally

try

Inspection

great

interest

ing Act;

from

including

ervation

by ionizing

The law also processing.

affairs,

of the Food,

this universal

control

we have

Drug,

radiation,

seen

Act;

for a long passage

and,

the FDA for approval

radiation,

approval

FDA's

approval

by FDA of packaging

ation

and the uncertainty

States

is sponsored

effort

is primarily

on the

other

hand,

The on Atomic 90

overall

Energy,

that

cost

petitions

by the U.S. in the use is concerned program Congress

of developing

the process

Army

and the Atomic

of radiation

sterilizing

in the

United

of the United

States.

with the

Packaging

and

Poultry

Act.

The law provides

for exemption For

food processed

in contact

Label-

all new food addi-

of new food additives.

for preserving

by FDA, Energy doses,

with applications States

years,

is to outlaw

for each

ioniz-

food pres-

in this

with food during

fashion. radiation

Involved

will be approved

primarily

of 1958

materials

Organizations of the high

of the Fair

this law

Act and the Poul-

In recent

of the Wholesome

is required

Under

Inspection

time.

(USDA}

for food processing.

in 1958.

application.

ban by petitioning

requires

Because

Act

is the Food and Drug

of Agriculture

radiation

Meat

in 1966

in 1968,

commercial

involved

of ionizing

Act as amended

and Cosmetic

from

directly

the Department

The Federal

on the books

Meat

most

the use

and Cosmetic

Act have been

ionizing

agency

and poultry,

as a food additive.

of the Wholesome

The impact tives,

which

Drug,

defined

in consumer

in 1967,

of meats

statutes

are the Food,

ing radiation Products

the food regulatory

(FDA}. In the case responsibility.

is reviewed

most

Commission i.e.,

doses

of radiation periodically

The Interdepartmental

foods of the

by ionizing

effort

(AEC). above doses

in the United The Army's

1 ]hTrad. below

The AEC,

1 Mrad.

by the Joint Committee

radi-

Committee on Radiation

Preservationof Foods,consistingof tendepartments andindependent agenciesof thegovernment (NASAis a member)assistsin promotingearly commercialization of radiation-preserved foods. Ionizingradiationfor foodpreservationis consideredto beanimportantpeacefuluseof atomicenergy. It is, therefore,part of the President'sAtomsfor PeaceProgram. At theinternationallevel thefollowingthreeagenciesof the UnitedNationsare concerned with preservingfoodsby ionizingradiation:the InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,the Foodand AgricultureOrganization,andtheWorldHealthOrganization. Status Exceptfor proofof wholesomeness convincingto FDA, technology is sufficientlydevelopedto supportpetitionsfor theirradiation-sterilizedproductslistedin tableII. Thesefoods canvary in degreeof doneness frompartially cookedto readytoeat. Otherirradiation-sterilized foodsin variousstagesof development are groundbeef(hamburger),pork sausage,cornedbeef, frankfurters,turkey, lamb,fish fillets, andprefriedbacon. TABLEII. -MINIMUMRADIATION DOSEREQUIREMENTS (MRD) FORIRRADIATION-STERILIZED PRODUCTS Product

Irradiationtemp., °C • 10°C

MRD,Mrad

Beef Beef Chicken Ham Ham Pork Pork Shrimp Bacon Codfishcakes

-3O -80 -30 -30 Ambient -30 Ambient -30 Ambient -30

4.66 5.70 4.48 3.66 2.90 5.09 4.56 3.72 2.30 3.17

TheAEC, whichconcentrates its food-preservation programonlow-doseapplicationsof radiationgearedprimarily to thecivilian market,hassuccessfullyprocessedcod, haddock,shrimp, clams, chicken,strawberries, tomatoes,citrus fruits, papayas,mangoes,peaches,bananas,and mushrooms. Packagingis anotherimportantaspectof radiationsterilization. Mostof theearlier work wasdonewith therigid metalcanwith anoleoresinousor epoxy-phenolic enamelbecauseof its reliability as animpermeableandruggedcontainer. Nowtheemphasisis onlighter weightand less expenseive flexiblepackagingmaterialswhichwouldnotrequirecritically shortmetalsduring a nationalemergency.U. S. Army andAEC'researches havebeensuccessfulto theextentthatthe followingflexiblepackagingmaterialshavebeenapprovedby FDAas foodcontactants for theirradiationprocess: 91

Upto 1 Mrad: Nitrocellulose-coated Saran

coated

Glassine

cellophane

paper

Wax-coated Nylon

cellophane

paperboard

11 film

Polystyrene Rubber

film

hydrochloride

film

Up to 6 Mrads: Vegetable

parchment

Polyethylene

film

Polyethylene

terephthalate

Nylon

6 film

Vinyl

chloride

film

and vinyl

acetate

copolymer

film

Up to 50 000 rads: Kraft

paper

In radiation

for wheat

sterilization

high radiation

doses

in functioning

as an impermeable

als

must

flavors, metal

can.

stable

products

In order

adverse

color

barrier

materials.

only

the need

and low temperatures

be sufficiently or toxic

flour

the food Two of the

to moisture,

TABLE

Their

strength

III.-FIRST

92

materials

they

reliability and keep

are

of flexibility

the

laminated are

shown

OF FLEXIBLE

These

do not impart

must

approach

out iight

of the

to aluminum

foil and

other

III.

Outside layer

Mylar, O. 5 rail

Medium-density polyethylene, 2.5 mil

Aluminum 0.35 mil

foil,

Paper (water resistant), 2 rail

panelists 11):

who rate

the foods

processing

rigid

PACKAGING

Middle layer

in radiation

off-

can accelerate

foil,

of success

materi-

off-odors, that

that

in table

stress

or impairment

and microorganisms. that

laminates

SPECIMENS

loss

can withstand

Aluminum 0.5 mil

taste (ref.

which

Nylon-11, 2 mil

The proof

Pilgrim

all-around

promising

Food-contacting film (inside)

consumer

gases,

processing

of the material

contactant more

materials

to -40 ° C without

irradiation

to the food.

to reinforce

changes,

down

barrier during

is for flexible

of foods

on the 9-point

is in the eating.

hedonic

scale

We use

developed

expert

and

by Peryam

and

of

9

Like

extremely

8

Like

very

7

Like

moderately

6

Like

slightly

5

Neither

like

4

Dislike

slightly

3

Dislike

moderately

2

Dislike

very

1 Dislike In table

IV are

as

components

is

considered

irradiated

much

dislike

much

extremely

shown

the

of meals to be foods

nor

scores

given

of the

type

satisfactory

scored

volunteers

at

in mess

halls

served

if it receives

slightly

lower

the

experiment),

they

scored

well

for

incorporation

into

Army

rations.

TABLE

by

IV.-ACCEPTANCE

OF

a score

than

within

their

the

Fort

Lee,

in the

above

the

fresh

range

IRRADIATION-STERILIZED

who

United

5 on

nonirradiated

acceptable

Va.,

and

tested

States.

irradiated

An

9-point

irradiated

scale.

considered

MEATS,

food

Although

counterparts are

foods

(the

control

to be

POULTRY,

the in

satisfactory

AND

SEAFOODS

Nonirradiated control

Irradiated Item

StorDose, Mr_

Temp., oc

Ham

3.5-4.4

Ambient

Ham

4.5-5.6

-30

age, months

Av hedonic rating 9-point

men rating

Av

No.

men

on scale

hedonic

rating 9-point

rating

on scale

570

5.84

739

6.45

1657

5.87

1437

6.66

297

6.50

Chicken

4.5-5.6

-30

313

6.14

Chicken

4.5-5.6

-30

270

6.00

251

6.22

Pork

4.5-5.6

Ambient

305

7.27

345

7.28

Pork

4.5-5.6

-30

391

5.71

458

6.85

Beef

4.5-5.6

a-60

515

6.11

66O

6.79

Beef

4.5-5.6

-185

502

6.25

710

6.79

Beef

4.5-5.6

-80

589

5.99

644

6.61

Shrimp

4.5-5.6

-30

247

5.79

446

6.25

Shrimp

4.5-5.6

-30

292

6.39

4O3

6.23

Codfish

4.5-5.6

-40

531

5.40

578

6.30

a_60

° C at

start

In table experimental for

No.

apple

of irradiation.

V are

preference

luncheons. pie

and

ice

The

scores preference

for scores

irradiation-sterilized for

these

hams hams

are

in the

that same

have

been

range

served as

are

at those

cream. 93

TABLEV.-ACCEPTANCE OFIRRADIATED HAM WHENSERVED ASCOMPONENT OFREGULAR MEALS [Irradiatedhamsstoredat roomtemp.for 1 to 12monthsprior to serving;testingperiod, June to April Irradia-

Average

tion temp. oC

Dose_

Mrad

,

No.

Items

men

(i 10 ° C)

4.5

-30

17

7.29

4.5

-30

46

6.95

4.5

-30

20

6.88

4.5

-30

19

6.80

3.5

-80

11

7.40

3.0

-80

22

6.91

3.5

-80

20

7.84

3.7

-30

15

6.87

4.5

-80

Baked

ham

with

pineapple

18

8.11

4.5

-80

Baked glaze

ham

with

orange-pineapple

20

7.91

3.5

-80

Baked

ham

with

orange

12

8.16

4.5

-30

Baked

ham

with

raisin

15

7.20

3.5

-80

Baked

ham

with

mustard

20

7.58

4.5

-30

18

7.5

4.5

-30

18

7.29

4.5

-30

28

7.20

4.5

-30

Fried

18

7.38

4.5

-30

Grilled

15

8.26

3.7

-30

Baked

10

7.60

3.7

-30

20

6.69

rating

Baked

ham

with

ham

pineapple

material. only

most

arrest

or

tation

practices

of all

reasonable

cannot

prevent ; its

these intended

precautions.

sauce

glaze sauce glaze

ham

steaks

ham

applications

Radiation

glaze

steaks

Description

94

acceptance rating on 9-point hedonic scale

(+12 to +25%)

For

1966

1969]

it is reverse

important

to use

deterioration

conditions. use

of the

is

Nor for

insurance

Process good

and should

quality

spoilage radiation

against

ultrafresh of food

be

used

contamination

food

once as

it haz an

which

as

starting

begun;

it

for

poor

excuse might

occur

can saniin spite

Fruits

and vegetables

ous handling

and to keep

pasteurizing

doses

prior

processing

to extend

prepackaged

promote

long-term

inedible

material

to inactivate ternal

in boxes

costs

refrigerated

shelf

meats,

poultry,

stability

without

as possible

the proteolyte

temperature

or crates

to minimize

to a minimum.

Meats,

shelf

be wrapped

life

should

metal

enzymes

cans

freezer

or liquid

-30 ° ± 10 ° C either

to gamma

electron

linear

cal changes

excessive

poultry,

and fish

and

chilled

vitamins)

or flexible

packaging

rays

may

so that

and

extrane-

fillets

to be given

without

delay

are

or

vacuum

The

state

are

of the product

then

as much

of the step

color,

is

to an insealed

frozen

while

without

while

held

deat

or electrons

from

chemical

and physi-

adverse

(taste,

to

The next

and

exposed

X-rays,

minimizes

doses

(blanching)

packaged

foods

Cesium-137},

frozen

fat.

by treating

of -30 ° C and are

Cobalt-60

the quality

is to remove

and excess

then

materials.

in the

step

sterilizing

odor,

texture,

an

and

is maintained. Clostridiumibotulinum

cern

(from

first

is done

foods

to a temperature

Irradiation

occur

This

The

to be given

off gristle

foods.

75 ° C.

are

the

and trimming

in these

nitrogen

which

refrigeration,

65 ° C and

accelerator.

which

and seafood

by deboning

between

hot in rigid

lay by blast

this

irradiated

to irradiation. For

still

are

is the

in food preservation. bacterium

or public we aim

will

A dose

automatically

health

importance.

for a dose

high

strain

of C1. botulinum

every

case

most

high

radiation-resistant

enough

destroy

all other

In determining

enough

to reduce

spores.

This

by laboratory

the

the

most

organisms minimum

in number dose

of all

to destroy

in food radiation

by a factor

is different

the microorganisms

which dose

food

are

strain

of

of food spoilage

(MILD) for

of 1 x 1012

for each

of con-

radiation-resistant

sterilization,

the most

highly

resistant

and mus t be determined

in

experiments. Who le s omene s s

Under

existing

to the appropriate processed search

statutes

health-regulating

by ionizing to appraise

radiation

microbiological

toxic

which

Under radioactivity in food from

regarded of X-rays in table convened energy

in food. as free

from

in contact

foods

not induce

radioactivity 5 million

measurable

by FAO/IAEA/WHO level

generally

regarded

radioactivity food.

volts

as below

Italy,

In the in April

the threshold

re-

and other

radiation. absence

of induced

the background energy

of the gamma

radiation

shown

doses

at the radiation case

of electrons,

established for inducing

radioactivity

of elements isotopes

level

In our

of induced

of carcinogens

two radioactive

1964,

of foods

Absence

for activation

(MeV)

convincing

will be approved.

categories:

The maximum

by these

radioactivity.

in Rome,

foods

above

level

proof

(wholesomeness)

law concerning

at the highest

electron

countries

and absence

the

the threshold processed

these

into four

to ionizing

interpreted

other

consumption

adequacy,

with the

is below

induced below

before

by the exposure

induced

in many

for

is divided

nutritional

FDA has

Accordingly,

at energies I will

material

and

of safety

be provided

of measurable

and Cesium-137

States

the field safety,

statutes

as absence

and packaging

occurring

must

may be formed

existing

Cobalt-60

officials

wholesomeness,

radioactivity, products

in the United

rays

normally are

universally

in table

sterilizing an expert

I.

doses

Use shown

committee

10 MeV as the maximum measurable

radioactivity 95

in radiation-sterilizedfoods(ref. 2). TheUnitedKingdom,however,hassetthemaximum figurefor electronsat 5 MeV. Microbiologicalsafetyin radiation-sterilizedfoodshasbeendiscussedpreviously. The useof dosesrequiredfor reductionin numbersofthe mostradiation-resistantstrainsof C1. botulinum

by a factor

range,

the problem

resistant isms

associated

and upsetting with

The current

permit

microorganisms

numbers

to give use

none

of the

maximum

fatty

For

lots

which

the untreated

sterilization

treatment

shown subjected

to rats, The U.S.

foods mice,

level Army

found

investigated stable

in addition

food General

source

of gamma

This

are

issue,

cinogenic

or toxic

be solved

before

exception

with

figures

being

reported

have

which

muscle

as a

is a rich

source

and ham

of pork

study

less

was are

from

meats

expanded shown

susceptible

the

were

by

in the case

on a dry-weight

electrons

and nutritionally

of the rodents, basis

irradiated

of North

was

with

energies

adequate. evidence

foods

abroad. products Department.

Americans

were

fed

for 4 generations.

doses

In reference of 5.6

Mrads

up to 10 MeV have

Feeding

to indicate

for

Medical

35 percent.

up to absorbed

foods

or toxic

U. S. Army

in the diet

thermal

studies

carcinogenic

by the

ribo-

VI and VH

for those

and by investigators

from

compared

to destruction

Similar

same

to include

in tables

as developed

quality.

studied

and,

not uncovered

skeletal

quality

for essen-

that

by the AEC

food classes

or with

upon

reported

in irradiation-sterilized

The data

freedom

foods

At the

been

is pork

process

conducted

diet

required.

of thiamine

The

nutritional

extensively

that

radiation safe,

reduced,

at -30 ° ± 5 ° C then by the conventional

their

the major

in the daily

i.e.,

though

to

shellfish

for the processed

lots.

generally

dose

for 2 years

abroad

studies that

foods

process

does

4 the with

been

sponsored

by the

processed

by

not wholesome. the

ability

products this

Mrad

been

or monkeys

Sturgeon

radiation

are

impair

are

all

low enough

in the nutritional

have

not depend

major

thiamine.

of wholesomeness--the

representing

does

the radiation-sterilization

doses

to be wholesome,

The

to the

results

retention

the same

studied

to 5.6

or no impairment

and compared

from

B vitamins

aspect

dogs,

man The

by heat.

and ham

that

and produce

finfish,and

the high doses

Similar

origin,

needs.

not significantly

and by scientists

ionizing

96

vitamin

at a 4.5

of irradiated

a Cobalt-60

AEC

of animal

in food by irradiation--has

Twenty-one

poultry,

and digestibility.

shelf

to substerilizing The fourth

formed

to meats,

of USDA the percentage

loin

the four

II will

doses

is little

It is concluded

in table

is limited

organ-

warning.

I, there

made

that

in sufficient,

in table

was

doses

to survive

shown

foods

to germinate

radiation

radiation-

food spoilage

spoilage

doses

and pyridoxine

treatment.

obvious

is to use

of inducing

vegetative

Clostridia

can withstand

for his daily

and indicate

by the possibility

permitting

pasteurization

with

In the radiation-pasteurization

by eliminating

of foods

pork

niacin,

balance

classes

most

had been

is complicated

major

loin and ham

with

of safety.

other

At the request

pork

flavin,

for radiation

ample

margin

thereby

of radiation-sterilizing

source

of thiamine. canned

color,

or in its availability

acids.

significant

and

consumer

radiation

of the protein

safety

associated

the

a wide

the ecological

off-odor thinking

The because

provides

of microbiological

mutants

toxin.

tial

of 1 x 1012

process

to demonstrate

which

will

harm

that

the irradiation

the consumer,

can be established

commercially.

is the number

not produce

1 problem

which

carmust

TABLEVI.-EFFECTOFPROCESSING ONTHEVITAMINCONTENT OF SHELF-STABLE CANNED HAM [Data furnishedby Mrs. Miriam H. Thomas NutritionDiv,,NatickLabs.] mg/100ga % retention Treatment Vitamin Control 4.5 Mradat-80° +5° C Thermallyprocessed

3.82_+b0.38 3.25_+0.79

85

1.27

32

Control 4.5 Mradat -80° +5° C Thermallyprocessed

1.01±b0.18

Thiamine

Riboflavin

Niacin

Pyridoxine

aMoisture,

fat,

bAverage

tables

someness

question

data

wholesomeness

further

be given

iterim

luncheon

Control 4.5 Mradat -80°_+5°C Thermallyprocessed

31.5

+ b0.81

23.8

± 2.92

76

14.6

_+4.49

46

Control 4.5 Mradat-80°_+5°C Thermallyprocessed

1.11

± b0.15

1.02

+ 0.12

92

0.64

+ 0.03

57

basis.

these

1969.

data

to resume

to assess

1970's

conducting

wholesomeness on several

when

by the AEC of a meeting

the deliberations

June

1974.

This

30,

approval

to prove

feeding safety

of experts

will

for these

allow

of ham,

on irradiated

the World and

time

Health wheat

to accumulate

but on

countries.

by the World

irradiated

the whole-

research

other

din-

I am

Health

Organization

will

and wheat

sufficient

flour

additional

foods. ? The beef,

for consumption.

will be submitted

from

on our

that

General's

convened

group,

potatoes

commonplace

my expectation

Surgeon

and by reports

wholesomeness

studies

become

I base of the

of this

irradiated

studies

ultimately

quality.

that

petitions

varieties

excellent

outcome

final

their

will

not only on the results sponsored

we doing animal

foods

countries

to support are

treatment.

generally

From

until

per

irradiated

of the

its member

what

meats

samples

studies

the middle

by those

109

of their

approval

wholesomeness

is planning

_+0.24

because

to all

Now,

1.10

can be resolved

in April

recommend

123

that

because

encouraged

Organization

_+0.09

+ S. D. Three

ing-room

from

1.25

salt-free

I am optimistic

_+0.36

!

chicken,

We expect

to FDA bananas,

U.

S. Army pork, this

and to USDA strawberries,

Medical frankfurters,

work

Department and

to be completed

for approval. and papayas

by

The AEC

is

to be followed

of fish. 97

TABLEVII.-EFFECTOF PROCESSING ONTHEVITAMINCONTENT OFSHELF-STABLE CANNED PORKLOIN ] [Data

furnished

by Mrs.

Vitamin

Miriam

Nutrition

Treatment

4. 5 Mrad

at -80 ° ±5 °C

Thermally

processed

Control

Riboflavin

4. 5 Mrad

at -80 °±5

Thermally

processed

° C

Control

Niacin

4.5

Mradat-80

Thermally

° ±5 ° C

processed

Control

Pyridoxine

4.5

fat,

Mrad

at -80 ° _+5 ° C

salt-free

basis.

Three

samples

_+S.D.

Natick ga

Labs.

]

% retention

3.69

_+b0.22

3.14

_+ 0.25

85

0.76

_+0.08

20

1.02

_+b0.28

0.79

_+0.06

78

0.82

± 0.02

81

20.3

+b5.1

15.9_+2.6

78

13.2±1.8

65

O. 76 + b0.05

Thermally

aMoisture,

Div.

mg/100

Control

Thiamine

bAverage

Thomas,

processed

per

0.75

_+0.07

98

0.63

+ 0.07

84

treatment.

Approvals Those restricted

foods

which

consumption Canada:

have

are,

been

approved

for commercial

by country:

Potatoes Onions Wheat,

Israel:

wheat

flour

wheat

flour

Potatoes Onions

U.S.A.

: Potatoes Wheat,

USSR:

Potatoes Grain Dried

fruits

Dry food Fresh The 98

Soviet

Union

has the

concentrates

fruits greatest

and vegetables number

of approvals.

production

and

sale

and for un-

Thosefoodswhichhavebeenapprovedfor testingof experimentallots or for markettesting, by country,are: Potatoes to Greenland Denmark: Potatoes Holland: Potatoes WestGermany: Onions USSR: Dressed

poultry

Partially

packaged

processed

packaged

meat

packaged

UnitedKingdom:

hospital

as essential

Here,

too,

the

Soviet

Union

has

the

beef,

pork,

and rabbit

products

products

(fried

meat,

steak)

in plastic

for

organ

raw

in plastic

Kitchen-ready

Foods

in plastic

patients

factor

transplant

longest

requiring

in medical

sterile

treatment

diet (e. g.,

recipients)

list

of approvals.

SUMMARY (1) life

Ionizing

of foods (2)

foods

of slices

by ionizing

opens

on the plate

The irradiation

tion-preserved the form

radiation

which,

a new

process

lends

can be offered

require

for food preservation-the closely

itself

very

as components

or sandwiches,

radiation

era

of the consumer,

resemble

readily

no preparation

or as snacks

preparation

with

the

of convenience.

shelf

Irradia-

in ready-to-eat

or cook-and-serve

or simple

to extend

food.

to the concept

of meals

or as warm-and-serve

means fresh

foods. reduction

form, Foods

of labor

in

processed in the

kitchen.

morale possible

(3)

The irradiation

process

value

to individuals

and small

on land (4)

the

number

or sea,

Proof

in the

can provide

air,

groups

1 problem

before

wholesome

or where

supply

food

is difficult

of great or im-

the ocean.

to health

ionizing

nutritious,

isolated,

or under

convincing

to be resolved

quality,

who are

in space,

of wholesomeness

high

authorities

radiation

on the national

can be used

level

remains

commercially.

REFERENCES 1.

Anon.

2.

Anon.

Nucleonics : The

Weekly,

Technical

FAO/IAEA/WHO Ser.

No.

report 3.

6,

is printed

Energy

September

12,

1) and

for

and Agric.

Govt. 1966;

Mar

30,

1969.

Legislation

on Irradiated

(Rome,

Organ.

in its entirety

Congress

U.S.

30,

Comm.

on Research,

of the

Program.

(Part

Basis

Expert Food

Subcommittee

Jan.

in the

Apr.

of the

Printing June 1960

9-10, (Part

United

United

1964).

Nations

1968 hearings

Development, of the

21-28,

Food.

(Washington,

1965;

May 13,

2); June

4-8,

1963; 1956;

March and

Atomic

Energy 1965.

(This

3. )

Hearings D.C.),

of Joint

Italy),

of the Joint

Published

Office

FAO (Rome,

of ref.

and Radiation States:

Rept.

Committee

on Atomic

on the

Food

July

18 and

30,

6-7,

1962;

May 9,

Jan

Irradiation 1968;

14-15,

1960

1955. 99



Anon.

: Food

June 5.



6-10,

Anon.

and Food

: Chemical Progress

Anon.

Symp.

: Radiation

Anon.

Publ.

14-16,

Energy

Ser.,

vol.

(Vienna,

Advances

no.

of Foods. Sci.,

Proc. Tech.

Int.

83,

by IAEA and FAO Austria),

in Chem.

of Radiation.

64,

Acad.

Research. Off.

Organized

Agency

Applications

Natl.

1963),

Jointly

of Foods.

Preservation 1273,

: Radiation

Jan.

Symp.

Atomic

Preservation

1964). So

Proc.

Int.

Anon. : Radiation 1967.

Eng. 7.

Irradiation. 1966),

Nuclear

Int.

Conf.

Natl.

Res.

Conf.

(U. S. Army

U.S.

Set.

65,

Eng.,

Am.

Pt.

Chem.

XIX,

Soc.,

Chem.

1968.

Proe.

Services,

(Karlsruhe,

1966.

Council

Dept.

(Boston,

Mass.,

(Washington, Natick

Commerce,

Sept.

D.C.),

Labs.,

27-30, 1965.

Natick,

Mass.,

1963.

9o

Anon.

: Report

1961). 10.

Anon.: and

11.

vol.

on Meeting

entitled 11,

no.

Organ.

Preservation

Development D.R.

on Wholesomeness

and Agric.

Radiation

Peryam, Insert

100

Food

Ser. ; and

No.

Pilgrim,

"Studies 9, Sept.

of the of Food

Govt.

F.J.

: Hedonie

pp.

Science 9-14.

Nations

Foods

(Rome,

by the Quartermaster

1, U.S.

in Food 1957,

of Irradiated

United

Printing Scale

Office Method

and Technology,

(Brussels,

Italy), Corps,

Oct.

U.S.

Army

(Washington,

D.C.),

of Measuring

Food

Pt.

I."

23-30,

1962.

Food

Res. Aug.

1957.

Preferences.

Technol.,

SESSIONIll

AIRLINE

CHAIRMAN: Vice

President,

EXPERIENCE

R.

Marriott

TREUCHEL In-Elite

Services

It is certainly discussion ation.

of this

to most

in Houston our

panel

We share

known

than

series

operations

tiago,

Chile,

and cover

every

Most

of you

has

sonic

The in-flight

catering

been

described

superjets

Contrary of air

bagged

food

handling freon

freezing,

and cardboard

of reconstitution in being respected leader

industry.

do more

recognize

the need

service

for more

needs

Boston

to San-

and lodging

field.

since

1927.

on the brink

as the

of a new jet age

"spacious

aircraft

will

meal

Our

age."

wiI1 be our

continue

service

The

sub-

partners

in

drying

to be an important

and its

different

industry

to adopt

more

extensive industry

it must

become

will

1928 brown-

technology

in

and onship

of cryogenics,

If it is to survive

community,

parts

the

transportation,

the technology

and to make

integral from

needs

the food-service

geared

and challenge

the curious food

must nature

technologists is in great

and scientific

of imagination

be launched

program,

in Florida,

age and we have been

experience

and discovery.

industry

technologies

new areas will

here

space

and in packaging,

and universities

to excite

food-service As your

nology

Center

travel

stands

service

dining

to encourage

Our colleges curricula

program,

food

In the past,

of the business

to present

commercial

Space

studies has

liquid in the areas

contented

itself

as an identified

a frontrunner

and

and a

technology.

We must our

in the

of future

and freeze

in technology

member in food

and

of the food-service

commercial

lap trays.

industry

processes.

a follower

to Rome

the supersonic

processes

radiation,

Honolulu

presently

in-flight

and reconstituting Our

Parkway

Corpor-

Although

at the Manned

from

manufacturer

speculation,

The configuration

processes.

the Marriott

State

for

the

century.

but so is today's

sandwiches

frozen

of this to some

travel.

be different,

and even

hotel

lead

program.

Sunshine

facet

industry

represent

on the

of pioneering

service

conference,

in the aerospace

the motor

conceivable

by one aircraft

or airbuses years

with

stretch

phase

feeding

the remaining

part

some

in in-flight

and

interest

of restaurants

based

in your

representatives,

company

Washington

that

me to share

a passing

of you as the

represent

for

of airline

more

or the

pioneering

102

a pleasure

to improve

attract

to the volume

people

and for those need

of this

studies

a more

and anticipated

to seek

outstanding

of the young.

will be sparked and build

young

bear

and women

businesses

must

research.

The

in pure

in

t_llent. fruit

in the

Our

men

careers

in the manned

commercial

efficient travel

field.

and total time

in-flight

aerospace New techfood-

of the new jet age.

Werecentlycompleteda 7-acrestructure, costingover 11million dollars, dedicatedto research,technology,andmanufacture of qualityproductsfor our business. Ourcompany- in its research,qualitycontrol, andmanufacturing process- is making extensivestudiesintoqualitycontrolof its products. Weare lookingto imaginative packaging to maintainthe integrityof thecomponents.Alongwiththevariousairlines, wewill bejointly studyingandrefiningtheproblemsof reconstitutionandtransportation ofproductsfrommanufacturing to storageto in-flight consumption. Wehavesomeexcellentmenandorganizations represented heretoday. It will be mypleasureto bechairmanduringthe presentation of their remarks. R.

Treuchel

103

AIRLINE

The purpose airline

VERSUS

of this

and aerospace

primarily

change.

increments

is to introduce

of knowledge

dynamic

concepts

may

to be jolted.

The same

"shock"

of space

- but isn't

it conventional

We speak

food

An airplane checks

the fuel,

board

?

No.

sengers

He takes

The airlines

realize

that

The

passengers purchasers.

ticket,

your

You want

to create

may

choice

a feeling

is associated

with

is an illustration

of the kind

ardess.

You recognize

the food that

this

helps

to enforce

your

feeling

In classifications

by comparing

the astronaut's

audience

going

day,

the weather,

tickets

of mother's

of confidence

on board,

on board,

deeply

system

we

of space

food.

? checks

because

the airplane,

and

if the coffee relaxation

of the

but at the ticket ticket

is on of the pas-

that

you have

counter

from

kitchen.

to the pilot

by pretty

service

in preference

so the atmosphere

or grandmother's

attractively

so many

creatively

But for the

partly

you transfer

is served

I have

role.

on the impression you are

to

is to add small

the stewardess

of safety.

tend

at a new feeding

to think

to buy one airline's

based when

you and

in space

an important our

_f a university

to look

go aft to ask

plays

be a captive

the security

feeding

as organizations

in order

eaten

checks

you and I buy

concept

in order

food

off,

eating

is largely

space

to divide

Similarly,

as it is not part

of security

system

BUCK University

for

the aim

be needed

the pilot

If you are

ideas

youth,

food that

may

seen

it for granted, calm,

our

he takes

you ever

mental

discriminating

vided.

before

but have

and for their

provide.

airline's

pilot,

about

A.

to a university)

or old knowledge.

ingrained need

and prejudices

I

Cornell

metric

is similar

with

to existing

PAUL

is discussed.

NASA

involvement

I

creative

Use of the

schedule,

(and I suggest

Despite

FEEDING

systems.

to his eating

Universities resist

paper

feeding

in relation

SPACE

airline

that

they

they

are

to another the service

pro-

the airline

wants

The home

cooking

and to the airline stewardesses,

stewand

of security.

of food service,

eight

groups

of feeding

establishments

are

well

recog-

nizable: (1)

Hotels

and fancy

(2)

Motels,

(3)

Clubs,

(4)

In-plant

(5)

Hospitals,

(6)

Primary

(7)

Universities,

(8)

Transportation

restaurants

drive-ins, resorts,

etc. etc.

feeding,

cafeterias,

etc.

state

institutions,

etc.

and secondary dormitories,

schools etc.

industries 105

Althoughtheairline feedingsystemfrequentlyhasbeenlistedunderthecategoryof to me the proper (category

3).

serving

listing The

of food

space

food,

the emphasis

similarity

a steak

Just as the A third

Food one

becomes

weaker

break

than

a man

When

the other,

you are

are

especially

you go to a restaurant to take

minutes,

you are

suppose

quickly,

a piece

of bread,

become

longer,

pilot,

concerned

to relieving

may depend upon his blood sugar are under tension, your shoelace By film didn't upside

drop.

sault the

Would

down ?

manner

we have this

Because

have

spoon

over

food instead to make

mouth,

just

on our

as good Earth

we must

of eating

an astronaut

in space

Earth

prejudices

if we plan

carries

along

be jolted

to develop

these

improved

When

turned

a spoon

his

Earth

Earth space

about over.

feeding

necessity and said,

performing

prone

to tension. has

had

turned

a spoon

like

if you

food himself

in a conventional

turning

space break

a sommer-

busy

turned

orientation. through

We must

the

tasks

the astronaut

not the

are

Par-

been

and the

down

to use

tasks.

to perform

an astronaut's

are three astronauts and the pilot and the copilot with possibilities of boredom and tension.

to be "Cut

it now is to wait

upside

systems.

But

a knife

his ability

We must

for several

busy

The reason

prejudices.

come

the same

shoelace,

orientation,

up.

the taste.

easier

if the astronaut

to think

build

doesn't

you tie your

and expect

a spoon

may

meal

The astronaut that

can be used

the food tastes_

very

passenger

Similarly,

Food

with

better

were

not realizing

conventions

under

How much

tension.

an experience

it by turning was

flights

of relaxation.

one.

your

does

one is one thread

tension

not serve

"

be an idle

yet

to the

of the person.

and the waitress

How much

this

an astronaut

his demonstration

Even

because when there comes a passenger 106

while

been

we rely

to put food in our to eat the

engineering,

and his state breaks.

watched

for whom

schedule,

salad.

and Apollo

that

tension.

a loaf of bread

you are;

will at times

also

a month

How often

and do not appreciate

time

brought

an astronaut

the

it,

is your

tense

Gemini,

same

can contribute about

nothing,

you gulp the food

and here

How less

in Mercury,

in food service

airplane

is coming,

are

he reacts

state

acuity.

on the broken

if he is under

does

on the

volume,

variety

even

flight,

perhaps

stress

take

one thing:

meal:

best

does

did just

of your

put more

and,

restaurant,

meal

except

meal

she

previous

shoelaces,

for your

that

flight

and emotional

only a few minutes

same

your

on the

factors

airlines

for weeks,

his next

he will retain

doing

and the waitress

into the

boards

the

to our

phases.

to weight,

Although

and

devoted

is in the major

be eaten

etc.

menu.

perform

after

has been

attention

food.

food may

as that

of a passenger

transporting,

on the engineering

so that

but you have

tension

The astronauts flights

Both

cannot

those

order,

?

holding,

systems

of food to the physical

so much

the remainder

ticipation

same,

been

of the

same

on long flights

resorts,

care

careful

if a passenger

in a rush

with

your

under

you went

served

As

the

has

require

to a monotonous role

same

feeding

systems

the

This

program

and aerospace

menu

or a spacecraft

tensions,

immediately

example,

is in the

when

in an airplane

to relieve

For

to the pilot

dining.

space

1) or clubs,

and preparation,

of flatulence

flight

reacts

(category

and aerospace Both

or lobster

similarity

selection

in our

per

astronaut

important

shoelace

for

systems.

and receives

monotony

meals

restaurants

to gourmet

and low degree

or two

for both

given

of a menu.

convenience,

is a factor

to menu

in the airline

selection

only one

and fancy

is given

though

in the

serving

that

to that

even

preparation,

later

care

is similar

Another considered

is with hotels

transportation,

our

begin

fairly

the third

man

soon, be-

Anotherproblemis our Earthboundtime system;perhapsweshouldconsideradopting a metric time system. Howmanybreakfastsshouldanastronauteat? Shouldhehavea breakfast everytime heseesthe sunriseashecircles the Earth? Howmanyluncheons shouldanastronaut haveonthewayto the Moonwhenheis in sunshineall the time? Shouldhehavebreakfasts,noonday meals,anddinners? Whatscheduleis followedin Alaska,with its almost24hoursof sunshine ? To keeptheconventionalism of the U.S., youdrawyour curtains. Whykeepthesestatesideconeeptsin our astroaquarium ? Whynotadoptthemetric systemof time andalsoadoptsomeof the pleasuresof a siesta? A properdayfor anastronautmightbe4 hoursof workand5 or 6 hours of rest. Hecouldenjoyrelaxation,work, andsleepin a metric system. Let us divide the day into

10 equal

lenging

parts

and

ourselves

son to keep

divide

to do this.

seconds,

may be a very

healthier

when

they

Further,

concept

will

the

concept

a grocery

for hours,

charm.

knows

can have

ever

by the food.

is scrumptious.

A dry

chicken

It can be that

participation

and he will

The

astronaut

also

entertainment to be spread

popular

because

sandwich

that

to continue needs

"rec"

of spreading on crackers. reaching

"rec"

after

they

you and I enjoy

barbecuing. entertainment on bread. Let us give

in the refrigerator

Gathering

but there

been

I understand the astronaut making

that this your

in a station

The decor has

space

charming

give

he will

even

own selection

about with

a can

entertaina husband drive

the

pit is entertaining.

We can give

opportunity

age we

it can be ac-

In fact,

in the next

is the

a bit of charm.

is excellent

the barbecue

in

an attractive

the refrigerator

to rain;

system.

bought

One goes

confined

that

Every

recreation.

is something

when we barbecue.

around

Food

by candlelight;

leg from

it starts

away

the office.

food and in the

although

in his feeding

and

of the word

not just

in

tension

in a restaurant.

have

abbre-

degree to Perhaps

is taken

only food.

that

though

The

and he desires

for space

are

industry,

she

menu.

stewardess,

I.Q.

from

of a children's

of a chicken

even

While

you go to a place

is not charming,

barbecuing

items

the

concepts

not be a miniskirted

continue

are

they

or relieve

resulting

is food bought

value

The taste

to relax

to buy

can be accomplished

leg.

to our

denotes the to the eater.

to be entertained,

charm

important

The charm

need

out of the garage

he wants

is no reanutritional

that

of the restaurant

to a restaurant

to a restaurant

are

similar

tension

chal-

a day.

_n a restaurant.

than

of time,

indicates

meals

The ability

to eat in a restaurant

value

animals

we started

but there

10 periods

in terms

of the

the entertainment

Entertainment

car

are

children

wife

of charm.

of beer

cheese

taken

with

of food.

is a lot cheaper

and

into

- a concept

and wife dine

to relax,

It is time

a day and a year,

eat three

feeding

you do not come

100.

quotient," which and are satisfying

he is relieved

at home

your

of a well-prepared

the

that

and aesthetic

the challenge

they

of the food

entertainment,

a snack

ment.

dishes,

you appreciate

concepts

complished

a husband

he wants

When you take

The atmosphere

S.Q.

Research when

value

Relaxation, If you have

wagon

than

of space

when

because

atmosphere.

to keep

If a day is divided

you to think

and cooked

to a restaurant

a reason

the recreational

of washing man

store

into 10 to make

a partly coined term, '/satisficing satisfactory in terms of nutrition

is an important

restaurant

parts

schedule.

let us consider

influence

good

feeding snacks

to discuss

the boredom

is still

and hours.

valid

we tend

from

There

eat frequent

viation S.Q. denotes which the foods are

which

10 equal

minutes,

snacking

this

those

Apollo

the astronauts there

will

to participate.

be Snacks

is participation. 107

Withthemetric system,wewill notbeboundto breakfasteverytime thesunrises, or to lunchbecauseit is midday. Withthemetric system,thechallengeof newideascanbecarried into thefood. Ourjobas scientistsis tobe concerned with nutrition,but this is nottheastronaut'sjob. Theparticipation,the relaxation,andtheentertainment leadto the challengeof nutritioussnacks. All ofus, includingmyself, mustacceptthechallengetothinkof spacefoodinstead of conventional Earthfoodin space. Aswestart thinkingof spacefood,werealizethatit is no longerthethreemealsthatweare so accustomed to onEarth. Whenweleavethis conference perhapswecando morethanjust lightly talk aboutthe metric system. Perhapswe canuseit to think of spacefood. I amnot advocating champagne flights, butto mefoodwithoutbeverageor food withoutsomegourmetaspectof participationwill notproducea goodfeedingsystemfor aerospace travel. ThehospitalitythatyouandI cultivatein about

in terms

of our

sions

increase

if we ignore

are

under

tension.

food an important

108

space

If we are part

feeding food. going

of the whole

system. Insurance to prevent system.

our

homes

It is my personal companies accidents,

is the thing belief

tell us that we must

I am asking

that

risks

we cause work

to think

of aborting

accidents

as a team

you

and

mis-

when consider

we

PAN AMERICAN

WORLD

PRESENT

AND FUTURE

'_Velcome ately

after

may

takeoff,

we suggest

Water

guns

good

Flight

we will

be offering

a dehydrated,

for

What's

but in some

systems

with

a capsule

space

mediate

future

There

I am

in an aircraft.

utilize

research

Pan

time

and dinner.

Airways,

World

today

will

Included

Inc.

be 3 hours,

in your

easily

disposable,

unappetizing,

that ?

If it is good

enough

from

are

space

travel

?

not the particularly

is no difference. not talking

and,

choice and

for

immedi-

this

evening,

misshapen

meal.

the astronauts,

in all possible

have

long missions

astronomical

must fields.

future

It doesn't

We of the airlines

about

We certainly

and how can we benefit

Amerioan

is it not

?

different

really

in mind.

or space

ing and must

really

there

I

Our flight

with

industry

situation. ways

J" P' TREADWELL

cocktails

wrong

us in the airline

it is not in a zero-G

I

1 to Londonl

low-residue,

How is the airline

face,

PLANS

Aboard

on request."

enough

AIRWAYS:

take

into

which

must

space;

a gravity

I'm

systems

detail

some

they

design

our

talking

about

weight

and packag-

consideration

whether

the astronauts

also

Let us look at the airline.

food

problem:

What

space

is our

be weightwateher

in

im-

or weight-

less? Professor on these

except

but one that quickly

our

has been

free

used

and

What

lives,

747's.

in that

selling

seats

do you

item

used

to it in its

Beirut now;

forced where last

year

San Francisco.

the quality we produced We meet

suppose

eaten.

tell you a little

into production

between

people

live add

and I will

"Creature

our

comfort"

and their

prejudices

with

them,

Professor

the airlines

and we need

can we provide

is just

were

hopefully

something,

comforts

that

Let me

us that

to throw

So .we must

way,

differences

is not something and we are

like

prejudices,

comfort.

to tell

We would

and,

are

of creature

How many

by psychologists

of our

not linger

habits

is not my term cannot

change

out of the window try

to bring

Buck's

'rrecff

as

and say

favorable

ones

(relaxation,

en-

comfort).

the airlines kind

a creature

but we cannot.

One of the basic stage,

in great

food is indeed

technology.

of them,

everyday

tertainment,

mentioned

to say that

as can their

that we are into

Buck

that

It's

about

Am.

by an operational of food wasn't

what

11 000 000 meals the volume

seen,

earthbound Pan

demands

to pamper

I shall

opening

also

current

?

and space

people

discuss

this

announcement and it's

travel

is that, in order

from

and it's

to sell

the viewpoint

I made

felt,

at least

would

sell ?

heard.

at this

tickets. of the None.

Food

It is a textured

form. We started

need

of moving

we had hoped in our

producing meals

it to be.

two frozen-meal

and the demands

frozen

food

from

New York

We've

progressed

kitchens,

of the latest

in 1950.

We

to Karachi beyond

at New York technology.

or that

and

Many 109

peoplehavesaid, "Youhavethebig jets. Howare yougoingto handle vidu_l

basis

?"

This

is indeed

Let us consider 1973

we plan

hour.

This

to this

large

to have means

to be vastly

found

that

Airport

at one terminal

have

about

the public

on this

to be increased.

alone

building

because

eight

3300 passengers

quicker.

shove

under

his

things

have

been

have

space

into

dealing

per

it is our

707's

hour.

(Lexan)

in our

considering

plastic

wine

and six It will

The

of which

We shall

have

airplane

at each

9 ovens

on an indi-

largest 747's

indeed

station.

during

In

a peak

be difficult

and

ahead

the general

is stargazing, any lesson

three,

when

traveling

about

has

to cater

going

of aisles

and segmented

so that

and he can sit down

We are

and

to feed

experiences.

utilizing

the poly-

in the engines.

We are

even

liquor

seems

Tetrapak

"entertaining" 350 people

to

All these

of our previous

and weight.

package. at the same

of 52 sq ft of galley,

and 15 000 pieces

too large

it in the hatrack.

is used

going

the number

his bag is 2 inches

is.

in space

an average

volume

we are

that

are

of equipment

which

will

time.

Each

is quite

small.

go on and off each

nightmare.

moving

volume,

quicker,

curve

it an attractive

will

between

we not really

find

Titanium

and we are

is a logistic

to the time public,

to learn

make

much

industry

40 percent

10 coffeemakers, This

but are

weight.

comforts

coded

he can'tput

space

creature

to be increased;

the learning

the

save

six galleys,

transit.

Think

things

geniuses

are

that

through

the

to be color

He won't

which

there

going

to put things.

for light

bottles

is going

are

by the stewardess

galleys

747 will have

complex,

spacing

that

he can board

the same

but the packaging

understand

quicker,

consideration

with

carbonates

unappetizing

Seat

much

and be told

taken

We are

really

All the compartments

He will seat

doesn't

airplane.

can get his baggage

much

people,

International

at one time

increased

a passenger

galley

people

number.

We've

is going

those

a big problem.

Kennedy

we shall

all

be a problem

planets,

to the

Moon,

in the direction going

not with astronauts and so forth.

of volume

to be learning

it,

but with

?

Well,

Granted

if there

that

were

and I hope

not the hard

used

although

it

ever

way.

h

The

modular

are

not of immediate

benefit

concept

eventually

and containerization importance

to your

We find that They they

board board

airline;

another

they

so simple be used

entrees

only the

of time, in the 110

we have

to solve.

mouth

to try taste

nothing

that

are

this

they

are

and,

lessons

year

What

happens

and are

and by the

to as

that

I think

these

things

will

be of

a captive

dog experiment.

after

? We are

problem

palate,

Pavlov's

364 days considered

is simple

alone

is $ 43

At this

of meals, a chicken

to identify 000

point

000

we use

as I mentioned

but not

and that about

before,

is to

90

we mean

not

and the sight.

"demand"

with,

degree.

later,

we put aboard.

the sound,

is faced

to a lesser

The

food and supplies

the palate,

the astronaut

trapped

again.

the foods

referred

as in the a year

onboard.

for

the texture,

to airlines then,

chicken

but for all

is that

our passengers

They

being

chicken;

but chicken

to satisfy

but also

so to speak,

and are

program,

relate

and have

and have

chicken

approach

747.

psychologically

My budget

Another

faces

to the Apollo

in January

airplane

not only for

different

ment,

say

here

industry.

people

an airplane

are

i.e., Take,

audience.

type being

food service. rigid

in one

for example, We have

been

The same seat

for a long

the 302 economy finding

enclaveperiod

passengers

out through

studies

thatpassengers donotnecessarilywantto eatwhen when

the stewardess

is ready

to serve

vice,

i.e.,

to allow

the passenger

a system

them,

they

so we are

are

told

to eat.

creating

to eat when

They

may

not want

what

we call

"demand"

to.

It could

also

he wants

to eat

food

ser-

be called

a snack

service. On the 747 on our to London,

or from What

What

to the skilled

degree No,

we must

give

but the

them

same

room.

Each

that

can be prepared For basic

ings,

because

maintaining

used. ume

protein

less

and

Some food containers, temperatures material

will

we will other

solve

products

and our

ladies

some

are Also

which

being

in a dry-heat

Volume

create

that

are

imagine

the

from

scratch

very

well

designs

?

pre-

one of us here

technology

discussing,

up to 1100 variations

insulated working

in

foods

of protein and more

the more

prepackaged

of frozen

include

that and

food.

time

food flavorusing

passenger people form Then,

de-

some gets,

are will

bebe

as the vol-

containers.

high-heat

plastics,

and low in cost

is a high-heat,

we must

through

and at the same

shipping

lightweight,

which

provide

and will withstand

polyethelene,

moisture-proof

(600 ° F).

necessarily affect

our

to the old chef?

started

in every

we have been

problems

environment there

occur

in a convenient

considered

factors

stewardesses

that

conscious

of the logistic

we are

that

Our

the amount

sauces

one-way,

a recipe

of the food

weight

Can you

meals

genius. that

to increase

disposable,

and gentlemen,

technology.

girls

presentation

and basic

them

Seattle

1000

What happens

stewardesses.

be sure

meals

6, and

becoming

with that

can be placed

In short,

about

lightweight,

of up to 600 ° F.

technology

are

protein

need

or plates,

which

are

We want

people

So fish

Containerization increases,

there

or from

at a full configuration

foolproof.

so we must

to London,

to do this ?

to hand

in those

of frozen

the psychological

more

active.

is

occur

Francisco

3600

who is not a culinary

volume

products.

to be able

if you were food that

San

be serving

we have

differently,

by somebody

of which

more

coming

preparation

will do things

going

Today,

of difference

sauces,

of the latest

?

from

we will

are

a convenience

tremendous

goes

to London,

worker

degrees

this

while

which

of automatons

of food

this

sign

kind

of variance

pared

flight

Los Angeles

in 12 hours. happens

Polar

must

passenger

be many travel,

interfaces whether

between

your

in the atmosphere

or in space.

111

| JAPAN PRESENT

First policy

I shall,

of Japan

force

behind

diet

food

or alternative

$560

gether

April

Asia,

and to the

I

Japan

give

and,

the present

state

style

national

food planning

the primary

briefly

Western

our

Lines

is perhaps

I shall

is to serve food,

Air

and define

what

third,

IKEGAMI

motivating

our future

aims.

food as the principal

diet,

is served

or

as an additional

to March

plan

food,

and

Middle

31, $1

1969,

560

we spent

to 33 percent

we have and Near

of our

flight East,

$4 000

000 for beverages

routes

total

other

the

service

Pacific

via both

the

or Western

subsidiary

transportation

across

to Europe

000 for the main

and

foods.

To-

expenses

for

Oceans,

to

and Atlantic

Polar

and

Southern

routes,

Union.

is used

plan

consists

to determine

of service

which

along

of two elements meal

every

flight

: a "meal

- breakfast, route.

plan"

lunch,

The menu

and a "menu

dinner, plan

or snack

determines

plan.

"

The

- is to be served

the components

of

meal.

are

tion

we have

rotated.

of our

to dictate

to comply

the tastes

us a pleasant

force

in the Japanese land."

feeling some

food,

local

food

note

behind phrase

a man

of service

may

for each

be and are

is done to our

meal

at each

modified

in the belief

meal

to suit

that

passengers.

as much

our

that

I would

food planning

service.

"furusato-no-aji. phrase

who comes

from

materials

to express

food"

passenger

this

the taste

us who study

This

of "good of our

As implied,

that

menus

menus

loading

the general

in general

we are

On the contrary,

as possible,

in order

station tendency

of

not in a posi-

we feel

to make

and

obligated

his short

sojourn

one.

It is on this motivating

these

passengers.

the meaning

with

six different

However,

diet preferences

112

menus;

TOSHIMITSU

to explain

Japanese

amounted

food service

the order

these

term

try

at present,

Currently

In principle,

tive

policy,

1, 1968,

to the

Soviet Our

with

of our

of its universality.

flights.

Southeast

each

I shall

selection

expenditures

international

and

Second,

000 for Japanese

these

meal

of a few statistics,

|

specialty.

From diet,

PLANS

the help

Lines.

service

because

AND FUTURE

with

the final

Our main

Air

AIR LINES:

of which and cooked

food service the

strong

like

a flood

by his mother

in Japan, conservative

this

prepared

own and simple

phrase

has

a broader

nature

of an inherent

way.

meaning. diet

habit

is captured

of food

used

in the big city

of a dish

the primary

or attitude

"a taste

and is often

but now lives

in her

force

it means

connotation

of memories

is perhaps

of this

directly

a nostalgic

the countryside

triggers

what

The essence

" Translated has

to introduce

of the

to describe gets

nathe

when

he eats

with simple

typical

However, It is used

of either

to those

of

as a symbolic an individual

or

a nation. Ofcourse, a an individual nations

that

absorb

furusato-no-aJi ticularly

foreign

albeit

a person

a piece

road

to full recovery.

childhood

of dried

when

abroad

more

excitement

may

experiences

home,

or trip

itself

this

is the appetite.

time

But,

to time

of such

a situation

illness

a nutritious instead

in many

may

have

traveling

- a time

been

this

in the case

be reflected

despite feeling

given

one's

surfaces,

par-

In Japan

well-balanced

modern

of plain

served

white

to spur

of

in

changes,

is the following:

a bowl

cases

may

by air.

For

of heightened

excitement

- different

elements spoils

surfaces

thoroughly

a

hospi-

rice

gruel

the patient

to him by his

a great

created

customs,

languages,

be a result

many

excitement.

or tension

people,

who under

which

one's

to one's

accustomed

restaurant

friend

are

in the

tension

Tension

furusato-no-aji

Japanese

own.

as

may

on the

mother

in his

flying

and

To one passenger,

when

this

he contemplates

and

of the accumulated

of them

the new

situations.

fatigue

To a per-

produced

by a heavy

schedule.

One of the human

though

has

in turn,

dyspepsia. people

encounter

their

preferring

meal

a new experience

he will

it, meal

simple

from

manifest

son on his way business

same

and more

present

a serious

on the surface,

This,

and from

rejects simple

at least

with

An example from

This

This

them

subconsciously,

the patient

plum.

change,

or occupation.

and blend

recovering

he suffered

Today

gradually

of abode

situations.

but sometimes

with

may

cultures

remains,

gives

tal meal,

habit his place

in extraordinary

hospital

going

diet

who changes

regular

to a Western

by such

and here

I can point

style

upon

circumstances

influenced

appetite,

consciousness.

if one is available similar

is readily

diet,

landing

feels

like

desire

as you well to suggest

a few Japanese

of tension

in a foreign

a strong

we would

to quite

in times

tension,

city.

dash

I also

for a good

that

friends

for

have

know,

who,

the nearest an American

old American

style

ham-

burger. I know or

service

est

of food

and perhaps

gap that

which most

negative

passenger

important

to his

fashion

and

the whole

not solve

this

peculiar

passenger diet

he might

meal.

Use

problem.

today

dissatisfaction

the food each

expectation,

because

However,

for passenger

own or his nation's

against will

- mistakes

complaints.

reason

our passenger's

reaction

in the fanciest

infrequently

the food we offer

according from

- I hope

incurs

between

partially,

strong

we do make

the

exists

consciously even

that

habit, show

that

with

in-flight

expects ff our

quality

a totally

preparation

I find

not only

of the best

Rather,

of improper

one of the greatmeals

consciously

or sub-

food happens

to divert,

displeasure

but also

nutritious

different

is the

a

food prepared

approach

must

be

used. Of course of each back

individual

to his

course,

childhood,

time We,

grasp

passenger showing

is a practical

a limited

and

the ideal

cultural

food

is met.

We should

however,

to the

are

backgrounds nation's

service

since facilities

at least

of each

able

nation

peculiar

diet

plan have

the food he liked

impossibility

and limited

an individual

in-flight

would the diet

be one wherein

the furusato-no-aji

history

passenger,

and how his mother

in-flight

food

service

of each prepared

is a form

it. of mass

dating

But this, feeding,

of within

of an airplane. to survey or country; habit

carefully and with

so that

and analyse this

information

we can meet

the different

historical

we can attempt

our passengers'

to

satisfaction 113

by preparing

menus

either

to comply

with,

or,

more

importantly,

avoid

conflicts

with his

furusato-no-aji. Take, main

dish

taste

of ham

nation with

for example,

on our

lunch

with

the

along flights

We therefore

where,

sengers

is quite

where

no alternative

high.

Another side

their

steaks

pared

on the

rare

with

Japanese Two years A Japanese Today,

dish

good

vise

with

was

serving

ground

try

aims, such

the demands

are

we shall

letter

- of the

Japanese

food of the native In closing, of your

114

dining

astronauts'

land.

out of Tokyo

leaving

ever,

of dill

pickles

of our trans-Pacific to non-American class

Europe's

native

trend

pas-

on any route

it both

from

steaks

are

by statistics. we are

flights

Tokyo pre-

In order

promoting

returning

to Japan.

of a regular

Western

courses

for first-class

passengers.

passengers

as well

Japanese

of the main

style

based

believe

on cautions

dinner

enjoy

fun and adventuresome

We sincerely

of passengers

cities,

indicated

for

on the well-done

outbound

passengers,

non-Japanese

foods.

prepared

gateway

especially

they find

are

of passengers

food as a part

but many

we shall

the

today

Jumbo such

and

things

continue in the

to try

that

such

course.

something

a delicate

observation

con-

is essential

flight

kitchen usher

mignon

technologically.

to

prepared continue

which

methods

in.

However,

in the area

or cream

of mushroom

and

I mean

we shall

served

in a manner

to meet

the

that

spirit

translated

directly

spirit

be incorporated

re-

on the

by tube

to try

again

We shall

and loading

By conservative,

foods

We shall

furusato-no-aji

to grow

SST age will as filet

conservative.

and present

a pleasure.

phrase

of course

preparation

remain

of our passengers

aeroflight

a combi-

passengers

in the economy

own Japanese

than

Japanese

as food

by tablet

make

as a the

service.

where

deed

of American

dish

of the opposite

tendencies

and service,

the needs

this

such

first-class

only on menus

ratio

is served

in combination

Japanese

to our

the majority

flights

varieties

traditional

diet

future

that

food because

selection

meet

the

as one of the choices

food

in vogue,

routes,

of our

to serve

to their

with

is included

which

to enjoy

for a combination

applesauce

prepared

show

passengers

procedures

feeling

dish

steaks

because

more

Japanese

in-flight

to cope

beef

On inbound

offered

Japanese

As for our

other

with

able

to the average

the same

we do not serve

of medium

of the various

maintain

our

of furusato-no-aji

in addition

sideration

This

statistics

way.

side

The latter

different

is that

we started

not only

food.

this

service

ago,

steak

and applesauce are

is offered.

our

the sense

food

ham

Accordingly, dish

because

prefer

have

choices. with

example

of medium

to cope

other

steak

people

However,

would

serve

in comparison

of ham

American

of applesauce.

You probably

with two or three

dish

menus.

sweetness

is unpalatable. ice cream.

the American

or dinner

of food soup

continue will in-

- if not the

means

"a taste

of

"

let me be so bold as to suggest aerospace

diet.

I hope

I have

that given

this

you some

food

for thought.

in the planning

to

=

i

SESSIONIV

FOOD TECHNOLOGY

CHAIRMAN: Secretary,

Space

National

Academy

Nutrition of

Sciences

HERBERT Panel -

of

SHEPLER the

National

Space

Science

Research

Board

Council

Dr. Space

Chichester,

Science

Board,

Board,

National

welcome

laborated

4 years

of Sciences,

of the

Space

Nutrition

you in the name

but

he is unable

programs

useful

has

made

all of us in this

national

advances for agency

of the Science

and has asked

stand

field

we should

It appears

aspects

space

me to

prove

1964

of value

gained

and,

this

line,

available

for

I think the

the importance technology.

and food handling

knowledge

definite

research,

along

and nutrition

col-

we had here

derived

to emphasize

of nutrition

NASA have

with the objective

program

information

continue

and

4 years

of nutrition

the best

that

Board

that the meeting

since

of nutrition

probable

may even

the

progress

to provide

in the field

I feel

in the field

considerable

in some

undertaken

which

still

Science

have

in the war against

of

Already resulted

in the studies

Herbert

116

Panel

of the Space

to attend

in the last

crews.

and one from

I believe

research made

everyone. has

of South Florida

we cannot

of the future.

continuing

that the Space

for our spaceflight

very

However,

our country

meeting

University

the diet

it behooves

space

to have welcomed

is the second

ago was

benefits.

benefits

Academy

in at the

of improving

certain

was

is the Chairman

you in his place. This

since

who

hunger.

Shepler

the

in

|

military ferent

This

in which

The

ratios,

nutritional

Co.

undertook

a research

meat-analog,

of food

a smooth

could

foods,

materials

continuing

with

a wide,

individually

of small

cubes

allow

the modification

may

be eaten

both

undertaken

individual

and collecit might

a rod-shaped

be

sealed

within

contin-

their

pressure

of 4 different

types

generated

governing

the

from

soft

was

Materials

were

developed

ingredients

of rod-shaped

without

acceptable, date,

one or more

unique

food

we have been bars, other

menu

This

and as is,

effort

involved

in the creation

Further,

accessory taste

providing

resulted

compone'-ts

bars

thus

the

form.

principal

to individual

plastic

properties

compressed

array.

foods

the

manner

varying

and formulas,

end requirements.

compressed

form

dif-

areas.

desired

of base

in a rehydrated

remain

texture

tailored

our

to create

flavors

of special

These

can be combined

research

the way in which

be controlled.

to the present

food bars.

being

of the bars

must

reasonably

the result

the form

contract

information

to a chunky

stable,

selected

and

of many

problems.

could

to meet

of the aerospace

in the evolution

of some

confection

the selection

highly

in 1962 and

resulted

to determine

they

much

be modified

of compressed

natural

and

texture

through

of a low-cost,

variety

when

requirements

has

of 12 different

of the research,

structure

Beginning

are

aerospace

vegetable,

activity

in the delivery

future

crew

Company

all of us to reevaluate

technology)

a flight

Further,

nutritional

spinoff

in the delivery

WEISS

Pillsbury

which

to encourage

resulted

from

value.

as water

I hope

Pillsbury

M.

with you the results

(especially

the course

and

research

to share

to sustain

effort

brittle

of a wide

like

of the special

much

Further,

the physical

nutritional

in support conducted

in solving

in the fruit,

which

The

information

During

such

I

Co.

food designed

to hard

EXPERIENCES

I would

In 1966

foods

AND

has

as a baseline

suits.

ROBERT

industry,

technical

gency

I

The food

products.

used

DEVELOPMENT

programs,

by The Pillsbury tive

FOOD

of

in variable flavors

preferences. for

greater

in Some

texture

variability. An obvious as compared

with that

contributing in such foods

as chile

proportion

both are

for achievement of natural

of this

dual-function

food forms more

bar

is the high

counterpart.

can be effectively

con carrie

Currently low bulk

that

of the

of its rehydrated

components

a manner

opportunity

problem

encapsulated

become

bland

Current

highly

in the

of extremely

flavor

work

within

high nutritional

has

shown

materials

palatable.

unrehydrated

intensity

densities

that

such

highly

Compressed while

bar

flavor-

of controlled

In fact, form.

of an as-is

solubility seasoned

foods

continuing

provide

use

an

of a high

foods. in excess

food system,

of 5.75

Kcal/g

an individual

can be provided can be sustained

in a hydratable at a daily

caloric

bar. intake

Because

of the

of approximately 117

2500cal for a periodof 7 to 10daysfrom a foodstoragecontainernolarger thananordinary shoebox. Althoughthis foodis beingprimarily designedto meetmilitary requirements,it has becomea foodformworthyof considerationfor aerospace use. Nutritionallyvariableediblecoatingsandbindersprovidephysicalstrengthandcrumbcontamination controlwhile, in addition, allowingthefoodscientistto strengthennutritionaldeficien.cies ofthenaturalfoodsembodiedwithin thebar. Recentlycompletedtaste-panelevaluationshaveshowna highdegreeof acceptabilityfor all of the 46mealitemscurrentlyunderinvestigation.Thelevelof acceptance,as recordedona 9-pointhedonicscale, is shownby scoresof 6 or better givenby morethantwo-thirdsof the taste-panelmembers. Theaverageof the meanhedonicratingsof thefoodscurrentlyunderevaluationis 6.7, as comparedwith anaverageof 5.9 for thefoodbarsdeveloped in 1967. Wealsoundertookthe development of a low-costprocessfor manufacturing bite-size foods,primarily in thebakeryandcerealfoodareas. This effort requiredtheapplication,andin someinstancesmodification,ofpreviouslydeveloped technologies plustheevolutionof somenew techniques.For example,theprotein-encapsulated vegetable-oil--carbohydrate dispersion,which providedthebasefor rod-shapedfoods,wascombined with speciallypreparedcerealandbakery ingredientsin sucha manneras to createa formulatedfoodin a recognizable"natural"form. Thetechnique whichevolvedallowsfor thecreationof a widevarietyof flavorsandtexturesin anydesirableshapefrom a single-processsystem. Thematerialnormallyusedfor coatingwasusedas a binderintegralwith the otherfood components.Thedangerof capsulecontamination by brokenfoodcanthereforebegreatlyminimized. This nutritionallybalancedfoodform hasa caloricdensityin excessof 4 cal/g. Anotherinterestingfooddevelopment project, althoughit wasnotrelatedto humanfoods onthesurface,at least, wasthedevelopment ofa primatediet in pellet form. Prior to our involvementin this ongoingprogram,thepelletswerepreparedby compacting the specifiedingredientsby meansof standardhigh-pressurepelletizingtechniques.Sincethis pellet is dispensed from a mechanicalfeedernot sealedfrom thespacecraftenvironment,very rigid specifications wereimposeduponthemanufactureof this food. Someofthesespecificationswereas follows: (1) ThepeIIetwas3/4 _+0.020in. square,with a thicknessdimensionof 0.190to 0.205in. ; (2) it musthavea breakingstrengthin excessof 15lb whencenter-loaded between knife-edgesupports 1/2in. apart,"and(3)whendropped6 in. for 120timesupona nouresilientsurfacetheweightloss mustbe lessthan1 percent. All theaboveparameterswereto bemaintainedthroughout anambientatmosphere spectrumof 40- to 72-percentrelativehumidityand35° to 80° F. It hadbeenconcluded after manymonthsof effort prior to our involvement in theprogram thatstandardpelletizingtechniques couldnot successfullymeetthesespecifications.Thecurrent pelletis manufactured by adjustingthepHof thecaseinin thediet to put it in a water-dispersible form. This materialis thencomplexed with sucrose,vegetable oil, andsomeof thevitaminsand spray-driedin a speciallow-temperaturedrier. Thisprocessingresultsin a powdercontaining lessthan2 percentmoisture. Whencombined with theremainingvitaminsandmineralsin the diet, it canbepressedinto dense,homogeneous pelletsmeeting,or exceeding,all therequired 118

performancecriteria.

Dimensional

tolerances,

for example,

are

now maintained

within

0. 005-in.

vat ianc e • My only reason to food

scientists

rather

than

if they

maintained

have

may

research textural

of special upon

ability from

techniques.

Our efforts

testinal

have

at their

(2)

Near-zero

packaging

(3)

Foods

containing

Foods

greater

that

may,

be used

stay

sufficiently

been

a convenient

money

constraints

period

at original

formula

of this

particular

nutritional

that has

been

and greater

food.

Addi-

compromise)

to

in support

will be placed

with long-duration

departure

from

demonstratable

Some

evolved

demand

food compatible

be a considerable create

has been

to glass.

Greater human

criteria.

existing

improvements

examples

of possible

mis-

foods

and

in accept-

ultimate

results

aimed

microorganisms desired of their

or modify

in-

Manmade

food.

food because end product

to control

will

for truly

real

liquid,

vehicle

history more

prior

has

creativity.

new approaches.

and a challenge

to their

physical

use

the many

foods

constraints

to the quality

?

of many

and development,

I suggest

foods

limitations

be a marriage

Time

as

that these

acceptable

to avoid

research

or other

shown

naturally

undoubtedly

of human-fuel

to stimulate

to our creativity

brittle,

can be designed

system

any program

for not stretching

plastic,

of the space

foods

The final

upon

in our approaches

as a stimulus

loads

or designed

fibrous,

natural

Is not the desired

excuse

fecal

end results

components

for more

concept. natural

at near-zero

requirements

because

As we embark broad

foods

to give

a call

acceptability.

fuel.

?

radi-

viability

(again without

technology

of consumption.

as structural

heard

by so-called

of human

food

we must

selected

in a manner

That is a much broader imposed

point

low-residue

fuel. We have

will

Simultaneously

character

of soft caramels

to create

approach

Extremely

characteristics,

those

of the total

technologists final

(1)

(4)

food can be modified

from

storage

impervious

can have

nutritional

that vitamin

is the

are:

microflora

human

the

foods

high-moisture

chemicals

of research

by the consumer

any of the

available

and inorganic

of this kind

is an indication

What then of the future

and packaging

of these

sacrificing

of this work

that this

organic

import

and acceptable

without

the opportunities

as modifiable

the major

recognizable

but a part

needs.

We all realize

processing

I feel

to the highly

ranging

is obviously

is to demonstrate

ingredients

the high-temperature,

variations

the food

sions.

example

is."

aspect

be due in part

feeding

their

"as

characteristics

has shown

This

this

readily

interesting

throughout This

form

physical

Another

tional

for use

that a food

modified

levels.

look upon

as material

realization cally

for including

we use of our

forms let us

have time

always and

results.

119

MEAT-TYPE-FOoD AND

The geared

efforts

mainly

stant

have

been

and physical

end-item

& Co.

to problems

efforts

value,

of Swift

made

This

is especially

meats,

are

which grade

to judge

the main

and cut

food in the

matter

items. other

L.

PAVEY & Company

and production

than

of space

to development

product

Since

controlled

tent

of the

and

in many

quality

foods

have

of new meat-type

in regard

while

also

ducing

meal

Gemini

the

been

items.

to safety,

improving

Con-

nutritional

production

units

product

weights

by varying specified

rate

and

formity

in nutritional

content

would

costly

because

weight

basis

have

prescribed prior

weights

weight

to cutting

very

all ingredients

requires

to be predetermined

of the production

quantities

a gigantic

order.

weight

has

more

required

the

to the fat conof meat

15 percent,

variance

which

in dry-

unit,

this

re-

for

this

was

that

weight

occurred,

greatly

that

nutritional

more except

variable This

is closer

Pro-

can be made

content,

lot.

considered

be determined

a high degree

to be highly

production

was

to a

factors.

in achieving

to preparation.

batch

weight

content

helped

to provide

found

to cut products

adjustments

uniform

A 10- to 15-kg

fat con-

to nutritional

dry-matter

each

be fairly

judging

product

obtained

related

are

could

requirements.

In order

prior for

by precisely

was

in order

degree.

and adjusted

technologist

which

5 to 6 g in final

that

This

used

meat

than

meal

dimension

variance

closely

the bars

to some

as _+5percent

permission

of the products.

uniform

as

to meet

was

within

weight.

the weight

but not necessarily

is more value,

dry

rather

of

variable

dry weight

of a meat-type

The reason

weight

10 percent

in

In the case

related the

in as much

Apollo,

is higMy

therefore,

cut to a physical

dimension.

in that

the thickness

is considered

was

variable

and vegetables.

is inversely

(e.g.,

of as much

of Project

to a physical

product which

and,

wet weight

to minimize variances

phase

lot produced

value,

content

product

highly

even an experienced

content

had to be reprocessed

dimension,

calorie

product

attempted

latter

having

on each

in final

the

for

water

result

100 g is the

are

the fat content

of _+5percent

would

production

of meats

is difficult

the dry-matter

However,

than

than

content

Since

variance

in their

products,

_+5percent.

20 percent)

products

rather

of our

a ±5 g variance

cases

critical

of the water

approximately

used.

used

fat content

to control

and it was

During dry weight

true

than

Project

meat

ingredients

This

direction,

During well

other

A fat-content

in approximately

form

rather

components

closer

difficult

content.

more

Swift

for Our astronauts,

of meat.

to a figure

it is very

sults

l

improving

characteristics

composition.

or,

EXPERIENCES

in the development

toward

and some

space

R.

of production

items

tent,

I

uniformity. Meat

same

DEVELOPMENT

would

unifor

of uniin nutritional be extremely

A 30 kg batch to the norm.

in

on a wetPreparing 121

sucha smallproductionbatchis and cleanup,

inspection,

a procedure able product

thought

uniformity

of products.

production

required, Project

and effort

provide

which

Gemini,

proper

were

filling

all

made

pieces.

sandwich,

the number

depending

wise

rather

making

with

than

fewer

the sandwich

a three-unit cedure.

to the thickness

using

a crude

Currently

for

etc. 30 bites

ed the rate bites.

was

mold,

bites

logs

bar these

with

bars

were

cut

in more

width uniform

beef

and chicken.

duces junction increase

the shredding

greatest

This

in the dice

process

or falling

with an increase

we feel, has greatly chicken products. 122

the

size

by hand

were

from

mixing

into

each

logs

prepared

and freezing.

enough

for approximately

and reduces

the labor

of predetermined

improvement provides apart

a binding

of the meat

characteristic

when

of the mouth piece

of the meat

particle,

the eating

has

characteristics

it is diced

has within

were

the proper corners,

mis-

and long enough has

greatly

increasof the

items,

been

into a canfrom

and molded each

This The

especially

which

This, which

size.

the

of textured

piece

pieces.

particle

into

log.

i,_ the use

pouch

the

and cutting. by varying

the meat

small

in a larger of these

the bites

removed

removal,

of the rehydratable

resulted

was

can be adjusted

into

pro-

by hand

component

to be cut from

filling,

products

by using

the thickness

is now premixed

yields,

in rehydratable

each

product

24 bars

in mold

drying

in the size

improved

formula

in

however.

by weighing

The frozen

The total

This

length-

bites

in layering

by varying basis,

in the

to a depth

of rounded and width

one

large

sandwich

cases

is frozen.

to

a one-by-one

cut into

in many

can be adjusted

one

required

in trays

was

height

mold

of holes

large

layered

or errors

of proper

from

is still

because

the product

of

cut by hand

the time

each

the product

on a one-by-one

initially

mold.

initially

not level

the

development.

is now sliced

reduces

and

and

number

however,

slow,

perish-

sandwich

sandwiches

preparation,

of material

and weight

a spatula,

and long

were loss

log with a saw after

be coated

weight of the bars, on the basis thickness of the bar being cut. Perhaps

is molded

was

highly

volumes

equipment

and the

This

was

small

in gelatin

can be cut from

chilling,

that

of bread

sandwiches,

Such

and improving

an individual

dipped

manner.

After

of trays

by using

sandwich

formula

to 40-percent

products

mixing

of the proper

results

still

for

of course,

of production,

must

slice

sandwiches

This,

the material

and efficiency

can and three

made

the product

a 30-

each

of the

of items.

handmade.

to cut 6 to 9 bite-size

of the bite-size

because

also

Rehydratable type

possible

number

costs

or justify

individually

individually

for preparation

by the very

to automation

manner

of labor

with a very

production

limited

basically

then

required.

one is working

severely

in the conventional

cutter.

to be cut from

These

were

especially

bites,

in thickness

cuts,

were

on the shape

of the bite

cookie-type

There

been

when

for a small

to reducing

themselves

items

Coating

of meat

equal

variable

have

It was

the loaf

cutter.

thickness.

devoted

and 39 to 42 bite-size

stamp

In the case

highly

been

They

holes,

across

is critical

of the high costs

to returns

in the conventional

thickness.

into bite-size

Bread

This

do not lend

almost

because

in relation

efforts

at a time

bread.

have

These

Sandwiches

costly

and maintenance

is also time consuming. such as meat.

Much

During

extremely

in con-

permits This

re-

an

process,

in the case

of

Thereare threefutureareasof researchfor improvingthesefooditemsthatare believed to beworthyof considerableeffort. Thefirst, andonein whichit is believedmuchimprovement canbemadein a relatively shorttime, requiresa critical lookat flavorsor spicelevelsin existingrehydratableitems. It is believedthattheseitemscouldbe mademoretastysimplyby altering the levelsof their spices,by modifyingthespiceformula,or, perhaps,by modifyingsomeprocessing procedures.This, however,wouldrequirea considerable amountof preparationandtesting. It is notbelievednecessaryto freeze-dryandrehydratetheseitemsfor this purposeuntil after any major changes are made. It is proposedthatthe initial evaluationandrecommendations beperformedby a professionalprofile panel. After themajormodificationshavebeenmadeit is also believedthatour astronautsshouldbepermittedto evaluateandmakerecommendations onthese productsbeforea final formulais established.Again,it is believedthis couldbedonewithout freeze-dryingandrehydratingas longas processingis donein thesamemanneras thatto befollowedin production. It mustbegranted,however,thatsomeflavor loss or alterationdoesoccur duringfreeze-drying. Perhapsit maybepossibletoprovidemeansfor theastronautto spicehis ownfoodto suit his owntaste. A secondareaworthyof considerationfollowsfrom thenewconceptof spoonandbowl feeding. This shouldgreatlyaffectfactorssuchasparticle sizeandconsistencyof theproducts, andit mayaffectotherfactorsrelatingto foodpreparationandformulation. It appearshighlyconceivablethatgrilled steak,pork chops,andhamcouldbepreparedandconsumed in this manner althoughsuchitemshavenotbeenusedbefore. It is proposedthatthesepossibilitiesbeinvestigated. Suchitemsshouldgreatlyenhance mealtimein space. A third areathatI considerworthyof investigationis theconceptof usingtheintermediate moistureor moisturemimeticagentfoodstoreplaceor improvetheacceptabilityof the current very dry andfragile bite-size meatitems. Thesemoistitemswouldalsoprovidea muchhigher weightandcaloric densitythandoour currentbite-size items. This conceptcouldbe applied towardnewitems or to improvementof our currentitems. Theuseof sucha conceptshouldgreatly improve themouthfeel or textureof the productandalsoprovideimprovedflavor characteristics. It is conceivablethattheseproductscanbecompressed or extrudedand, therefore,would be moreuniformin physicaldimensionandweight. Suchitemsmayor maynotrequirea coating tobe appliedto the outsidesurfaceto preventcrumbs. It is alsoconceivable thattheseproducts maybeprovidednotonlyin bite-sizecubeform butalsoin strips or stickswhichwouldpermit the astronauttobite off andchewa part of the materialandnotbe forcedto placethe entirepiece in his mouthbeforechewing. In this wayhecouldadjustthesize of thebite to suit himself. Myremarksin regardto our currenteffortsandproposedfuture effortsfor spacefeeding are nowconcluded.I feel thatgreatstrides canbemadeto providemoreenjoyablemealtimesfor our astronautsin the futureandthatsuchwill result from this conference.

123

BEN

GENERAL

FOODS

CORPORATION

DEVELOPMENT

PRODUCT

AS RELATED

F.

BUCHANAN

|

I

TO

General

AEROSPACE

Although development that

program,

some

of our

some

relevance

plified

in the

needs

General

experiences

"The

future

Before

and the

is the largest

business else,

supply

represents

involving

man.

per

tables), are

and

perishable;

company shelf

Satisfying requires

today

traditional

were

not there

curve

shown

market

continuously

desires

must

Many

to the voice nical

year

new product be satisfied,

year

needs

New product

vitality

ideas

exem-

flights

and world

always

be a part

of the consumer,

and

Fifty

which

constant

improvement,

milk,

) An ade-

of the

foods.

to any

100 billion

eggs,

and vege-

processed It is this

the consumer.

that

translated

originate

year

of the items life

foods last

new products from

with

efforts

are

in research growth on the

must

and in a food

supermarket follows

be brought

the to

new products.

should

always

into new product other

development,

of a new product

It is the consumer

of a new product then

per

and maintaining

and useful

growth

new product and these

dollars

percent

it is evident company

also

above

and strength is over

worth

to the

needs,

to be a food.

processed

of the consumer

from

may

dollars

400 million

The profitable

are

individual

(meats,

requires

ago.

needs

relative

The food business

food budget

category

22 billion

facts

to the nation,

shelf-stable

of over

from

every

is considered

strength

and process

to sustain

some

primarily.

and needs

come

These

and bear

is well

must

of a company.

since

water

food business

and the development

of the consumer.

researcher.

is for the ourselves

country

1,

which

us review

the consumer

About

flow of new products.

after

let

so,

context

foods.

the demands

in figure

we felt

be of interest

aerospace

Of the voice

is in the fresh-food

10 years

manned

recognition

to the

alone

development,

a constant

might

because

of my message

needs

individual,

States

growing

in this

conference

two further

logically

(In this to the

38 billion

process

by an expenditure

development.

and quite

address

prosperous,

future

food products

of new products

In the United

we will

for

namely,

about

40 billion

Part

in the NASA food

sought.

life.

the remaining

improvement,

supported

add

is in processed

to which

A viable,

" We might

strength

Of this,

60 billion

classification

product

specific

food to sustain

year.

time

in the world,

quate

dollars

lead

objectives

relationship

everything

endeavor

for long

in this

problems.

Corporation

responsibility

of new food products

feeding

program,

the

we become

food business

food

need

Foods

contract

to participate

development

is evident.

to attain

had no direct

the invitation

in the

development

funding

has

of the aerospace

sentence, and

Corp.

we accepted

of any food-product adequate

Foods

to some

present

FOOD PROBLEMS

personnel

whose give ideas

wishes

and

a high priority by the tech-

of a company

such 125

J j .

YEARS

researchers,

research,

university

is the

desire

two considerations Next

come

sons

include

free

samples.

than

once

means factor.

taste

and

needed

screening, 2 more

the

is the fact

test

about

that

must

build

40 percent reaches

R&D funding.

concept stage,

rate

of the total a successful

Nutrition into

are

market

running

labora-

ideas,

consumed distribution,

must

On the average

only 1 which

shows

Of these research reaches in research a fact

Other

and

the family"

ideas

in the preliminary

and development

stage,

distribution.

and development pointing

this

eval-

60 new product

national

less

acceptability

be reviewed,

45 are lost

rea-

as a reason;

as an incidental

many

These item.

packaging,

"to please

ever

by the

second.

of a new food

better

an item

its products

product.

a close

item

30 percent.

price,

rarely

4 in the intensive

costs

of a new food

for another

selects

one winner.

leaving

government

for choice

quality,

of new product

marketable

thereby

account

of good

nutrition

testing,

convenience

the consumer

to produce

in one successful

market

which

of a new food product.

from

for selection

of the reasons

and expectation

reevaluated

during

the one product

for adequate 126

to result

at the

curiosity,

of the high mortality

sometimes

with

50 percent

or come

laboratories. reason

and change,

then

new,"

food company

8 more

cidentally, time

it's

Of interest

Because

are

and

cycle.

personnel,

compelling

for almost

and flavor

'because

the most

DECLINE

development

and consulting

for variation

account

in 200 selections

that

uated,

that

product

or purchasing

research,

7

MATURITY

i.-New

salesmen,

It is interesting consumer

Jl

5

GROWTH

Figure

tory

/ ' COMPANY GROWTH

5

MARKET DEVELOPMENT

as market

j

J

up again

and In-

by the the need

Recent foods,

that

trends

is,

foods

ments,

packaging

of such

a product;

fruit--drink by the

sumer

high

dried

coffee

unique

it applies

simple

necessary

from

of technically

as nearly

designed

the product

earthbound

foods

with

precise

known

moisture recently

acceptable

in flavor

and

honey,

range,

is stable

the production manifest

many

and

must

maple

syrup.

by virtue

Even

themselves

only as

nutritious

in the development

much

of human

instant-

makes

un-

coffee.

These to the

of the efforts

made

to

of all tech-

high-quality

to eat,

standards

recently soft

is that

in

as catsup, content.

for our pets. should

Some

The soft,

items

same

products

in the higher moist

of modern

represent

moist

moisture

although

These

of

to the touch,

and packagable.

the application

and

and

as intermediate

a product

foods

when

and nutritious

attention

nutritious,

and salt

foods

with

year.

ready

represent

freeze-

in the development

controlled, after

the con-

and ground

illustrations

be classified

of its high acidity

acceptable,

roasted

offer example,

technology

cup of coffee

significance

receiving

such

fruit-flavored

product;

refreshing,

for carefully

and now in the marketplace

of highly

from

might

of flavor

marketable

the brew

satisfying,

which

An instant

acceptable

For

be shelf-stable,

texture,

years

is an example

convenience.

application

day and year

pudding

products

brewed

foods

require-

rehydratability.

as acceptable,

offered

storagability

in freeze-dried

a freshly

Of high

demands,

with

acceptable,

and serve

designed

which

for

just

day after

products

fruits,

developed

are

consumer

of technically

to the consumer

dried

of preparing

designed

nutritious,

of painstaking the

of technically

banana

flavor

of rapid

to attain

direction

Instant

advances

of the consumer.

uniformity

moisture

to the bite,

years

is the opportunity

One category intermediate

Recent

products

and demands

consumer

popular

as possible

bother

designed

as to the

the desires

nically

are

a dozen

in the

uniform,

the convenience

techniques

it resembles

in space

meet

over

been

etc.

of a highly

water.

with

the time-consuming

samples

certain

a shelf-stable,

of cold

processing

ly reconstituted

to meet

the concepts

acceptability

resulted

have

characteristics,

the consumer

addition

flavor

development

fabricated

transportability

offers

engineering

man

specially

and

mix

drink

in new product

pet foods

technologies

principles an ideal

in

will

line

soon

of products

for the astronaut. Similar being

pursued

by General

partial

support

pressed

bars

eaten.

It was

yet retained must

U.S.

of the bar,

must

be chewable

floor

from

Examples fructose,

Army

content

Natick

cases

of 3 ft,

of additives sorbitol,

it has

than

calorie

crumbly

fats,

simulate

and oils.

In addition,

effect

are many

glycerol, additives

withstand within honey induce

in the mouth

of such

content

and obtain

water

comwhen

additives

on appearance,

30 ° and 100 ° F.

to swallow,

to treat

moistness

the additive

of 4 Kcal/g,

under

of moistness

Selection

nutrition,

in hot or cold

moistness

objective

resembled

to limit

between

or difficult

and be rehydratable which

with

aim

content

at temperatures

our

2 percent.

along our

been

development

investigations

the impression

which

about

prototype

moisture

It has

materials

been

product

intermediate

as to give

of less

a minimum

becoming

mimetic

Laboratories.

and acceptability

by the incisors

a height

with the

a manner

in the bar

In all

without

of moisture

to add certain

flavor

maintain

along

in such

necessary

sheared

is the area

Corp.

foods

consideration

is easily

sucrose,

the

and rehydration.

by weight

crete

Foods

therefore

into

stability,

bar

from

related

of dehydrated

a moisture

take

which

and closely

bulk,

to 20 percent

a compressed

bar

In addition, dropping a 15-rain

solids,

this to a con-

period.

dextrose,

salivation,

among 127

whichare salts, fruit solids, andorganicacidssuchas malic, citric, andtartaric. Invariably combinations of additivesservebetter thananyonealoneandtheoptimumcombination will depend upontheparticularfoodproductunderstudy. Obviously,combinations to beusedfor essentially meatitemswoulddiffer from thosefor vegetables,cereals,fruits, dairy items, or mixeddishes. In all cases,however,it wasfoundthatto obtainbestresultscertainof the salivation-inducing agentsmustbeusedalongwith theadditiveswhichsimulatemoistness. It wasfoundthatthe mois_re mimeticcompositionis bestintroducedinto thecompresseddehydrated or, frequently,freeze-dehydrated foodbar bywayof emulsiontechnology.A typical emulsionformulationis: Water ....................... 50 Fats ........................ 22 Sucrose...................... 12 Gumarabic.................... 10 Emulsifiers(mono&diglycerides).... 4 Sodiumcaseinate................ 2 Emulsionsrepresenta suitableandconvenient meansofattainingcompatibilityandreproducibilitywith a widerangeof compositions andof servingas a bindingagentfor thebasematerials becausetheir rheologicalcharacteristicspermit efficientcoatingof thefreeze-driedbase materials. Asanexample,80parts of freeze-driedchickenin 3 -inchdiceswereblendedwith 20 parts of the aboveemulsion,pressedintobarsandfrozen, andfreeze-dried;theresultwasunusuallyacceptable dry chickenbars of highnutritionalvalueandhighcalorie content. A widevarietyof otherdry meat,vegetable,andfruit barshavinga moistsensationwheneatenhasbeenprepared. Toevaluatemoisturemimeticfoodsfor acceptabilitya taste/textureprofile panelwas specificallytrainedto judgeprototypesamplesagainstsimilar barsmadewithoutadditionof the moisturemimeticcomposition.Todo soa specialterminologywasdeveloped to describecharacteristics of differentiationsuchas initial mois_re sensation,plasticity, amountof salivation,ease of chewing,crumbliness,cohesiveness of the chewedmass,dehydrationof themouth,easeof swallowing,stickinesson theteeth,aftereffectthirst, andgeneralpalatability. Inapplyingthese evaluationcriteria to a numberof moisturemimeticbarsit wasshownthatanincreaseof 2 to 3 pointswasattainedona 10-pointacceptabilityratingscaleoversimilar bars withoutadditionof the moisturemimeticagent. For example,a chickenstewbar wasincreasedin acceptabilityfrom a 2.5 ratingto 5.5, plain chicken from 3.0 to 5.0, and cereal bar from 3.5 to 6.5. These are surprisingly ure

128

content

moist-appearing below

about

items 2 percent.

when Typical

eaten,

yet are

products

are

typically shown

freeze-dried in figure

2.

products

with

moist-

Figure2.-Compressed dehydrated bars containing moisturemimeticagents. Theforegoingare Justsomeexamplesof technicallydesignedfoodsof thefuturewhich are notonlyfor theaverageconsumerbut are alsofor the military andtheastronaut,or aquanaut, sincetheyfit admirablyintotherigid projectedrequirementsof stability, compactness, highcaloric andnutritionalvalue, convenience, and variety. Much more time and effort is needed to achieve their

acceptance

by the

critical

consumer,

but they

are

on the threshold

of reality.

129

SESSION V

LONG-MISSION-DURATION

CHAIRMAN: Deputy

Director, NASA

Office

Biotechnology of

Advanced

PROGRAMS

LEO

FOX

and

Human

Research

and

Research Technology

Division

You have cury,

and Apollo

future

missions

Operations, etary

heard missions.

which

Space

are,

be utilized

to supply

this

regenerative

loop

sider

the possibility

approaches:

will

by also

(1) By means

food

context,

the first

talk

will

search

Center,

who will

talk

about

be given

as

Operations, which

part

are

a physicochemical

and

Jacob

Lunar

eventually, being

We would

method

Plan-

like

to close

When we con-

we do so from

of the Ames of regenerating

two

means. Refood.

Leo

132

for

systems

(2) by biological

Shapira

Base

planned

life-support

wastes,

means by Dr.

Extended

of the food.

metabolic

Mer-

to potential

and,

and water.

at least from

such

Regenerative

as oxygen

Gemini,

will be relative

missions

not be used.

of physicochemical

In this

Base

long-term

such

missions,

- missions

Space

regenerating

of regenerating

approved

morning

undefined

of these

essentials

about

this

Operations,

supplies

will

talks

as yet,

In some

expendable

a bit to date The

Station

Exploration.

the future,

quite

Fox

FOOD

SYNTHESIS

BY PHYSICOCHEMICAL

METHODS

As space that will vantages.

before

mentary

would

useful

of predictions

have

regeneration

result

study,

mission

in savings

the Lockheed

imal are

to keep

Missiles

it alive very

fat,

and carbohydrate.

The

protein

20 simple cannot

organic

acids. they

are Only

are

the

carbohydrate. cause with

very

nucleic

high

one-half

a diet

in metabolism

vitamins,

acids

in the protein of the diet

The

are

which

perhaps

contained

depending salts.

In a similar 1 and 3}.

upon

polymers

essential

has

source, the

primarily

of

of approxi-

to a man

for protein

or an-

the

However,

of complex 8 are

mis-

by a plant

composed

only

frag-

NUTRIENTS

and are

been

diet

with

long-chain

saturated

are

considered

to be essential

as little

since variously

whether

there

exclusively high

contains

and unsaturated to humans

as 1 to 2 g/day.

of relatively

of the very

our

simple

organic

is a minimal

protein

requirement

and fat might

nitrogen

load

relatively

compounds,

amounts

for

be expected

and the ketosis

small

pri-

to

associated

of various

salts,

elements. diet

arederived fatty

acids

polymers

It is not known

and trace

acids

and the glycerol contribute

2).

(refs.

and assimilated

requirement

combined fatty

are

because

American

from

I and

conclusion

and inorganic

of which

minimum

amounts, diet

In addition,

the calories

the calories

ponents

small

However,

third

acids,

of glycerol

in our glucose.

In the typical that

number

amino

composed

in very

fat diets.

acids,

a large

are

only very

75 g/day.

sugar

difficulties

in number

a few of the polyunsaturated

required

hexose

limited

be re-

of carbohydrates

(refs.

themselves,

relatively

of our diet

50 and

substances materials

by the body.

mostly

The

system

into

ad-

for a 6000-man-day

REGENERATED taken

a system mission

would

By using

that,

similar

net

that

regeneration

of organic

compounds,

The carbohydrates marily

are

components

to be between Fats

and

by man

be synthesized

estimated

it to grow.

substance

point

offer

duration

in savings.

to a very

CONTAINING

at some will

as to the mission

physicochemical

came

is any

mixtures

required

mately

fatty

complex

Co.

that

products

of the food supply

DIETS

sense

and enable

materials

protein,

they

basic

it is obvious

to result

Center

Research

in 1966 concluded

crew),

and volume

Ames

metabolic

made

Co.

a 10-man

SPACE

NASA

be expected

and Space

FOR

in its most

generally

major

with

,I

from

been

Dynamics

in weight

RATIONALE Food

General

JACOBSHAPIRA

and longer, foods

of food would

the

a Mars

longer

recover

information,

(i. e.,

become

partially

A number

quired

sion

missions

at least

I

virtually

the

major

from

the hexoses

in the fat, content

chemical

present

The

are

as shown

in the carbohydrates,

and the remainder

of the fat.

no calories.

components

minerals,

are

composed vitamins,

in table about

I.

Note

one-

of the amino and other

com133

TABLEI.-MAJORCHEMICALCOMPONENT_ OF Material

Weight/day, g

Hexoses Aminoacids Fatty

come

from

ods.

The

be emphasized

carbon

is that for

(3)

C1.00H1.6700.83

+ 1.00

O2--_1.00

CO 2 + 0.83

H20

that

for

other

essential'component_of

the catabolism

94 percent

of the carbon

is converted

C1.00H1. be noted

85 percent

fat 134

(ref.

an even

are

diet

shown

meth-

In the

equations

case

on a per

of mole

Only

+ C0.20H1.0700.32N0.27

in table

H20

food is exhaled relatively

I as

follows,

again

on a

+ CO. 06H0. 3000.09N0.08

as carbon

small

consideration

02 _

proportion

and that,

produced

difficult

on the

+ 1.01

greater

dioxide let

The remainder

more

along

the carbon And further,

dioxide

amounts

to permit

and that

of material

0.97

CO 2 + 0.75 diet

are

resynthesis

85 percent

carbohydrate

the current

American

diet

environment.

given

with

H20

carbohydrate

be composed fat,

a diet

of vitamins,

by the body

to carbon

excretion

than

is

and

other

than

sufficient

of the diet

be safe

its excessive

dioxide

products

More

85 percent

which

and acceptable

caris and in

fat and protein.

of synthesis it appears

this

+ CO. 03H0. 1700.05N0.04

system.

should

to the problem

Unfortunately,

of such

purposes,

of the

that

by chemical

as protein,

is converted

a regenerative

would,

would

such

Catabolism

containing

has been

us postulate of the diet

mission.

of this

from

and water

to synthesize

for all practical

can be discarded

than

5) in the aerospace

in which

foods

6700.72N0.04

Such a diet

may be healthier Serious

these

H20

CO 2 + 0.72

of our

of the diet. the

and water

O2--_0.94

into carbohydrate.

of a typical

and water

carbohydrate. fact

that

CO 2 + 0.30

of the diet

to water.

a system

and the like which would be carried shown by the following equation:

dioxide

or physicochemical

feces.

us postulate

about

O2---_ 0.80

+ 1.12

and

comprise

+ 1.00

7400.46N0.08

be converted

that

substances

by the body.

(starch),

H20

only,

these

as food.

of food substances

and (3) carbohydrate

CO 2 + 0.96

of the hydrogen

dioxide

the catabolism

and acceptable

O2--_1.00

would

bon

be safe

whether

biological

+ 1.42

Now let

carbon

by in vitro

C1.00H1.9200.12

in the urine

than

synthesized

to the body

(2)

83 percent

water

no difference

C1.00H1.6700.22N0.27

It is seen

It should

4O 2600"

(1)

C1.00H1.

means

900

respectively,

A net equation can be written per carbon basis:

excreted

400

90

the material

(2) fat (tripalmitin),

are,

1260

90

it makes

or are

can be written

(meat),

basis

origin

consideration

Equations (1) protein

that

DIET

Kcal/day

10 505

a food of natural main

i!

AMERICAN

315

acids

Glycerol

It should

TYPICAL

that

of protein very

(ref.

complicated

4) and

processeswill berequiredfor their be economical

even

for

synthesis,

long-duration

space

can be made as food, (ref.

is: certain

a major

comprise

fraction

OF PURE

carbohydrates

of regenerated

a significant

portion

in all

likelihood

automatic

systems

would

not

missions.

SELECTION The hypothesis

and

NUTRIENTS

or carbohydratelike food.

Any such

of the diet,

nutrients

substance

and be readily

present

must

be safe

synthesized

with

in our

diets

and acceptable high reliability

6). During

molecules

which

tolerated

metabolism,

might

when

trioses,

ingested

by rats The

in large

amounts

in only

small was

for prolonged glycerol,

amounts.

periods.

calorie

same

study,

evidence

the catabolism

There with

of compounds

are

that

few such

of the

which

could

compounds.

normal

blood

OF GLUCOSE

Route

LD,

be

10 000

Glycerol

Rabbit

Oral

27 000

Glycerol

Mouse

Oral

31 500

Glycerol

Rat

Oral

27 500

Glycerol

Guinea

Oral

7 750

that

is known

pig

gylcerol

which

propandiol,

have

study for

to both

50 days.

larger

This

orally

no more

as a large

percentage

of the

to have

low toxicity

This with

last

and

of II (ref.

7).

and Johnson of glycerol

of glycerol

are

is the

acutely diet.

Other

diglycerol,

simplest

even-

acid.

ill individuals

Carlson, amount

compound

acetic

and no deterimental amounts

toxicology in table

is probably

reported

normal

of Johnson,

of the subjects, fed even

been

of glycerol

administered

of glycerol

acceptable

and triacetin.

the esterificati0n

In the classical

administered

to be highly

in very

mg/kg

Oral

were

could

AND GLYCEROL

Dog

requirements

be

the

of glucose

glucose,

Glucose

been

example,

The known

sugar,

17 000

has

might

be consumed

Intravenous

from

smaller

of these For

Rabbit

compounds

animals

from

case.

Glucose

polyglycerol,

of the

to be the

some

20 000

low-molecular-weight

110 g/day

arise

that

Oral

which

consumed

which

hoped

to successively

Rabbit

glucose,

periods.

did not prove

down

Glucose

toxic

tended

broken

It was

Animal

it can be seen

GlyceroI

This

II.-TOXICITY

species,

fat and arises

easily.

for reports

is compared

In several

chain

are

amounts.

Compound

triglycerol,

molecules

relatively

examined

TABLE

than

food

and dihydroxyacetone

literature

one of these,

large

be synthesized

glyceraldehyde,

tolerated

large

normal

(ref.

were

50 weeks;

amounts

for ex-

8), 14 subjects

represented

effects for

in large

about

observed. again,

each

20 percent In the

there

was

no

of toxicity.

135

In recentyears, therehavebeenreportsconcerningtheadministrationof glycerolto over 1000patientswithglaucoma(ref. 9), increasedintracranialpressure(ref. 10), anddiabetes(ref. 11). Patientshaveconsumed as muchas 300g/day, whichis morethanone-halftheir foodrequirement. It is apparentthatglycerolcansafelybemadea substantialpart of thediet, whetherit comesfrom a naturalsource,suchasfat, or is synthesized from metabolicproducts. Theevidencefor thesafetyof ingestionof propyleneglycol, triacetin, andsomeother compounds by humansis limited. However,theyare generallyrecognizedas safeby theU.S. Food andDrugAdministration(ref. 12). Thesematerialshavebeentestedrather extensivelyonanimals andthereis goodreasonto believethattheycanalsobesafelyconsumed in significantamounts by humans. Thesituationwith theformosesugarswhicharisefrom the self-condensation of formaldehydeis moretenuous.All studiesthusfar reportedindicatethattheunpurifiedmixturecauses a gastrointestinaldisturbancewhenfedto animals. This maybedueto thepresenceof a limited numberof components of themixturewhoseformationcanbeavoidedby appropriatechoiceof conditionsand/orcatalyst. Alternatively,undesiredcomponents couldbe removed from the crude product

by fractionation. SELECTION The

and water.

There

the liquid

or gas

the byproduct produce

materials are

phase

prototype

oxygen,

(ref.

A process

and water

(ref.

14}.

or consumed

and hydrogen,

Accordingly,

available

13).

although

the

methane

PATHWAYS

for the physicochemlcal

to produce

and hydrogen

carbon

available

currently

hydrogen

methane

to oxygen duce

starting

OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL

which

by the this

fairly

well

through

developed

is of high purity The

methane

appears

may

CH 4 ----- HCHO

the methane

to formose

sugars

sible

pathways

which

might

of methods

conversions

136

would

or condensed

leading be used

be converted

from

methane

as food will

for accomplishing It is of interest :

to propylene

(HCHO)

would

which

be catalytically

glycol,

not be discussed.

the desired

to write

which

utilizes

this

in either cabin,

hydrogen

to

electrolyzed

be cracked

to accomplish

to proin practice.

control

for the

and

system

synthesis

of

Glycerol

_,,

to formaldehyde

to trioses

spacecraft

envisioned

Formose Thus,

the

of the atmosphere

The pathway

dioxide

of water

possibly

(HCHO) 3 _ CO 2

carbon

and can be either

to be difficult

as the byproduct

was considered to be available for food synthesis. glycerol and the formose sugars was:

are

for electrolysis

can be recycled

crew.

reaction

produced

apparatuses

also

The water

syntheses

acetic

However,

acid, it should

Sugars could

be condensed

reduced and other

directly

to glycerol. simple

not be difficult

Pos-

molecules to conceive

conversions.

a completely

balanced

set

of equations

describing

some

of these

AH

Reaction

+1638.2 Kcal 24H20_24

H 2 +12

02 -362.4

6 CO 2 + 24 H2-----* 6 CH 4 + 12 H20 -468.6 6 CH 4 +6

The

net equation

equation quite

6 CO 2 + 6 H20

C6H1206

synthesis

reaction

action

that

starting

the

stored

A NASA Transportation accept

formaldhyde of this methane

is oxidized

during

each

pass

relatively

The

recycle

gas

0.2

percent

nitrous

In the recycle

methane.

in a Sabatier The

The other

initial crude

produce

oxide shown

were

by a

the sole

recovery

of oxygen.

equation

always

dioxide

energy-

is the

sufficient and water

pro-

but with was

40 g/day

than

of 35 the

methane,

of figure

carbon

byproduct

about heating

85 percent

of formaldehyde,

the

right

carbon

Conversion

approximately

oxygen,

main

are

35

45 percent hydrogen. loop

gases

reconverted

to

loop. for insulation

if the combined

The first

but subsequent

was

oxides

figure,

pellets.

of the

in this

be required

effective.

of the

and 1 percent

50 W to compensate would

side

yield

only

A representation

coated

fraction

apparatus

and produce

10 percent

system

American

prototype

recycled.

oxides,

1, a small

enters

required

no external more

ratio

15 percent

also

on the

tetraborate

30 percent

dioxide

loop

are

sodium

a recycle

General

materials

and byproducts

wherein

of the

a breadboard

as starting

recycle

AND HYDROGEN

laboratory

prototype

losses heat

exchang-

system

systems

will

and

could

produce

more.

Various (ref.

Division

containing

reaction

SYNTHESIS

version

are

carbon

Research of assembling

In the main

on the left

system

However, system

for the

DIOXIDE

and oxygen

catalyst,

of carbon

laboratory

approximately

appreciably

low,

catalytic

feed

inefficiencies.

er and insulation

1.

composition

loop

that

of the net

CARBON

All intermediates

in figure

nitrogen,

is processed

process

hydrogen,

15).

percent.

the

proceeds

be noted

There

neglecting

American

at 675 ° C in a reactor

was

even

FROM

in the

dioxide,

is shown

required

the reverse

of carbohydrate.

cycle,

the General

(ref.

also

to the net

of the diet.

is currently

and water

apparatus

the

of water

is identical

photosynthesis

It should

Further,

catabolism

to close

reaction) that

pathway.

OF FORMALDEHYDE

carbon

formose

be emphasized

complex

during

contractor,

+672.0

(via the

exothermic.

components

Corp.,

will

+ 6 02

is the electrolysis are

produced

SYNTHESIS

which

more

in the body

-135.2

it should

in the sequence

materials from

although

of the reactions

occurs

H20

of a hexose

and considerably

The remainder

duced

----* C6H1206

of photosynthesis,

requiring

HCHO+6

6 HCHO

for the

different

02--.6

15) and

methods

considerable

of formaldehyde

have

OF GLYCEROL been

progress to trioses

evaluated has

been

and their

FROM

FORMALDEHYDE

for the synthesis made

toward

subsequent

of glycerol

implementing catalytic

reduction

from the

formaldehyde

scheme to glycerol

requiring (ref.

con16). 137

Methane reactor

Formaldehyde reactor

Heat

exchanger

f

Carbon dioxide

Separator

Hydrogen

Nitrous

Extensive condensation oxide

oxide

because

desirable

on alumina

effect

sugars type

has been of reactor

of the reaction to the kinetics

investigated

to 900 g/hr varied catalyst 138

between calcium

whereby

had previously

4 and

for the

stirred

30 percent

hydroxide.

of optimum

Several

Glyceraldehyde period

formed.

The most

SUGARS

for over

synthesis

catalysts

was

suitable

found

possible

18 and tank

formose

Depending

maintained

sugars.

upon

based

upon

the calcium

to be desirable reaction

hydrogenation

as a

and had a catalyst

a laboratory

was

prototype

to produce (refs.

which permitted

a complex

6 and 17).

permitted

mixture

Recently,

much

the collection

of

a new

greater

control

of data

relevant

19).

reactor

in aqueous

100 years

and also

for

FORMALDEHYDE

condenses

of formose

conditions

for the autocatalytic

FROM

formaldehyde

been

(refs.

into

catalyst.

induction

intermittently

than

of formaldehyde

to the selection

found.

OF FORMOSE

developed

a 500-ml

and water.

There is a continuing effort to develop convert formaldehyde to glycerol.

was

By using

the

on the products

reaction

of the reaction

been

reduced

SYNTHESIS

related

formaldehyde

heterogeneous

have

found to be ruthenium on carbon. apparatus that will continuously

The formose

made

of the best

it greatly

directive

for producing

have been

and selection

or ferric

cocatalyst

1. -Apparatus

studies

Fo rmald ehyd e water

oxide (catalyst)

Oxygen

Figure

V

Recycle blower

solution space

The

at 60 ° C, it is possible

concentration

and usually velocities,

to convert

of formaldehyde with a 0.1

conversions

molar

has ratio

been

of the

of 30 to 100 percent

up

canbe obtainedreproducibly. A methodhasbeendeveloped thatpermitsfacileexaminationof the formoseproducefor its composition(ref. 20). Theobservedkineticscanbe explainedby usingrate expressionssimilar to thoseemployedfor analysisof heterogeneously catalyzedreactions. Complexing-decomplexing stepsin the homogeneous systemare equivalenttoadsorption-desorption stepsin theheterogeneous system (refs. 19and21). It appearsthatdecomplexing of theproductmaybethe rate-limiting step,whereas thedistributionof productsis governed by thenatureandconcentration of thecatalyst. FABRICATION OFFOODS It shouldnotbe expectedthatcrewsof long-durationspacemissionswill readilyconsume thepurenutrientssynthesized onboardwithoutmodificationor theadditionof flavorings. However, it is notdifficult to envisionusingglycerol, whichis quitesweet,andsugarsin a variety of acceptablefoods. For instance,theymightbeusedas sweeteners for coffeeandtea;alternatively, theymightserveas thebasisfor flavoredsoftdrinks. If, or rather when,it becomespossibleto convertthesematerialsto higherpolymerssuchas starch, theonlymajorlimitationwill be in the ingenuityof the cook. Onecanreadilyforeseestarch-basedfoodssuchas potatosoup,pancakes, andpastabasedonregeneratedmaterialsbecomingquiteacceptable fooditems. REFERENCES 1. NASAAmesResearchCenter: TheClosedLife SupportSystem.NASASP-134,1967. 2. Drake,G.L. ; King, C.D. ; Johnson,W.A.; andZuraw, E.A. : Studyof Life SupportSystems for SpaceMissionsExceeding OneYearin Duration. ContractorRept. (NAS2-3011),General DynamicsCo., 1966. 3. Jagow,R.B. ; andThomas,R.S., eds. : Studyof Life SupportSystemsfor SpaceMissions ExceedingOneYearin Duration. ContractorRept. (NAS2-3012),Lockheed Missiles & SpaceCo. (Sunnyvale, Calif.), 1966. 4. Fox, S.W.: Prospectusfor ChemicalSynthesis of Proteinageous Foodstuffs.NASASP-134, 1967,pp. 189-200. 5. Frankenfield,J.W. ; Kaback,S.M.; Skopp,A. ; andShapira,g. : SyntheticFatsas Part of a Closed-Loop Life SupportSystem.J. Spacecraft andRockets,vol. 4, no. 1671,1967. 6. Shaptra,J. : SpaceFeeding:Approaches to theChemicalSynthesis of Food. CerealSci. vol. 13, no. 58, 1968. 7. Spector,W.S., ed. : Handbook of Toxicology.Vol. I. W.B. Saunders Co. (Philadelphia,Pa. ), 1956, 8.

pp.

Johnson,

151-152.

V. ; Carlson,

on the Animal 9.

Consul, vol.

10.

B.N. 60,

Cantore, Pressure.

no.

A.J.

Organism.

; and

Kulshrestha,

900,

G. ; Guidetti, J.

; and Johnson, Am.

J. O.P.

A. : Studies

Physiol., : Oral

vol. Glycerol

of the 103,

no.

Physiological 517,

in Glaucoma.

Action

of Glycerol

1933. Am.

J.

Ophthalmol.,

1965. B. ; and Virno,

Neurosurgery,

vol.

M. : Oral 21,

no.

278,

Glycerol

for the Reduction

of Intracranial

1964.

139

11. Freund,G.: TheMetabolicEffectsof GlycerolAdministeredto DiabeticSubjects.Arch. Inter. IVied.,Vol. 121,No. 123, 1968. 12. Anon.:RegulationsonFoodAdditives. Pt.121,Ch. 1, Title 21, Sect.121.101,U.S. Food andDrugAdmin. 13. Wydeven,T. ; andJohnson,R.W.: WaterElectrolysis:Prospectfor the Future. J. Eng. for Ind. Vol. 90, No. 531,1968. 14. McDonnellDouglasAstronauticsCo.: 60-DayMannedTestofa Regenerative Life Support Systemwith Oxygen andWaterRecovery. NASACR-98500,1968. 15. Budininkas,P. ; Remus,G.A.; andShapira,J. : Synthesis of Formaldehyde from CO2 and H2. Paper68-0615,MeetingSoc.of AutomotiveEngrs. (LosAngeles,Calif., Oct. 7-11, 1968). 16. Weiss,H.A. ; Ramsden,H.E. ; Taylor, W.F. ; andShapira,J. : Physicochemical Food Synthesis for Life SupportSystems.I. Researchona Processfor the Synthesis of Glycerol. AbstractAGFD-5,Abstractsof the157thNatl. Meeting,Am. Chem.Soc., 1969. 17. Shapira,J. : DesignandEvaluationof ChemicallySynthesized Foodfor LongSpaceMissions. NASASP-134,1967,pp. 175-187. 18. Weiss,A.H. ; andShapira,J. : TheKineticsof the FormoseReaction. AbstractC-65, 155thNatl. MeetingAm. Chem.Soc. (SanFrancisco,Calif., 1968). 19. Weiss,A.H. ; LaPierre, R.B. ; andShapira,J. : Homogeneously CatalyzedFormaldehyde Condensation to Carbohydrates.J. Catalysis,1969(inpress). 20. Shapira,J. : Identificationof Sugarsas their TrifluoroacetylPolyolDerivatives. Nature, Vol. 222,No. 792,1969. 21. Ugolov,A.M. ; Adamovich,B.A. ; Krylov, O.U.; Sinyak,Y.E. ; Uspenskaya, V.A. ; and Shulgina,I.L. : SyntheticMonosaecharides for Nutritionof Manin Space.Abstractof Presentation,XII COSPAR PleneryMeeting,1969.

140

BIOLOGICAL

FOODS I

Several role

biological

of food production,

noted

that

bases)

is thought

it is for

have

submarines.

scheme,

system

carbon of human

cycle

these

their

rate

The

most

excreta

as well. is slower

candidates

more

The

Chinese

uncharacterized

cabbage,

researchers food-synthesis

systems.

Two different yeasts,

can grow

on cellulose

in media

but could

further

the

be linked

inedible

portions

The most

elaborate

animal

intermediates.

scientists

who seek

nutritious

food

stability

in this

way.

with

be used

bacterial

fungal

and nutrients

dioxide

would

In all

cases

are

containing

with

human

plants.

schemes

anticipate fleas,

in ecologic The

very

but less

fish, diversity

complex

plants

In this and

min-

and thereby

efficiently,

in that

of photosynthesis.

fairly

primitive

and reasonable

so far

plants

and

growth

suggestions

carbon

rate,

with

sugars

systems

rabbits,

algae

systems

are

probably

best

growth.

or be used

as food for had proponents

more reserved

and

may

and produce

plants

Other

chemical

molds

Mushrooms

system

to provide

from

forms,

oxygen

and fowl all have

In one,

system.

for bacterial

added.

or higher

and who hope

acids

simpler

use

as yet

schemes.

needed

The

to return

utilized

removal

or fatty

the nitrogen

an auto-

of water have

dioxide

sugars

useful.

using

coupling

atmosphere-regeneration

of formose

These

involves

with electrolysis

atmosphere-regenerative

of higher

systems

the nitrogen

is not capable

Other

Sabatier

and feces

a chemical

Water

cells.

potentially

wastes.

of gardening,

Chlorella.

green

surface

eutropha,

contributes

urine

leaf

as

potato.

chemical

urine

usually

and other

consideration

with the

conversion

systems

from

a large

of bacterial

aboard

system.

dioxide;

tissue

duckweed

Hydrogenomonas

in the form

proposed

are

serious

algae,

similarly

of plant

have

chemical

be

and fixed

be carried value

of the microscopic

and sweet

in conjunction

organism have

that

given

bacterium,

bacteria

plants

radish,

system

and food

a methane-fixing

higher

It should

stations

recreational

of carbon

can function portion

food plants

only bacterial

oxygen

plants

and a larger

among

traditional

hydrogen-fixing

breathable

Higher

of green

growth

the triple

) All of the bioregenerative

reduction

to support

in planetary

a purely

on growth

to fulfill

in spacecraft.

food would

for the

over

proposed

removal

otherwise

be made

advantages

been

that

of spacemen.

is based

utilized

nutrients

likely

could

by photosynthetic

are

with

role,

breed

have

studied

is recycled

as endive,

trophic

might

most

(in contrast

a case

have

and waste

of a multiple

an exceptional

of growth

a few of the such

in spacecr_aft

(I suppose

but some

complexity

regeneration,

in terms

assumes

The

erals

of food

of only

drawbacks,

of varying

atmosphere

production

but it probably

more

systems

DORIS HOWES ofCALLOWAY University California

acceptable

be grown

carbon to process

one or among and

for planetary 141

habitation subjects

or major before

items

nitrogen

compositions

are quite

are

much

or cell-division rapid

weight

stations

of leaves,

high in protein

different

rate

growth

able

laboratory

where

they

can serve

from

rates

that

are necessary

and volume

algae,

content

fungi,

and bacteria

on a dry-matter

in normal

of the organism,

human diets.

the higher

I.-PUBLISHED

Protein

Leaves

(N x 6.25)

20 to 40 5to

Ash

9 to 15

Carbohydrate

effectively

leaf

ribs

algae,

or methods

this

a given

they

that have

a laxative

rein

digestibility, This

before 142

brief

qualifying

and algae with

reason-

cause

6to9

2to

4

9

40 to 55

5 to 20

1 to 10

Nil

a polymer intestine.

food.

of lipids.

offensive

ileum gas

and a number

if deprived

of nitrogen

instance

they

or

occurs

before

organic

when

consump-

can be acted

upon

by

compounds

in general.

or oxygen, acid,

there

vary,

Sometimes This

of short-chain

of the diet

of beta-hydroxybutyric In this

respect.

not ruptured

where

content

harvested.

of polysaccharides

the cells.

are

and colon

absorption

in this

within

are

form

of changing

of ash

the cells

in the

and the cells

means

Estimates

when

usually

of the microorganisms

The usual

medium.

of nutrients

the lipid

of composition

but in the cases

removed

wall

poor

is chiefly

as human

6to

nutrient

absorption

lipid

discussion

65 to 85 8

particularly

the lower

because

30 to 50

6to

solids,

are

accumulates

probably

Bacteria

2to7

content

the

intestinal

may

the animal

biomasses

the

in the cell

reach

This

lipid

from most

These

within

4 to 10

in carbohydrate,

indigestible

both excessive

effect.

Hydrogenomonas

be absorbed

the growth

content.

Fungi

2to9

not thoroughly

some

residues

This

to

and roots.

rich

are

is included

produce

bacteria.

of carbon

%, in-

25 to 45

is by altering

interferes

material

bacteria,

cannot

strain

Leaves

If the unabsorbed

other

9

for increasing

contain

material

the indigestible

are

media

carbohydrates.

indigestible

tion.

known

mineral-rich

All biomasses complex

but not stems

and fungi

are

within

All of

OF BIOMASSES

40 to 60

a8 to 15

because

test

I.

the higher

oxygen

COMPOSITIONS

40 to 60

(by diff. )

Fiber

Leaves,

ratios

acid)

Algae

Lipids

aIncludes

Their

in table

(and nucleic

are to recycle

TYPICAL

solids

Dry

often

as biological

given

In general,

the protein

if the systems

are

basis.

Amount,

composition

role

limits.

TABLE

variants

a dual

they are eaten.

Typical these

space

as do a number which

we have

is no interference

of

shown

with pro-

is intracellular.

serves The first

to illustrate is to assess

two basic

judgments

the closeness

to be made

of fit between

the

composition

of the product

detect

the presence

(e. g.,

cellulose).

knowledge

Neither

guesses

grams

for

the

system

tem

fat,

(high

these our

the least

important pattern

R.

ance

L.

quality

of the crew.

with

tract uric

cells which

acid,

than

meet

than

prevent

proby about

The other favorably

Studies

In rat

studies

joints.

is increased be considered

present

in tissue

to the

high

endogenous

gram

maximum

is removal

levels

of dietary

the amount

allowable

of purines

from

safe,

protein

cells;

this

also

is degraded

also

would

of un-

by man

increase

to

urinary

roughly

be necessary

the least

com-

in the urinary

contain

it might

bal-

of the protein

consumption

on individual

intake,

of

nitrogen

all

as stones

depending

the

limit

and have

(courtesy

protein

protein

poorer,

laboratory

meet

acid

casein

support

The biomasses

To be perfectly

day,

will

Purine

precipitate

of evi-

amino

somewhat

in our

may

acids.

may

synthesis.

of protein. per

and

lines

protein

bacterial

that

determined,

the

are

theoretically

factors

as nucleic

fluids

Unfortunately,

by stimulating (RNA) per

nonnutritional

for essential

is obviously

proteins,

CMorella

and casein

could

need

balance)

completed

yeast,

of the biomasses

not saturated

several

the milk

ethanol-extracted

Fat

70 g/day.

products

with

recently

are

not been

acid

animal

to of

in the latter.

From

and amino

men

45 and 300 g/day,

minimum has

a sys-

On the basis

between

is about

with

protein),

of healthy

acids

600 g/day.

if major

stored-food

intake

accepted

ketosis

of the biomasses.

of purines soluble

the

In comparison

of the

vary

carbohydrate

greater

but compare

in the diet or low-fat

all the fatty

(the digestibility

any

to 20 to 40 g of protein

tion

that

and metabolize

Torula

intake

could

of present

perhaps

inadequate.

water

could

will

was

and adequate

commercial

acid

ing that

effects

of research

the tolerance

may

from

important

is the amount

in the

oils

as soybean.

Thus,

carbohydrate

protein

50 g of protein

of ribonucleic

If consumption

is to

But some

required,

be present

explored

to 35 to 40 g of egg protein.

casein.

presumably

of cells

basis

or a minimum-weight,

provided

limits.

AFB),

is sparingly

or crystals

(high

dietary

case

that

those

such

less

One of the most

acid

second

physiologic

on the

absolutely

information

that

is much

to methionine,

in contrast

needs

to absorb

among

Brooks

favorably

uric

do have

the direction

and fat would

published

of biomasses

proteins,

slightly

pared

processed

The

of the biomasses.

to set

are

system

in the former

tolerance

respect

Miller,

in man,

systems

ratio).

but that

or attributes

We have

of carbohydrate

is best

plant

that

C/N

conclusively

be made

protein,

of 7 g of some

of these

with

quality

such

concluded

can be absorbed

protein

of leaves

indicated

must

of 200 to 250 g/day,

amount

in view

particularly

Dr.

we have

capacity

which

The

and these

on a chemical

is assured

Maximum

dence,

in space

for which

A minimum

amount

value

low fat or carbohydrate),

cases

is in the range

acids.

of man

and carbohydrate).

studies

that quality

but the

good

placed

in those

long chain.

fatty

the

can be established

of carbohydrate,

low protein

own and other

tolerance

(i. e.,

no nutritional

by the time

(high protein,

patterns,

provided

and

ratios

for food were

biological

of man

mission.

Distorted dependence

have

needs

the facts

needs

factors

permissible,

supply

Mars

that

of these

nutritional are

that will

1984

of substances

of either

informed

and nutritional

tolerance amount

require

1 g to limit limits.

of processa new direc-

in food technology.

143

Nucleic biomasses. erals,

acids

The list

are

nitrates,

fuI to lethal

by no means

includes

glycosides,

among

Recently,

of either

ill from

a few grams

of dry

On the basis

of the present

to the function

of providing

chemically of this they

order

have

stances, about

been

fully

one-half

recognizable

cells,

H.

with

processed

of the needed would

diet

could

be quite

extensive

TABLE

the major

tolerate

A. aerogenes.

it would

OF BIOMASS

......

Leaf

from

Protein/man/day,

g- - -

_

Energy/man/day,

Keal

-

_, 260

Yield

after

Protein/man/day,

g---

Energy/man/day,

Kcal-

crude

25-30

complete

min-

but harm-

even very

Subjects

became

small acutely

of food poisoning. consumption

of crude

and minerals)

fiber,

value

toxins,

portion

of present

be a challenge

II).

USEFUL

Algae yeast

&

a

Regeneration

unwanted

Bacteria

could

candidates.

to produce

IN SPACE

is

in a spaceship.

and other

of a diet.

biomasses

to accompany

(table

is of doubtful

of the composition

and

Yield

144

men cannot

in

pigments,

edible

to the crew.

II.-AMOUNT

Biomass

acids,

present

low dosages

in fat or carbohydrate

nucleic form

to earlier,

areinnocuousat

a few vitamins

260 Kcal)

on the basis

as food and acceptable

and

view,

high

and

that

compounds

alluded

reminiscent

(plus

to remove

food,

eutropha

optimistic

protein

or yeast

Many

symptoms

most

coincidental

carbohydrates

we found

(7 g of nitrogen

algae,

steps

tested:

or stored-aboard

of magnitude

leaves,

processing

of two bacteria

regenerated

the

and steroids.

levels.

amounts

limited

others

amines,

at high-intake

the only undesirable

DIETS

Bacteria

product

,_ 40

?

,_,280

?

processing

185

300

300

2800

2200

1360

After subprovide The

products

CLAYTON

SPACE MISSION LONG-TERM REQUIREMENTS

Spaceflights compared (AAP)

for

with

flights

missions

have

of present

the Mercury,

for future been

accomplishments.

to last

Incorporated

and Apollo

programs

now in the planning 28 or 56 days,

The missions TABLE

Astronaut

Gemini,

designed

HUBER

Technology

I

programs

S.

for AAP,

I.-LENGTH

stages.

however,

Date

are

I), are

Apollo

the minimum

OF ORBITAL

or mission

(table

Applications

time

only

extremely

being

intermediate

twice

brief Program

the length in length.

FLIGHTS Duration

Mercury John

H. Glenn,

M. Scott Walter L.

Feb.

Jr.

Carpenter M.

Gordon

20,

1962

May

24,

3, 1963

Schirra,

Jr.

Oct.

Cooper,

Jr.

May 15,

1962

1963

4 hr

56 min

4 hr

56 min

9 hr 14 min 34 hr 20 min

Gemi_ Gemini

3

Mar.

23,

1965

Gemini

4

June

3, 1965

Gemini

5

Aug.

21,

Approx 4 days

1965

8 days

1965

2 days

Gemini

6

Oct.

25,

Gemini

7

Dec.

4,

Gemini

6-A

Dec.

15,

1965

1 day

Gemini

8

Mar.

16,

1966

3 days

Gemini

9

May

17,

Gemini

9-A

June

3, 1966

3 days

Gemini

10

July

18,

3 days

Gemini

11

Sept.

12,

1966

3 days

Gemini

12

Nov.

11,

1966

4 days

1965

1966

1966

15hr

14 days

3 days

Apollo Apollo

7

Oct.

11,

1968

11 days

Apollo

8

Dec.

21,

1968

6 days

Apollo

9

Feb.

3, 1969

10 days

145

The purpose long

of this

term.

It should

No definite

have

planning

are designated

been

stages.

as the

three

is to discuss

be emphasized

programs

ing initial

These

paper

will

Program,

on three

the Lunar

will

increase

orbiting

both

space

tion of such flight). missions.

equipment

a flight

the

within

Near

the latter

by a crew

be about

this

time

part

on a permanent

be equipped

and the

Resupply

would

loop operation.

of the decade will

and equipment

would

space which

(This

and

crews

quire

landings

will

be confined

multiman

for the

during

vehicles

be utilized

establishment

permanent.

Conceivably,

members

could

a lunar

be rotated

are

base

a spacecraft

station.

Present

plans

and a Mars

orbital

cade

nonresupply

being

of long-term

could call

which

The requirements sions

categorized

Missions

will

The extreme ment 146

in a large

with

conditions space

for

longer

than

The dura-

any previous

as long-term

will

shuttle

could

men

have

and

the capabil-

The space

vehicles

resupplying

traveling

between

expendable

and subsystems

which

storage

planetary

space

support

a station

as a centralized

lunar

mater-

require

facility

open-

for expend-

missions.

exploration

of the spacecraft. systems

will

be resupplied

utilize

Future

for Increased

developed.

small

vehicles,

exploration

will

times.

Concepts

stay

Such a structure

would

with expendable

materials

re-

be somewhat and crew

Unique respect

from

Earth

require

to crew

There

is that

or from

manned by the year

system

size,

surface

may

associated extent are

quite

is one common

of planetary

a permanent

fly-by

during

1984.

420 to 540 days

features

on the lunar station.

missions

or landing

would

PROGRAM

space

a Mars-Venus

for a feeding

earlier. vary

be launched

mission

missions

possibility.

periodically.

category

missions

Space

Apollo

area

could

of an Earth-

environment.

thereby

missions

PROGRAM

PLANETARY Another

They

Program.

launching

which

Such

area.

supporting

base

dur-

exploration.

Earth-orbit

be classified

facility

for subsequent

to the immediate

of a lunar

must

support,

serve

and post

and additional

13 times

for expendables also

the

artificial-gravity

and docking

could

Apollo

time.

expended

Planetary

Subsequent decade

in space.

logistical

LUNAR Lunar

ones

a space-station

be reserved

could

of space

is a distinct

is about

in an Earth-like

station

has been

and the

the AAP.

In the next

be assembled

provide

probably

This

time.

and longer

with a hangar

Earth

with

of 8 to 12 individuals

frame

basis

Program,

at the present

effort

concepts

as

PROGRAM

begin

180 days.

50 to 100 individuals

would

ables

would

will

and mission

manned

Flights

station

ials.

size

are classified

individually.

programs

in crew

station

ity of housing station

Earth-orbit

which

possibilities

considerable

be focused

be discussed

the AAP,

are only

although

EARTH-ORBIT Future

beyond

concepts

implemented,

Attention

will

missions

that these

Earth-Orbit

programs

space

These

for

each

of activity, different denominator,

base

the latter flights

such part

would

For

such

as a space of the

next

de-

be extended

completion.

not be identical with

exploration.

for all

program

of the long-term

will

need

and environmental from

to be satisfied. conditions.

the artificial-gravity however;

mis-

as the length

environof

manned

spaceflights

and become

and exploration

more

complex

As previously including

food.

as those tion

for past

and eating

equipment able

will

that

and much

noted,

The

increases, more

the space

requirements

and present

systems.

could

be provided

will

which

of resupply

be resupplied

system

will

It is anticipated

with

associated

with

life

support

multiply

speculative.

station

for a feeding

will be compatible

the technique

the problems

heat

lunar

foods

exploration

and not so restrictive methods

the space

prior

with expendables,

flexible

conventional

within

and cool

for the

be quite

that

the environment

periodically

of food

station.

Hardware

to consumption.

programs

preparaand

It is also

could

also

conceiv-

be applicable

for

=

!

a portion

of the nutritional

not be restricted, Extended tem.

this

several

methods

planetary

missions

supporting

adequate

systems

with

for the

life-support

man

distant,

cade.

days).

but such

In fact,

for electric

power.

a concept could

must

will

be integrated

be qualified

feeding

sys-

be designed

to

sources.

With

acceptance

but not

the program.

The

those

for

or for an This

(ref.

probably

wastes

into the feeding for which

for resupply

Co.

will

food from

equipment,

regeneration.

Dynamics

of oxygen

on missions

life-support

the penalties

General

of regenerating

into

supplies,

point

and the recovery

could

might

food

be integrated

exceed

of the

will

and performance.

At some

Division

reliable

of one or more overall

of expendable

of the mission

of water

health

system

the weight

The feasibility

systems

crew

which

surface.

system

failure

compromise

and weight,

a highly

A nominal

would

is to reduce

for the regeneration

(100 to 1000

require

for complete

food source

of space

on the lunar

will

redundancy.

a closed

duration

feasible

no resupply

provisions

by the Convair

of the factors

be quite

with

to maintain

loops

in a study

may

required

ecuipment

supply

illustrated

more

point

Because

in some

of a single

nutrients

of closing

result

sources,

failure

At some objective

may

food

approach,

the available

and

recycling

Such reliability

include

requirements.

1).

be used

in a closed

systems

resupply

point

was

Closed-loop first

system

during

is

the next

de-

is the core

of a feeding

systems.

Three

food

consisted

system. Recently subjects

spent

repeatable

house

as

5-day

menu

(refs.

"Very

long

duration

chamber.

Air

vegetables

from

chocolate, devised.

cottage During

included

statement

test

of life-support

and water

were

a "cosmic" cheese,

the

cabbage,

missions

before

may

regenerated; greenhouse.

and prune

second

cress,

life-support systems

(hydropomcs),

herbivorous

Board

(ref.

made

and third

cucumber,

require

of such systems

which

that:

issued

production

Dehydrated

paste.

To provide

stages

this

greens,

diet

was

and dill}

procedures

been

and

human of

foods

in-

variety,

a

augmented

from

the green-

"Consideration

Space

Science

their

conversion

Board

(ref.

Further into edible

study

7): of

food is

can be assured."

proposed

investigated

animals,

by the

of food in the spacecraft.

substances

have been

have

invertebrate

8) suggested

in a report

important

the practicality

Biological

in 1966

was

of the nutritionally

Several wastes.

was

a 1-year

2 to 6).

production

necessary

salmon,

(which

The following

the

conducted

and fresh

items

vegetables

Union

in a sealed

products

such

by fresh

Soviet

1 year

vacuum-dried clude

the

fungi,

whereby include and plant

should

also

food

is produced

algae, cultures. be given

bacteria, The

from

biological

higher Space

plants Science

to the production

of 147

higher that

plants

sweet

or animals

potatoes

human

wastes.

acids,

has

grow

"

also

been

form,

the total involved.

system

In reference

9 several

by the crew.

The

straint

method

in this

Feeding maintain

behavior,

the

crew

longer,

be necessary

havior

in respect

for

original

health

have

Possible

been

areas

of future

of less

than

of research

(1)

The analysis foods

from

(2)

The study

(3)

The toxicological

(4)

The effect

(5)

The investigation

(6}

The

(7)

The investigation

of changes

effect

In summary,

flora

each

associated

with

for these

long-term

space

will

148

systems.

be completely

it.

with

of individuals

are

two significant

pertain

to the nutri-

of the produced to be the major

food re-

Science

the

nutrients

of crew (ref.

which

performance,

10):

success

of the dynamics

missions.

which

Union Studies

long-term

"As flights

of missions. of man's

be-

provide

important

Board

(ref.

could

conducted

research

needs

in the United

to be conducted.

11) might

of the presently

due to long

on waste

adequate

Board

affect

standpoint

in foods

provide

include:

available

take-along

confinement

may be used

production

long-term

consumption

of unconventional

food

materials

and motility on flatus of changes

program

in metabolic

- Earth

missions.

upon

lunar

approach

Life-support

however,

balance

orbital,

An all-incluslve

It is doubtful, dependent

into an

performance."

Science

appeal

of continued

material compatibility

These

prove

by the Soviet

More

stability

regimens

"There

a high level

knowledge

man's

by the Space

properties

of diet

concepts

duration.

in dietary

of dietary

extensive

for ilong-term

a storage

must

increasingly

to the one conducted

60 days'

the

or rejection

may well

by the Space

to predict

concepts

and amino

and chemical

and the number

effort.

and maintain

will

and

as outlined

on intestinal

feeding

in a report

an intensive

biological

efficiency,

subject:

missions

crews

of the astronauts

similar

food

of

"

flight

to food and to be able

in the development

States

stated

duration,

acceptance

aerospace

of the

adequacy,

on this

of the synthesized

long-term

It was

studies

made

lipids,

and converting

and development

for example,

of the stabilization

systems.

with each

of purifying

were

the ecology.

systems

to have

associated

mission

shown,

end products

of carbohydrates,

nutritional

research

It has been

the

to biological

loop and the ultimate

of closing

Long-term data

statements

the attitudes

It will

are

support,

of future

acceptance

and morale.

become

alternative

in terms

logistical

of the food-waste

utilizing

the synthesis

and palatability,

system,

aspects

including

be evaluated

life-support

to humans.

culture

as a possible

food acceptability

tional

palatable

and disadvantages

must

with a high probability

be more

synthesis,

suggested

areas

will

in hydroponic

advantages

Each

edible

may

well

Chemical

Inherent system.

that

that

food production

will

systems a feeding within

under

exploration, not completely will

system the

the stresses and

of flight

planetary satisfy

probably

be integrated

designed

for

spacecraft

- has

into

any long-term

as the sole

unique

the requirements

source

long-term mission of nutrients.

REFERENCES 1.

Drake,

G.

L. : Regenerable

Engineering

z

Dec.

Symp.,

Gen.

2.

Izvestiya,

3.

Garodinskaya,

4.

Tass,

Krasnaya

Zvezda,

5.

Tass,

Izvestiya,

Dee.

6.

Vason,

7.

Space

Space

M. Pravda,

9.

Acad.

Drake,

10.

Life

SP-134,

Sciences

Palatability ton, 11.

Space Natl.

5,

1968, 26,

Board:

Report

SCi.,

Natl. C.D.

1968,

p.

6, cols.

1968,

p.

Natl.

Panel

cols.

1-5.

Rept.,

Biomedical

and

25,

1968,

p.

4, cols.

1-3.

3-6.

Res.

Group

on Nutrition

Council

of the

D.C.},

; and Zuraw,

and

(Washington,

Nutrition

(Washington,

W.A.

Dec.

2-5.

on Space

Council

; Johnson,

pravda,

of Working

Sci.,

Res.

3,

skaya

6, cols.

Report

of the

Convair

1-6.

p.

Acad.

General

1966.

Komsomol'

25,

Summary Natl.

Feeding

D.C.),

Committee

Problems.

Man

1963. on Life

Sciences.

1966.

E.A.

: The Closed

Life

Support

System.

1967. Committee, of Food

D.C.),

1966.

Science

Board:

Acad.

L. :

Systems. Co.,

cols.

Dec.

Dec.

G. L. ; King,

NASA

p.

26,

Board:

Comm.,

Science

Natl.

1968,

Support

Dynamics

V. ; and Repin,

Science

in Space 8.

24,

Life

Sci.,Natl.

Space

Science

for Manned

Report Res.

of the

Space

Panel

Council

Board:

Summary

Missions,

Natl.

Report. Acad.

on Space

Nutrition

(Washington,

D.C.},

Symp. Sci.,

Natl.

of the Committee

on Acceptability Res.

Council

on Life

and (Washing-

Sciences.

1966.

149

U,S,

ARMY

I

FOOD

The food their

technology

development Proper

field rations

design

these

(2)

Stability:

(3)

Nutritional

(4)

Utility:

meets

of these

criteria,

meet

any

major

of military

covered are

rations

Natick

Laboratories

and space

in numerous

required

HOLLENDER

foods

publications

for any feeding

and the problems

(refs.

system

associated

1 to 6).

or subsystem.

For

military

are:

Acceptability:

the use

been

criteria

(1)

With

Army

aspects

have

A.

I u.s.

R&D PROGRAM

with

HERBERT

liked

by majority

6 months

of troops

at 100 ° F

adequacy:

calories

specific

and essential

serving

requirements

a food product

operational

situation.

nutrients

or feeding

The

system

can be developed

same

criteria

can also

be applied

military

utility

in the field

or modified

to a system

to

for

feed-

ing in space. A product and delivery

which

systems of a product

perishable

foods

ice

for

cream

several were

stable

enough

to meet

ration

prototypes

military

specific

for

such

easily the

must

criteria,

that has

and stability

a situation.

A product

or requires of the

intensive

soldier have

must

For

not been

correctly

have been

established

preclude is not if

is required adequate,

All new products

criteria.

de-

addressed

of products

line.

supply the

they

resupply

nutritionally

these

the force

example,

and wherein

supply

against

address

and applied,

or combination

long military

which

defined

no preparation,

evaluation

requirements

still

the system.

by the

utility

requirements

technical

properly with

to be carried

prepared

undergo

when

is integrated

Obviously,

proposed in weight,

the

which

days.

is light

These

or a ration

in a ration

which

against

outstanding

involved.

velopment

feasible

has

This

and

includes

through

and

testing

translation

of the

requirements. FR E E Z E-DRYING Some

12 to 15 years

battlefield

tactics

which

the potential

ber

had

analyzed,

after

the

needs

for new field

freeze-drying

was

products

and rations

of providing

chosen

rations

as the

that

would

that

method best

would

meet

changing

of food preservation fulfill

the maximum

num-

of criteria. Up to that

work

were

ago,

in our

practical products.

time

laboratories

method

the freeze-drying and in closely

of preservation.

Admittedly,

the

high cost

of food had been related

Today,

research

freeze-drying

of processing

is still

largely

groups is being

a laboratory demonstrated used

a disadvantage,

curiosity. that

both for

However,

it could

military

and a product

be a

and civilian selected 151

for this methodof preservationmustshowanadvantage in somecharacteristicssuchas flavor, stabilitywithoutrefrigeration, convenience, or light weightbeforetheproductcanbesuccessfully marketedto eithera military or civilian customer. TheArmy FoodR&DProgramhasdeveloped or modifiedandintroducedinto themilitary supplysystemmorethan45newitems. Manyof theseare freeze-driedandrangefrom peasto shrimp. Theyare usedin garrisonmealsas well as in thecombatarea. In additionto these45components completerationsareunderdevelopment.One which has

been

completed

developed

are

technology

which

Packet,

precooked

Long

packet

but is not yet

evolved

Range

contained

trees

were

mately

products

first

than

ment

the story

the products

does

of Vietnam,

was recognized

foods

for

available

acceptable

the Army have been

you never

know

in what From

combat

20 minutes food

time

patrol

was

packet

while

in hot and cold

consumed

without

rehydration,

developed

for space

water, that

and,

is,

be applied.

than

could

missions.

)

be

The need

if possible,

suitable

ex-

in the jungles

longer

on patrol

have been

and develop-

it may

experience

With-

we have

of research

frequently

limited

would

what

or when

back-

if freezewas

leadtime

an inventory

this

requirements.

illustrates

direction

unheated.

water these

en-

approxi-

However,

longer

(This

Each

different

by the Army,

to meet

a much

you build

that

was

application.

developed.

when

found

the water

of cabin-temperature

program,

not end here.

Eight

but required

received

immediate

the Food

to be used.

and rice.

when

were

is,

the rehydration when

longer

From

the first-generation

received,

had to be developed

of the long-range-patrol

to shorten

well

space

All of 21 meals water.

actually

or chicken

by means

from

it was

came

ration

Were

for

which that

meals

stew,

and much

New technology

and experience,

for preparation

beef

meal.

of hot or cold

freeze-dried

reeonstitution

in R&D work;

the addition

packets

for

is the quick-serve

of these

first

as chili,

was

26 items

times

paddies

the

requirements

the

However,

allowed

was

such

of experience

many

development

in hot water

10 minutes.

information

and rice

item

to be used,

to provide

perienced

This

technology

were

out the background required

the

system

to eat after

The first-generation

of freeze-drying

to no more

through

to rehydrate

When the

dried

ready

an entree

20 minutes

ground

and are

Patrol.

available.

in the supply

to make

for eating

out of hand

like popcorn. Using tested

the technology

in pilot-plant

months.

Unlike

receive

fan mail.

ing information

production, most

Many

see how good

lion per

year.

actually

being

letters

they

entrees

(pork

chicken

with

could

not have

been

rice,

these

have been

the small

with

with

meat

reengineered

that use

of these

packets

of troops

(less

this

potatoes,

as they

saying

for future

number

rations,

escalloped

spaghetti

completely

received

indicates beef

sauce,

they

was are

known

are

excellent

currently than

beef

and chili} frame

runs

usage

hash,

beef

they

in less

and

3

request-

so that

around

Mom and

10 to 12 mil-

in Vietnam} rate.

with rice,

without

that are

Needless

long-range-patrol

indicated

than

were

in Vietnam,

home

10 percent high

of the

reengineered, written

or for sending

a very

stew,

in the time

were

document

new "LURPs,"

Procurement

on combat

the products

procurement

can be obtained

are.

Considering subsisted

stew,

152

rations,

as to how they

Dad can

the eight

combat

and a suitable

foods,

to say,

chicken food packet

the use

of the

technology

developed

cold

and

water

for

may

space

be eaten

foods.

These

out of hand

products

(fig.

rehydrate

in 5 minutes

or less

with hot or

1).

!

i Figure

The technology the use

of metal

In individual Rubinate

cans

serving

of flex canning

sizes.

(refs.

of 0. 0005-inch

polyester,

as the

food contactant.

The

process

is normally

trolled variety

at the above balancing of products

CANNING

is being

developed

items

The packaging

and Szczeblowski

carried

7 and

temperature

to provide

air

is used

pressure (fig.

2) and processes

to reduce

as meats,

material

aluminum will

foil,

withstand

using

steam-air

bursting

for them

have

weight

vegetables, have

now used

fruits, been

or water-air

of the pouch been

developed.

described

during

con-

polyolefin

of 250 ° F.

mixtures

with Carefully

processing.

goods

by

laminate

modified

temperature

of the product.

by eliminating and baked

is a 3-ply

and 0. 003-inch a retort

for thermostabilizing to prevent

package

and the process

The pouch

polyolefin

out in a retort

such

materials

8).

0. 00035-inch

special

food packet.

FLEX

for heat-processed

sisting

time

1. -Long-range-patrol

The

sufficient conA wide 153

Figure2.-Flex-cannedfoods. Thetexture of a tendency

of these

and flavor

of the cake

products

to compress

and bread

The availability program

for the flight

of Apollo

before

the flight,

of technology made 8.

the U.S.

Air

was

and safety-tested

at the U.S.

was

to use it.

at hand from

for space feeding (figs. 5 and 6).

154

feasible.

This

quick

the military purposes

was

Force,

and were

turkey

consumed

turkey

Natick

response ration

products

in a series

This Army

moist

although

to provide

The product

in weightlessness

decision

for

it possible

would

not have

9.

items

cake

packages

(fig.

possible

products Others

are

from

determined

without have planned

satis-

the Army dinner

ration

entree

A few months that spoon

eating

processed,

following

the technology

been

To date

from

4) was developed, 5 weeks

because

pouch.

with a spoon.

in approximately been

to control

ranging

as a Christmas

flights,

product

Additional

on Apollo

some

the pouch

of parabolic

difficult

in the sealed

in flexible

from

and gravy

been

processed

and gravy

Laboratories

program. used

have

when thermally

we do not have a fully acceptable breadlike product factory to excellent have been developed (fig. 3).

development

products

the which

developed

especially

for subsequent

flights

POUND-CAKE

DkTE-NUT-CkKE

Figure

Figure

3. -Cake

4. -Turkey

items

and

suitable

gravy,

for

processing

a thermostabilized

in sealed

wet

meat

pouches.

product. 155

Figure

Figure

156

5. -Thermostabilized

6.-Thermostabilized

wet

wet

meat

meat

products

products

in closed

in open

containers.

containers.

FUTURE As was cern

for

the logistics

volume

become

on the

developed

as

such

awarded

described

nology with

a volume

mittedly,

(ref.

20,000

compressed

than

to 22,000 a shoe

were

)COLATE CUBE BUTTERSCOTCH CU_E

Figure

from Kcal

box.

provided

10).

potatoes,

previous

in approximately

it was possible acceptable

but they

could

that

These

efforts the

could

foods

be

was

by using

on edible

32 familiar

that

a contract

of compressed

provided

-of

for foods

10 Ib and a volume

combinations to provide

work

the state

in funds

and vegetables

contract

awarded

of a reduction

by NASA,

shown

and

effort

were

for advancing

con-

weight

an extensive

components.

It was

both

of contracts

guides

of meal

rice,

tech-

be combined

coatings) of 408 sauce (fig.

have

and cu in., or gravy-

7). Ad-

a beginning.

CUBE SAUCE CUBE

-

7. -Compressed

funds

constant

person,

because

of production

the line

By various

not highly

a technology although

(ref.

chicken,

(developed

food bars,

of the foods

along

requires

supporting

A number

to build

With

use

on the soldier's

initiated.

writing

meals.

as beef,

matrix

with

into

for field

of contracts

successful,

9) and Brockmann

such

larger

which

to permit

of prototypes

products

to provide

some

were

development

slightly

cubes

upon

suitably

a series were

contracts

insufficient

a calorie-containing

compressed

mix

were

In 1963

of research

of rations

is to be carried

or compaction

these

by Durst

available,

food

important.

or combined

for the

the development If the

of compression

On the whole

data

been

involved.

the background

the art.

used

earlier,

extremely

subject

to provide

the

mentioned

OUTLOOK

sauces, gravy mixes, provide 32 familiar foods

and food bars which, with a total of 20,000

when combined, Kcal.

will 157

Onecan where

food

supplies

which

would

supplementation acceptance

of the

food items Work

cherries,

of water,

with of such

prepared

meat

it will

come

equilibrated

After

be expected,

able

damage

is apparent

(fig.

9). Several

compression instrument elevated

158

redrying

custom

procedure

compressed

pieces in order

features

(100 ° F) temperatures

of equipment

we are

either

are

understand

attempting

on compressed

product

the addition

product

to better

balls

been

behave

the

what

based Occa-

assure

the

the acceptance

as peas

able

(fig.

has

utilized

food.

are

a memory

way.

freeze-dried,

moisture. phase

By use

the effect

then

from

500 to

or convection

in studying

Early

carrots,

Upon the addi-

to be determined.

happens.

8),

to provide

the same

in a vacuum

of added

to determine

dehydrated

might

at pressures

if the compression

being

items

or

peas.

items

and compressed

for each

products

be essential.

can be compressed.

is as follows:

without

such

and rehydrated

is accomplished

using

flights

might

to improve

products we have

Meat

moisture

specialty

space

"

flavoring,

shape.

products

in the reconstituted

specialized

recently

added

that

is underway

blocl_s.

compressed,

6 to 8 percent

successfully

and texture with

most

the appropriate

are

with

8.-Dehydrated,

compression,

the cherries

beef,

be planned

savings

of individual Just

for extended

could

or other

work

'building

to its original

with

Menus

of this

basic

application

and space

as steaks

and sausage.

back

to approximately

psi.

might

used

such

Extension

This

have

the weight

on the compression

Figure The procedure

may

be required.

foods

these

balls,

chunks.

would

frozen

from

beef

approach

provide

menus.

is continuing

shrimp,

in freeze-dried

1500

that this

prototypes

overall

tion

see

prepositioned

on these sional

quickly

oven.

For Little

conducted

parameters

of a universal

of storage

subjective

example,

or no notice-

is properly

the

of test

at ambient data

As

obtained

and in

Figure9.-Compressed freeze-driedcherries. conjunctionwith storagestudiesfocusedattentiononobjectionable texturechangeswhichoccurred in storage. Althoughhardeningis the mostcommoncomplaint,wehavefoundthatnotall cubesof thetypepresentlyusedas spacefoodharden during storage. Tables I and II and figures 10 and 11 show

that

the hardening

or softening

which

take

place

during

storage

depends

upon

the nature

OF COMPRESSED

SPACE

FOOD

CUBES

of the

material.

TABLE

I.-TEXTURAL

Sample

CHARACTERISTICS

Storage time, mo

Hardness,

kg,

40 ° F

at storage

temperature100 ° F

3

12.8

15.2

Custard

3

17.2

28.1

Sugar

3

15.8

16.5

Cheese

crackers

159

TABLEH.-TEXTURALCHARACTERISTICS OFCOMPRESSED FOODBARS(marinepacket) Sample

Hardness,kg, at storageconditionInitial

100°F for 6mo !

Beefjerky Cerealwith lemon Datefig Lemonstarch-jelly candy

10.2 2.6 2.3 5.6

15.5 3.3 2.2 1.0

76 Vanilla

60 C offee

(D

36

Shocolate

12

J

0.5

Work,

Kg-cm

l

I

2.5

4.0

Figure 10. -Crushing work and penetration hardness of dehydrated compressed ice cream cubes after storage at 100 ° F for a period of 6 months. From freeze--dried cal/cc, ucts.

research products

will

as compared Defining

to date

with

we can project

enable

the provision

the present

the parameters

for

that

the weight

of a wide

average

and volume

variety

of products

of approximately

successfully

compressing

advantages

1.41

at approximately

cal/cc

a variety

of compressed 3.76

for uncompressed

of dehydrated

food

prod-

is con-

tinuing. Additional or in any situations how about when 160

stored,

a rare

varieties where steak

we have

of freeze-dried prolonged

? Although indications

foods

consumption it is generally that

if a steak

will be needed of dehydrated not considered

does

not come

to support diets

flights

is necessary.

possible, in contact

as it loses with

oxygen

of long duration For red after

example, color it is

46

36 _28 _D

_20

hr 100 ° F

_,336 \ \ \ \

12

\

\ \ \ \ \ \

4

3 hr 4'0

135 ° F _

8'0

140

Temperature, Figure

placed

in the freeze

indicate

that

exposure

dryer

to oxygen

marked

in flavor

was used

for removing

low

a palladium

level

95 percent ium hydrogen

catalyst This

system

Continued

advantage

of drastic

Laboratories

used

provide

ance.

Under

apples,

in appearance, storage

flavor,

conditions,

The

smallest

by 39 percent modate

a small

available and

tray

which

(figs.

keeping

12 and 13).

to reduce

small

There

lots

to if

is a

technique

the oxygen

5 percent

data quality

A glove-box

containing for

we have

improved

eliminated.

In order

especially

commercially

to this

hydrogen

of product.

and

The pallad-

in England.

of texture with

are

and flavor,

greatly

receiving

coupled

improved

variety

have

with

flavor

that

of compression

and texture

plus

technology

mouth

provide

by 45 percent.

been

the marked

feel

been

of military

developed.

resembling

calories

and technologists.

per

import-

Carrots,

the

natural

cc.

Under

products normal

is required. carried

(ll0V-AC

2450

The cavity

to quickly

to products

has

added

or refrigeration have

by the food scientists

products

a moist

also

lkW unit

can be used

this

of prototype

and they

packaging

attention

to apply

experiments

commercial

its volume,

dryer.

is practical,

for example,

and texture

support,

is totally

in an atmosphere

contracts

a wide

no special

With NASA

employed

Also,

a markedly

and storage

oxygen

the freeze

appearance.

in volume.

awarded

and beef,

processing

when

foods

one contract

and pork

have

products

reduction

has

carrots,

in the areas

Intermediate-moisture Natick

like

from

technique

is being

should

of normal

throughout

was

research

or densification,

steak

deterioration

the product

nitrogen.

a rare

products,

Is minimized

reduction

11.-Effect of storage temperature on compressed chocolate cubes.

we can have

oxygen-sensitive

o F

rehydrate

out with MH) was

a modified reworked

microwave to reduce

is now 10 by 10 by 5 in. and heat

the rehydrated

oven. its weight

and will

accom-

food

or to heat 161

6.2

i

_6.0 I

_5.8

"_ 5.6 o

?,

5.4

r/l

o

_5.2 O

a.o 4.8

4.6 1

2

3 4 Storage-months

5

6

Figure 12. -Storage evaluation of freeze-dried chunks by a consumer panel of 30 judges.

I

beef

I

O Zero oxygen-glove X Tripple N2 flush _D

/k 2% oxygen-glove

u6

box 5% H2+ pd cat. box

t

C9 O cD

One Month at 100°F

_5 ¢9 O

3

0

0.5

1.0

Figure 162

13. -Relation

2.0

1o

% Headspace

.5

3.0

02

of flavor scores carrot dice

and oxygen in storage.

levels

of freeze-dried

3

regularpreparedfood. Thebakingof breadandcakes the

cavity

bread

is being

from

in weight types

investigated.

a special and volume

of oscillators, Using

struction

a room

various

heating

provided

large

developed

device

for Army

a feeding

have

not been

can be achieved

by use

Force,

tube

feasibility

placed

Further

of smaller

in

of preparing

successful.

give

Natick

in a controlled

of products a much

clearly

shows

carried

field

as they

better

has

been

However,

program.

system

the

out at the

rations

Force.

Army

cakes

apparent

glass

reduction

magnetrons,

other

Laboratories

now has

environment.

come

It will

into the room

understanding

enable

and pass

of methods

for

under

conthe

through

the

controlling

in food.

described

NASA and the Air

indicate

in a special

components.

levels

R&D program

to the

to date,

by NASA and the Air

and thus

levels

results

food can be processed

processes,

The work

viding

of the

in which

microbiological

benefit

However,

of contamination

unit

rather

mix.

and solid-state

funds

determination

Preliminary

at 6 psia

mutual U.S.

would

have

that

Natick

brought

these

A continuation

which

Army

quickly

meeting

benefits

maximum

to bear

gained

in turn,

efforts

and

from

the

The technology

on the unique has,

combined utility

been

Laboratories.

requirements

of these

have

has

requirements been

the potential

acceptability

of

of considerable

for future

for promissions.

REFERENCES 1.

Hollender,

H.A.

: Plugging

2.

Hollender,

H.A.

: Discussion:

3.

Klicka,

Projects.

NASA Mary

May 1964, 4.

Klicka,

the

SP-70,

pp.

Mary

6.

7.

V. ; Hollender,

etetic

Assoc.

t vol.

F.J.

vol. 8.

18,

no.

Szczeblowski, 38,

9.

H.A.

Rubinate,

Durst,

no.

10, J.R.

AD-662060, 10.

Brockmann,

of Space

H.A.

Foods.

51,

; Klicka, Sci.

15,

no.

62,

1963.

of Foods

for

Present

Space

J.

Am.

Dietetic

Assoc.,

vol.

44,

no.

5,

3,

No. ; and

Sept.

Mary

1,

P.A.

Jan.

Lachance,

1967,

pp.

Obstacle

13,

no.

2,

: Development

of Space

Foods.

Svenska

1966. P.A.

: Foods

for Astronauts.

: Space

Feeding:

J.

Am.

Di-

238-245.

V. ; and Lachance,

vol.

P.A.

Meeting

the

Chal-

1968.

Course

Yields

F.J.

: Integrity

; and Rubinate, 1965,

: Compressed Contract M.C.

no.

Lachance,

a New Look

in Food

Packaging.

Food

Modern

Package,

Technol.,

1964.

J.W. June

H.A.

Today,

: Army's 11,

; and

Tidskrift

Mary

Cereal

vol.

and Storage

358-361.

V. ; Hollender,

lenge.

Rept.,

Handling,

1964.

Klicka,

Hollender,

Activities

Preparation,

V. : Development

Ekonomiforestandarinnors 5.

Holes.

pp.

of Food

Packages.

Vol.

131-134. Food

Components

DA19-129-AMC-860,

: Compression

of Foods.

to Minimize U.S.

Army

Activities

Storage Natick Rept.,

Space. Labs., vol.

Tech.

Rept.

68-22-FL

1967. 18,

no.

2,

1966,

pp.

173-177.

163

SESSIONVI

EQUIPMENT/SYSTEM

CHAIRMAN: Biotechnology NASA

Office

JOSEPH and

of

INTEGRATORS

Advanced

Human

N.

PECORARO

Research

Research

Division and

Technology

We have for crews butions

by food speakers

space

travel, distinct

ance,

technologists, have the

who have

the

functions vehicles.

include

task

free

nor

represented

minimal promise

and the physical the mission.

food,

primarily

design like

here

cussions

the

during

temperature of safe in use.

form

in this

speakers

with

to cite

technologist.

Several

years

of corn

in Nebraska

soluble

grown

produced in either

of vehicle their

from

can contribute

two examples

(ref. highly

hot or cold

water

in which

an edible 1) was

developed

amylose and

starch.

(I would

as a result

film

The

stability

film

must

at possible of problems

of handling

assisted made This

is unusual

food item.

of dis-

requirements

have

commercially.

is a digestible

and on system

and ease

packaging

can be

on conventional

to the solutions

engineers

soluble

diet

needed

these

be

of the dis-

"normal"

wfsh,

preparation,

could

is not pos-

and environment.

vehicles

in which

not to com-

of the food and its

volume,

this

in all

of foods,

if they

of some

is accus-

and there

Since

the

acceptable

research

constraints

papers,

acceptability

packaging

the

and packaging

) In the case

ago

from

whose

within

be a kitchen

experts

can be sufficiently

preparation,

We as engineers

like

deviation

integrators

and of those

foods

diet.

that

one can identify

to modify

minimum

I would

chemically

of the food

maximum

of conventional

session,

the crew

would

of an individual's

final

hardware

to which

Each

in appear-

systems

the food,

system

it is important

session

session.

extremes.

storage,

stock

so that

the requirements

this

not be in conflict

a basic

cooperate

In this

food and preparation

management

space,

in processing,

to satisfy to invite

from

in limited

that

food

of the composition

ciplines

We hope

166

start

choice

practicable

the best

attractive

of the

that

for

and the airlines.

more

equipment,

The pre-

food systems

Force),

food

resemble

contri-

and engineers.

for preparing

food should

and tasteful

it requires

manageable.

about

the processed

that

Solving

and Air

and more

nutritious,

and planned

- to make

the hardware

as possible,

could

goals

of engineers

integrating

It is obvious

of current Army,

nutritious,

of providing

food preparation

sible

more

be safe,

psychologists,

status

(U. S. Navy,

the views

As much

relatively

the

will

problem.

nutritionists,

but common

tasteful,

food which

is a complex

discussed

military

coordinate

tomed.

preparing

vehicles

problems,

more

we will

that

of aerospace

vious

has

heard

It also

when

the

from

food

a new type

new film

is

in that

it is

meets

the

most

rigid

food

potential

packaging

is aerosol

of aerosol

cans

of volume

and safe

(ref. and

Some

laboratory

efficiency should

greater

solution

to this

ucts

use

needs

has the

address

cooperation themselves

for

market

but the use

at this

time,

because

in suitable

to this

containers

and the

will

will

shortly

necessitate

an overall

heating

technique probe.

food processing be mass

fully

may prod-

The aerospace

development this

and

cooked

heating.

Our speakers

The

engineers.

produced

preparing

for microwave new product

food

for this

internal

of

be developed

4 lb and have

developed

of the vehicle

heating

As a result

a three-container

approximately

industry.

technical

that

flight

and dielectric

technique

the

of this

of the processing

induction

Corp.

aerospace

food container.

internal-probe

containers

proponent

during

aceommodiating

This

Transportation

foods

the

weigh

for the household

mid 1970's.

a leading

the

The food

cooperation

been

with

encouraging,

limited

It concluded

would

requires

them

technique

American

included within

container.

pocket

by the

been

for heating

that

75 percent.

oven

General

probe

technique

than

has

extremely

considered

an internal

and packaging

industry

food

this

A microwave be in wide

the

it recommended

upon

contain

appears

of methods

heating

necessary

based

packaging

through

methods

evaluation

food packaging

problems.

resistance

with the

foods

study

of the

Another

Food

AMRL

a feasibility

2).

warmer

storage

1963,

an internal

along

dispensing.

for processed

In May completed

standards.

program afternoon

and will

area. Joseph

N.

Pecoraro

REFERENCES

1.

Anon.

2. Anon.

: Food

and Drug

: Methods

TDR-63-135,

Packaging.

of Heating

Foods

Magazines During

for Industry,

Aerospace

Flight.

Inc.,

Nov.

TDR

No.

9,

1967.

AMRL-

MaY 1963.

167

WERNER SELL EQU IPMENT DEVELOPMENT

I am

grateful

for the opportunity

one attending

who comes

not yet given

sufficient

from

directly

my own experience,

WERNER Giessen

to participate

from

consideration

I

in this

Old Europe.

German

to food technology

as at the present

time

SELL University

conference. and other

and technical

I am probably European

universities

equipment.

I am one of a few teaching

the

this

only have

This

I can verify

subject

at two uni-

versities. More first

one.

This

commerce layout

than

40 years

was

in this

a milestone

branch.

of a spacecraft

unrealistic

at that

time similar

Paris

or

London

for

these

coast

and

imagine

15 years

in an airplane

I turned

by courtesy

completely

of the

for a 3-week

- maybe toward

Whirlpool

flight.

will

all

the

very

engineering

Corp.,

This

at noon

and

I obtained

seemed

the

their

somewhat

or lunch

time

from

oven,

of the ?

Leaving

time

The question

and one pleaded

oven which

have

local

we find

difference arises:

?

the deep-frozen

This

of the

are

and the basic

transport

Breakfast

for breakfast.

meal

space air

astronauts

the middle

in time

hot air ?

improvements

you:

the

above

But because

Sell high-temperature

Steady

between

lunehl

microwave

steaks

of fast-circulated

in service.

to serve

the relative

grilled

a Werner

just

of meals

commercial

in an SST plane

going

you expect

mentioned

fresh

future

sitting

Am

cycle

is no relationship

considering

3 hr earlier,

have

a method

There

you are

you determine

speakers

to the conservative

when

of Pan

Airport

rewarming

and uses

later

crew

agree. Even

New York

considerations

pany

a 3-man

Treadwell

at Kennedy

defrosting,

ago,

had objections

life.

Please is Mr.

Some for

Buck

daily

What

which

for

I definitely

of our

you arrive From

Paul

conditions.

At;antic_

4 years

appliance

time.

to maintain.

periods

a cooking

and a few years

About

kitchen

Professor required

ago I installed

oven

resulted

for ovens

condition, has

been

is the result

etc.

developed

I add to

in my com-

of extensive

in a tiny box with

equipped

May

research

the following

ad-

temperature

con-

vantages: (1) Regulated trolled

within

temperature

3 to 5 percent. between

(2) Very on the weight defrosting

temperature

A continuous

all areas regular

of the oven. thermostat

Food makes

serving it possible

to adjust

the

50 ° and 250 ° C (120 ° to 480 ° F).

short

defrosting

and the layer

time

within

of the ovens

time

thickness is between

from

-18 ° to 80 ° C (0 ° - 176 ° F).

of the foods,

as well

as on the available

This

time

electric

is dependent energy.

The

20 and 30 min.

169

(3) When the thawing time is properly burn, or brown around the edges.

not boil,

(4) at 266 ° F, permitted.

Normal

because

(5) (6) is significantly

The

of the heat

oven

Moreover,

(8)

It is no problem

The

electric there

prepared

my return to Germany Europe will contribute

170

is well

(7)

be well

defrost

and cook

circulation

suited

for

at 390 ° F.

system

according

to the

With

ovens

Juno

and ventilation;

grilling

steaks

thus

instructions,

it is possible

power

to bake

to keep

food warm

requirements

is any chance to develop

or boil

are

the use

for a spaceship a special

small

to defrost

of plastic

dishes

is

and poultry.

eggs

in this

for a specific 3600

the food will

it is possible

It is also possible to bake cakes and small baked goods in this sl;c.rtez than in the usual baking ovens without air circulation.

In case would

ovens

adjusted

cabin

I will carry with me a lot of problems its part in these great tasks.

time

of time.

and 200 V for the

to accommodate

and lightweight

The baking

oven.

period

W for heating

oven.

motor.

such

equipment,

oven with high

efficiency.

and ideas,

and I deeply

hope

we On that

AIRBORNE

MICROWAVE OVEN DEVELOPMENT

_

For those

with

is placed

in an oven

cavity

the water

molecules

in the food try

magnetic

field.

rub

against

vection has

each

and/or

been

other

conduction

exposed

to the

to heat

and ceramics

are

through

with

ated,

them

or frozen)

not perform ever,

because

may

have

better

to package

the product speed

that

turned

with which

appearance,

quality,

product

the

development

concepts, April

summer

of 1963

of a microwave

an incubation

1965

the first

period

are

test

Litton

airborne

they

properly

in cooking

with

allow

plastics,

energy

to pass

(fresh,

refriger-

microwave

as the product effects

occur

oven

does

put in.

How-

and the

product

value.

was

the in-flight between

of a prototype

good

microwaves

BACKGROUND

Industries

necessary

as

The

by con-

of the food

paper,

of preservation

prepared.

few detrimental

heats,

as glass,

microwave

the oven

and nutritional

was

speed such

molecules

Heat transfer surface

is 'only

oven for

flight

since

oscillating

the outer

Materials

energy

electro-

after

out of the oven

Litton

The

Food

to microwave

time-varying

friction.

occurs

maximum

is in order.

exposed

rapidly

of food in any state they

HISTORICAL In the

which For

All types

provided

When the

GRAFF

explanation

intermolecnlar

six sides.

the food

a brief

with

by this

all

DAVID

at 2 450 000 000 cps.

process

from

AND

agitation.

themselves

excitation.

no retardation.

of the

by microwave,

oscillate

microwave

HAGBERG

by molecular

is a secondary

can be used

magic;

Litton Industries Atherton Division

is generated

the product

used

l

to aline

molecules

and heat

CALVIN

heating

_nd heated

The water

it is desirable

:

not familiar

1

oven

approached

by a major

preparation

of meals.

initial

was

conception

conducted

airline

to undertake

As with

many

and a working

jointly

by the airline,

new

unit.

In

Litton,

and

the FAA. This oven, oven

weighing cavity.

at the time

simple

systems cated

86 Ib, The

most

as possible as possible

solutions

approach.

are

Therefore,

unit

operating

T-20

but used

With as

first

design

400-cycle

at 2450 utilized

and add

available.

designated

Mc,

the T-20

and providing

many

model.

It was

approximately

of the commercial

1200

a single

magnetron

W of power

in the

concepts

prevalent

state-of-the-art

components.

revolutionary

within

was

concepts

two design

approaches

necessary,

whereas

on only when

the given

space

The nature

the design

envelope

and extract

of the T-20

incorporated

sensing

may be taken; the other them

after

microwave

oven

devices

to ensure

one is to make

is to provide new and less

dictated

following

complete

it

as many complithe

later

protection 171

against

any possible

lowered

as well

servative

line and

Litton

Model

Mc,

concept

deleted

to be used

"necessity

is the mother sensing

the

was

shut the

oven

detected

gram.

T-20

a given

A lossy

negating

to permit

bottom

ceeding

the maximum

adequate

occurs.

close 172

to allowables

and

oven

operating

cavity.

The

pattern

that

reliability,

for the

of greater

ovens

new

food

quantities.

and the old cliche

took

place

that

in the evolution

heating The

established

tests

moisture

which oven

extremely

roll

No interference

or the operational

in the

shutoffs

of RF leakage

of the aircraft.

sensor

were

the effect

lacked

were

programmed

to

the leakage

from

operation

down

and required

density

the

intri-

and increased

sufficient

running

pro-

or that

sensitive

during

flight-test

front

the

to prevent

of the

oven

the

over

the

brought

inexpensive

shelf

now serves

as a medium

for a no-load

capable

and reliable

sensor.

thus

which

the energy

to both

can absorb

The glass

no extensive

of absorbing

solutions

the micro-

or ceramic

detrimental for periods

effect

is not on the

of time

ex-

of the timer. and choke-type

the necessity

was

devices

of the art

are

systems

no load

of the food product;

shelves

and reliability door

was

had been

sensor.

requirement

of seal-plate

eliminated

protection

of microwave changes

110 lb,

on simplicity,

handling

flight

as a Danish

Accumulated

the

setting

success

a seal-plate-type

if not used

unit weighing

development

in nuisance

the door-seal

or ceramic

thus

virtually

prepared

2 min.

to permit

and a door-seal there

such

in the state

glass

pattern

load

T-20

- observed

these

resulted

actuating. to actuate

cooking

has

FAA

Both

which A light

from

sufficient

The

the

level.

circuitry

energy,

too lossy

during

that

New advances

wave

tool

and trans-

of only frozen

in the enlarged

and communication

sensor

of the equipment.

problems.

navigational

a no-load

exceeded

sensor

than

the drastic

of a valuable

to inventory

heating

of all types

initial

in the event

cost

was

the

cycle

electronic

seal

the boarding

an acceptable

enlarged

explain

had both

cate

no-load

during

on the many at any time

The

was

of the art

of invention"

concern

off the heating door

The cavity

and the

in the specifications

and concentrated

it retained

con-

Both the air-

domestic

culminated

magnetron

requirements

while

design

ovens.

both

to be returned

W of power

this

and

devices.

A primary from

2400

original

state

included

is a double

this

forerunner

included

which

in less

raised

transports.

which

foods

which

standpoint

microwave

will be the

of changes

a passenger oven

weight

in flight.

tests

devised

the impact

and supersonic

allowed

to feed

of the

in the general

E-30

plan

discount

which

objectives

approximately

a number

jets

was

an operational

of airborne

a concept

a series

microwave

and reduced

Advancement

of the

airline

art

of the in-flight

This

and providing

serviceability,

of the

The feeding

it possible

E-30

at 2450

E-30.

from

we cannot

state

underwent

to order.

make

The

products

review

the design

would

successful,

on the

mechanism

Although

in the age of the jumbo

to be heated

ideally

than

for pioneering

a complete

the present

A sophisticated

food product.

made

credit

feeding

flights,

foods

the less

tests

take

After Atlantic

was

flight

for in-flight

interference.

as rotated

approach

operational

for

RF

for a door-seal at reduced

tested

before

by reference

initial

and after 1 was

doors

in over

sensor.

25 000 commercial Simplicity

and sustaining 30 days measured.

of flight

cost. testing

applications

in design

has provided

The

oven

which

and no leakage

even

E-30

has

HEATINGPATTERNCONTROL Oneof the majorproblemsfacingmicrowaveovendesignersis directingthewavesuniformly to thefoodproduct. Sincetheheatingis by direct interceptionof theRF wavesandnotby conduction or convection,hot andcoldspotscanoccur. Someearly designersutilizedthe rotatingshelfconcepttobalancetheexposedfoodproductto the energy. Otherconceptsbrokeup thedirection of thewaveformsby puttingstirrers in the feedboxor wavegnide.TheT-20 utilizedbothapproaches. Theresult wasa near-perfectheatingpatternfor nearlyall typesof foodproducts regardlessof their geometricconfigurationor their density. However,thecomplexityandreliability of the mechanicalsystemrequiredto providethis optimumheatingpatternwerenotcompatiblewiththe aircraft environment.Therefore,onlythe stirrer conceptis usedin thepresent E-30. Theapproachhasbeenquitesuccessfulandit is possibleto obtaina uniformheating patternovera 1 ½-sq-ft area. COMPONENTS Theprimary andmostdramaticimprovementin the E-30designis in weightreduction. Newcomponents andnewelectric conceptspermitteda 30-percent ireductionin weight. Thenew components alsoimproved reliability and permitted use of modular construction techniques which improve

serviceability. The magnetron

prone new

to filament L-5181

5000

have

in the

T-20

especially

permanent

to fabricate

was

in the

magnets

a magnetron

of an electromagnet shock

13 lb.

It was

environment

of an aircraft.

The

New construction

techniques

and vibration

and weigh

which

type

6.5

can withstand

lb. shock

and weighed

and vibration

and

provide

make 4000

to

hr of operation. A plate

tect

failures,

tubes

it possible

used

transformer

the magnetrons

techniques

from

transient

The transformer

in the Model

have E-30

voltage

from

in the aircraft been

weighs

electric

instrumental 13 lb.

200 to 3500 system.

in reducing

The

V and to pro-

original

New design the weight

T-20

by

transformer

26 lb.

The E-30 evaluation

concept

during operation

and several

oven

new aircraft

was

reduced

Results

or technical

problems

were

are

currently

installations

designing part.

and older E-31

The first

programs was

Litton aircraft

AND SPEED

influenced

the development

OF DEVELOPMENT

to practice

of 1968.

as an integral

Two other

STATE

the summer

airlines

microwave

ovens.

the input

present

epoxies

PRESENT

serious

to raise

voltages

and new high-temperature

50 percent. weighed

is required

in early of these

flights

encountered. in-flight

and underwent were

The

feeding

is engaged

very

feeding

systems

in a full-scale

an in-flight

encouraging. objectives

which

No were

include

marketing

achieved,

a Litton

effort

E-30

for both

retrofits. OVEN

to a large of the

1968

E-31

DEVELOPMENT extent

the state

oven.

The

E-31

of the aS

of airborne

is a single-magnetron

microwave oven 173

operatingat volume cycle

2450

of 4.3

cu ft.

version

The success the aircraft

bakery

approximately

1100 W to the oven

was

specifically

developed

commercial

model.

These

of this equipment has demonstrated shock and vibration environment.

of a U.S. products.

actual field failure.

The E-31

of a standard

The Speed concept

Mc providing

oven Army

is a large-cavity, field

kitchen.

The ovens

operations.

used

At last

report

4-magnetron,

Speed

the ovens

The 6 years.

only 14 W/lb. more.

state

of the art

We are

of airborne

now able

The use

microwave

to provide

of solid-state

The use of microwave

22 W/lb

power

supplies

have

been

have

fleet

and is a 400for 14 months.

components

oven

200 men

82 lb and has a

in operation

of the electric

to feed

had over

It weighs

the presidental

400-cycle

kitchens

CONCLUDING

last

ovens

the ability

It is designed

in the

for

cavity.

to withstand

developed

for

or to supply

5000

demonstrated

good

800 hr of operation

an advanced men

reliability

without

with under

magnetron

REMARKS ovens_has of oven, could

improved whereas

conceivably

significantly

originally

during

we could

increase

this

the

provide

ratio

even

ovens for any mode of transportation depends to a large degree on

the totalfeeding system.

The type of food, food packaging, food storage, and oven must be com-

patible. The microwave

oven system is superior to more conventional methods for small amounts

of food and individualmeals.

Full power is attainedin seconds; no warmup

of the oven is required.

Therefore, the actual high electric power drawn from the vehicle power system is required only during the actual cooking time. Although cooking by microwave

in aircraft is a relativelynew development,

significantadvances in the last few years. make

174

ithas made

The speed, cleanliness, and reliabilityof the concept

itan ideal system for all forms of transportation.

WILLIAM

FOR MICROWAVE HEATING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF SPACE FOOD

This discussion

is a conference

seems

far

ing Department.

to discuss

removed

from

Our concern

is not applicable

in space

we could

our conveyorized

been

discuss

led to believe

think

small

if hot meals

the

?

is, was

is the

of no unit

for the

considering

conveyances

system

time before

for heating

this

such

Microwave

quantities

Process-

of food but this

with many passengers,

meals

quickly;

will be necessary.

however,

It appears

I have

that we must

to the question:

convection to fame

the walls

currently

oven

available

market

or some

be considered

be used

in a space

conventional

form

is converted

to heat

energy

satisfy

produced heavy

more

should

of electric inside

the oven.

that would

wherein

heating

microwaves

other

heating;

inside

mass

microwave

Why should

of microwave and air

oven being

consumer

efficient

the

needs

of a space

by our Amana

emphasis

is placed

vehicle.

division.

There

This appliance

on chrome

trim,

port-

and price.

could

produce

design

are

materials,

a design

controls,

many

of a microwave

be the minimum

amount

of power

2450

namely, parameters

mHz 915,

drain could

5850,

source, food,

light-weight

are

with reliability,

of equipment

energy

specifically

There the heart

piece

supply,

Reliable,

amount

of emphasis,

a usable

power

struction

used

If NASA were

the use of highly

claim

to heat

A redirection

that

of large

leads

a 91-1b microwave

designed

ability,

lines

of a forced-air

The answer

however,

Industrial

processing

microwave

This

food and is not used I know

in Raytheon's

thought

for NASA.

desired.

instead

and at first

the speedy

it may be some

the foregoing

are

application heater

that

and light

Along

vehicles.

Company

food technology,

my experience

has been

Raytheon

I

aerospace

STONE

supplies

(or,

now exist

application

factors

to be considered

heating

system.

necessary

vehicles.

applicator

for this

from

are generally

space

and size

as the prime

Factors

requirements,

to be considered

as it is commonly

called,

in such

oven),

a

con-

and radiation.

power

the vehicle's

22 125 mHz.

for

space

applications.

There

is no doubt

is not too far away.

to heat

be investigated. and

for

weight,

Of prime

importance

the food,

since

electric The Very

in the selection

system.

FCC has little

this

allocated

has been

of an energy is the power

amount

done

output.

is directly

Frequencies three

source,

other

other

which This

related

is

should

to the

than the commonly

frequencies

at the two higher

for this frequencies

usage, where

smaller. 175

Ourexperience over

80 percent

heavy

could

material

between signed

the

roast

sandwiches The

warrants

the usual,

heavy

that From

stored

a microwave

parameters,

The intent

than

176

from small

To replace

efficiencies

the present

fairly

samarium

cobalt

which

package

present-day

heating unit

contains

the food,

to be heated.

This

microwave

a cup of soup

in coin-operated

its design

requires

an interface

ovens

are

to completely

vending

de-

cooking

machines

used

refrigerator. in the frame

to save

and power

considerable

coating

engineer's

point

density,

engineers

design

the design of the art.

which

over

function

a weight-reduction

be of uniform

In summation, the current state

have

new light-weight

equipment

Most

materials

exist

should

or people. Many excellent radiation use in a space vehicle now exist.

within

which

weight

supply

is one area

in the cavity

a light-weight

plastic

which

by painting,

form

to replace

reliably.

It

cavity.

microwave

of the

is the

conductive

of controls more

of the

designers.

be possible

a microwave

not much

generator.

Raytheon's

of the food

in a nearby

light-weight It may

variety

viously mentioned, problems.

shape

so that any process

stainless-steel

A wide

lectric

are

of strong

or laminating

power

utilizing

is the part

and

An exception

which

investigation.

plating,

appears

in use

is possible.

use

size

and space-food

to be universal

a large

(oven)

by the

microwave-oven

to heat

magnet

generators

be considered.

applicator

be conditioned

microwave

to a lower

a permanent might

Since

high-power

be extrapolated

electromagnet,

magnet

should

in producing

very

well

program

of view,

need

be launched.

the food should

and completely

load the

and food technologists

be to cook

and extremely

always cavity

should

food - the heat

containment

techniques

that

of a microwave

heating

unit for

should

have

same

electrically.

jointly

discuss

not be wasted

may be made

space

the

vehicles

lighter

die-

As prethese

on equipment in weight

is quite

feasible

for

INTEGRAL EQUIPMENT

The

heating. and they

3M Co.

to have been

of speakers

mentioned

our

I

DEVELOPMENT

is pleased

A number

HEATING

have

laboratory

invited

referred

work

to say a few words

to our

as well

JOHNCompany 3M M. MAHLUM

development

as our

in explanation

of

as a new concept

activities

with

integral

for cooking

the commercial

airline

food

indus-

try. Frankly, on costs, where

performance

we are

fidence

it is much

actively

under

varied

selling

this

in the potential

work

and,

Tests

been

to reconstitute mance

of this

as reported

have

too early

for

typical

conditions, method

under

frozen

of this and,

specific

We do have

a successful

7 weeks

airline

etc.,

in any

technology.

by others,

run

in the development

meals

therefore, form

we are

conditions

fine results

We do have amount

Airlines where

in terms

specifically

not yet at the point

us a substantial

by American

operating

with

to articulate

to the public.

behind

evaluation

normal

concept

system

of quality

con-

of laboratory

of this

our

great

system. has

been

used

of food and perfor-

of the equipment. Integral

coating

heating

can be applied

is applied

to become

heat

directly

face

area

required, the heat

course,

the

choice

(1)

portion

It uses

the principle

you want

More

a resistive

coating

its composition

of the surface

areas

of low watt

contours

of any kind,

and the manner

applied

to a surface

is of a variety from

density,

which

has

to one composition same

The

of materials,

is unrestricted

of processing

area.

it is intended

and basically

it. " It is not restricted

of materials heating

and it

to deliver

in terms

of the sur-

the capability

for

of materials

and,

is proprietary

of

to 3M.

provides:

efficient

heat

transfer.

of low-thermal-capacity

The low mass

materials

which

and large

give

up their

surface

heat

area

quickly

is supplemented

to their

surroundings,

food. (2)

Quick

energy

inputs

are

ments,

such

(3)

by the

an integral

where

from

of manners,

can accomplish

Integral

by choice

in a variety

to food.

'butting

i.e.,

is accomplished

food,

food being

response. reduced.

Minimal

with heated

the

surface

heats

It is therefore

residual

as a calrod

The

type,

"_eating

and rarely

controllable

heat

problems.

are

nonexistent.

surface" exceeding

extremely

fast

and also

and responsive

Conventional Heat developed

temperature

climbing

a surface

temperature

flame

cools

extremely

to critical

cooking

the temperature of more

than

when

demands.

or high-watt-density

on the

fast

heating

surface scale

ele-

is removed parallel

10 percent

that

to the of the

food.

177

(4) permits

Easy

programing.

a variety

of the food possible

of performance

with

simple

tional

cooking

ciencies.

terms

be said

of electricity,

date

and

or temporarily shell

- the walls (2)

energy

becomes

electric

to match

the requirements the

maximum

where your

A casserole to heat

dish.

you wish

to do your

I would food service We found

is no induced

it essential

Performance

that

types

the heat

food

the system

The reliability

other.

All parts

refrigeration

this

system

(i. e.,

is capable

of being

of the system components, have been

and heating

that

and is,

designed plus

those

the

tests

and

in commercial such

reason

it back

sys-

there

to edible

as hospiis an ad-

temperature

at

and can be installed

contains

electrodes

appended

to

of the

of these

three

of going

established

from

have

in 15 min

temperature an oven

three

physical

demands

of the more

mundane

facts

or less,

of 10

period

of

or a combination

and operational such

as warm.

and we also

concern.

of life

it to

and held

to the system

to withstand

to the new.

of reconstitution

or refrigerator,

of parts

any new

programmed

cooked

of

is necessary

for a substantial

a primary

pieces

the old method

a parameter

and starch)

interchange

serves

the

in developing

and previously

is of course

It also

components

We therefore

chilled,

the electric

It transforms

requirements

phase

dish.

heated.

A combination Each

the

carry

the kitchens.

is integrally

as either

are

is not a classic

which

in and out and nest

the desired

units this

permanently

circulation.

food.

vegetable,

its parts

some

that

be versatile.

a free

with

in flight

facilities

control

performance

utilized

and used

The

which

and we have

of holding

effi-

food service

can operate

for

cooking.

to and from

- frozen,

meat,

developed

Let me emphasize

rack

to the

of ours

90-percent of gas,

3M in-flight

in land-based

air

an interchange

had to be fast mixes

the capacity

time. Also the unit of these two.

interlocking

is always

the

insulated

slide

now on general

response

conven-

equipment:

up the system.

of food preparation

in general

to 12 oz of frozen

to have

There

which

is the item

and delivers

to comment

system.

all three

into

like

center.

food is moved

This

than

of all

it was prepared.

is thermally

of trays

and

fast

a system

where

following

This

use

and bringing

unit

or rack.

a series

the dish

it,

where

the

operational

shell

been Such

any facility

that

at better

with the

and submarines;

includes This

operate

we will has

or freezing

from

shell.

oven

it has

by which

energy

chilling

of the energy

of either.

system

ships

equipment in a variety of styles makes for the system to operate properly.

both

components

3M system

two-thirds

operates

acceptable.

do not get hot and there

to the dish;

(3)

oven

An interior

as the means

178

it possible heated

home,

further,

and in almost

system

into the area

and this

for this

location

of the

An outer

heating

system

aboard

the food,

The design

the

makes

surfaces

the danger

the

restaurants;

heated

integral

commercially

or at a remote

(1)

that

aircraft;

to preparing

a later

Integrally

The hardware

and military

vantage

built

with electric-electronic

the integrally

in the average

and without

to be generally

colleges,

handle

energy

in turn,

giving

that,

of explaining

as a reference.

aircraft

say

is wasted.

It can also

can be said

oven

This,

adjustments

we may

As a means

this

levels.

control

devices

convenience

tals,

of the input

versatility. In lay

tem

Control

It is necessary from

one unit demands

as commercial

to of

dishwashing facilities. It is interestingto note liability

or failure

vidual our

service

is related

There

its

glass

the concern

of 600 ° F,

conventional

and

there

any

a lower

Styling

for airflow

is also

is unrestricted.

performance

claims.

from

Use

a 0 ° F storage

Approximately

unit

the

oven

within

a factor

and the

of modern

system

updated

perature, drawn

and,

is working

in favor

stay

product

cold

One might

for

exposed

and choice

cooking

time

construction

material.

factor

is a con-

to food

of a china odoris its low

The

casserole

operate

at surface

temperature.

found

We have,

in most

consumption.

ovens. We use

our

efficiency

is substantially

a given

results

less

than

in

that

of

shell,

cause, system.

inasmuch

compare

needed

demand that

that

in this

I might

the casserole

the heat from

out that does

dish

to a thermos

we can transfer

the power

not deliver bottle.

ver-

we justify a typical less

from

dish

92 percent

our

10-oz than

food

5

0 ° to 32 ° F. or melting

32 ° to 180 ° F.

materials

in a frozen

and color

permits

of fusion

the casserole

Using

shape,

Note that

approximately

the food.

which

the food temperature

in bringing

dish

from

to process

heat

can be of almost

of size,

condition.

the sensible

example

point

as the casserole

hot"

itself

materials

premise

to accomplish

is used

of heating

choice

required

to raise

is required

the oven

and

Approxi-

to proper

tem-

of the energy

of low thermal

storage

condition

heat

to the food

capacity the

It works

ideally

required

for a given

food will

and thus warm

whether

the

end

is to be hot or cold. Table

heating-time complish

other

permits

balance

to accomplish

energy

it can be said

of the

longer

are

is required

of the total thus,

of the heat

of the energy

is put to a worthy

it up.

to

scratchproof,

electric-electronic

to a 180 ° F "piping

BTU requirements

45 percent

8 percent

I is a study

temperature

45 percent

an additional

also

Table

of the total

mately

abuse

However,

per

in controls and performance of the system. I would like to make a few statements on the general

percent

attempted

of its properties

power

is a prerequisite.

consumption

that

units

when

stainproof,

density

with

and this

the power

is no concern

shape.

and generally satility

the job done

welded

acceptability

maximum

or high-watt

indi-

likely

stackable

as low as -350 ° F and will

is accomplished

therefore,

for

physical

of almost

accepted

each

ovens. Since

any size

to get

waste;

source

and we have

need

Not the least

temperatures

heat

performance

of power

to that

is the generally

the intense

Our total

power

is superior

which

and general

properties.

it is most

stainless-steel

of its heatproof,

ageproof

cryogenic

the

because

made

to withstand

and hence selected

is,

system.

tremendous

and

which

total

the potential That

and therefore

to withstand

was

level,

storage

limiting

minimum.

into a new system

cleanliness,

designed

we are

possible

is made,

to the

We have

lnnerface

eliminated

amount

for

operation.

was

transfer than

system

lowest

can be built

fadeproof,

retention

designed

that

in this

to the

rather

of strength,

casserole

porcelain

in fact,

mix

advantages

that

down

the energy

one unit

Of course,

temperatures

less

to that

many

rustproof,

bacteria was

is where

characteristics

environments. The

proof,

to function

in any high volume

obvious

or

are

these.

sideration

oven

of a meal

liability

appraise

of the

II indicates relationship

the delivery

that

and we say of BTU's

arbitrarily

consistent

with

that our

or watts

if you deliver previous

heat

240 W for balance

meal

15 min you will

to a ac-

study. 179

TABLE

I.-HEAT

BALANCE

Process

% total

a BTU 10 oz of food

Heat to raise from 0° F to 32 ° F (10/16) x 0.5 x 32 =

10

4.8

Heat to thaw (10/16) x 144 =

90

43.1

Heat to raise from 32 ° F to 180 ° F (10/16) x (180 - 32)=

92.5

44.3

Casserole

Heat to casserole 0.9x 0.1x 180= Total a 208.8

BTU

16.3

7.8

208.8

i00.0

= 61 W-hr.

TABLE

H.-POWER

LEVEL

AND HEATING

Heating time, min

In any and which

you want

the circles illustration. air

to bring

air

space,

surrounding 180

indicate At the this

61

30

122

20

183

15

244

systems

it.

the four

Figure points

top we will

heat

it eventually the surface

Power

60

all heating

to receive

TIME

to transfer

1 is an enlargement of temperature

assume

to the proximity encounters

it is necessary

that

we have

of our container a stationary

of any material.

There

air is,

energy

of a casserole

level.

level,

from

the

food.

As indicated,

of course,

oven

unit.

a temperature

through

is a thin drop

bottom; as an

We depend

In passing this

to that

surface

convection

a 1200 ° to 1800 ° F calrod carrying

a source

or heating

We use a typical

film.

W

film

this of air

at the point

on

where This by

it hits large

this

air

drop

air

movement.

it passes

food.

The

net

source.

The

pletely

bypassing

til dish

it

reaches is

forward

At

temperature

high-velocity

bottom,

film.

through heat

3M

the

or Co.

is

air

films,

food.

restricted. to any

This comments

is

in all

the

point

and

loss

where

the

at

some

of the

food

introducing therefore

addition principle might

as

guides have

our

or

systems

energy

or

heat

predictable portion

the

source

temperature low

/x

we have

mentioned

thinking

in developing

regarding

possible

it

A

is

the

and

of that

from the

or

casserole

the

power

bottom,

delivering

thermal

capacity

heated

devices.

of this

dish

contact

at the

its

integrally

applications

realized. somewhat

to

generated

T drop

is

casserole

emerges

at the

before,

T,

minimized

reaches rate

a small

a very

a large and

is

realizing

to that,

of efficiency,

air-conducting

bottom

absorption

you

a severe

casserole

successfully

In

point

inherent At

the BTU

this

com-

point

un-

of the We

look,

principle.

,....:.v. _

.:.:.:-:.:.: '.v.'._' '.v:.'." •., .:.... .:..::: ":::.v, v.-::.', v:,':.',

MEAN AIR TEMP SOURCE TEMPERATURE

":.v.v. ...._-::. v.v:.'. v::.-.'.

F OOD

HEATED

SIDE

SIDE

Z

":::.v. -:.-:,v. ,:.v:... "::.'.v. ":.v:.'. ":.v:... ".v:::. .:::::. ".v.v:. '.v:.':. '.v:::. .:.-.-..._ ....-:::. :.:.:,:6:.

%

:.:-X-:,:. .v:.'.-. .v.v:. .'::.v. .:.:.:.:.:,: v.v:: v::.v v:.v." v.'.v." v.v:., v.'::: -.v:.'.v.v.v v.v.v v.-:.v .::::.. ='.v::. v.-.-.v_ v.-::.'. .:..:.-:.

O

-:::: -. ":.v::. ":.v::. .:..::... ":::.v. "::.v:. '::.v.'. ':.v:.-. '.'.v.':. ..:..:. .':.v:. ,.: .-... :::.v. .v...=.. .,::..:, .v.v.-. .:.:.:.:.:.

_9

(9

AT

ACROSS

FILM

:::::::::::

HEAT

.:-:.:.:.:. v.v.v .v:,v. .:::..,.-: ...: :.:,:.:.:.:

FLOW

[-,

I

v::.': v:.-:: v:.':." .-..::..

•: .:.:-

• .::::. v._'.v. v_v.'. v:.v:. v:.'._-. ..-::::

,::..::.

AT

THROUGH BOTTOM

...::.:

CASSEROLE 3M INTEGRAL

HEAT

".m':.t .:::::.

.'.v.-:. ..:::... ..::.....

Figure

1.-3M

Co.

integral

heating.

181

BOEING

I

747SYSTEM LOWER LOBE GALLEY INTEGRATION

System proper

forms

The system pared

integration of interaction

that

meals

I shall

and timely

provisioning

discuss

The

let

as

Minimized

main

deck

(4)

Minimized

ramp

congestion

(5)

Equipment

interchangeability

main-deck

Reduced

(2)

Increased

airlines

Increased

because

lobe

function.

to store

pre-

to the passengers of the

in

food and beverage

airplane. in a lower

is illustrated

lobe

by listing

galley

on any air-

the advantages

and

capacity loading

equipment

during

during

to service

passenger

ground

with

cargo empty

airplane

cost

and this

of the

other

galleys

loading

servicing airplane

types

lobe

is an increase

an additional some space

passenger

servicing, incentive

same

piece loading

we have - that

is taken

level

4 additional

the galleys.

and cabin

galley

and

and baggage This

cleaning

congestion

to the airlines.

First,

up by the lower

lobe

area,

with

the overall

30.

high-lift

to service

through

airplane

cargo

In the

case

galleys

without use

congested

other

arrange-

the cargo/

the

can be continued

in an extremely

galleys.

seating

eliminates

on the ramp

interchange

of any air-

to over

If we do not need

vehicles

of equipment

capacity

passengers

as the cargo

fewer

less

seating

main-deck

of equipment.

If we have

disadvantages

from

to service

an expensive

that

of the original

is on the

loading.

in the maIn--deck

can vary

can be utilized

doors,

for galley

of the

weight

is a function

galley

truck,

the galley

are

capacity

747 the capacity

equipment

main-deck

have

to the

part

some

function

them

only that

interested

on airlines

congestion

airplane

length,

service

vehicles

we are

and its

to present

discussing

that

seating

to the airlines

a lower

There duced

lower

advantage

from

galley

to perform

with

to airline:

(1)

the

personnel

system

components,

:

(3)

loading

lobe

at the entrance

galleys

of cargo/baggage

commissary

cargo

lobe

Utilization

baggage

terference

begins

Increased

Since

trained

the reason

to airline

In the case

through

that

(2)

of a given

747 lower

therefore,

(1)

(3)

ment.

system

a whole

of many

follows.

Disadvantages

plane

I am,

of lower

Advantages

A principal

is the assembling into

Boeing

and to enable

us consider

net effect

disadvantages

is the

manner.

and serving First,

purposes

and interdependences,

and beverages

an elegant

plane.

for practical

C. LINDOWCompany The V.Boeing

capacity of the

in-

of the place.

Some

types. is re747, 183

this amountsto

about

cause

of structural

more. option

It is clear on the 747.

2000

provisions, then

the

storage

flights

of 800 meals.

meals.

Particularly

to use used

chilled very

rather

seating

maximum

area

consistent

the already

on the

main

galley

deck

through-stop those

temperature

the

flight.

reduce lations.

technical

for two of our the

Boeing

course,

airline

area

customers

a Boeing

requirement

we have

in both

cases all

these

case

we have

Douglas

the meaning a Boeing there

Airline

requirements

to yield,

mode

is to be

to

unique

747 market in the

of noise,

to reduce

10-ft

cargo/baggage

and exterior

ventilation,

present

Public

during

and weight

be minimized

to

Health

Service

747 lower

lobe

equipment

of

lighting,

there

levels,

must

the

service

who work

Regu-

galley

interchangeability

particular

airlines.

on

We,

of

appeal. framework

McDonnell

has

a DC-10

B requirements.

for a common airline.

of the foregoing

Douglas

and Airline

as possible,

activity

commissary

a common

some

to each

also

the lower

U.S.

movement

replenishing

changes

of those

is striving

maintenance,

on the interior

at their

to create

galley,

from

galley

use

level

A requirements

as far

mode

and enhance

of passenger

high-lift

to meet

integration lobe

20 per-

seats

to maintain

and tends

and system

for a broad

Douglas

will be requirements

the

be kept

airplanes

747 lower

of passenger

time

the congestion

rather

to utilize

DC-10

say

the prime

warm.

of the attendants

a requirement

of system

are

same

and tear

it is necessary

to design

747 and McDonnell there

must

and a requirement

McDonnell

if we assess 1),

In addition,

them

on

400 complete

of entrees,

the number

a satisfactory

structural

meal

we do not expect

loading

wear

for the benefit

The airplane

requires

which

the obstruction

We would

maintain

maintainability

for a common

is to reconcile 184

we must

require

choice

mode,

It eliminates

17 ft.

this

747.

passenger

and so reduce

and

and in each

that

to about

747,

A second

Eliminating

of the airplane.

reliability

lobe

nize

earlier

the

an

to store

entrees.

to reduce

areas.

we need

of frozen

at the

and eliminate

galleys

(fig.

striving

it is desirable

is therefore

and an adequate

flights

and keep

and

For

costs

Incidentally,

to increase

of the basic

lobe

quirements galley,

area

management

Now,

appeal

airlines

be-

entrees.

and a third

arrangement

and

long

on the use

is a requirement

for all

a reasonable

onto the airplane

cabin

is increased the airplane

a beverage

such

frozen

entrees,

in the lower

747 and the

have

entrees

the galleys

and flow times.

In the

frozen

enables

extended

to a minimum.

costs

the

weight

And, of course,

on long fl__ghts.

to provide

is based

empty

In the food category

to serve

of unused

perso,mel

times

for loading

Safety,

be kept

galley

area

of the airplane

with beds

In the and

we need

and in the cross-aisle

or turnaround

loading system the airplane.

must

servicing

and cabin-cleaning to the

trucks,

the

service

and New York;

and waste

passenger

In the ground

adjacent

there

with

considerable

commissary,

warm

as follows.

to be able

Chicago

lobe than

is to load

In the the

747 lower

foods

often,

between

factors.

is not optimum

are

It is necessary

the spoilage

of the

galley

a beverage

on long flights

and to reduce

of operation

lobe

with

The airplane

and other

requirements

meals

as long as those

cent,

a lower

system

two complete

capability.

elevators,

that

The principal and serve

cu ft of cargo

DC-10. The task

a common

lower

relower Boeing

We all recogat this lobe

stage galley

is

h

Req

ff

Airline

747 LLG Boeing

A

1

h

747 Common Unique

I

Airline Req

Oven

I

C ommon LLG Concept

I

Equipment

B • 747 Unique • DC-10

Ah Y

Req _

Coffeemaker Freezer Refrigerator Tray Cart Mod Tray Cart Liquor Cart Mod Liquor Cart Entree Cart Mod Entree Cart Waste Cart Dry Stor Ins Service Center

Airline

Douglas DC-10 LLG

DC-10 Common Unique

I



I

Definitive Req Spec or Drawings

Unique

Airline Unique

A

• Airline Unique

B

Complete Airplane Elevator Communication Lighting Waste Disposal Emer Exit APU Fuel Cargo Handling Galleys Oxygen Water Air Cond Service Centers Int Flr& Side Structure Electrical Mockup Class II Mockup Class HI

A/C SubSys

L

|

Airline Req B

Figure

concept. and,

At the

within

these,

specifications tionally,

time

features

of our

Now that

Forward

we have

an aft lower

lobe

and a 2-unit

service

plane

are

stowage

3 is a view

the airplane

modules

above

which

is a freezer

module,

and can contain

480 entrees

747,

and the airplane

can carry

4 liquor

carts

affected

lobe

galley

set

which

a typical

Each

definitive

requirement

inhouse.

Addi-

Integrating

all

lobe

system.

galley

these

let us look at some interior

complex.

747 or DC-10

arrangement

In the case

complex

of the

is composed

of the

of the

747,

factors

there

of a lower

re-

747. is also

lobe

galley

deck.

the airplane about

lower

to the

is built

extent.

integration,

2 shows

come

which

functional

of system

unique

work

to some

a completely

60 in.

can accommodate

food

contains

for equipment

aft of the wing.

through

situations

or drawings

Figure

on the main

integration.

Out of this

the tasks

lower

system

to be certain

are

including

complex

galley

airline.

subsystems

outlined

center

3 refrigerated areas

to each

is a forward

galley

lobe

continue

and solutions.

of the wing

Figure

will

equipment

airplane,

configurations

lower

peculiar

aircraft

in a complete

sulting

there

for purchased most

results

same

1.-747

cross long,

each

960 entrees.

up for two complete

food

liquor

that

module services.

right-hand

contains

or dry

to 0° F for

Remember The next

On the

of which

refrigerated

is controlled

and ice cubes.

section.

frozen there

side

4 tray

stowage.

carts

and has

On the

left side

of

food or 40 ° F for chilled are

2 identical

is the liquor-cart The

of the air-

third

module,

galleys

module, which

on the

which is partly 185

obscuredbehindtheelevator, contains Above the 35 min.

service

shelf

4 ovens

center

are

fixed

....

the entree

and waste

to the airplane

; each

carts

is designed

_

Aft

unit

of aft

s e rvice

and on it a dry-stowage to reconstitute

_

service

-----k

60 entrees

in

center

Forward

center

module.

unit

s e rvice

of aft tit

cent_///_

(_

-8"

_ominal

i i Figure

The elevator right

small

two ends

above, A waste

counter

through

of the waste disposable these

are

cart items.

serviced

is the electric stewardesses

These

emerge

the two elevator

doors,

coffeemakers,

and dry

attendants

are There

cart

are

three

waste

has

separate

may

The aft unit With electric

going

from

additional in the

right-hand

be thrown

drawers

coffeemakers,

contains

spaces

wherein

for keeping

equipment

that note

I have that

service

center

under

of the waste of soiled

two additional entree-cart mentioned

the counter, so that system.

(fig.

On the

5).

is being

with

six in each

service

an opening

in the

cart.

carts

deck.

telephone

part

articles

from

can be stored, heated,

procured except

maga-

The bottom

reusable

contents

all the equipment

above

of the airplane,

providing

The

on the

is provided

airplane

position

the separation

connectors

as shown in table I. You will on both the 747 and DC-10.

outboard

into the top part

to enable

thus

stowage

the

aisles

the galley.

on the main

system

through

the longitudinal

for

The elevator

center

and dry

An intercom

747.

center

or carts.

in the service

below. without

for the

control

is the aft unit of the forward

accessible

is positioned

which

stowage

can talk

aisle

closets

All the vendor-supplied specifications fit and function 186

module for moving

only.

lobe

lobe galley

either

for carts

of the cross

of the units

racks

center.

side

of the lower

the entree

refrigerator

and lower

On the other

zine

4 shows

a mechanical

main-deck

arrangement

can be used

and is used

Figure with

box above

on the left is open

2.-Interior

that

and

if required. under

Boeing

indicated

will

Figure3.-Crosssectionof airplane. Oneof theprimary meansof decidingwhethersystemintegration is to carry

out a system

system

tests.

testing

on the

laboratories go to our From

Vendors articles

lower then

cargo/baggage

for

flight

lobe

they

testing.

is the equivalent

prototypes

subsystem

To explain

of these

test

vehicle

- those

items

go into that

first

this

fully,

our

lower

of our

aircraft lobe

airplane;

been

galley

tests.

and module

the

handling

qualification Boeing-Everett

Those

that

of performance

pass

the tests

in a whole

system.

in our lower

lobe

organization

to be tested

of our of this galley

accomplished

and perform

run through

involved

part

our

section

are

are

particular

lobe

articles

for verification which

go into

of the forward

the lower

verification

The others more

for

articles

and subsystem

functional two paths

the logic

and preproduction

Some

component

vehicles.

of part

6 shows

provide.

galley

we have handling

test

Figure

provide

to accomplish

there

appropriate

test.

has

type

functional

it is set

for

ground test

on the floor

galley

module/

testing

vehicle so that

(fig.

in and 7)

we can 187

Figure4.-Forwardunit offorwardservicecenterof 747lowerlobegalley. workconveniently with it throughouttheprogram. After completionofthis testingwewill be satisfiedthatthe systemwill in fact functionin accordance with the standardswhichwehaveestablished. Theairlines thenwill providehostesses andproceduresappropriateto their meal services.

188

Figure

TABLE

I. -747

5. -Aft unit

LOWER

of forward

LOBE

GALLEY

Number Oven assembly,

60B50103

Coffeemaker,

60B50104

aGalley

60B50105

aElevator

60B50107

Liquor

60B50108

Tray

60B50109

Entree

60B50110

Waste

60B50197

Cart

60B50111

Insert,

65B50112

Coffee

aWill

fit and function

center

of 747 lower

PROCUREMENT

lobe

SPECIFICATIONS

galley.

AND VENDORS

Title

60B50102

60B50165

service

general

Vendor purpose,

Sell

electric

REF

electric

service

cart

Airesearch

assembly assembly

cart

base

- lower

assembly assembly

server

lobe lobe

- lower - lower - lower

refrigerator/freezer

asink/equipment on both

- lower

assembly

cart

Dynamics

Hitco

centers

system cart

Haus

galley

lobe lobe lobe

galley

galley galley galley

- service

center

REF

Dynamics

retainer console

747 and DC-10

- lower except

lobe

galley

Hitco

as noted. 189

TABLE I. - Continued 747 LOWER LOBE GALLEY PROCUREMENT Number

SPECIFICATIONS

Title

60B60010

Tray cart

60B60011

Freezer

module

60B60022

Liquor

and entree

60B50172 and 60B50179

Stowage drawers,

refrigerated

Vendor

module

cart modules miscellaneous

Hiller

Fairchild

Hiller

Fairchild

Hiller

Everett

• Prototypes • Preproduction • Qualification Testing

Lab

L r

Component and SubSystem Verification

Module v

Handling

_Fairchild

- lower lobe galley

Vendors

LLG

AND VENDORS

A

Everett Lab LLG Test Vehicle System Verification

Aircraft • Ground • Flight

Figure

190

6. -Logic

Test Test

for lower lobe galley

and module handling

system

test.

IIIIII III

.....

L lil

/

--

/

l I I

I I I I

I

/ I

/ I

/

/

/ I

/ i

30

_ Figure

7.-Lower

lobe

galley

test

vehicle

00000000000

,_I __

FOOD

SYSTEM

INTEGRATION

RESPONSIBILITIES

(Presented

OF I

AIRFRAME

A majority business quires

venture good

in competition

management,

cally_ service and,

The

expand

service

operation

providing

by adequate facturer's

developing

since the ultimate

riding services

beyond

revenue have

conducting

equipment

is less aware

aware

of the number

of hydraulic

operate

for large

aircraft,

ules and prompt

the cabin baggage

crew,

delivery

system

to maintain

provided

These

normal

traveler

equipment

of the airframe systems,

selection

The

round

adds

The

business

and the food and beverage out the passenger's

manu-

and smiles

is mainly service.

kits, cargo

complexity

bulk of passenger activities.

of the number

of full power

of pro-

of responsibility.

to support

passenger

up

manufacturer

Quick-change

over

and the flexibility of the electric system This

airframe

with the capability

concerns.

the advantages

be backed

airframe

environment

manufacturer,

or development

obviously

The

features

aware

use

a satisfied clientele is indirect

customers.

is not always

and economical

leading to certification, and

of this area

and generally

the airline to

with the operational

by the air carrier.

to the carrier's

traveler

Reliable

factors must

incorporating

of an aircraft

that will permit

design,

test program

into the operational

either in parallel or isolated.

ate surroundings,

re-

reliably and economicampaign

criteria commensurate

are typical examples

of the passenger

the aircraft,

features

of a quality to maintain

equipment

belief to the air carrier's

flight controls

profit picture

and production

lie with the individual carrier.

within a latitude acceptable

that this experienced

in the design

and functional

service

must

is paid by the experienced

indicated

design

maintenance

for producing

introduction

of a favorable

a satisfied clientele.

logistic support.

in providing

propel

may

to maintain

a comprehensive

field-servlce

and food service The

in a profit-motivated

aircraft that will operate

and incorporate

structural

responsibility

is directly responsible

systems,

sound

levels of In-servlce

Monroe) Company

are involved

Achievement

is directly involved

of a quality necessary

involvement

F.

of service.

reliably and economically

postdelivery

B.

a satisfied clientele, and an active promotional

manufacturer

of qualified components,

air carriers

structure,

is a direct result of establishing

of the aircraft,

most

route

the volume

airframe

that will operate

commercial

with other carriers.

a good

to maintain

hopefully,

provide

MANUFACTURERS

of the world's

by

L. W. KING Lockheed-California

alfare Surveys

of engines

that

politely when

made

manual

where

concerned

reversion

the generators about his immedi-

Adherence

criteria for evaluation

to flight schedof the air

carrier.

193

The air pelled

to seek

carrier

ways

the passenger's aircraft,

to cause

accommodations, provides

and complements transcontinental

in-flight

entertainment,

to offer must

of in-flight pictures

other

and ground

manufacturer

of support

aircraft

role

sition

and

carrier.

the air

of all

craft,

equipment

but the major

new aircraft phased

and facilities

must, portion

is integrated

out of operation

obviously,

must

and their

facilities

and facilities

service

vehicle(s),

is primarily

the

operational

impact

airborne this

The air

and

carrier,

facilities

of optimization has

be accomplished

but subsequent

in a timely

models.

the interface

The airframe

between

manufacturer port

194

define

requirements,

interface

of a galley

between

system

the objectives describe

the aircraft

and its

integration

of the system,

hhe elements and the

develop

of the airborne

ground

equipment

must

ground

the

aircraft

are

the

part

desired

for

galley,

the

current

efficiency,

as well

and

carriers

can

as for facilities.

ground

adaptation

equipment

or upgrading

to accept

contribute

as the

aircraft

toward

by air

equipment

equipment

to new air-

and the aircraft

system

of equipment

manner

older

oriented

for adapting

systematic

of aircraft. unique

of the galley

This

acqui-

only as required

are

improve

service.

INTEGRATION

of the

manu-

preclude

the requirements

system

and ground

and the

the air-

the ground-based

it is design

manufacturer

the aircraft SYSTEM

The design

and

both

in the area

As the

obsolete,

integration

responsibility

as it enters

with

places

would

fleet.

pooling

airborne

interface

requirements

beyond,

obsolescence,

the primary

the new aircraft

the

food

Cooperative

for both

is fully

of the airframe

operations

become

manufacturer,

to" minimize

service

importance

will be upgraded

carrier's the

flights, for a

for the new generation

or perhaps

Although airframe

performance.

necessarily,

must

by defining

of the

and facilities

to accept

the air

the commissary.

equipment

process

and facilities

comprising

responsibility

equipment

improve

craft

elements

and beverage

required

responsibility

the carrier's

and equipment to,

spacious

Food

time

responsibility

to support

with

or

facilities.

carrier

designed

operation

equipment,

TASK

air

be acquired

of the system will be upgraded systematically the most efficient operation with the aircraft. The major

support

be a joint

of most

of the equipment

and its

from

on short-duration

to their

with prime

and

especially

into parallel

service

integrator

The economics

new equipment

New support

of this

service

offered.

the entire

compared

Since,

decor,

the food and beverage

OF INTEGRATION

food

of the cabin

especially

is com-

trips. of basic

service

virtually

when

equipment

SCOPE an operational

systems

of system

for ground

Developing

of differences in terms

requirements,

passenger

for subsequent

entertainment,

Recognition

in the position

a secondary

in the area

to occupy

functional

equipment.

to return

and food and beverage

motion

In terms

the fare-paying

be expressed

source

in-flight

toward

to wish

the

the aircraft

facturer

oriented

an excellent

flight.

and

is little

individuality

as many

aircraft

there

are

passengers

carriers,

as complex

frame

services

these

viewpoint,

between

service

whose

not only the to this

of new air-

planning

effort

that

the airframe

and facilities.

TASKS into

the aircraft

equipment system, and facilities.

requires

performance and

specify

and aircraft the details

of the

sup-

Theobjectiveof food in an attractive specific

flight

manner

served

in a good restaurant.

temperature,

him.

The nutritional fall into

and presented

service

the aircraft

is provided

viding generally

a review

storage

feel

that

the

design

lished

the

volumes

all food require

storage

service

and when

cabin

required

one analyzes

space

allocation,

quires

storage

possibly

by most

the

standard

volumes

by removing The commissary

equipment

is the prime

must

consider

pared

in this

must

commissary

must

prior

the capability be kept cool

without

overcooking

is gaining presents

either

requirements

liquor.

The commissary

tailored

to the

capability

of those

a vital

must to the

role

is charged of the galley

for refurbishing handling

rigorous

design

criteria

operator

in procurement

food

system

galley

of the galley

boilers,

equipment

on the in this

manufacturer

and processing

and

ice making

personnel.

equipment.

The food preand the food

task.

or storage,

aboard Cold

be kept

the

foods

at temperature of frozen Beverage soft drinks

foods service and

the food and beverages,

Additionally,

cycle

supplying

and

manufacturer

be provided.

this

of providing

return

can be provided,

equipment,

reconstituting

re-

space.

galley.

must

to perform

ground-based

service

hot food is brought must

Hot foods

of raw foods

The

and storage

the airframe the

flights

its operation

airborne

temperature

its operating

equipment

for the airframe of handling

of the

with the responsibility and

caterer,

When precooked

are required

water

although

and equipping

to the capability

units

to per-

appreciably

whose

required

carriers becomes

able

location,

support

is

estab-

service.

do not vary

the

and,

are are

carriers

to gain

or his

in designing

ovens

For galley

pitch

carrier

Cooking

for coffeemakers,

The

air

focus.

or by refrigeration.

and improved

service

most time

high-density

equipment

optional

of the galley.

drying.

food

seat

food at the proper

by insulation

of waste.

in the

facility

loading

into

available,

be tailored

to hold this

is responsible

to come

of the

of this

their

this

food

Pro-

structure

Since

requirements

and timely

to the passengers,

or reducing

responsibility

or excessive

in popularity,

starts

seats

plays

the capability

be prepared

aircraft,

of food service

in excess

an adequate

to support

route

service,

Short,

sys-

performance

the carriers

complement.

support

carriers.

on a carrier's

crew

be

when the galley

of food service.

cabir_

con-

will

facilities,

Equipment

and generally

crew

to perform

galley

passenger

minimum

this

carriers

appear.

flight

and will

to several

for a full hot-meal

agency

with

attendants

the flow

The

regulatory

to the passengers

additional

volumes

equipment.

Government

as it may

flight

in

quality

requirements

complicated

to be delivered

by the quality

shortest

interest

that this

commissary

more

of the shortest

established

is the

the airborne

by the cognizant

form

time

at the appro-

objectives

of these

structure,

of aircraft

cc_,straints

and weights

block

for

of a type

at least

a personal

upon the above

becomes

is not as impossible

by the time

60-min

point

part

be of a quality

objectives.

route

This process

by the

arranged,

reflecting

Establishment

of the air carrier's

nutritious

as established

but it is anticipated

be based

in service.

must

be attractively

in a manner

will

palatable,

of time

passenger

to debate,

of food service

requirements

system

to the

The food must

pattern

high-quality,

the constraints

to the passenger

personnel.

galley

determined

and the

may

system

as an integral

a common

within

of the food is subject

general

and operating

is to provide

is to be served

as it is to be placed

after

equipment, tem

value

the same

Food

accomplished

to the passengers

The food that

priate

sider

food system

segment.

as high as that

should

the aircraft

from

the aircraft

pipeline the galley

the

presents

commissary and disposal some

rather

and for the commissary 195

TheUnitedStatesPublic missary

to the

galley

and establish

The commissary craft

galley

facilities

for

airborne

van

all

ing galley

the

aircraft.

galley

unloading

of galley

van

must

also

the basic vice

airframe

and

customer

then

established. mode,

factors

such

offs

involving The

increasing

gers served from

from

ment 196

will

seat

than

properly

the air

in turn,

that

the

required

aboard

the

to permit

into

loading

the aircraft

carrier.

reflected

after

The type

of ser-

in food service

system

design

for the

of the

loss,

service

criteria

will be determined

L-1011

and the

the galley

be configured.

size

cabin-level

or lower-deck

gal-

and

Individual

For

and cabin-traffic

level

or lower

cargo

releases

sufficient

lower-deck

carts

may

function

is returned.

galley

Elevators in service as a satellite

and it is advantageous

concept to locate

during

space

service

food are

load to permit service

used

will

is utilized,

carts

to move

to individual from

pas-

on trade-

and anticipated

is adopted,

Hot beverage

lower-deck

flow

will be based

cabin-level

galley

be used

they

deck

capacity,

to the passengers.

and so that

is impractical

the galley

either

position

on the cabin

consider

cost.

These

When the

will

cool-

to the

galley.

units.

service

by the heating, facilities

be

food service

When the

waste

of food

will

flow during

seats,

galley

galley

capa-

and location

the concept

established

of the

and service

size

traffic

of passenger

and to which galley

and

food and beverage

in a convenient

upon

by ground-servicing

by 20 seats.

the cabin

galley

in compliance

divisions,

on the cabin

underfloor

the

dependent

class

performance

to food preparation

is determined,

The location

weight,

to permit

but principally

equipment.

access,

capacity

locations Once

about

the return-

pickup

the galley

with

as related

concept

service,

value

the cabin-level

at strategic

delivery

comparative

to the passenger

service

is,

will be partially

support

to transport

or secured

integrating

for establishment

concept,

of the galley

Lockheed

between

itself

will be developed

the

The location

seating

required

carts

or cart

of units

the

of positioning

of the

INTEGRATION

and

the basis

galley Once

of the galley

as potential

service.

the quality

to accept

greater

air-

adequate

and congestion

volume

is generally

in conjunction

its elements The

ground-service

factors.

are

size tray

the number

senger

traffic

postservice

for

carrier

are

and

and beverage

passengers, leys

by the

be established.

The

storage,

contain

not degrade

of the hurried

AND GALLEY

established

requirements

system

handcarried

ing,

been

requirements.

must

be capable

must

the

its equipment.

The galley

bility,

typical

is responsible

established

These

system

with

have

necessarily,

requirements. galley

manufacturer

requirements

is,

volume

com-

equipment. AIRCRAFT

The

so that

the

the gap between

will

adequate

from

requirements.

vehicle

that

is used

return-cycle

of the disarray

The commissary

This

of providing

boundaries

to close

cycles.

one vehicle

all

processing

is required

in a manner

be capable

This

cross

and food

and unloading

that

also

because

cleaning,

equipment

In the event

and waste.

regulations

transporter

loading

it must

equipment

for loading

handling,

food and support

is minimized,

Service

or galley

the galley

food service.

aircraft

and

both

to store

Health

which

the

passenfood is

be provided hot beverage

food service

support

units

storage

arrange-

level. location pieces

have

been

established,

of equipment

the equipment

will be located

with

and

consideration

to their

frequencyof use, workingheight,weightof materialhandled,andotherfactors. Whenlocating equipment oneshouldalsoconsidergroupingtheelectric, water, drain, andcommunication services to achieveminimumComplexityandweightandmaximumsafety. Thedesignof thegalleyunitsand theequipmentmustbein compliancewith certainGovernment regulatordocuments.Federalaviation regulationsare primarily concerned with the structuralandflight safetyaspectsof thegalley unitsandrequirequalificationthroughtest or analysis,in someinstances,for certification. The U.S. PublicHealthServiceestablishesthestandardsfor galleysanitation,andaircraft operated by carriers within this countrymustoperategalleyscertifiedby this agency. Thegalleysystemas installedin theaircraft interfaceswiththe electrical, environmental control, water, lighting, andpossiblyhydraulicsystems. Structuralattachments are required, andtheunitsmustbetrimmedin a mannercompatiblewith theareaof theaircraft in whichthey are located. Electric poweris requiredby virtually all functionalequipment within thegalleysystem. The10adrequirementsof theovenswill bethegreatestsinglefactor. Thisloadwill dependonthe typesof foodtobepreparedandthe amountof time allocatedfor cookingor heating. Theair carrier's philosophyfor entreepreparationcangrosslyimpactthis ovenrequirementby requiringpower onlyfor holdinghotfoodat temperatureor cookingof raw frozenfood. Thetrendof improving qualityof foodwill result in a greatlyincreaseduseof precookedfrozenfoodsandlater, raw foods, as ovenswith improvedperformanceare developed.Coffeemakers andwaterboilers usedto support thehotbeverageservicewill probablybe thenextlargestelectric powerusers. Brewtime or waterheatingrateswill establishpeakloadingandthe old-modepowerwill fall withinthesepeak requirements.Theuseof anicemakeraboardthe aircraft will presenta fairly large electricpower requirementalmostcompletelydependent uponice productionrates. Theelectricpowerconsumptionby thecold-storageunitsis relatively smallby comparison,as is thatof bunwarmers,hotplates, andhotcups. Thetotal electricloadanalysisfor thegalleysystemwill considerall individualloadsandthetypicalduty-cyclecharacteristicsin theflight serviceenvironment.Peak loadsandequipment dutycyclewill thenbe integratedintothe electric systemtotal powerloading andcontrol. Theelectromagnetic interferencecharacteristicsof the galleyequipmentmustalso beconsideredfor compliance with standardsestablishedfor theaircraft. Thegalleyandits equipment will bedependent uponthe environmental controlsystem(ECS) for coolingandventilation. Heatgenerated by theovens,coffeemakers,hotplates,etc., will be rejectedto thecabinarea. For thelowerdeckgalleythis heatwill berejectedto the galleyitself, whichwill beestablishedas a separatetemperaturezoneof the ECS. Mechanical refrigeration systemsmustbeprovidedwithcondenser coolingair andequipmentcavitiesin galleycabinetry will beventilated. Cabinexhaustair canbeutilizedfor this functionbeforeit is ductedoverboard throughthepressurizationoutflowvalves. Greasyor moisture-laden vaporsgenerated by the galleymustbe ductedoverboardin a mannerthatwill precludeaccumulation of greasewith a resultantfire hazardandthatwill minimizecondensation withinthe aircraft in inaccessibleareas thatwill promotecorrosion. 197

Water and water

and drain

boilers.

Flow

pressure

range.

tablished

to ensure

with

must

must

with

lower-deck

installations

vary

somewhat

integrity

of the this odor

type

must

of galley

control

practices

that could

absorb to liquids

cleaning

by providing

ing the maximum accumulate The

practical

surfaces number

locations

successful

integration

(1)

Establish

(2)

Define

(3)

Describe

(4)

Determine

(5)

Design

(6)

Communicate

corners,

sealing

common

The

Lockheed

but one part

The part

volume

Corrosion

and

sealing

faying

and

off areas

in areas

be established

of

likely

to be

to facilitate surfaces,

condensation

and utiliz-

should

always

accomplished.

into

an aircraft

to installations

requires involving

that

a few basic

two or more

systems

interfaces system

At this

L-1011

Gen-

elements

installations constantly

Lockheed-California 1966.

and

will

an integral

centralized

be utilized

lower-

and constraints

with

affected

L-1011

September

Spillage

is readily

while

installation.

becomes

liquids

conand

installation.

cabin-level

all

vary

requirements

criteria

system

may

and rounded

are

system

The structural

installation.

trap

should

system

the

installations

units.

the galley

equipment

fasteners.

loads

Cabin-level

weight

could

will

crash

The larger

or coatings

cleanup

when

and the water

the cabin-level

standards

of a galley rules

for

since

that

peculiarities.

the cabin-level

and side-wall

Design

of flush

performance design

areas paints

where

These

loads.

installations.

and efficient

corrosion.

in accessible

ground rules be followed. and are as follows:

localized

Special

to minimize smooth

character

of eliminating

liquids.

flight

the lightest

equipment

es-

be specified

draining

structure

to resist

centerline

provide

be properly

must

proper

will be between

or provided

different

simpler

consist

or trap

exposed

will

is of a quite

a more

between

must

of the equipment

be designed

of limit

the acceptable

with

and installation

with the aircraft

must

be ascertained

structure

permits

units

along

standards.

variance

on the basis

floor

somewhat

installation

coffeemakers

services

to insure

Design Service

greatest

galley

requirements

with

equipment

The

be designed

installation

aircraft

design

Health

and to the

performance to these

characteristics,

the galley

Cabin-level

system

maintenance of all

stations

be established

of connections

environments.

location.

stabilizing

types

Public

in mounting

overhead

lower-deck

to the

U.S.

beams

and water

The

of integrating

will

supply

characteristics

consider

the galley

of the

erally,

must

be given

galleys.

deck

the water

for

to cold-climate

also

The task siderably

rates

compatibility.

is subjected

interface

at all water

for the reliability,

attention

aircraft

will be required

Equipment

consideration

Special

facilities

Company time,

incorporates

of the airborne

food

studies

GALLEY

organized were

a galley service

groups SYSTEM

the

conducted under

system

level service centers and the food and beverage an integral part of the basic aircraft. 198

L-1011

out of which

the floor which service

Preliminary

also

the basic

of the passenger includes

carts.

This

Design

Group

galley cabin.

early

system

in evolved.

This

galley

two elevators,

three

cabin-

galley

is included

system

is

as

Theunderfloorgalleyoccupiesanenvelope239in. long, 164in. wide, and74in. highand is locatedforwardof thewingbox. Thelowercornersof this volumeare cutoff by the mainstructural rings andleavea fiat floor widthof 96in. Thetotal usablevolumeof this envelopeis 1 584 cu ft. Theentirecompartment is sealedoff from theaircraft andliquidflow pathsfollowdownthe sidewallsalonginternal contour and lead out onto the galley floor, where spillage is observable for easy

cleanup.

sidewalls secondary sible

seal

leakage

corrosion dary

All galley

to maintain in the

form

through

interphone. beverage

the electric

units

floor,

is circulated

galley

is equipped

counter,

carts.

The

in a dry

provided

condition

A special

cold

will

as a part

and will

storage

chilled

be capable

hold

50 lb.

for the raw

chilled

The lcemaker with

has

in a nominal

capacity

and

design 20 rain.

food.

a bin capable

of 10 cuft

warm. dry-

for 18 food

precooked

a production

secon-

and a cabin

at 38 ° F or frozen

have

a capacity

floor

an intercom, areas

pos-

create

the

be of an advanced

chilled foods

between

an icemaker,

parking

the A

against

it would

the galley

area,

will

from

floor.

to insure

is located

entrees,

food or heating

sealed

where

units,

galley

will

floor

and to keep

frozen

equipment

(38 ° F) compartment

which

and provides

of holding

of the galley

center,

cold-sterage

or cooking

on standoffs

aircraft

a waste-disposal

to be developed

raw

galley

of the

any leakage

and lighted

entrees,

of cooking

in the galley

An lcemaker

ovens

the

area

ovens,

a bun warmer,

frozen

or mounted

and out onto the

beneath

load

to dry

beams

thewalls

the bilge

with

is alr-conditioned

be capable

installed

air

floor

is provided

from

The galley

also

pans

Warm

of reconstituting

oven will

down

of plastic

a work

service

capable

the

path

reaching

and the galley

cabinets,

from

flow

floor

The underfloor storage

is hung

the galley

problems.

seal

equipment

an iuninterrupted

The

Cold-storage foods

at -10 ° F.

of maintaining

ice

of 30 lb clear

ice/hr.

is an integral

part

of the

icemaker. Dry-storage Storage galley A work galley.

cabinets

compartments

are

in the bottom

of the

counter

including

Through

are

installed

provided

for

storage a wash

a window

items

that

miscellaneous

cabinets. basin

over

for

the work

waste

These

is located

the

left

at ambient

in compartments

compartments

on the

counter

can be stored

have

side

on both

a fire

rating

of the aircraft

No.

1 engine

to a station

in each

temperature. of the

of Class

at the

and leading

sides

edge

D.

aft end of the

of the wing

are

visible. The This

galley

system

permits

at the cabin

stations.

of 10 stations, separate

are

temperature

control is lighted

accessible The

This

service

door

parked

incorporates

and are

and call galley

ceiling spaced

beneath

the

and secured

while

galley

The

with flush

carts

to service L-1011

communication signal

of the

in the any other

is provided

galley

cabin-level area

station. with

service

and provides

A cabin

500 CFM

units. handsets

interphone,

of fresh

one

air

and is a

These

lights

zone.

48 in. long

are

may

in the galley.

The galley

The carts

connects

area-type

Any station

is located

and beverage

galley.

system

unattended

approximately

food

are

intercom

utilizing

on 20 in. equipment

in a transverse

cold-cathode

centers.

lamps.

Parking

and storage position

space

cabinets with

is provided

on both

respect

sides

for the of the

to the aircraft

and

parked.

is serviced

a window

lights

through

through which

a door the No.

located 3 engine

midway

in the

and leading

right edge

side

of the

galley.

of the wing

can be 199

seen. Foodservicecarts are loadedsinglyinto thegalleyfrom thecommissaryvanthroughthis 32-in.-widedoor. Thedooropensinwardandupwardintothegalley. Theattendants will notoccupythegalleyduringtakeoffandlanding. Theywill beprovidedwith roughair seatsoutboardon either sideof theelevatorenclosureandmountedontheaft galleybulkhead.In-flight accessto theelectric loadcenterwill beprovidedthroughtheaft galleybulkhead. Twoenclosedelevatorsareusedto transporteitherpersonnelor foodservicecartsbetweentheunderfloorgalleyandthe cabinlevel. Theelevatorsarepoweredindirectlyby thefour aircraft hydraulicsystems. Twosystemsare normallyallocatedto eachelevatortoprovidepower sourceredundancy.Crossmanifoldingof theelevatorhydraulicsystemspermitsoperationof eachelevatorfrom anyoneof thefour systems. Theelevatorscanbecontrolledfromboththe galleyandcabinlevelsaswell as fromwithinthe car. Safetyfeaturesprecludeoperationwhenthe enclosuredoorsare openor whenotherpotentiallyhazardous conditionsexist. Emergency egress hatchesare providedin thetop of theelevatorcars. A ladderis providedin eachcar for access to thehatch. Lightsare providedwithintheelevatorcar as well as in the shaft. Foodcart tiedown fittings are providedwithin thecar andonthecar top. Whentheelevatorcarsare in thedownposition, foodservicecarts maybestoredontopof thecar andaccessibleto thecabinlevel. Theelevator will travel from thegalleyto cabinlevel in approximately8 to 10sec. Themidcabinservicecenteris atthe crossaisle immediatelyforwardofthewing. This unit enclosestheelevatorshaftonthecabinlevel. Theunitis approximately42by 90in. andis situatedtransversein the aircraft symetricallyabouttheaircraft centerline. Four32-ozcoffeemakersare installedin this unit, twooneachsideof theelevatorenclosure.A smallwork counter is providedundereachcoffeemaker installationandonewashbasin. Storagespaceis provided aboveeachcoffeemaker.Storagespaceduringtakeoffandlandingfor twofoodservicecartsis provided,oneoneachoutboardfaceof the servicecenter. Theentireservicecenteris trimmed to becompatiblewith the cabindecor. A forwardservicecenteris installedimmediatelyaft of theflight stationwiththe operatingfaceforward. This unit containsa 32-ozcoffeemaker andanextrahotplate. Spaceis provided for a hotcupanda waterstationis installedin the right-handoutboardsideof theunit. Miscellaneousstoragespaceis providedto supportthebeverageservice. Space is providedto storeone beveragecart within theunit transversewithrespectto theaircraft centerline. Thetopof the unit opensupwardto 90° exposingshelfspaceshieldedfrom thepassengers'viewandprovidinga partial storagespacefor twofoodcartswithin theunit andsecuredin a longitudinalposition. The singlecart is storedfor takeoffor landing. A galleyintercomhandsetis installedin theservice center. Anaft coffeebar is installedforwardof theaft servicedoorontheright-handsideof the aircraft. This unitis a configurationsimilar to theoverhead coat-storagecompartments and lowerstorageunit. Thisunit incorporatesone32-ozcoffeemaker andtwoextrahotplates. Space is providedfor a hot cup. Storagespaceis providedin boththeoverheadunitadjacentto the coffeemakerandin thelowerfloor-mountedenclosure. A galleyintercomhandsetis installedin the coffeebar. 200

i

A total of 18foodandbeveragecarts are providedwith the galleysystem. This cart complementincludes6 beveragecarts, 8 coach-classcarts, and4 first-class servicecarts. These carts are to beutilizedfor 56first-class and200coachpassengers.Thecartsare 16.5in. wide, 36in. long,and36in. high. Theservicecarts carry insulatedcontainersontop of thebasiccart. Thesecontainersareusedto carry entrees,salads,or desserts. Thecart incorporates6 swiveling casters,arrangedin pairs at the sidesof the cart, oneachendandin the middle. Thecenter castersarelowered1/8 in. to enhance cart maneuverability.Thecartsincorporatea retention systemthatwill engagea flat-headed bolt or mushroommountedin thefloor for unattended storage positions. A jack-padtypeofbrakeis providedfor attendedpositioninganda tethersystemfor in-aisle service. This tetherattachesto thepassengerseatarms, whichare stressedtoaccept in-flight loadsimposedby a tetheredcart. Thecart's structureanddoorsare symetricallyarrangedwith respectto the endsof thecart. Thebeveragecart supportsthe foodservicewith softdrinks, liquor, wine,beer, ice, garnishes,etc. This cart hasthecapacityto serve50passengers.Thecart incorporatesa pressurizedcobra-headdispensersystemthatprovidescarbonated water, sweetwater, drink mix, and four colasyrups. A liquor modulecarries 105liquor miniaturesin dispensertubes. This liquor moduleis removableandIockable. Spaceis providedfor glasses,10poundsof ice, drinkgarnishes,quartbottles, beer, miscellaneous softdrinks, napkins,anda cashdrawer. A stowable topprovidesa sanitarydustcoverwhenthecart is notin use. Thefirst-class foodcart incorporatedfeaturesnecessaryto accepta varietyof modules necessaryto supportcoldfood,entree,anddessertcourses. Whenthe cart is setupfor cold food, it containsthetablesuppliessuchas tablecloth,napkin,silverware, salt andpepper,wine glasses,coffeecups,coldanddry food, bread,butter, china,andwines. Thelowerportionof the cart is allocatedtowastepickupfrom thebeverageservice. Whenthis cart is arrangedfor theentreecourse,it will containthehot food,china,coffeecups, andwineandprovidewastepickupspacein thebottomportionof thecart. After completionof service, this cart will beusedfor this course-waste pickupandreceptaclesandcontainersare providedfor this purpose. After the initial coldfoodservice, this coldfoodcartwill bereturnedto the galleyandreconfiguredto a dessertcart. In this configuration,thecart will carry the desserts,coffeecups,extra silverware, liquer glasses,liquers, wines,andmiscellaneous afterdinneritems. Thelowerportionof the cart is availablefor waste. Thecoachfoodcart containsbothpresettrayswith coldanddry foodsandthe hot-entree portionof thepassengers'meals. Thecart hasa top-mounted containeror holdingoventhatis insulatedandelectricly heatedwhenconnected to the ship'spower. Thisholdingoven'sinsulation helpsmaintainthetemperatureof theentreeportionsduringtheperiodof trar,_itfrom the galley to thepassengers.This configurationof cart permitsthecabincrewto servethe passenger his completemealin oneoperation,therebyreducingin-aisle traffic anddelaysin passengerservice. Eachcart serves27coach-classpassengers.This cart will beutilizedto servefirst-class passengers onshort flightswith a cruise timeof lessthan1 hour. 201

The L-1011galleysystemhasbeendeveloped toprovidetheair carrier with a moreefficientandcost-effectivefoodsystem,maximumserviceflexibility, andthesimplestinterfacewith groundequipment andthecommissary. Efficiencyis inherentwith theutilizationof theadvanced foodpreparationfacilities andof foodservicecartsto localizepassenger foodserviceandwaste pickup. Costeffectiveness is derivedfromthe relocationof thegalleyfrom thehigh-pricedseatingareaof the cabinto the relativelylessexpensivecargoarea. Costsare alsoreducedby the utilizationof advanced cookingandcoldstorageequipment in thegalley, permittingmaintenance of frozenentreeinventories,andcookingonlyactualfoodservicerequirements. Maximumservice flexibility is offered the carrier through the variety of entrees that may be offered to the passenger

and through

of single-cart equipment special

the integrated

loading operation

handling Galley

through simplify

equipment system

functional

galley

system

all areas

to refine

the

202

use

the

ground

and storage

developments elements system

of the

a separate

carts

galley

and cabin-level service

equipment

door

galley

combined

and facility

units.

Finally,

with latitudes

requirements

the features

in on-board

by reducing

needs

for

facilities. have

and from

to the optimum

resulted actual point

from food

analysis, service

by the time

design, testing. the L-lOll

and construction Efforts enters

are

of

continuing

service

in

in 1971.

CLOSING

REMARKS NASA Office of Advanced WALTON L. dONES and Technology

I

The prime believed

reason

that certain

quired

further

the persons

aspects

research.

working I should

really

industry.

like

contribute

when he was search

is,

that the

to produce

from

found their

items

We expect

delivery

gaged point. know,

utilizing have

use.

into the

been

programs

The seats

of a prototype

to get the

would 5 liters

project

for one man for a 10-hr

in the

techniques

military

investigating

may

have

in midsummer.

The Ames

drawing

supplies

oxygen

primarily oxygen

we shall

a more

for some

time

to

be able

food-handling Center

useful

but have

of incorporating

on future

Research

The

mission.

the possibility

an impact

filled.

of liquid

to provide

services

Webb,

we saw that re-

benefit,

is successful

involved;

Mr.

example,

which

carriers

If our

become

needs

For

it now takes

energy-absorption

We are also

seat.

and civilian

For example,

in which

process

we

by the airline

contribution.

now underway.

an electrolysis

at the moment,

we should

in areas

area ?

used

to invite

not

certain techniques.

is monitoring

both

projects. I would

lems

techniques

way into civilian

convenience

cussed

involves

was

re-

I am responsible

pioneered

a beneficial

in this

oxygen

area

and,

to which

of research

man.

that NASA

spaceflights

aeronautics.

fine work

the extent

means,

per

in this

for NASA,

various

oxygen

sufficient

done

through

Both military

was

to long-term

for

us to act as catalysts

problems.

gaseous

stands

we can make

in several

informed,

conference.

upon the

about

we are developing

water.

logistics

project

These

lies

knowledge

1 pint of water

Another seat.

urged

and to try,

answer

of converted

improve

provided

can NASA do in support

in their

1 liter

of these

lacking

by electrolyzing

a cutback

airline

was

technology

to airplanes

that would

of NASA,

work

is a new field

we are uncertain

Administrator

space

provide

anything

A in NASA

This

been

food technology

to a common

studies.

to participate

We hope on our

factor

already

way to review

disciplines

willing

what

and applying

out that the first

of fact,

or technology

question

from

to point

human

we are

of planning

as you have

We felt that the best

As a matter

however,

conference,

in the various

for the aeronautics cannot

for this

Research

here. of trying

like

to call

One of them to squeeze

in the human factors

your

attention

is posed objects area

he and I work

the effort very

by previously

and consequently them

for the Apollo

closely

that two different

designed

into predetermined

Any help that you can give heads

to the fact

would

spaces the

reason

certainly

human factors

systems.

You heard

that they have

His area

Dr.

have

some

; that is the worry

be appreciated.

program.

requirements

been

of the prob-

of the people

been

belaboring

Humphrey,

is space

dis-

medicine,

enthe

as you and

together.

203

Theotherrequirementis volumes. for

Hence,

I urge

the future.

I feel

a "subsystem" for a man be doing us.

whose

work

This

that

will

have

ing the

value

to formalize from

paid

many

any here of you.

ideas

so we must

on heading

We will

review

here;

this

greater

Federal

dividends

and volumes

to consider many

as

He will

and working

to be constraints We feel

man

requirements

different.

happy,

and

we should

on this

for man;

be consider-

morale. conference.

material

Apollo

traditional

We did not expect

presented

Applications

agencies

in the

to have

not be very

going

in this the

is NASA's

of weights

him efficient,

his

discussed

a good

will

are

by weights

enumerated

conditions.

been

one of the first even

There

going

heard

keep

in maintaining have

to put together

disciplines

we are

who is an astronaut

afternoon.

We want

not constrained to constraints

You have

and his living

management

last

and we expect

be met.

to perform,

good

had many

himself off,

this

spaceflights

a man

movement

systems

thoughts

job on a long mission.

of food and food

some

Webb prided

him

on his

that

must Well,

not be an easy

your

for long-term

requirements

limitations

We have

204

that

we want

I believe

it has

sure

by future

of you not to limit

who is a consumer.

he will

hear

all

that posed

expect

to

Program.

approach

to utilize

and will

this

to research. technique.

Mr. I think

future.

NASA-Langley,

1970

--

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