Aerospace Food Technology
Short Description
NASA book on space food....
Description
NASA
AEROSPACE FOOD
TECHNOLOGY
A conference
•
held
at
i
g
SP-202
NASA
SP-202
AEROSPACE FOOD
TECHNOLOGY
J
I
The |
principal
Aeronautics Sciences
!
South
at Florida
addresses and
Space
the
Center
at
a conference
cosponsored
by
Administration
and
the
National
for Continuing
Education
of the
in St. Petersburg,
Florida,
April
15-17,
the
National
Academy University
of of
1969.
Z =
B
! |
B m
a
z :z m m
g
m m
m
m 1 m
3
Scientific OFFICE
and Technical Information Division OF TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION
NATIONAL
AERONAUTICS
AND
SPACE
1970 ADMINISTRATION Washington,
D.C.
For
sale
Springfield,
by
the Virginia
Clearinghouse 22151
for -
Price
Federal $3.00
Scientific
Library
and
of Congress
Technical Catalog
Information No.
74"602069
FOREWORD
In my introductory lems
held
at the
in any alien physical space
remarks
University
of South
environment
for a long
and psychological. program
However,
still
with
us today.
not resolved.
strides
will
It is gratifying vances
can be eaten
ness
it can easily
be eaten
ance
of unnatural
or unfamiliar
role
in the
the NASA into
organization research
special
future to solve
reassess the
areas
the current
problems
to the
publication
that
"the
as well
as other
maintain
subjected been
made
major
of man
1965,
both in the
are,
manned
in most
and well-being
stresses
since
Prob-
accomplishments.
in 1964 the health
to the made
support
problems,
has been
we discussed
Waste
of space
en-
and with
proper
future. have been
with
manner
presented
during
is the tendency
toward
a spoon
under
will facilitate
the
or fork.
conditions
this use
If food has
meeting
enough
of weightlessness.
elimination
of ad-
of natural
cohesiveThe
of the psychological
foods
stress
avoidthat
a diet. on Space
Nutrition
of the in this
in nutrition. such
The
of plans the astronaut
not possible of the papers
Space
Science
conference,
panel
as acceptability
status
of feeding
it was
I noted
progress
that
have
and Related
of multitudinous
that will
advances
i.e.,
of and participation program
problem
Although forward
the Panel
landing
missions
reports
in a conventional
the use of such
much
One advance
manner,
foods
years
he is being
in the near
feeding.
in a conventional
Although
while
that several
in space
that
accompanies
mission
R is true that
to note
and new concepts
solution
a diet
in Space
in 1964,
on the
lunar
manned
way to provide
be made
Fla.,
intervening
a manned
The
vironment
great
the
on Nutrition
Tampa, depends
of longer
on a long space
research
period
witnessed
problems
of a crewmember is still
Florida,
" During
and we have
the nutrition
instances,
to the Conference
has
it has
reviewed
and palatability
for space on long
for the panel presented
diets
has
played
long followed
the work of diets.
and help
space
only a minor with
underway The panel
identify
the
keen
and also will
research
interest looked
in the near most
likely
missions.
to participate at this
Board
in the
opening
session,
we look
conference.
C.O. CHICHESTER Chairman, Space Nutrition Panel of the Space Science Board National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council
°..
111
CONTENTS Page
WELCOME
......................................................
John
S.
Allen
xi
INTRODUCTION
..................................................
Walton
L.
Jones
SESSIONI SPACECRAFT
Chairman:
THE
APOLLO
FOOD
Malcolm MANNED
L.
.......................................
Robert
L.
FEEDING
SYSTEMS
REQUIREMENTS
........... 21
IMPROVING
MANNED
ORBITING
LABORATORY
FOOD
..........
Flentge OF
E.
31
SPACE
FEEDING
SYSTEMS
..............................
Vanderveen
DEVELOPMENT
OF
MANNED
Frederick SYSTEMS
LABORATORY
AND
EVALUATION
F.
G.
CONCEPTS
FOR
LABORATORY
THE
FEEDING
SYSTEM
FOR
37
THE
................................
Doppelt OF
43 MANNED
ORBITING
LABORATORY
FEEDING
Roth
APPLICATIONS C.
NEW
ORBITING
ANALYSIS
Norman
Paul
Humphreys
Welbourn
QUANTIFYING
APOLLO
W.
15
ORBITING
USAF
J.
Smith
Jerry
J.
PROGRAM
PROGRAM
Rambaut
SYSTEM
....... 57
PROGRAM
REQUIREMENTS
........................
SESSIONII SPECIAL
PROGRAMS
Chairman:
Frank
B. Vorls Pag e
OPERATIONAL
EXPERIENCE
J. D.
FOOD
SERVICE
ON
NUCLEAR
SUBMARINES
..........
63
Bloom
PSYCHOLOGICAL SUBMARINE
EFFECTS PERSONNEL
OF
SUBSTANTIAL
AND
APPETIZING
MENUS
FOR 65
Charles TEKTITE R.
F.
I FOOD W.
FOOD
Gell DEVELOPMENTS
.....................................
73
Scarlata
PLANS
FOR
Louella
C.
SEALAB
HI
ADVANTAGES,
PROBLEMS,
Edward
........................................
79
Peterson AND
EXPERIENCES
WITH
IRRADIATED
FOODS
........
87
S. Josephson
SESSIONIll AIRLINE
EXPERIENCE
Chairman:
AIRLINE
VERSUS
Paul A. PAN
JAPAN
Treuchel
FEEDING
.....................................
AIRWAYS:
PRESENT
105
Buck
AMERICAN J. P.
SPACE
R.
WORLD
AND
FUTURE
PLANS
..............
109
Treadwell
AIR
LINES:
Toshimitsu
PRESENT
AND
FUTURE
PLANS
.........................
112
Ikegami
SESSIONIV FOOD
Chairman:
FOOD
DEVELOPMENT Robert
MEAT-TYPE R. vl
L.
M.
AND
EXPERIENCES
TECHNOLOGY
Herbert
Shepler
...............................
117
Weiss FOOD
Pavey
DEVELOPMENT
AND
EXPERIENCES
......................
121
SESSIONIV
(CONTINUED) Page
GENERAL FOOD
FOODS
PRODUCT
PROBLEMS Ben
F.
DEVELOPMENT
AS RELATED
TO
AEROSPACE
125
.................................................
Buchanan
SESSIONV LONG
MISSION
DURATION
PROGRAMS
Leo
Chairman:
Fox
133 FOOD
SYNTHESIS Jacob
BY
pHysiCOCHEMICAL
METHODS
.........................
Shaplra
BIOLOGICAL
141
FOODS
Doris
Howes
...............................................
Calloway 145
LONG-TERM
SPACE
Clayton U.S.
S.
ARMY
REQUIREMENTS
.............................
Huber
FOOD
Herbert
MISSION
A.
151
R&D
PROGRAM
......................................
Hollender
SESSIONVI
EQUIPMENT/SYSTEM
Chairman:
INTEGRATORS
Joseph
N.
Pecoraro
169 WERNER
SELL
Werner
EQUIPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
..............................
Sell 171
AIRBORNE
MICROWAVE
Calvin
Hagberg
OVEN
and
David
DEVELOPMENT
............................
Graft 175
DESIGN
COI_SIDERATIONS
William
FOR
MICROWAVE
HEATING
OF
SPACE
FOOD
...........
Stone 177
INTEGRAL
HEATING
John
M.
Mahlun
747
LOWER
EQUIPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
..........................
183 BOEING C.
V.
LOBE
GALLEY
SYSTEM
INTEGRATION
....................
Lindow
vii
SESSIONVl (CONTINUED) Page FOOD
SYSTEM
L.
W.
CLOSING Walton
viii
INTEGRATION
RESPONSIBILITIES
OF AIRFRAME
MANUFACTURERS...
193
King REMARKS L.
Jones
.................................................
203
WELCOME
The Technology National
University
Conference Academy
one in 1969,
through
the
focus
NASA
Space
! am advanced
a review
confident food
that research
years
Flight
Program.
conference technology
and
from
the
utilization It is therefore
experience
of the spectrum
honored
Aeronautics
intervening
of nutritional
and
again
space-food
operational
this
is once
by the National
of practical
of improvement From
unique
a wealth
Manned
Florida
In the
of the accumulated
on the problems
ference,
sponsored
of Sciences.
present
the
of South
and
aspects and depth report
advanced for
future
to be the host Space first
will provide
Administration conference
experience fitting
in 1964
has
been
technology
papers
a valuable
accumulated to bring to bear
missions. presented
springboard
at this for
con-
new and
studies.
dOHN S. ALLEN President University of
z
to the
development
space
Food
and the
and appropriate
manned
of the technical
of a Space
South
Florida
INTRODUCTION
There
have
been
decades.
Any housewife
with very
little
referred
were
effort,
offer
which
swimming
and trout by our
from
direct
from
Other
areas
of progress
are equally
step
forward like
made
and use
at this time
in the rapid
in NASA are as concerned with airline
representatives
atmosphere
and in space.
preparation
We have it to be quite
good,
recent
program.
First,
needs
of this program
of course, are being
for in-flight
adequately
feeding
bite-sized
foods
have
which
eaten
with a spoon was
was
zero-G
conditions
in-flight
feeding
and was program
In general, the type
of food being
and dispensed. tolerable
generally
SPACE
of this
in these
provided.
This
by the astronauts
is made
possible
many of our
airlines
are
technique
represents
a
in the pro-
for the
advances
Inasmuch
as we
to working
in food preparation
closely
both
of food technology
in the
however, proved
and found
to the needs
program.
of our
It appears
of any nutritional
Freeze-dehydrated,
involved
later
of food.
technology
is no evidence
one attempt
of Florida,
PROGRAM
of the Apollo
missions;
now
earlier
groves
I look forward
in the development
There
citrus
be
of course,
This
improvements
to be successful.
used
considered
that the
problem
rehydratable,
in one instance
and
a moist
to be successful
even
to be one of the highlights
food
under of the
to date.
astronauts provided.
However,
on a mission
seem
been
met.
the
24 hours
and its suppliers
activities,
the applicability
of our country,
be discussed
volumes
several
that may rightfully
which
from
will
industry of large
are the requirements
foods
bill of fare,
topic
AND THE
progress
so let us now examine
space
and techniques
surveyed
airline
for additional
TECHNOLOGY
fresh
in the last
any day of the year,
in the center
ovens.
this
as with space
as we strive
briefly
microwave
the
many
For instance,
and dispensing
with aeronautics
FOOD
noteworthy.
a meal
lobsters
fruit This
Although
to compliment
those
vineyards,
states.
of airborne
in food preparation.
contains
of Maine,
northwest
system.
in the development
have
coast
of food technology
to serve
even
and French
transportation
significant
I would
of the
and which
restaurants,
off the
field
It now is possible
air
pioneering
they
Our better
the lakes
in the general
nourishing
both American
in the cold waters
excellent
gram,
to this.
is quite
fare.
wines
strides
can attest
to as gourmet
regularly
remarkable
have They
a system
lasting
accepted
the techniques
recognized
that is perfectly
a number
now being
used
the constraints
under
tolerable
on a 2-week
for in-flight
which
food must
mission
feeding
and
be stored
may be quite
in-
of months. xi
In a recent men
were
kept
test
of life-support
in a closed
cabin
oxygen
for
60 days.
and water
systems,
to test
closed-loop
ability
of astronaut-type
quality
as well
as the appearance
change
in type
of food had a noticeably
As a final directly
from
food
over
comment
at the University
of South
Florida:
are
people
be made;
many
pathway
of investigation.
parallel
fashion
to make
any choice.
remarks
have
in some
measure
power
was
of 184 lb. the other
first
they
hand,
determined booster
By 1958
placed
that, power
Saturn
was
a pacing
at tremendous
possibly
the most
the part
of the individuals
handled
in proper
cost,
as was
the human-oriented technology. may
be no faster
once
than
basis,
goals
establishing be stated.
and development be as easily
our progress
quirements
xii
requirements as were
of an appropriate
of food program
for booster
research
in a time
that
these
time,
goals program
a payload
States,
9,
booster
and
on
It wa,_ quickly
November over
missions
of space,
1967,
when
power
was
( I consider personal
of payload
that
the
no longer
critical
food,
may
lunar
exploration
this
the
to be
dedication weight
on
can be
as directly
problems
are
represent
likely
on to be
a pacing
and interplanetary
flight
food technology. technology,
it is essential
in this
decade
goals
focus
in fact,
First,
should
I with
booster
in the exploration
the question
to be a pacing
but must
1958.
repre-
of NASA,
The United
tremendous
of advanced
The
which
variables.
extended
?
area days
lb.
in facilities, with
PROGRAM
Sputnik
31,
until
mission
landing power.
of 2926
prevailed
of providing
to a lunar
previous
first
other
orbited
The triumph
the problems
research
but I do feel
TECHNOLOGY
progress
investment
toward
with
at the present
Russian
Now it appears
the providing
Our commitment
achieved
case.
to
a multiple
the knowledge
on January
long-duration
The problem
an appropriate
situation
for the with
our progress
If we now consider for
the
have
be investigated
1964,
here
of how we will
we have
In the early
a payload
of the program)
Now,
to quote
must
the Russians
successfully.
concerning
problems.
On this
This
in concert
questions
1957,
a tremendous
involved.
idea
provision
a technological
program.
or to exceed
characteristic
perspective
to denote
into orbit
launched
with
important
The important technology
was
longer
like
conference
no clear-cut
since
the
A periodic
I would
and thus
FOOD
of 31 lb into orbit
technology.
rocket
4,
to match
that
passes.
at a 1964
methods
made
predict,
subjects.
program,
become
do we have
technology"
to place
as time
of the
we have
these
has been
of a particular
payload
attempts
achieved
rocket
able
an initial
in our
V booster
"pacing
into the palat-
as one would
was
today.
On October
were
nor
insight
the problem
to be that
progress
afforded
Chichester,
IN AN ADVANCED
in the progress
technology.
for solving
the criteria
experiment
space-food
it appears
four
of this
morale
C.O.
Co.,
purpose
important
on the
in our
McDonnell-Douglas
found,
As the flights
appropriate
the term
a pacing
It was
Dr.
seems
REQUIREMENTS
factor
art
flights.
that
also
increasingly
moment
suggested
remain
In NASA we use a limiting
been
I recognize
RESEARCH
sents
space
we do not have "
experiment
effect
of the
"At the
by the
the primary
period.
positive
The consensus
since
the
of the chairmen,
for long
methods
Although
an extended
on the state remarks
to feed
conducted
of food becomes
closing
going
the
components
what that
in essence
be considered.
the
implications
long-range dictates
for a food technology
be delineated
are
nonetheless. The level
research the research
program Second, of requisite
will
not
the refunding,
thenecessaryfacilities, andtherequiredpersonnelshouldbedefined. In brief, a level of effort mustbe describedwhichis appropriatefor theachievement of theresearchgoals. Thisprocedure is preciselythatof the SaturnV programwhichledto the development of suchfacilities as Michoud Operations. Inworkingtowardtheprescribedgoalsof anadvanced foodtechnology program,it will be necessaryto makecertainadjustmentsin our philosophyof research. Oneimportantchangewill involvegreatlyincreasedattentionto the socio-psychologieal variablesrelatedto foodintake. I am sureeveryonein attendance todayrecognizesthatoverlongperiodsof time thesevariablescould becomeof greaterimportancethantheactualnutritionalstructttreof thefood. RESEARCH BENEFITS Nowlet us assessthebenefitswhichwill accruefrom a concertedprogramto advancethe technology of foodprovisioning. Thefirst benefitis obvious. NASAwill beableto providesustenancefor astronautsonlong-durationmissionswhichwill domuchto ensurethattheyreturn in a healthyconditionandin goodspirits. Thisis no meanfeatandis onewhichJustifiesanextensive researchanddevelopment program. Anotherbenefitwouldbeassistancein thefield of advanced technology for airline feeding. As a third benefit,therewill bea direct economicreturnto our nation. Newfoodprocessingtechniques will createadditionalemployment opportunities.Twoof thelater sessionsin this conference will touchonthis topic. Thecreationof newindustriesis an importanteconomicresult of technological advances. Finally, therewill be a direct personalbenefitto theworld, andthis maywell bethe most importantconsequence of extended researchin foodprocessing.In a recentpaper,Dr. Wernher yonBraunstatedthat"Wemustadopta morehard-headed attitudeandconsidernot onlywhethera spaceprojectis technologicallypossible,butwhetherit haspromiseof contributingto the economy or the strengthof thecountry." Thecontributionof our foodprocessingresearchshouldbe significant. In 1955thearablelandper personin theworld wasgenerallyagreedto beabout1-1/4acre. By theyear 2000AD it is estimatedthatthis acreagewill decreaseto a little morethan1/2 acre per person. This trendis causingconsiderable concernamongworld leaders. Inasmuch as foodproductivityis notevenlydistributedovertheworld, thepossibilitiesof seriousfaminein certainareas is quitereal withinthe foreseeable future. Anyincreasein our understanding of waysto produce, prepare,store, anddistributefoodwill beof tremendous importancefor all nations. I haveattemptedto stressthedirect importanceof this conference to NASAandto longdurationspacemissionsunderconsiderationfor thefuture. At the moment,weconsidertheareaof foodpreparationandin-flight feedingto bea pacingtechnology for futuremannedspaceflight. We alsorecognizethat, in solvIngtheproblemsin this field, youwhoare heretodaywill makea contributionnotonlyto NASAandtheairlines butalsoto theeconomyof the UnitedStatesandultimately tothe well-beingof all nations. ,
WALTON L. JONES Director, Biotechnology and Human Research _Oivision NASA Office of Advanced Research and Technology xiii
SESSIONI
SPACECRAFT
CHAIRMAN:
J.W.
Director, NASA
Office
PROGRAM
Space of
Manned
HUMPHREYS
Medicine Spaceflight
The present
conference
Administration, Florida.
the
crews,
today
and we address
in order
is evident
history
Despite
some
I am not perturbed
and fly only unmanned
A man
traveling
sire
to explore
onment
and that
effectively
operate
provision
a detailed
there
this
in Apollo,
of Apollo
7,
7),
though Wally
they
traded
all.
Certain
mind
Apollo
9.
this the
The problem that
we have
stated
were
liked
said
it so much,
I think
viding
they
that they
except
seems
is provided.
of a diet, to consist It must
made
they
and that
14 days
appraisal
of nutritional
of finding
and I think
for flights
and,
reactions
60,
or
in Apollo that
did not eat at the
so-called
(Borman, in Gemini
and
occurred
in
method
90 days'
the crews
in addition,
crews
any good,
requirements,
we know the
up to 20,
a way to influence
palatable,
they
the crew
for
The
(or was
but the astronauts
had flown
I sus-
is understandable.
it wasn't
Similar
at least
we have.
that
it in Apollo.
standard,
and
the food.
food
8 by giving
not present
encountered
Gemini
packages,
for the potatoes;
that
and this
as the
disposal.
I shall
with
envir-
and he needs
and waste
strange
in Apollo
good
be made
his duties,
We have
this.
he can
In Mercury
so new.
vociferously
all the
did mind
a reasonably
same
so to
His de-
that
to all of you,
the food,
rather
even though
is not yet a permanent
essentials
the
sampled
improvements
and Anders)
didn't
perhaps
essentially
about
down,"
a machine
comments.
was
continue
a habitable
or dissatisfaction
project
space
will not tolerate
water,
it is not particularly
and his crew
which
problems
food was
they
brief
will
needs
performing
known
man
discom-
a few necessities. Man
as food,
is well
the entire
complained
that
such
great
"put man
He needs
while
following
9 have
around,
"wetpack," Lovell,
their
the
and I think
8, and
Shirra
in space
no great
because
problems
Even
of food
really
true
destination of life
but rather
were
was
his
man
man
with
with the
endure
I think
I think
is with
standpoint.
we should
because
Space
of South
concern
can and will views,
factors.
and
directly
that
his motivation.
many
necessities
account,
Gemini
a great
the history
man
only to be provided
furnishes
to reach
for certain
Since
pect
involves
from
who say
operations,
needs
and to learn
We work
opposite
by those
my primary
future.
that
Aeronautics
and the University
for NASA,
to the program
from
speak,
National
of Sciences,
Medicine
ourselves
in space
by the
and in the near
to explore.
to explore.
Academy
of Space
in space
It certainly fort
National
As Director
as he works
is sponsored
although of produration.
to eat the food
worthwhile.
Thepresentmethodof spacefeedingseemsto besatisfactoryfor thenearfuture; at least it will sustainlife. I believe,however,thatwe shallnotbelimited to compressedfood, dehydrated food, etc. forever. Weshallcertainlybeusinglarger volumes of foodin thefuture. Thereis alwaysthepossibilityof assemblingspacecraftfor long voyagesoff the Earth, in orbit, or evenfarther awayandonthesevoyagestherewill alsobedifferentenvironments.Cookingwith anelectric stovetodayis impossiblebecauseof thegaseousenvironment of the spacecraft,butthatmaynotalwaysbethe case. ZeroGmayor maynotbe continued,andI suspectthatin the longrun it will not. Thesedifferentenvironments will giveus opportunitiesto usetechniques differentfrom thoseemployed today. Weshall still havea preparationproblem,but I believethatthe preparationtime previouslycriticized by thecrewswill notbe soimportantas the crew numbersbecomelarger andthevoyagesbecomelonger. TheApollocrewsare very busy,butI believethatthis is onlytemporary. Certainly, whencrewsreacha large size, food-servicepeoplewill berequired. We shall still have,however,a foodpreparationproblem,andwe shallstill havea storage problemor a productionproblem. I think it is essentialthatwegainthe attentionof theentire community- academic,industrial, andgovernmental - andkeepattention focusedonthis mundane subjectof feeding. Development of subsystems involving food, water, andwastemanagement hasnotkeptpacewithbuildingofboostersand othersophisticated systems. Wemustdemandadequate attentionto timsesubsystems. TheApolloApplicationsProgram(AAP)embodies anentirely newconcept.It is thebeginning,the embryonicmoveor step,towardtrue understanding of manand his reactionsin space. In Mercury, the objectivewasto projectmanintospace andreturn him safely. In Gemini,it wasto determinewhethermancouldmaneuver andwork in space. Apollohashadonlytheobjectiveof flyingmanto theMoonand bringinghimbacksafelywith somelunar samples. Wehavenot yethadanopportunityto beginto studymanin flight, butthewholeAAPprogramis thebeginning of a newera - one,if youlike, of orbitinglaboratoriesor orbitingobservatories. It will bemuchmoredifficult andmuchmorecomplexto producea feedingsystem whichanswersthe requirementsof experimentalprotocolsandalsois compatible with the spacecraftenvironment andis withinthe stateof theart. Certaintradeoffswill benecessary.Thereare a greatmanymedical,biological, andbehavioralcomponents involvedin theAAP, habitabilitybeingoneof them. Wewantto knowthefactorsthatcanmakeman'slife a little morepleasant andmakemanmoreeffectivein the spaceenvironment.Upto now,hefiguratively hasbeenflying aroundin the rumbleseatof a ModelT Ford (a ModelA in Apollo), but thetime to improvehis situationhascome. Wecannotdothis logicallyuntil weunderstand moreabouthim andhis reactions. I wouldlike to restressthe pointthatthefoodsystemis not a systemthatcan beconsideredalone. For example,the foodsystemhasa very closeinterface,and
is dependent to a large extent,uponthewatersystem. In Apollo, wehavefuel cells whichproducewaterandanexcessof hydrogen gas;asa result, wehavehada large amountof gascomingoutof thewatergun. In Apollo9, thewatergunproducedabout60 percentgasand40percentwater, whichmeantthatthecrewfilled their foodbagwithgas. Whentheybegantohydratetheir foodtheyencountered a great manybubbles,andtheyswungtheir bagsaroundin orderto try to eliminatesome bubbles. This methoddidnotworkat all well - theresult waslargegasbubblesin placeof smallones. Thisis onlyoneof themanyproblemsencountered.If onesystemis notfunctioningproperly, anotheronecannot;thereis notquitea dominoeffect, but almost. Thewastemanagement systemis alsoa very importantone. Thecrewmendo notwantto defecatebecause theyhatetousethehand-heldstraddletrenchweare supplying,andI donotblamethem. This straddletrenchis a bagwitha stickyrim ontop, andit is difficult to placeit correctly. Themenare loathto usethe system,anduntil thesystemis improvedtheyaregoingto continueto beloathto useit. Wehopea bettersystemwill beonboardin theMOL, theAAP, andother futureflights. Oneitem whichhasnotbeenwidelymentioned is thatin our systemthefood disciplineof thecrewmembers hasbeenpoor. I havesaidthis to them,so I will say it in public: Foodandwaterdisciplineis something thatsoldierslearn early or they donot survive. Thespacecrewshavenotbeenvery disciplinedabouttheir eatingtheyhavepicked,traded, anddoneas theypleased. Thatis permissibleif noscientific metabolicinformationis to beobtainedbutfooddisciplinemustbeenforcedin flight if weare to determinewhethera systemis goodandhowit shouldbechanged. It is particularlyimportantin thoseflights in whichwehaveexperimentalprotocols that_mustbecompliedwith. Muchhasbeensaidaboutdisposalofthewastes- thebags,theexcessfood, etc. Onflights in whichweneedto knowtheweightof remainingfood, it is importantthatnothingbediscarded. Asyouwell know,so far wehavedesignedall spacecraft andsystemssothattheywill returnto Eartheverythingnotconsumed in space, withtheexceptionofurine dropletsor a little wastewater. I questionwhetherit is the intentof thespacetreatythatwebeforcedto returnto Earthall the trashaccumulatingonspacevoyages,andthepointis currentlyunderinvestigation.Wehave enough trash onEarth;wouldn'tit beniceto discardsomeof it somewhere else7
J.
4
W.
Humphreys
THE APOLLO
The Cooper
orbital
gram,
engineers
contained
no pathogens,
constitute
with under
complete
the
planners
that
gained
began
circumstances.
Any
and in-flight
solid
handling
led to
to the
foods
which
then
acceptability,
and and
Gemini
pro-
and packages
high energy,
which
and stable in zero
atmospheres,
systems
and
and digest
be consumed
oxygen
in the system
of food,
Prior
could
and
Schirra,
consume
and formulate
vibration,
and Gemini
faults
of the definitions
could
low residue,
packaging
The Apollo
Carpenter,
and components.
launch
vacuum
man
to design
Center
Spacecraft
Glenn,
indeed
low volume,
withstood
or saliva.
Manned
in food packaging
in earnest
lightweight,
SMITH
of astronauts
food systems
withstood
understanding
NASA
and Apollo
which
water
MALCOLM
The experience
nutritious,
temperatures,
flights
system
and biologists
spacecraft
possible
Program
of the Gemini
acceptable,
I I
PROGRAM
for food
food in space.
the evolution
were
Mercury
demonstrated
and liquid
FOOD
gravity,
and would
evolved
were
at
re-
the best
now can be attributed nutrition
as they
to in-
apply
to
spaceflight. The vironment,
foods
and ground-based
metabolic
requirements
cisely.
Food
Volunteers
ate
in-flight
all this,
gone
wrong?
in our
lack
of complete
are
a familiar
is built
A "good"
spacecraft
around
good
flavor
of nutrients
foods
and
Program.
that
metabolic
Apollo
may food
were
with
be bigger, system
and satisfy
foods and stowed
successfully.
obvious
that
lost a part
of eating.
weight.
What
of the problem
Man and his eating
food presented
to the consumer and safer
is one which
meets
system
requirements
hunger,
are
in the particular
and dehydrated
designed packaged,
versatile
balance
basically
accuracy.
more
diversion,
was
specially
and invariably
faster,
pre-
microscopic
produced,
good
estimated
or psychological
completed
become
en-
and calculated with
of these
foods
provide
food system
The compressed
begins
exceed
physiological
of the psyehophysiology
stimulate that
balanced
did not eat, it has
nutrition
spacecraft
texture,
to maintain The initial
Gemini
hindsight,
manner.
without
spacecraft,
provided
measured
and missions
the astronauts
understanding
A "good"
and
The flight
launched
Good
were
with a variety
menus.
changed.
one.
rations
controlled
provided
of the
The nutrients
of up to 56 days
20-20
requirements
subjects.
were
were
With
physical
Daily
not easily
the previous
a familiar
test
however,
have
habits
were
their
Spacecraft
Despite
lies
for periods
astronauts
to select
on the spacecraft.
could
human
exceed
and dimensions
the food The
which
often
of the astronaut.
weights
aberrations. from
and packages
that
relaxation,
readily
security,
prepared,
than but
that
and adequate
in
have
quantities
environment.
the same ready-to-eat
as
that cube
which
was
provided
foods
included
meat,
for the fruit,
dessert, andbreadtypes. Theuniformshape,highcaloric density,andvarietyof flavorsmade thefoodideallysuitedfor theengineeringrequirementsof spaceflight. Dehydrated fruits, beverages,salads,desserts,meats,andsoupswhichrequiredwaterfor rehydrationprior to consumptionwereavailable. These"rehydratables"werepackaged in a speciallydesignedlaminated plasticbagwhichhada valvefor waterinsertionat oneendanda tubeor zero-Gfeederat theother endthroughwhichthefoodscouldbeconsumed.The3/4-in. diameterof this feedertuberestricted the maximumfoodparticle sizeto1/8by 1/4in. A processto simulatea morenaturalmeattexture hadresultedin a significantimprovementin flavor compared with thatof theearly Geminiproducts. Packagesof thesefoodswerearrangedin mealunitsbaseduponnutrientbalanceandastronaut selection. Eachmealwasoverwrapped in analuminum-foil-plasticlaminatewhichalsoservedas a garbagebagfor in-flight stowageof usedfoodpackages after eachmeal.Thediet wasdesigned to provideeachastronautin thecommand modulewith his estimatedenergyrequirementsof 2800 Kcal/day,16to 17percentprotein, 30to 32percentfat, and50to 54percentcarbohydrate. Certainfoodswerefortified with calciumlactatetoprovidea daily calciumintakeof 1000gm anda calcium-to-phosphorus ratio ofapproximately2 to 1. This approachtofoodmanagement hadbeensuccessfulonthe14-dayflight of Gemini7 andhadbeenverified bynumerousground-based altitude-chamber studiesconducted by theUSAF andNASA. A numberof deficiencieswereapparentin thebaselineApollofoodsystemand development effortsto improveindividualrationcomponents for theApolloApplicationsProgram werebeingsponsored by NASAat the U.S. Army NatickLaboratories. Theadvances in foods andfoodsystemswhichwerebeingrealizedas a result of the USAFMannedOrbitingLaboratory (MOL)Programwereavailableto NASA. Theseprogramscontinuetobecloselycoordinated for themutualbenefitofbothagencies. At thetime of thefire whichresultedin thelossof theApolloI crewandspacecraft, thefoodsystemmetall of theengineeringconstraintsof themissionwhile providingadequate nutrients. Most"creaturecomforts"suchas improvedfoodsandpackaging,however,were relegatedto thelongerdurationflights (28and56days)of theApolloApplicationsProgram. As a result of the spacecraftfire in January1967,eachspacecraftsystem,subsystem,andcomponentreceivedthoroughreevaluationandanalysisto identifyandreducethehazardsof flammablematerials. Sincenonflammable foodsare animpossibility,our attentionwasdirected towardfindinga packagingmaterialwhichwouldnot supportcombustion in a pureoxygenenvironment. At this pointin time, responsibilityfor design,procurement,andspacecraftintegration of flight foodswastransferredto the MedicalDirectorateatthe MannedSpacecraftCenter. Prior to this, our onlyresponsibilityin aerospace foodsystemsbadbeenin foodandnutritionresearch with rather tenuouscontrolof theactualflight item. Extensivechanges in thetypesof foodandpackaging will beimplemented in anorderly mannerfor the forthcomingApolloflights. Thesechanges are necessarybecause:(1) In-flight foodconsumption is inadequate to maintainmetabolicbalance(negativeenergy,lossof tissuefluid, andelectrolytes); (2) mealpreparationandconsumption requirestoomuchtime andeffort; (3) waterfor reconstitutionof dehydrated foodsis off flavorandcontainslargequantitiesof
undissolvedhydrogenandoxygengas; (4) functionalfailures occurin rehydratablefoodpackages; (5) a systemof foodsandpackagingwhichis morefamiliar in appearance, flavor, andmethodof consumption is needed,and(6)in-flight illnessandanorexiamustbereduced. Thedemands for improvementhavenotemanated from theastronautswith quitethe strengththatthenewsmediawouldleadonetobelieve. In fact, thedemands havecomefrom ourselvesandtheprogrammanagersoncewerealizedthatanimprovement waspossibIethatwould result in a crewthatwouldeatmoreduringthe missionandmaintaina higherlevel of morale. Theimprovedfoodsandpackaging whichhavebeenintegratedinto theApollofoodsystemare not newto us or therest of theconsumerandscientificcommunity.For instance,the first real breakthroughoccurredwith themostmundane andseeminglysimpleprocedurethatthe Apollo8 crewperformedonChristmasDayduringman'sfirst successfullunarorbital mission. Borman, Lovell, andAndersopened a thermostabilized flexiblecanof turkeychunksandgravyandate with a spoon! Thedishrequirednowaterfor rehydrationsincethenormalwatercontent(67-percent by weight)hadbeenretained. This crewhadexperienced considerable problemswith nauseaand vomiting,a water supplywith excessivegasandobjectionable flavor, andanexcitingmissionof critical spacecraftmaneuversto escapethepull of Earthgravityandachievelunar orbit. They wereabout250000milesfrom homeonChristmasDayandfacedthepossibilityof beingunable to escapethepull of the lunargravity andthepossibilityof reenteringtheEarthVsatmosphere at ananglethatwoulddeflectthembackinto Earthorbit with nochanceof reentrybeforefuel or oxygensupplieswereexhausted. Themealwasquitea moralebooster. Duringthepreflight menuselectionperiod, the crewhadspecificallystatedtheydidnotwantto havethewetpackontheir mission. This was probablya result of their desireto preventunrealisticdemands onthe systemandpersonnel supportingtheir mission. TheChristmasdinnerof theApollo8 missionwasin onesensea last-minuteaffair; i. e., actualplanningof thecomponents didnot start until 3 monthsprior to flight, but, in truth, developmenthadstartedseveralyearsbeforefor NASAandmilitary rationuse. Thewetpack turkeyandgravywasa heat-sterilizedproductin a flexiblepackage.Similarproductshadbeen underdevelopment andfield-testedby the U.S. Army NatickLaboratoriesas possiblereplacementsfor the cannedcombatrations, with theideaof reducingpackage weightandallowingthe field soldiergreatermobilitywhilecarryingtheflexiblecontainersin his pocket. Theterm wetpackcameintouseto describeanddifferentiateit from thenominaldehydrated Apollofoodswhich require theadditionof waterfor rehydrationprior to consumption.This typeof foodhadnotbeen usedbecauseof a numberof disadvantages of foodwithnormalmoisturecontent. Sincemoisture is availablefor bacterialgrowth,heatsterilizationanda failsafehermeticsealis required. The weightof a wetpackwith its 60to 70percentmoisturecontentis approximatelyfour timesgreater thanthatof thecomparabledehydrated product. Vacuumpackagingis virtually impossiblein a high-moisturefoodandtheabsolutevacuumof outerspacecouldcauseruptureof thepackage from internalgasexpansion duringspacecraftdecompression.Thepossibilityof C1. botulinum
toxin
also
causes
lem areas
was The
nation
justifiable carefully
success
of several
compared flavor
rehydration
lation
of water,
"little" there
has
that
freeze-dehydrated
will
rehydrated tables
food with
of these
and thereby are
of a spoon
and eating
from
aircraft
sils
in that
have
been
completely
accurate
sults
indicated
liquid
food
flight
was
that
spacecraft the
would
rehydratable
on Earth,
system
for worst
case
on the Apollo
support
stainless-steel affair. with
The
turkey
and gravy
the program
spacecraft. ible pouch)
The
The crew
were
of this
of space spoon
provided
significant
ate their feat
"canned"
in that
some
of
went
ease
and gravy
of the most
liquid
difficult
and vege-
concern
using
feeder
tube
to open
the package
of life (heat
constraints
of 9
spoon
spoon
to
and by forces
and adhesion. by requirements
food
systems
was
of opening
or valve
support
processed
dispersal
the
that
business
not been
the re-
is controlled
in space
who have
not a
on the Apollo
to see
highly
and uten-
for
constrained
and were
Force
are
condition,
with
their
of weightAir
tests
cohesion,
was
U.S.
packages,
motion
action,
about
of scissors
and integration turkey
undue
progress
to those
to the
Simulations
and utensils
programs
with
a
and flavor.
aircraft
it is easy
of gravity
had no zero-G
wetpack
has
The main
access
feel
and new
package
by the
foods, these
experimented
significant
a pair
five
meat
of the weightless
capillary
calmly
include
allow
impulse.
packages
even
and Apollo
that
will
conducted
While
In retrospect
is not apparent
food development
and the
crew
tension,
the crew
was
swing
as monotonous
This
mouth
without
of open
The most
when
significance
use
the Gemini
extreme
of dehydrated
Numerous
duration
in the absence
situations.
equipment spoon.
for
Unfortunately,
items.
be successful
That
surface
instalthese
food package.
end which
no simple
own tests.
would
8 mission
age of thermostabilized The only
since
just
package.
had been
patterns.
food package.
e.g.,
design
was
flight
difficulty.
situation.
become
and acceptable
in our
Subsequent
be successful
negligible
to prepare
cabin.
tedious
10 we shall
the pieces
a spoon
of the short
test
without
the nominal
Food
realized
our
throughout
eating are
that
incom-
Overcoming
and this
rehydratable
of the wetpack
with
because
ease and
and frequent
type
For Apollo
on the other
in weightlessness
and
relative
not require
in any
food would
familiar
some
in parabolic
with
water
food system
opening,
a more
package
program
simulation
accomplished
eat from bowl
tested
while
prob-
to a combi-
the texture
to consumption.
of the nominal
large
over
an open
in high-performance
this
eating
does
in a "spoon-bowl"
opening
have
preferred
prior
approach.
to that
potential
line.
be packaged
With
were
food package;
and the wetpack
on all wetpack
zippered
a spoon.
foods
The use lessness
will
they
zero-G
all food be of the wetpack into
based
at one end similar
can be larger
Many
that
of these
can be attributed
of spacecraft
of a successful
the all-dehydrated
be in the large
what
by the
manipulation
back
a system
which
9 missions
and smell
item;
part
to bring
with
foods
valve
difference
see
Each
to the flight. 8 and
afforded
and
to require
not easy
as that
inlet
could
waiting,
a tendency was
prior
products.
by the characteristics
is an important
We realize
water
not affected
of these
in the Apollo
containment
kneading,
been
objectionable
and solved
The men
complete
the use
of the freeze-dehydrated
irritants
the pendulum
evaluated
factors:
food was
plete
over
of the wetpacks
with the
of the
concern
for
a pack-
rehydration.
and a 10-cent pleased
with
intimately
equipment
involved
in manned
and packaged to space
the whole
in a flex-
food development
werelifted in a matterof minuteswhilemanfirst circled theMoon. The of thoseconstraints: (1) Vacuumpackagingof all fooditems (2)
Positive
(3)
Caloric
density
(4)
Tedious
procedures
Design in the
Gemini
those
used
able
for,
This
astronaut
all,
to prepare
a really
of the
command
vacuum in this food
module
conditions test
quite The
supply.
30 percent
by volume.
food package
during
inlet
This
valve.
the package
rehydration.
sence
of gravity,
in the
food package
liquid
food
schedules
liquids
ing point
of water
the water
supply all
the package
dispenser,
quate
water
mately off-flavor flavor
technique than
would
vapors
water
system. manned
test and
The astronauts every
morsel
because
but averaged
and liquid
of
of gas
in the
approximately
gas periodically
from
the
the food-package
food were
not work
readily
in orbit
and attempts
in
in the ab-
off gas
result
water
separated
since,
to vent
for food rehydration
prevent
155 ° to 135 ° F. cabin
the food. and that
supply
is added
could
trapped
in venting
temperature
is very
of 5 psta.
The net result
of water
to improve
with
of the materials
food.
reported
gas.
used
bubbles
in the
the
tem-
to the boil-
quantity
of gas
the
several
food is not
the water flight
tubing.
supply
crews
throughout
cycles
and still
have
procedures. The Apollo
in
and by
of gas dispersed after
chlorination flexible
close
of this
of bursting
) All three
due to the water
to reduce
as possible
Also,
that
if launch
of food rehydration,
is expelled
to the point
9 crew
undissolved
gas
the rate
of the small
be distended
was not entirely
possible
The higher
and as much
(The Apollo
were was
because
contact
system
implemented
is not hot enough
70 percent
due to some
water
pressure
rehydrated
intimate
the food package
water
fuel-cell
One of the modifications
water
is incompletely
in the water
is probably
the gas
since
to the thermal
of foods
by depressing
the
of reliance
an 8-day
virtually
the
permit
deal
water
to
accept-
assumption
for this
weightlessness.
accomplished
of adequate
in the
the water
required
to rehydrate
30 percent
from
is that
which
water
insertion
at the nominal
of the
hot and usually
heavier
to be maintained.
of the hot water
time
no longer
modifications
perature
the
This
a great
simulate
by venting
similar
as gas.
minor
were
problem
because
would
and consumed
not consistent
those
be highly
in Apollo
exposed
in rehydration
quite
that
during
was
than
to believe
reason
tested which
however,
was
was
were would
We placed
We had good
system
difficulty
to venting.
are
to allow
as well
Only
Venting
satisfactorily
prior
beverage.
exhaustively
not,
this
that foods
to be available
2TV-1/101)
gas
solved
the Apollo
stringent
of the fuel-cell-generated
were
some
more
We had begun
system.
the food
of undissolved
worked
a chilled
could
with
actually for Apollo
that
systems
Spacecraft
experienced
The crew
by gravity
with
The test
The quantity
water
systems
pleased
crew
fact
the reliability
(designated
well
were
and packaging
of the water
support
of space.
were
provided.
water
life
system
accepted
hot meal
had proven
All spacecraft
a few
by rehydration
of any consequence.
and quality
simulators
food
in foods
the hot and cold
the characteristics
ground-based
resulted a generally
no problems
after
are
consumption
for food preparation
It was
present
food during
for the Apollo
Program.
on Gemini.
ourselves,
of liquid
items
of food
requirements
and would
upon
containment
following
from
not have was
the ade-
approxi-
reported This
an off-
9 crew
foundthewatersodistastefulthattheyconsistentlydrankwaterthathadbeenfirst mixedwith one of thebeveragepowders. Thelist of accomplishments thatwecanpointtoafter onlythreeApolloflights is more extensivethantheintroductionof morefamiliar foodsandmethodsof eating. Notquitesodramaticbutequallyas difficult andsignificantwasthedesignof a nonflammable mealoverwrap whichalsoservesas a barrier to moistureandoxygen,a methodof mealorientation,anda garbage bag. Thequantityandvariety of rehydratablebeverages hasbeenincreasedandmodificationsmade to improvethereliability, use, andsizeof therehydratablefoodpackage.Foodandpackaging processing,testing,andinspectionprocedureshavebeenextensivelyrevisedin conjunction with theUSAFMOLdevelopment prdgram. A newapproachto supplyingfoodto anastronautin a full-pressuresuit in a possibleloss of cabinpressurehasbeendeveloped andflight qualified. This contingency feedingsystememploysa pontubewitha valveto controlliquidfoodflow. It is insertedinto thewaterinlet valve of a nominalrehydratablefoodpackageononeend,andat theotherendis put througha port in the pressuresuit helmet. Thecrewmembersqueezes andsucksliquid fromthe foodpackagethrough thepontubeandintohis mouth. A valvein thepontubeallowsgradualequalizationof the suit pressure(3.5psia)with thevacuumof thefoodpackagewhichhelpstopreventruptureof the foodpackagedueto suddenpressurechange. Thefoodpackageis further restrainedbya zipperednylonbagto preventinadvertantrupture. TheApollofoodsetsalsoprovideanoral hygiene kit whichcontainsa tubeof edibletoothpaste,toothbrushes,anda spoolof dentalfloss. In listingtheseaccomplishments, wedonotimplythattheyconstitutethefinal answerto a requirement. Eachcanandwill beoptimizedfor future flightsin spiteof theheavyactivity requiredto support missionsthatare launchedon2-monthcyclesandtheausterestaff of personnelavailabletowork with thesystemsandproblems. In addition,for thefutureApolloprogramfooddevelopments will centeraroundmore thermostabilized wetpacks,a larger variety of intermediate-moisture foods,a spoon-bowl package thatwill allowlargerpiecesof dehydrated foods,anda liquidnutrientdispenserfor extravehicular useonthe lunarsurfacethatwill supplement thenominallunarmodulefoodsupply. Theacceptance andeffectiveness of thefoodsystemfor a particularflight canbeevaluatedby thequantityof foodconsumed,thefunctioningof foodpreparationanddispensingequipment,postflightdebriefingcommentsby thecrews, changesin bodyweight,andbiochemicaland psychological measurements.Thesemeasurements leavea lot to bedesiredin bothobjectivity andaccuracy. Wehaveobservedthatthe natureof preflightbriefingonthefoodsystemhasa direct effectontheoverallacceptance of thefoods. Themorethoroughlythecrewsunderstand thepurposeanddesignof foods,packaging,andmenus,the morelikely their reactionin flight will befavorable. Wemustrely heavilyuponthe evaluationgivenby theconsumerbut a favorablepostflight commentcannotbeconstruedto meansuccess. Postflightinventoryof returnedfoodsandpackages andexamination of the pilot's logare notwithoutinherenterrors. Frequently,critical mission tasksmustbeperformedanda crewmemberwill findit necessaryto eat foodsprogrammed 10
(and
color
coded)
changes
are
not
dehydrated was
ing
and
not
always
require
was
and Apollo
noted
extra
inevitable
point
traded
foods
food
in the an
the
offer
meal. was
and
for One
weight
the
salad
objective
measurements
and
these
of freeze-
preference
denied.
These rates
occurs
a package
The
to trade
changes.
metabolic
of foods
7 mission
entire
weight
of normal
swapping
Apollo
for
and
is body
examination
and
Russian
and
more
observed
postflight
body are
of little
use
item
to be
consumption
weights
it.
we
to expend carried
into which
on rhythmic
I.-BODY
WEIGHTS
The
successful
will
for the
can
fluctuations
and
(F-28,
APOLLO
APOLLO
7
8
APOLLO9
i
F-14,
day
(F-O)
supply been
corrected
insuring and
on hunger
INTAKE
Launch F-5)
be
to provide not
intake trading
have
FOR
show
occurrence
caloric
food
weight
intakes
of food
weight
designed
CALORIC
Av preflight
of
not
Body
Mission
caloric
unconsumed.
metabolism,
AND
and
losses
methods
be
intake,
mission
losses
must
in body
amount
Weight
returned
changes
values
the
to minimize and
food of
I.
discover
space
demands
estimated
Weight
effort
the
with
miserably.
must
much
food
determine
for
to date.
duration,
in table
failed
program,
along
not
criteria
spaceflight First,
Gemini
mission
could
we have
after
TABLE
only
the
shown
we
if our loss
of
during activity,
because
weight
based
for
The
one
been
of the
missions
that
is
need
men. At
have
mission
arbitrary
body
the
careful
to
Preflight
be
other
measurebe
mislead-
which
are
available.
correlation
are
could
effectiveness
As
three
of the
recorded.
salad
than
of the
one
always
tuna
greater
ment
for
that volume
of the
crew
attributed
recorded
on
by will
of the
of a flight
man
It will prevention
every
of
American
providing be
first
to each
upon
no
illness
occurred.
depended
food
or
of in-flight
that
only
little
better
food
consumed. food
It is
of prime
importance
the
quantity
of critical
item
It is if that
to maximize nutrients
stimuli.
FIRST
weight,
THREE
APOLLO
Energy,
ib
Recovery (R+O)
MISSIONS
Recovery 1 day
plus (R+I)
Kcal
(Av daily in-flight caloric intake)
CDR
195
194
188
191
1966
CMP
153
157
147
151
2144
LMP
157
156
148
154
1804
CDR
169
169
161
163
1477
CMP
169
172
164
165
1688
LMP
146
142
138
139
1339
CDR
161
159
154
156
1924
CMP
181
178
173
181
1715
LMP
164
159
153
157
1639
11
It has the quantity
not been
of food stowed
are
color
late
the precise
coded
(red,
or will
tasks
and prepare
log book.
system
of missions
in the early tasks
at all
foods
that
for
have
situation.
are
of little
approach,
we have
available,
and being 12
our
weight
by all
that
three
the
astronauts
our
with
the last
gas
periods,
the flavor
their
as a sole
source
maintain
require
reevaluation,
intensive
meals
efforts
alone
to portion
Efforts are
and
an acceptable
and procedures
well-balanced
the
of energy,
and fruits.
to launch.
water, meta-
since
most
to calculate
pre-
not adequate
and balance
dis-
The only
cocktail,
beverages
prior
aggra-
to drink
rehydratable
few days
period
of the water. fruit
one of the crew
a real
and a very
not able
powders,
use
7 and 8
and performance this
supply
was
of
9 presented
disappeared
the crew
to mask
Apollo
of food during
in the water
the beverage
To help
diet
thought
Symptoms
of Apollo
gradually
the
precluded
has
to correct
inflight
be to no avail
are
to define
to make
food
nutrients
Therefore, and increased
in the Apollo emphasis
or be able environment.
As we gather
which
in the flight
those this
these
environment placing
improvement which
information
with this
program
we are
foods
food problems
of actual
made
have
to im-
understand-
of the man.
definitive
on systematic
to predict,
content
the foods
Program
crew's
in-flight
requirements
an equally
efforts
Concurrently
the nutrient
and provide
and food systems
the
to define
undertaken.
nutrient
if we did not have
it is in our
improve
the requirements
and critical
requirements
new face,
procedures,
flights
program
overall
nutrient
flight
on a significant
food preparation
research
to determine,
taken
long-duration
and to define
in the
by one of the crew
and emphasize
critical
an active
manipulation
of the
him their
to provide
simplify
acceptable.
training
during
and
requirements
consumed
consumption
in several
were
preflight
food program
to define
dietary crew
crewmember's
occurred
foods
items
gave
to nutrition,
foods
psychologically upon
of each
estimate
in his
food is not eaten.
before
all would
the physical
that
available,
approach
possible
mission
one considers
disease
some
purpose
astronauts.
crewmen
lost
space
now,
were
all three
if the
accurately
flight
required
so when
illness.
rehydratable
of these
It is no secret value
the foods
totype
exchange
the deviation
of in-flight
the problems During
for this
requirements
If the
ing of our
to stop
to calcu-
records
degrees
Of course,
intense.
supply
it appears
crewmembers
this
food
but the symptoms
flight,
to using
the other
preflight
this
most
The limited
Also,
prove
satisfactory.
satisfactory
balance,
cise
is a good total
matter will
varying
experienced
of the flight,
and resorted
and electrolytes bolic
viral
highly
were
were
peaches.
time
usually
and understandably
of the
experienced
and vomiting
During
flavor
water
be a simple
not have
We know food packages
the crewmember
astronaut
What we obtain
knowledge
that
astronaut.
and individual
and it should
if he does the
reliable,
stages
was
the situation.
agreeable
on.
have
Nausea
of mission
are
meal
for each
Meals
It is inevitable
happens,
intake
returned.
astronaut
man's
this
and gastrointestinal
crewmembers.
vated
men
astronauts
respiratory
problem
another When
food
of the mission.
Apollo upper
consumed.
and an accurate
the course
for each
is not completely
these
food consumption over
from
his meal.
the precise
and the quantity
or blue)
of food
eat an item
This
to measure
preflight
white,
quantity
foods
types
possible
and proEven nutrients
to determine functional
less
if it
and
emphasis
of foods, the best
packaging, chance
on food acceptance,
of
nutrientdefinitionandmodificationsto maintainmetabolicbalanceis accomplished.Ofcourse, the
conventional
in natural distant
foods future
metabolic
foods
spacecraft
will
always
in the precise
is that
they
on food acceptance. ceptable consumer
the most
exclusion
food supplies
The best
available
be used.
manner
One of the most habitats,
are
to the complete
waste.
and machine served
familiar
frequent
neglect Food
in a spacecraft, and his particular
that
likely
candidates,
of synthetics. may
Indeed,
be partially
food that
will
but we have
derived
most
a food must
makes
and desirable
it familiar
mistakes
to recognize prepared
made
the subtle
in the finest
a submarine, environment
by food
or even are
for missions from
efficiently
To be acceptable
system
differences
restaurant in the home
no parochial in the
chemical meet
planners, that
not-too-far-
regeneration
the requirements
be processed, in the
interest
prepared,
first
and
place.
especially
will have
of of man
significant
in town will
not necessarily
if the overall
characteristics
for unique impact be acof the
not considered.
i
13
MANNED
ORBITING
FEEDING
The
SYSTEM
feeding
or developed
and
a great
acceptability,
flight.
and reduced
has been
able
of a space
food;
each
will
be individually
foods
item
of long-term
must
chamber
Convenience levied pilot three
in a spacecraft.
venience trieval
and preparation
Rehydration come
measured
average
time
is the time one item
i
for all
with
items
and
each
an overall
cell
must
open, average and
of the food
overwrap stowage
panel by the menu
It is realized
that
the
time
is a requirement
food nowadays,
least
of all a
the food for a day is divided (table
set.
and thus
I).
In order
Ten minutes (including
that
is allowed
consumption
into
con-
for the reand waste
meal.
factors
water
time,
been
and a total
be 5 minutes
time
preparing
of beverages
have
are
6-day-cycle
pilot.
and morale
preparation
the main
and inject
time
package
Any one itemcan
The food packages food,
for
and handling
quantities.
to retrieve,
to spend
meal,
trained
not be consumed.
consumption,
to minimize
snack
is allowed time
will
requirements
of each
of 45 minutes
nutrients
of accept-
the development
be measured
Each
of each
menu
number
by a small,
tests.
to the preferences
and a separate time
crew-feeding
for a shorter
during
will
pre-
be placed
so a 6-day
A sufficient
of acceptability
system.
must
be necessary
scale
design
requirement
emphasis
is required
on a 9-point
degree
and
acceptability,
In an effort
6.0
true
runs
No one likes
meal,
can be measured,
stowage)
The
or sufficient
system.
a main
at least
by a computer
influences
on the feeding
snacks,
be rated
cycle. test
of
sys-
spacecraft
This
food monotony,
3- or 4-day A screening
would
result
feeding
on the feeding
30 days. greater
than
to prevent
the usual
the menu.
simulator
tailored
of the foods
not the
on the the
restrictions
Much
are
imposed
of mission,
be fed for
of the flight.
is essential
than
must
impose
Force
Air
(MOL)
are
type
two men
WELBOURN
States
requirements
travel
of the length
L.
Laboratory
particular
that
of development.
be acceptable
The
of space
to fill
Orbiting
these
to it.
nature
rather
be available
results
Rather,
repetition
established
must
stages
Manned
and convenience
foods
at two different
United
MOL requires
because
on the variety,
cycle
I
external
of the
challenge
Variety
REQUIREMENTS
for the
the very
The mission sents
JERRY
system.
or factors
and engineering,
I
requirements
by the feeding
tem by conditions
LABORATORY
take
in determining
convenience,
up to 10 minutes
or less.
to be rehydrated,
The manipulation
if necessary,
and as
time
is a maximum
such
be-
but the
allowance,
of 5 minutes
which for any
of 2 minutes. are liner
to be color
coded
will be identified
to identify as
to day
each
crew
member's
of use.
15
TABLEI.-TYPICAL MOLMENUFORA DAY Item
Grossenergy,Kcal
Item
Grossenergy,Kcal
MealA
MealD
4 Baconbars 4 Pineapplecubes 4 Strawberrycerealcubes Meal
102 130
4 Apricotcubes 4 Peanutcubes
132
123 355
8 Cinnamon
97 372
B
Beverage
4 Brownies
111
Shrimp
cocktail
149
Tea,
gravy
193
Grapefruit
112
Orange
313 878
Pineapple-grapefruit
274
Total
138 412
Av Kcal/day
Beef and Corn
bar
Chocolate
143
toast
pudding
composite 195
Cocoa
with
lemon
and sugar
31
drink
80
drink
80 drink
Orange-grapefruit
80
drink
80 546
t
Meal 4 Pineapple
C
fruitcake
4 Coconut
cubes
SPACECRAFT The system. work
design
The
MOL will
areas.
one for
This
each
and other inches,
pilot.
accessory is a nylon
4 by 17 inches be empty vide
Kcal/g
above Inside
and will
to store
allowance weigh
This packs,
the food enough
1.17
2563
liner
wastes
packaged
Ib; 0.53
contains
certain
is, from food
constraints
will
eat,
food
separate
into
16 cells.
for one man 2 days.
for one man lb.
from the
dispensers,
is approximately
the first
, or about
on the feeding
one above
the water
which
for one day is 1.7 lb
CONSTRAINTS
compartments,
is divided
that
539 g
the pilots
compartment,
for one man
about
where
two food stowage
each
liner.
to store
impose
the compartments
hold two ration
in which
it must
has
items.
and will be used
195 cu in.
a food installation,
An area
menu
2579
AND ENGINEERING
of the spacecraft
console
food stowage
The weight 4.9
have
feeding
this
Av wt food/day
DESIGN
and engineering
kcal
the other
other package
100 ° F and 100 percent, helium 16
with
a pressure
foods
must
withstand
respectively, of 5 ± 0.2
maximum
Each
cell
is about
for two days.
and an atmosphere psia.
6 by
One cell
The compartments
If the food
contains
of the total
the desired
weight,
and relative
of 70 percent
oxygen
humidity and
will
pro-
for one day.
33 percent
temperature
opener,
25 by 15 by 17
is left
for packaging. The packaged
and
of
30 percent
Thewateris providedby thefuel cell, or control
of microbiological
of providing The
cold
ferred
22.6 water
fluid
system
oz of potable
is dispensed
at the rate
water
has
a daily
apply
termining
the
known, will
has
in 1-oz
pressure ml per
for
suppression
system
is capable
increments.
maintained
Both
within
are
trans-
26 to 33 psia.
The
crewman.
by the flammability
in the spacecraft.
set
feeding
system The
travel
II are
in the
becomes
been
TRAVEL
of space.
in table
as constraints
adequacy
ration
2600
SPACE
of space
but the figures
tritional the
voids
and conditions
be used
the delivery
restricted
materials
a special
the weightless
stress
and the hot,
of about are
provides
a pH of 6 to 8 and the
There
and
are
offgassing
established
requirements
standards
for de-
requirements.
Man requires through
capability
to all nonmetal these
with
ion generator
has
at 40 ° to 70 ° F and at 145 ° to 155 ° F at any one time.
increments
oz/min
materials
and a silver
The water
water
in _-oz
of 5 fluid
The packaging which
contaminants.
when
he travels
food must
on our
computer
best
selection
important
at 27 to 34 percent
experience of menus
The
of man to date.
of 30 days.
are
These
for individual
10 to 15 percent
environment
adequate.
requirements
for a flight
fat,
in an artificial
be nutritionally
on the metabolic
based
especially
CONSTRAINTS
and
of
requirements
crew
members.
Caloric
protein,
effects
not completely
Nu-
distribution
of
50 to 58 percent
carbohydrates. TABLE H.-RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT ALLOWANCES FOR AEROSPACE ESTABLISHED BY USAF SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE, BROOKS
Gross Energy, Kcal
Type
Allowances/Kg lean body wt
RATIONS AFB, TEX.
Fat,
N,
Ca,
P,
Mg,
Na,
C1,
K,
mg
mg
mg
mg
mg
mg
mg
mg
1500
160
18
27
9600
800
1200
240
2800
3500
2300
15 500
1200
1800
400
4400
5000
4000
neither
produce
_ __ 45
4
50
60
40
Allowances for average 60-Kg lean body vet/ man Mini
2600
78 000
Maxi
The foods cause
must
constipation,
diarrhea,
ing the simulator There the
rehydratable
size
or sizes.
be compatible
tests are
portions.
or any other
at the School
no firm
with
the pilots; gastrointestinal
of Aerospace
requirements
at this
These
are
factors
that
being
they
upset.
Medicine time
is,
This
can be best
and the crew-feeding
as to the studied
must
size
of the
to determine
determined
nor dur-
tests.
individual the best
gas
bites and most
of food or efficient 17
Strict foodsafetyis a requirement room
for the
cessive
production
exposure
of ingredient for
of foods
origin
MOL foods
other
of MOL
are
foods
to oxygen
and
production
given
in table
of all
space-feeding
is required,
as is minimum
and moisture. history
HI.
In addition,
for each
They
are
programs.
item.
as or quite
microbiological
similar
to those
ex-
records standards
used
for
Count
permitted
Total
not greater
than
10 000/g
Total
not greater
than
10/g
Fecal coliform count
Negative
Fecal Streptococci count
Not greater
Coagulase positive Staphylococci
Negative
in
5g
Salmonellae
Negative
in
5g
one travels
the formation for the
sulfate
has been
in a closed
of gas, days
under
(1)
Packaged (a)
Evacuated
20/g
food wastes
must
be treated
of any noxious
The
agent
chemical
to pre-
or toxic
sub-
8-hydroxyquinoline
Peel
(b)
Heat-seal
(c)
Burst
The packaging
and packing
re-
sealing
with purified
or less each
mercury
package
nitrogen absolute
or pack
at 2 to 3 psig
and
pressure.
is subjected
to a vacuum
test.
200 g/in.
strength,
pressure,
to the usual This
width
at 50 mm/min.
g/in.
width
than
travel
under
quality
control
consists as follows:
at 50 mm/min.
9 psig.
be put on a spacecraft
of space
tests,
1850 greater
food cannot
testing.
and acoustical
3 times
to 2 mm
strength,
the rigors
in addition
packaged.
material:
(a)
qualification
vibration,
than
or production
conditions.
be specially
and flushed
16 to 24 hr after
The packaged
items,
must
evacuated
Packaging
withstand
spacecraft
lg
food and overwrap:
integrity (2)
in space,
of microorganisms,
ambient
travel
then (b)
growth
environment
in
used.
Foods for space are:
quirements
18
keep
Total coliform count ..........
stances
flight
must
to avoid
Total aerobic plate count ........
When
food
in processing
STANDARDS ASSEMBLY
Microorganism
it will
The
of a clean
spaceflights.
TABLE III.-MICROBIOLOGICAL FOR MOL FEEDING SYSTEMS
vent
delay
the producer
end food
the same
The use
of four
unless
the conditions
it has been it may
and inspection tests,
the 30-day
during
tested
encounter. production,
environment,
to ensure Therefore, must acceleration,
that the undergo
(1) Chamber
environment,
(a) Evacuate (b) Repressurize
pressure
and hold
with heated,
30 percent
(2)
30 days:
to 50 _
temperature
gas composed
reaches
95 ° _+5 ° F.
of 70 percent
oxygen
and
helium.
(c)
Temperature
cycled
(d)
Completion
- examine
Acceleration:
humid
until
20 times package
5G forward
two perpendicular
between
axes
cps
on each
ambient
temperature.
and food for defects.
and 2G aft when
lateral
95 ° F and room
food
or 5G along
in operative
three
mode
orthogonal
and 0.5G
axes;
test
along
duration,
2 rain. (3)
Vibration:
10 to 2000
of three
principal
orthogonal
axes;
test
duration,
3 min. (4)
Acoustical:
In order to have
good,
118 to 128 db over
to obtain
realistic
food production
space
foods
production
documents
that
documents
is a requirement
six typical meet
the
CONCLUDING These they
are
sign
it may
the requirements
restrictive,
improvement to change
are
a good
be possible
feeding
to gain
can be made
some
around system leeway
in the feeding
many
for each of our
bands.
specified
item.
requirements
The development
it is necessary of adequate
space-
system. REMARKS
which
the
can still in weight
system
octave
feeding
system
be provided. and volume.
by changing
must
By proper In cases
a requirement,
be designed.
Mthough
management where attempts
and
de-
a significant will be made
the requirement.
19
QUANTIFYING
AND
IMPROVING
ORBITING
awarded
LABORATORY
The contract
for the Manned
in September
1967
experience
was
the food was
based
heavily
Since
the
flight
mization
feeding
upon
and produced
The
MOL feeding
simulator
Ample
States
Corp.,
(MOL)
St.
Joseph,
Gemini
Gemini late
again
and simulator
flight
Feeding
flight
System
flights
Assembly
time
was
NASA flight
were
food
anticipated
but
experience.
in 1968.
During
this
for maintaining
reversed,
Foroe
Air
At that
Apollo
testing
has
FLENTGE
Mich.
flights.
until
and the
time,
NASA relied
space-feeding
MOL feeding
expertise.
system
opti-
experience.
contract
documentation
would was
by the
MOL
is a straightforward allegedly
exists
apparent. to assure
schedule.
to conduct
document.
in sufficient
to define
detail
the feeding
The Gemini
to allow
systems
It became
GFP
The
point
qualified
production
and flight
aboard
manned
used
denotes
first
that
early
production
was
in 1968
started
the
a comprehensive,
integrated
in this
Government
schedule.
furnished
property
for validation
items
after
School
official
effort listed
the U.S.
of Aero-
notification
was
foods
these Army
of
became
a necessity
on the 1967
in
to requirements
of the space
In September from
The
in response
soon
quantification
of the food
foods
initiated.
of sufficient
quantification
included
system
for food
studies
the lack
evident
were
an order
simulator
and accurate
items
of MOL feeding
matter,
Office.
At this
complete
where
procurement
these
Systems
Forty-five
as follows,
that
be a simple
requirements.
painfully
Natick,
United
of the
and quantified,
expectation
studies
food
order
the
Medicine
defined the
is defined
l
on the basis
NASA's system
L.
flights. With
space
from
ROBERT
Laboratory
7 the flow of information
benefited
I
system
food production
has
qualification. Gemini
MOL
of Apollo
system
Orbiting
on the manned
NASA did not fly a feeding quite
FOOD
to the Whirlpool
primarily
designed
MANNED
in
MOL contract foods
were
Laboratories,
Mass. Rehydratable
foods
:
(1)
Applesauce,
instant
(freeze
(2)
Banana
(3)
Beef and gravy,
(4)
Beef with
(5)
Beef
(6)
Butterscotch
(7)
Canadian
(8)
Chicken
and gravy,
(9)
Chicken
and vegetables,
dehydrated)
pudding dehydrated
vegetables,
pot roast,
dehydrated
dehydrated pudding
bacon
and applesauce,
dehydrated
dehydrated dehydrated
21
(10)
Chicken
salad,
dehydrated
(11)
Chocolate
pudding
(12)
Corn
bar,
cream
(13)
Corn
chowder
(14)
Fruit
cocktail
(15)
Peach
(16)
Salmon
(17)
Sausage
patties
(18)
Shrimp
cocktail,
(19)
Spaghetti
(20)
Toasted
(21)
Tuna
style,
dehydrated
(bar)
bars salad (pork) dehydrated
with oat
meat
sauce,
dehydrated
cereal
salad
Beverages: (22)
Cocoa
(23)
Grapefruit
(24) Orange (25)
drink, drink,
GFP
GFP
Orange-grapefruit
drink,
(26) Pineapple-grapefruit (27) Tea
and
Bite-size foods (28)
drink,
GFP
sugar
:
Apricot
cereal
cubes
(29) Apricot
cubes,
GFP
(30)
Bacon
(31)
Beef
(32)
Beef,
(33)
Brownies,
(34)
Cheese
(35)
Chicken
(36)
Cinnamon
(37)
Coconut
(38)
Date
bars bites,
dehydrated
sandwiches, bite
toast,
dehydrated
(bite (bite
size)
size)
GFP
(41) Pineapple
cubes,
(42)
Pineapple
fruitcake
(43)
Sausage
(44)
Strawberry
(45)
Toasted
GFP (bite
dehydrated
cereal bread,
(bite
GFP
cubes,
size)
(bite
dehydrated dehydrated
cubes,
bites,
(bite
size
sandwiches,
fruitcake
(40) Peanut
dehydrated
sandwiches,
(39) Gingerbread
22
GFP
size) (pork)
cubes
cubes,
dehydrated
(bite size)
size) size)
By September 1968someof thefooditemshadbeenchanged andthe followingfoodswere onthe schedule.GFPdenotesGovernment furnishedproperty;FI denotesfoodwith improvedto enhance texture,flavor, stability, andrehydratability;IDdenotesanitem droppedbecause it wasdeemedimpracticalto producebecauseof manufacturing problems,acceptability,and stability;andR&Ddenotesa fooditem deemedsalvageable andreturnedto the laboratoryfor upgradingandimprovement. Rehydratable foods: (i)
Applesauce,
(2)
Banana
(3)
Beef
and gravy,
(4)
Beef
with
(5)
Beef
pot roast,
(6)
Butterscotch
(7)
Canadian
(8)
Chicken
and gravy,
(9)
Chicken
and vegetables,
(10)
Chicken
salad,
(11)
Chocolate
pudding
(12)
Corn
bar,
cream
(13)
Corn
chowder
(14)
Fruit
cocktail
(15)
Peach
(16)
Salmon
(17)
Sausage
patties
(18)
Shrimp
cocktail,
(19)
Spaghetti
(20)
Toasted
(21)
Tuna
Beverage
instant
pudding,
(freeze
dehydrated)
FI dehydrated,
vegetables,
FI
dehydrated,
dehydrated, pudding,
bacon
FI
FI
FI
and applesauce,
dehydrated
dehydrated,
FI
dehydrated,
FI
dehydrated,
FI
dehydrated
style,
(bar),
FI
bars salad
with
(pork) dehydrated meat
sauce,
dehydrated
oat cereal salad
s:
(22)
Cocoa
(23)
Grapefruit
(24)
Orange
drink, drink,
GFP
GFP
(25) Orange-grapefruit
drink,
(26) Pineapple-grapefruit (27) Tea
drink,
GFP
and sugar
Bite-slze foods
:
(28) Apricot
cereal
cubes
(29) Apricot
cubes,
GFP
(30) Bacon (31) Beef
GFP
bars bites,
dehydrated,
FI 23
(32) (33) (34)
Beef,
sandwiches,
Brownies, Cheese
sandwiches,
(36)
Cinnamon
toast,
(37)
Coconut
(38)
Date
(39)
Gingerbread
(40)
Peanut
(41)
Pineapple
cubes,
(42)
Pineapple
fruitcake
(43)
Sausage
(44)
Strawberry
this
point,
sistencies
were
(bite
bites,
A brief
explanation
The early
foods
were
posed
of these
a unique
and testing
Army
Natick
to serve
technologists
in defining
action.
Food
Laboratory
as specifications.
At
the inconsistencies
The most
obvious
incon-
was
contracting
testing
procedures and uncertainty
to interpretation
contractor
had been
as a sound
of sampling
changing
of the production
basis
plans
contract
to
modifi-
specifications.
The as
the challenge
reviewed
the production production guides.
on which
and quality
but admittedly
thoroughly
However, reflect
foods.
flight
for food
system
assumed
flight
from
that
these
in the documents.
us workable,
and reliability.
did not adequately
The
served
foods
as
feeding
in formu-
The food production
responsiveness
the MOL
history
methods
and optimize
into
described
gave
time.
changes
by NASA for procuring
and timely
foods
Reevaluation
experience
at this
used
development
unrecorded
not in any way to be construed guides
to administer.
and product
of previously
had been
problem.
to produce
experience
NASA to modify intense,
were
and awkward
is warranted
Office
allowed
production
requirements.
increased
incorporation
Systems
or content.
definitization.
inconsistencies
guides
in format
incomplete
with
required
NASA food-production
in workability
were lacked
experience
and attempted
Micr.obiological improved
U.S.
not standardized
techniques
The documents
end-product
confusion 24
of these
incorporation
were
provisions
of these
of NASA production
niques.
and the
standardized
corrective
requirements
spaceflight
Previous
in light
Corp.
not suitably
guides
to the MOL
imperative.
presented
realistic
dehydrated
the responsible
assurance
the flexibility
specifications
(pork)
and suggesting
guides procedures.
as represented
subsequent
size)
cubes
were
of analytical
and production
was
(bite
cubes,
(5) The production
cation
ID
ID R&D
the Whirlpool
end-product
(4) Updating had lagged.
flight.
size):
ID
GFP
bread,
guides
quality
(3) Food
However,
ID
size):
:
(2) The
guides
(bite
dehydrated
(1) The food production
lation
size):
(bite
size)
size):
cereal
system
ID
GFP
to involve
guide
(bite
dehydrated
(bite
cubes,
from
size):
GFP
fruitcake
we undertook
of the production
dehydrated
dehydrated
cubes,
the production
(bite
ID R&D
sandwiches,
Chicken
Representatives that
size:
(35)
(45) Toasted
agreed
dehydrated
bite
to determine assurance
incomplete, during
the Gemini
techniques, methodology,
provisions
sampling
raw
tech-
flights ingredients,
and they
added
and
Thefirst deliveryof MOLsimulatorfoodsrepresenteda besteffort onthepart of the contractor to producea productas it wasintended.Thedocuments usedto producethis besteffort werepartially correctedprior to foodproductionbut wereextensivelyrevisedandupdatedafter the secondMOLfoodsimulatorstudyin June1968. Theexperiencegainedfrom thetwoMOLfood shipmentsprovedvaluabletobothMOLandNASA. Webeganto realizethatif weeverintended to describefoodsandfeedingsystemsbefore the fact,we would need considerable effort expended on documenting feeding
and quantifying
systems
directed
was
to expend
Assembly
the
monitoring
at the
Natick
logical
development
contract,
torial
the end products.
toward was
The contractor
choice
to assume
effort,
under
updating
this
the
out through
the
the Apollo
Consequently,
development
and definitizing
and is carried
effort.
for both
portion
of the
production
documents.
Aerospace
Feeding
Whirlpool MOL
Corp.
Feeding
Technical Systems
MOL was
System
and edi-
Liaison
Officer
Labs.
The effort
to date
has
resulted
in 24 rewritten
documents:
Title
Document
(1)
Beef,
rehydratable,
dehydrated
(2)
Beef,
bites,
(3)
Chicken
and gravy,
(4)
Chicken
and vegetable,
(5)
Chicken
salad,
(6)
Cinnamon
(7)
Cereal
(8)
Toasted
(9)
Cocoa
dehydrated
fruit
4C
dehydrated
7B
dehydrated
10B
dehydrated
cubes,
bread
(bite
dehydrated
cubes,
beverage
dehydrated
Freeze-dehydrated
fruit-cocktail
(12)
Puddings
(13)
Sugar-coated
(14)
Fruitcake
(15)
Pea
(16)
Tea,
(17)
Dehydrated
(18)
Corn
(19)
Applesauce,
instant,
frozen,
(20)
Potato
frozen,
dehydrated
(21)
Cracker
(22)
Drink,
(23)
Beverage
breakfast,
(24)
Imitation
ice cream
The objectives of all
(apricot,
(bite
23B
size)
24B
(bite
27B bar
28B
butterscotch,
flakes
and toasted
and
chocolate)
29C
oat cereal
30B
size)
sweet,
34B
dehydrated
w/sugar soups
37B
chowder,
style,
cubes,
35C
and lemon (corn
cream
soup,
bar
banana,
corn
pea soup)
38B
dehydrated
41C
dehydrated
46A 49
compressed
natural
fruit
of this
space-food
size)
26B
(11)
bar,
21B
powder peach
instant
size)
(bite
Freeze-dehydrated
bar,
8B
dehydrated
toast,
Number 3C
(10)
the content
and
51
flavored,
powdered
53
powdered mix,
effort
production
54
dehydrated,
have
been
documents,
cubed
threefold:
55 (1)
to standardize
(2) to establish
realistic
the format
and
end-product 25
requirementsand food production quirement
quality
improvements
ing endeavor, crew
and simulator
is largely
at the USAF given
(1)
Human
of foods : factors
preparation, (2)
ing heat,
gained
that
use
With consideration system
that would
modified
foods
criteria
give
submission
tion panel
evaluating
it is subjected
into the
whether
are dependent
samples
foods
foods
be flown
The MOL Feeding
System
With no real
flight
experience
of the contractor
elements.
Gemini
foods
advances
allowed
us to incorporate
being
squeezed
from
flexible
ing the package
still
posed
critical
flights
pouches. problems.
took on less
Coatings importance
conditions,
includ-
the success
has
panel of the
and the requirement sensory
evaluavaluable
when a decision
stating
that all
as to
quite
designed
heavily
human
upon the
factors
reexamined.
preparation
to control
to
reproducibil-
into the foods
that did not require
and MOL.
were
results
of the results,
and evaluating
characteristics
panel
to assure
we relied
for Apollo
developmental
Accurate
and the analysis
period,
that had been
practical
is sought.
in determining
with Apollo
such
and time provides
is to be able
and improved
of new and
that a trained
for evaluation. test,
pattern
an evaluation
to consider
valuable
however,
foods
or failure
evaluate
proven
nutrient
to design
obliged
a provision
has
natural
a definite
temperatures
in the MOL contract
Bite-size
the
environmental
contract
need,
more
Improve-
of food
testing
the design
upgraded
foods.
has
the method
to additional
and the technologists
that had been
nical
Gemini
data early
space
flights
when we consider
we undertook
proves
to a sensory
name but a few variables. The most critical ity between different testing organizations.
Apollo
studies
in determining
constructively
to controlled
The information
of the panel,
the manned
to furnish
We were
we could
Assembly
in the MOL menu
vibrations.
to predict
or subjected
have
accomplished
part
criteria,
Experience
subjected
are to be submitted
upon the size
to
and MOL
in the simulator
of our present
to adverse
applications.
of the foods.
the food should
and production
feeding
of recommendations.
stability
of a meaningbe used
improvements,
involved
from
and acoustical
information
of high-cost
space
inclusion
storage.
of the aforementioned
in space
as the number
for timely
insight
26
feedback
an important
packaging,
us sufficient
for use
re-
to be a fluid and challeng-
we presently
subjects
can be best
and waste
vacuum
test
and palatability
play
continue
of the foods
Recent
for aerospace
criteria
will
(3) Nutritional composition of the food or its ability the set volume and weight constraints.
within
the establishment must
in the
critical
for timely
experience
food technology
from
Medicine.
of the food when light,
demands
system
The improvement
consumption,
Stability
moisture,
The most
that the mechanism
This
experience,
into the acceptability
ment and modification following requirements
retrieval,
input.
of Aerospace
insight
improvements
shortly.
and simulator
MOL feeding
upon the reactions
School
us added
of the
to NASA flight
study
dependent
is assurance
Both flight
technological
be completed
food system.
quantification
responsive
(3) to reflect
will
is preserved.
system.
and workable
Ultimate
today
foods
feedback
and
effort
documents
in space
ful and comprehensive a practical
provisions,
The rewriting
for food production
of proven assure
assurance
documents.
that
Techwere
after
crumbling
openin the
Space development has
given
food as we know
and testing
effort.
us a food system
acceptable
to simulator
foods.
Apollo
flight.
The
it today
that
incorporated
original
45 space
Rehydratable
of a cooperative
experience
coupled
is essentially
sound.
Formulation
and in limited some
crew
of the more
food items
testing
desirable
in the MOL
schedule
with
have
simulator changes
been
immediate have
NASA/MOL and flight
that
have
incorporated advancements
grown
to 54 food
experience
proven into
more
the MOL
in each items:
foods:
(1)
Applesauce,
(2)
Banana
(3)
Beef
and gravy
(4)
Beef
and vegetables
(5)
Beef
pot roast
(6)
Butterscotch
(7)
Canadian
instant
(freeze
dehydrated)
pudding
pudding bacon
and applesauce
(8)
Chicken
and gravy
(9)
Chicken
and vegetables
(10)
Chicken
salad
(11)
Chocolate
pudding
(12)
Corn
bar
(cream
(13)
Corn
chowder
(14)
Fruit
cocktail
(15)
Peach
(16)
Salmon
(17)
Sausage
patties
(18)
Shrimp
cocktail
(19)
Spaghetti
(20)
Toasted
(21)
Tuna
(22)
Cheese
soup
(23)
Cream
mushroom
(24)
Veal
(25)
Pea
(26)
Lobster
(27)
Beef hash
(28)
Cream
of chicken
(29)
Potato
soup
(30)
Sugar-coated
Beverages
the result
Production
subjects
has
is essentially
style)
bars salad
and meat oat
sauce
cereal
salad
soup
in barbeque
sauce
soup bisque
soup
corn
soup
flakes
:
(31)
Cocoa
(32)
Grapefruit
drink 27
(33) Orangedrink (34) Orange-grapefruit drink (35) Teaandsugar Bite-sizefoods: (36) Apricotcerealcubes (37) Baconbars (38) Beefbites (39) Datefruitcake (40) Pineapplefruitcake (41) Sausage bites (42) Strawberrycerealcubes (43) Toastedbreadcubes (44) Sugarcookiecubes (45) Smoked beefbites (46) Orangecereal cubes (47) Custardcubes (48) Creamedchickenbites (49) Cheese crackercubes (50) Barbeque beefbites i51) Cinnamon toastedbrea_._ cubes (52) Grahamcrackercubes (53) Lemoncerealcubes (54) Beefstewbites Throughout the space-feeding program,from maltedmilk tabletsin thefirst Mercury flights to ourpresentdehydrated andthermostabilized foods,reliability andsafetyhavebeenthe watchword.A goodportionof reliability canbeattributedto foodpackaging.Thefoodprocessing itself contributeslargelytothe initial foodqualityandthefood'sability to resist extremesof environmentwhenpackaged properly. Classically,therefore,spacefoodsare designedandproducedto assurehighlyreliablefoodsafter long-termstorage. Wewishto assuremaximumflexibility offoodavailabilityfor anyflight configuration. At the presenttime the foodswefly routinelywill withstandtemperaturesof 100° F for 6 monthsor longer, andmanyof the foodswill withstandupto 1 yearat 100° F. Dehydrated foods canbeexpectedtobe subjectedto theseconditionswithoutseriousdetrimentto theflavor, but their acceptabilityis certainlynotimproved. NASAis presentlyin theprocessof a comprehensive 2-yearstudyof spacefoodstabilityandnutrientanalysis. Theresults shouldgiveus valuableinformationaboutthe expectedchanges in foodonlong-durationspacemissions. Bycombining severalof themoredesirablestorageenvironments,e.g., by freezingdehydrated foods,wecan expectto extendthe storagelife of currentfoodssignificantly. Frequentlyweare approached with the "new"conceptof usingreadypreparedconvenience foods,eitherfresh, refrigerated,or 28
frozen. Stabilityremainsthe gates
these
foods
to short-term
MOL and assistance facility
afford
be quantified from
the
ments
the
and
foods
available
quality
characteristic
research
optimized.
staff
to the
U.S.
Extraneous
expected
to endure
Army
Natick
quantification
Laboratories
food-processing
an environment
procedures.
that defies
and rele-
usage.
an environmental-control
food processing
for
planned
NASA made
to construct will
ill-defined
wherein
contamination The ultimate
long periods
facility. studies
of storage
will
of processing
help
or exposure
financial
Construction
can be controlled results
sufficient
of this
variables
and frequently
define
and
omitted
specify
to rigorous
may
require-
environmental
conditions. Variety active.
and improvement
New-generation
reapplied
to the
rations
have
closely
allied
and unique
next
been with
feeding
spacecraft generation
studied the
of foods will
applications
allow
continue much
of spacecraft.
for many
space
will
food
years
we anticipate
of our food
Compression
by the
development
as long as technology
U.S.
effort,
development
in food
research
and research
and miniaturization
Army
Natick
Laboratories.
should
serve
as a sound
is
to be
of operational This base
effort,
for the new
for the future.
29
m
EVALUATION SPACE
The
FEEDING
design
and
restrictive.
the
effect
of
for
space
missions
the
ultimate
the
Many
of
This
future tion,
feeding
preference
evaluation,
sumption,
and
efficient
use
production nation;
the
MOL
Baseline
Feeding
was
jointly
of this
systems.
The
studies
of the
which
and
benefits volume
food,
human
evaluation
and
factors,
was
and
numerous
to attain;
however,
USAF
used
the
factors
School
food
which
developed made
of Aerospace
Laboratory
any
(MOL)
in meeting
into
afforded
its
up
Medicine
Systems
Office
30-day
of individual
provided;
(3)
waste,
the
flight
systems
and
areas:
simplicity,
(1) (2)
interface,
potential ease
new
re-
criteria
included
components,
the
environmental
of handling,
and
for evalua-
acceptance of food
which
for
Gemini/
life-support
food
measurement
of systems the
expanded
to develop
food;
foods,
reliability
in the
and
four
by
rating
packaging
deficiencies
30 days,
divided
the
|
difficult
were
Consequently,
to be
for
value
included
vehicles
NASA.
allowances,
which
not
components
to identify
nutritional the
were
Orbiting
verification
included
psychological
by
Medicine
of space
The
System
were
a functional
other
Manned
supported
evaluation
systems
verified.
the
Aerospace
limitations.
and
completely
the
of
feeding
binding
by
of metabolic, (4)
not
*
independently
packaging
were
VANDERVEEN School
the
created
assigned
of weight
and
upon
was
effort
included
USAF
E.
taken
associated
to perform
space which
I
Base
objectives
systems,
d.
specifications
systems
evaluating
The
the
I
placed
interactions
ancl
Force
quirements.
Apollo
of the
specification
Air
task
SYSTEMS
specifications
feeding
at Brooks
OF
and constudy
of
timeline contami-
safety.
PROCEDURES
| The
m
which
procedures
used
in this evaluation
are too detailed to cover
pressure
chamber
(shown
planned
for the MOL
in fig. i).
vehicle,
(I) Chamber
range:
range:
(4) Partial pressure (a) Wafer
vapor
The
Briefly,
environment
27,000
(refs. 1 and
accomplished
was
2)
in a low-
approximately
that
Hg
30 to 60 percent of the constituent atmospherie pressure:
Approximately 182 mm
(c) Helium
partial pressure:
76 mm
(d) Carbon
dioxide: was
was
of this chamber
ft or 258 to 260 mm
partial pressure:
research
this research
articles
23 ° to 25 ° C
(b) Oxygen
This
in published
as follows:
pressure:
(2) Temperature (3) Humidify
entirely here.
are described
<
I. 6 percent
supported
by NASA
i0 mm
gases: ± 3
or 70 percent or 18 to 20 percent or
<
Defense
5 mm
Hg
Purchase
Request
A-1374A
(RD-7) 31
Figure
32
1.
-Low-pressure
chamber
used
to
evaluate
space
feeding
systems.
Volunteer selection
criteria
interviews Feeding
used
The
the USAF
medical
Each
study
subjects
were
to inspect
Three used
four
required
entrees,
hydration
characteristics
of powdered
of main-meal each entire
food,
note
entrees,
subject
was
each
changes
and measure
required
to keep
quirements
based
to consume
all
study.
Their
nutrients. tensive
were
on lean
foods
after
the MOL
measure
measure
of the food following of the
note
measure
time
required
of
re-
the hardfor
rehydration.
foods
they
the size
foods,
subjectively
for
In addition,
failures, in bite-size
entrees,
Baseline
environment
consumption.
and other
of the foods,
(ref. Prior
weight
were
likes
4).
designed
and dislikes
immediately
The digestibility these
foods those
are
were
rehydration In addition,
day by day throughout
reported
all subjects
were
composition, Positive
standard
maintained
however,
balances
magnesium
marginal
levels
variable;
this
these
for
for were
were
foods
are
within noted
calcium, variable
of these was
rations
nitrogen,
the
elements
attributed capable
TABLE
were
prior
to the
into the study
study
4 days
re-
also
required
start
menus
of the with
of the study
the subjects
any changes
were
in table are
were
for
given
the use 8
an ex-
associated
with
dining
the entire
attributed
and phosphorus
These
the study.
demonstrate
Balances
adequate
I.-UTILIZATION
life
data
to the level were
Body weight
period.
this
for sodium
Changes
of activity
maintained.
range;
subjects.
5 to 10 percent
halls.
32-day
in the negative
of certain
I.
approximately
in military
in the food.
of providing
subjects
every
is shown
served
to the inactivity
nutritional
AND DISCUSSION
The values
and frequently
The
formulated
to detect
1 kg throughout which
individual
of 12 days
performed
nutrients
utilized.
their
3).
the 32-day
examination
well
then
were
following
of the major
exceptionally
(ref.
for a period
balances
and psychological
to meet
measurements
to be tested
Metabolic
to and
physical
body
a menu
RESULTS
that
and personal
to evaluate
in the low-pressure
a log of his impressions
provided
which
individual
of a computer
and
as subjects;
examinations,
of crumbling
temperatures
selected
study. The subjects
than
leaks
main-meal
in color
aptitude
food item
evidence
were
accomplished
who lived
for air
observe
from
were
subjects
and
Command
results
to rate
and main-meal
of bite-size
Training
studies
the food packaging
food bites
ness
Air
records,
motivation.
Systems.
required
from
were
concerning
32 days. were
airmen
for
in body
for potassium
attributed
and chloride Overall,
changes
in the chamber.
Balances was
that higher
it must
to the
were
highly
be concluded
support.
OF NUTRIENTS Metabolic
study
Nutrient
X
XI
XII
Protein
92.9
94.8
94.6
Fat
96.5
97.5
97.3
Energy
95.8
96.8
96.9
Energy
91.5
Metabolizable, 92.0
in % 92.5 33
Thefoodacceptance andpreferencestudiesmustbeanalyzed with extensiveconsiderations. All foodratingswereabove6 onthe9-pointhedonicscale. However,it mustbepointedoutthat noneof thesubjectsweretrainedin ratingfoods,andeachsubjectwasaffordedtheopportunityto eliminateunIikedfoodfrom his menu. Previousresearchin this areahasshownthatfoodacceptanceandconsumption are notdirectly equatable.If allowedfreedomof choiceandrejection, certainfoodsrated9 ona hedonicscalewill notbeconsum#d at the 100-percent level, whereas somefoodsratedlower than9 are routinelyconsumed at the100-percentlevel. In thesestudies withonlyfreedomof choicepermitted,all subjectshadnoproblemin comsuming100-percent of their menu. Thesubjects'logsandcritique formsprovidedmanycommentsconcerningfoodtexture, flavor, andcolor thatare worthyof note. Therehydratableentreeswerecriticizedfor lossof texturewhenforcedthroughthefeedingport of thezero-Gfeeder. Thesubjectsalsofelt thatthe color of foodswaslessthandesirablebeforehydration,particularlythespaghettiandmeatsauce andthe salmonsalad. Additionalgreenvegetables wouldprovidemorecolor. Manysubjectsnoteda changein flavor andtasteontheir return to groundlevel. They indicatedthatthefoodhadmoreflavor wheneatenat 1 atmosphere of pressure. Suchflavor changeshavebeennotedfor precooked frozenfoodsalso. It maybeassociated with odorsconeentratedin the chamber,or theremaybesomephysiologicalchangeassociatedwith tastein the low-pressure,alteredgaseousenvironment. Inthe studyof systemsinterfaces,seriousincompatibilitieswererevealed. In the secondstudy,flight-qualifiedpackaging wasused,and14.4percentof thezero-Gfeedersfailed. Thefailureswereof threetypes: (1) Delamination with subsequent ruptureof sealinglayer, (2) leakagearoundtherehydrationvalve, and(3) valvefailure dueto impropertoleranceon O-ringgroove. Thedelamination wastheresult ofpooradhesivein a lot ofpackagingmaterial. All thedeficiencieswerecorrectedandthefailure rate waslessthan1 percentduringthethird study. Thedelamination wasavoidedby theuseof a newlot of packagingmaterialwhichwasproducedjust prior to use. It waslater shownin ourlaboratoriesthattheadhesives usedin the film laminateare moisturesensitive. Eventhemoisturein roomair wassufficientto rendertheadhesivesineffectiveovera 60-dayperiod. Theleakagearoundtherehydrationvalvewascorrected bythe useof shrinkableTeflonto securethevalvein thepackage. In evaluationof the utilizationofweightandvolume,it wasshownthatpackagingconstituted35 percentof total weight. Theindividualpackages of foodwereof a shapewhichprohibitedefficientuseof theallowablevolume. Thetimelineanalysisof foodpreparation,foodconsumption, andwastemanagement revealsexcessiveexpenditureof time for thesefunctions. Theindividualmealtimerangedfrom 18to 42minutes. Proceduresfor rehydrationandconsumption of foodsare especiallycomplicated anddifficult toperform. Duringperiodsof intenseactivity, the tendency to avoidfoodsrequiring rehydrationis great. Frequently,subjectsreportedthattheywouldstart eatingbite-size foods whilewaitingfor themainmealentreesto rehydrate. Thisprocedurewoulddecreasetheir appetitebecausemanyof thebitesweresweetdessertitems. 34
Another rehydratable
problem
foods.
cold
foods
lack
of insulation
of the
were
frequently
measured
above
afforded
55 ° F.
system
on hot foods
The extent
by the package
design were
of heat
and the time
is the
transfer
routinely
exchange
required
lower
was
for
of heat than
100 ° F while
attributed
rehydration
in
to both
the
and consumption
food.
material
provided
resilience
which
could
all the food; =
with the feeding
Temperatures
The package
this
associated
feeders.
excellent
quantity
which
would area
waste.
the waste
on insufficient
data
during
collected
during
from
voided
these
bowel
face
studies
of regular
revealed
that
The data
was
that will
used in table
II show
is a 50-percent
small
is the pro-
for storing rather foods
feeding that
TABLE Study
II.-FECAL
DATA
FOR
32-DAY
METABOLIC x
number
Number
the this
reduction
number with
in both
measurements
to preclude
the
of
discomfort
STUDIES xII
xI
59
specimens
Number of days between specimens
58
52
2.2
2.5
2.2
Dry matter (g/subject/day)
16.4
20.6
16.0
Fecal moisture (g/subject/day)
30.7
44.3
31.3
Moisture (% of specimen)
65.2
68.3
66.2
In considering
the human
but complicated.
discussed
above.
was
to be both
found
they
extrusion.
|
reliable
exist
provide
both
In comparing
Subjective enough
used
for space
there
used.
the package.
interfaces
not eat any
reduced.
to remove
of an
they would
were
of materials
the amount
from
They
presently
food,
be removed
frequently
(food
in the zero-G
the use
of systems
level
effort
necessitated
topic
defecations.
produced
left
and the equipment
confided
control.
and the quantity
could the
G is difficult,
The foods
matter
this
In addition,
food
every
was
This
stowage.
residual
made
entrees
food
under
frequent
bowel
of fecal
subjects
resilience.
with
to a high
The
since
if all
have
defecations.
the consumption
of specimens
is important
in zero
in gastrointestinal amount
feeder).
substantial
problems
contributed
of consideration
than
to have
of themain-meal
The pilots
frequent
and the
flatus
feeder
not be needed
Voiding
intake
promote
results
food
is crude.
nutrient
of defecations
number
of residual
important
of metabolic
excellent
of the zero-G
5 to 10 percent
from
found
for the food but created
however,
agent
will
protection
food was
out of the zero-G
Another
suspect
for the
not be squeezed
antimicrobial
and treating
used
and the design
The
duction
material
The time
In addition, time
factors required
the treatment
consuming
area,
the present for manipulation
of residual
and difficult.
food
baseline during to prevent
The antimicrobic
system
was found
preparation degradation agent
used
and
to be highly eating
upon to treat
was
storage the residual 35
foodis
sealed
the tablet
in a separate
and its insertion
the subjects
found
the
threat
to the eyes;
different bacon
sizes
by 1.6
cm
1.1-cm
0.9-
by 2.8-cm
0.5
of food
to rehydrate.
the fruitcakes rate
were
hydration Teflon
of materials the
studies,
to hold
food,
of foods
the valve
in the bag, in the bag.
Cut material It was
foods.
also
a constant
There
by 2.5-cm
toast;
had difficulty was
difficult
These
foods
are
(1/4-
) cinnamon
the size
and
changed
in shape of these
able
by using
a computer
were
was
and size foods
several
by 1- by 1-in. 3.2
cm by 2.5
in placing
the larger
if the depth
and the
more
ideal.
of the bite
was
installed
bags
was
increased,
smaller; defined
and natural;
and hardness
and methods
foods
shrinkable
the
quality
removal were
and
a balanced
of
improved
(3) bite
improved;
for planning
As a
The rewith
convenient (2)
cm.
verified. (i)
as
at the
25 kg/sq
made:
more
such
closing
functionally were
and require
Some bites
A valve
to provide
integrity
defined
were
was
system
and made
dry
1 cm in diameter
of the beverage
texture
are
is approximately
system
widened
the
was
program
foods
manner:
relocated
making
considered
a punch
in the feeding
in the following
tablet
composition
Using
the feeding
changes
mouthpieces
times
cu in. was
for bite-size
to the package,
nutritional menu
by 2.5-
of the bite
of
studies.
of bite-size
important.
too hard.
studies,
redesigned
improved,
also
of 0.40
hardness
of these
rehydration
were
hazards.
in these
The subjects
it was
distribution
and fingers.
by I 1/8-in.
The removal
Once
even
safety
lips
0.6-
by 7/8-
was
for being
and the antimicrobic
by reducing
cubes;
crushing
the following
was
was
minor
and shape
bites.
initial
potential.
to assure
occurred
size
(3/8-
volume
the optimum
container
eyes
(ll/16-in.)
in the mouth
criticized
At the conclusion of these
on subjects'
The
A maximum
of 10 cm/min,
result
cuts
of a tablet.
in.
The volume saliva
fumble
presented
) sandwich
and chewing.
than
a high
also
is the
of food bites:
in the form
into pieces
of the
of consideration
(1 1/4 by 1 by 5/8-in.
greater
bag has
feeder
no injury
by 2.1-
package
to break
occasional
however,
in the mouth
was
caused
area
squares;
bites
the used
difficult
of the zero-G
mouthpiece
Another
of the primary
into
the tablet
The design around
area
sizes
(4)
the
and accept-
established.
REFERENCES 1.
Vanderveen, Flight.
2.
3.
J. Res.
Vanderveen,
4.
COSPAR
Allen,
T.
Chapin,
R.
gramming
36
J.
of
Aviation
E. ; and Allen, and Technol.
T.
E. : Evaluation
(Prague,
H. : Evaluation
Briefs
AFSCRP
of Foods
Czechoslovakia), of Human
Medical
Aerospace
E. ; Anway, of Aerospace
M.D.
; Lozano,
Rations.
Mar.
Space
Flights.
Systems
for Manned
Orbital
1968. Proc.
of the XII Plenary
Meeting
May 1969.
H. : Measurement Officers.
for
of Feeding
80-1,
Body
Fat:
Med., P.
A Quantitative vol.
34,
1963,
Method p.
A. ; and Vanderveen,
SAM-TR-68-115,
Nov.
1968.
Suited
for
Use by
907. J.
E. : Computer
Pro-
) cm
DEVELOPMENT
OF
FOR
THE
NEW
FEEDING
During
ORBITING
the
initial
THE
phase
of the
feeding
systems
were
evaluated
1965
to 1967,
at which
time
the Gemini
was
in its development
application. space
With
Medicine
Orbiting
for possible flight
States
Air
Laboratory
use.
program
There
of the
and the
United
USAF
Manned
phases.
the assistance
(SAM),
DOPPELT
Force
LABORATORY
space
gram
F.
SYSTEM
FOR MANNED
FREDERIC
CONCEPTS
was
was
time
Natick
frame
of this
30-day
Spacecraft
Center
and
feeding
Laboratories,
was
the Apollo
system
the
(MSC),
existing
evaluation
yet to be completed
no qualified
U. S. Army
NASA Manned
The
(MOL) program,
pro-
for space
USAF
an indepth
School
of Aero-
review
was
held. It was use
on the
determined
MOL.
It was
by concentrating system.
occur
development further
the Apollo in refining these
that
of increasing
complexity
great;
planning
when
space
flight
was
system.
was
supported
the efforts
tems
engineering.
The
the delineation
14-day
Gemini
systems,
Gemini
feeding
crew
7 flight
system
was
was
configured
along
were
of nutritional up to that
date
the
in this
paper, a normal
in the days
of Mercury,
development
most
system.
As has
been
to meet
certain
requirements;
an total
space
capabilities,
incorporated
crew
were
detailed heat,
feeders
no small test
control
that
rational
of zero-G
significant
feeding
unknowns
and contractors
the development
the
of the
be
progression
The
the agencies
and environmental
in
to Apollo.
systems
etc.
NASA
it should
Nevertheless,
mission,
of which
The
agencies.
flights
NASA
our efforts
both
stressing
requirements,
capabilities,
and
for
feeding
most
part
of the
foods,
on MOL,
as an integral
of NASA and all
of dehydrated
Gemini
but a dream.
system
systems
MOL and
be obtained.
to Gemini
30-day
to hours,
the feeding
was
lines
Mercury
the feeding
credit
performance
one of which
developed
be considered
by both
in Apollo
not be detailed
of it in terms
that
The application
systems,
support
in minutes
could
for use
so as to benefit
will
initially
developed
for use
benefit
system
from
would
be derived
technology
in increments;
to develop
to date
could
mutual
feeding
were
It is to the great
materials,
frame,
system
of the already
of that
systems
to conceive
have
advantage
be interwoven
accomplished
necessary etc.
spacecraft
could
systems
made
requirements,
packaging
Gemini
measured
constantly
It was
time
the
of accomplishment
was
feeding
the componentry
of feeding
spaceflight
were
greatest
flight
concepts history
remembered
the
and expansion
efforts
the
Gemini/Apollo
on improving
during
Although
the
that
development
expanding
attempt
felt
efforts
Through
would
that
sysand
effort.
in space
of
and lifeelsewhere,
vibration,
the and 37
bacteriologicalcriteria, nutritionallevels, proceduraluserequirements,usein the confinedcompartmentof theGeminispacecraft,andutilizationof fuel-cell waterat its spacecrafttemperature of 80° F werebut a fewof theenvironmental criteria. In August1967,after industryproposalevaluation,WhirlpoolCorp.wasselectedto developandproducethe MOLFeedingSystemAssembly. This feedingsystemwasto becomposed of foodsubstances preparedin the formof dehydrated biteswhichwereto beeatenin thedesiccatedstateandtoberehydratedduringtheprocessandvariousdehydrated foodsandbeverages whichwereto berehydratedprior to eatinganddrinking. Therewereapproximately40items availableat thattime. TheU.S. ArmyNatickLaboratoriessupplied"SpaceFoodPrototypeProductionGuides"for WhirlpoolCorp. to incorporateintoproductionspecifications.Hotwaterto 155° F andcoldwaterto 40° F wasto beavailablefor therehydration. Twenty-sixhundred cal/man/daywasfeltat thattimetobe thecaloric requirement. Microbiologicalstandards,as developed by the U.S. Army NatickI-aboratories,wereapplied. Maximumorganolepticacceptability wasto besought. Thefoodwasto bepackaged in the Geminideveloped zero-Gfeederswith a mouthspout andhydrationvalvearrangement.Thefeederswouldbescissor-opened andthefoodandliquids squeezed into themouth. Thebite packages wouldbescissor-opened andthebites individuallyremovedfor eating. Rehydratables andbeverages werein 5-oz-capacitybags. Bite-foodbags varied in size. Foodvolumeandweightwerelimited to 195cu in. and1.7 lb/man/day. An antimicrobialagentwasattachedto eachrehydratablefoodpackage. Proceduralrequirementsdetaileda desireto minimizepreparation,feeding,andwastedisposaltimes. In orderto makeefficientuseof theitemsavailable,a 4-daymenucycleof three smallmealsof 10minuteseachandonelarge mealof 45minuteswasdesired. Mineralcontent wasbasedontherecommendations of theNationalResearchCouncil. Thecaloric distributionwas to be27to 34percentfat, 10to 15percentprotein, and50to 58percentcarbohydrate. It wasfelt that, in order to utilize thetechnicalcapabilitiesof SAM,the U.S. Army NatickLaboratories,andNASAMSCmostproperly, the MOLSystemsOfficeshouldsetupa quarterlyconferencetobeattendedby all theseagencies.Thiswouldhandleappropriatetechnical inputsandthesequarterlyfoodplanningconferences wereheldfrom 1967to 1969. Their format hasrecentlybeenslightly changed so that the MOL Systems Office and NASA MSC are cochairmen for the Government Mass.,
in March
government-agency
system,
Dr.
Vanderveen,
initially Major 38
This
close
toward
metabolic
system
entitled
by adding
and newly
entitled
relationship
contract
"Evaluation information
developed
held
about
items,
and Improving
meeting
effective
and enlarging Feeding
and improving Manned
MOL and been
of foods.
has
detailed
of the zero-G of acceptance
rehydration Orbiting
NASA.
validating
the variety Systems,"
the reliability
to the battery
have
at Natick, in integrating
of the users,
the objectives
of Space
adding
its last
singularly
requirements
and improving
of the food,
"Quantifying
which
has been
and future
specifications, paper
Group
of the Whirlpool
characteristics
food items in a paper
working
Working
the present phase
in a preceding
considered Flentge,
Technology
production
of the feeding the
Food
the development
developing
the validation delineating
1969. efforts
During this
Agency
feeders,
data
for both
information.
Laboratory
Food,
"
hasdetailedefforts in developing productionspecificationsanddiscussedthe enlargement of the food-itemlist. In particular, morehigh-nutrientsoupsandpuddingshavebeenadded,andthe qualityandtypeof biteshavebeensignificantlyenlargedandimproved. By August1968it wasfelt thatMOLhadanacceptable feedingsystemwhichcouldbe usedfor 30-dayflights, but certainproblemareasremained,or at leastbecamemoreobvious. SinceMOLwasstill in its development phases,anattemptwasmadeto detailtheseproblemareas and, in thetime remaining,to solvethem. Additionally,theseproblemswouldbecommonto the upcomingApolloflights, andsolutionsfor someof themorereadily solvableproblemareascould certainlybeof benefitto Apollo. Also, valid flight informationwouldbe gatheredduringthe , Apolloflights andwouldbebeneficialin bringingto light anynewproblemareas. It wasrecognizedthatmorenaturalfoodsshouldbedeveloped - rehydratablemeatchunks, morevegetables,andhigh-nutrientcoldliquids, to namea few. Thecompressed bites shouldbe normalizedin sizeso thata bitewouldbenormalto the mouthin bothshapeandconsistency. Alsofoodsshouldbeutilized in a moreusualmanner,asdessertitems, croutonsto beusedwith soups,etc., andnotbeviewedas themaincaloric constituentof anyonemeal. Food-storage timesshouldbe morecompletelydeterminedandimprovedsoas to givemaximumselectability whereflights occurover extended periodsof time. In theareaof packaging,it wasclear thatthedeliverysystemmustbeimproved. The complexityandunnaturalness associatedwith thehandlingof multiplesmallpackages andsqueezingtherehydratablesandliquidsindividuallywasbothcumbersome andtime consuming.The advantage of hotandcoldwaterwasnotcompletelyrealizedsincepreparationandrehydration timeswerelongandthethermalconditioningof thefoodwascertainlydegradedbecauseof the time requiredfrom preparationto actualeating. Themultiplicity of packages presenteda problem in formulatinga normalmenuplan. Morerealistic useof the antimicrobialagentwasneeded sincesignificantweightwasinvolvedin incorporatinga pill in eachpackage,andtime wasinvolved in removingit, placingit in thepackage,crushingit, etc. Drinkingmethodswereunnatural; liquidsweresqueezed into themouthby rolling upthepackagelike a toothpastetube. Thecrew no longerwascrampedintoa smallcabin,as in Gemini,andcouldnowafford thefreedomof intravehicularmovement.For thefirst time a feedingstationwouldbeutilized and,in general, living wouldbe morenormal. Thepackage-to-food ratio wasprohibitiveand,therefore,notonly costlytobooster[capability but severelylimited theimportantflexibility of mealplanning. Asan example,2900Kcalof foodwouldrequirethefull 195euin. of spaceand1.7 lb allotedand wouldcontainonly88cu in. of actualfood. Becauseof theenergyrequirementsandthe sizeof our crewmenit wasrecognizedthatas muchas 3200Kcal/man/daymightberequired. If two large crewmenflewat the sametime theycouldnothavetherequiredamountof food. Certainly, foodrequirementsshouldneverbea criterion usedfor astronautselection. Also, of course,crewproceduralrequirementsspecifiedreductionin time andproceduresandthedevelopment of moreflexiblemealgroupingto offer maximumflexibility to the flight timelinepeople. Additionally,wastehandlingmostcertainlyneededto be simplified. 39
Withtheseareasdelineatedandwith thegrowingconfidence thatwasacquiredduringthe Geminiprogramas to fooddeliverymethods,a prototypepackagesystemwasdeveloped by WhirlpoolCorp. Thispackagewouldallowspoonfeeding. Withlarger spacecraftvolumesavailableand moreknownaboutthe handlingof foodsin zerogravity, this oldtechnology of eatingwith a spoon, whichhadbeen,naturally, consideredby manygroupspreviouslybothwithin industryandNASA, couldbecomea reality. This conceptwasevaluated by MOLin a zero-Gflight test runat WrightPattersonAir ForceBasein August1968. Thetest revealedthatthemethodwasindeedfeasible. Foodsubstances adherewell to thepackage,spoon,etc. Eatingis simpleandrapid. Simplerflexiblehydrationvalveswere evaluated andprovedfeasible. Theentireeatingprocessprovedtobea morenaturalone;food packages couldbelineduponthe consoleandfoodspooned from eachpackage with ease. The packageremainedopenandfoodresiduecould be wiped off the spoon in the scooping process on the opening and
band.
Foods
the quantities
corporated on Apollo
in the
throughout
the
to the task
placed
wetpack
Christmas
like
to point
were
System
of constructive
the
menu
cycle
itself.
of the
test,
complete
As a part
and Brown
of SAM,
of diet
item
active
be close
to those
feeding
was
on Apollo
The food
itself
immediately
8 and more
its overall
where
new concepts
daily.
could
be seen
and successfully
completely
system into
by Dr.
in-
incorporated
however, impact design existing
total
systems
which
to have
has
at least
into
be attributed
all
eaten,
as
as part
of
the food
out by Drs. helped
the
required.
im-
evaluate The crewmen
however, either
Hall
us to de-
learned two crewmen
was
requirements, that
it was
carried
1969,
themselves
finally,
The crewmembers
to note
some feeding
is available,
to be feasible,
undertaken
and its
:.. his paper
on the time
proven was
concept
to state
were
2800 to 3400 cal/day
could
food as
incorporated
information
energy
in January
devoted
and,
has been
were
retained
judged
their
to too high a caloric
to
starting
intake
LBM/man/day.
feeding
like
examinations
In order
daily
gains
They
menu,
directly
crewmen
of this,
on each
of the day's
It is of interest
analysis
RotL
of 4 days.
rationally.
foods.
by our
As an example
important more
of from
All the weight
this
participation
have been
dental
Their
in orbit.
to incorporate
I would,
intake
of spoon
direct
as part
comments
in selecting
engineering
that
for a period
itself,
to gather
of 42 Kcal/Kg
the concept
which are discussed Feeding System."
cases
concept
Program.
cycle
and texture
a caloric
weight.
value
complete
able
size
anticipated
systems
system
tem and
at the table.
of the food and commented
daily
and exercised
estimates
With A complete
bite
once,
or gained on our
menu
Their
understanding
at least
remained
based
This
Development
of the meal
who were
compressed
weights
eating
eaten
great
evaluation
as part
each
mouth.
dinner
fed a complete
item,
portance
as when
in the
out the
an individual
design.
4O
desired
MOL Food
crewmen
termine
be mixed
9. I would
four
could
many
"Systems
the next
by Whirlpool
rational
possible
ramifications,
Analysis
of Manned
of the objectives
Orbiting
of redefining be constantly
maximum
benefit
can be derived
of requirements
taken.
the MOL of
Laboratory
the food delivery
It must
review
was
the details
system.
if an integrated
step
so as to redesign
kept from
in mind
that
incorporating
and objectives
is
sysin
undertaken.Therefore,WhirlpoolCorp.wasdirectedto doa completetradeoffanalysisas part of this study. This requireddetailedobjectivesandrequirementsdelineationandprioritization. Foodstoragedimensionsbecamea primefactorandnutrientmodularization anddimensionalmodulartzationbecamea necessity. Normaleatinganddrinkingmethods,rationalcombinations of foods,minimizationof time, moreappropriatepackage-opening techniques,realistic usesof antimicrobials, simplerwastestowage,decreasingthenumberof packages involved,normalization of compressed bites, increasingthevolumeof eachliquid, decreasingthesizeof thepuddings, enlargingthecapabilityto carry 3200Cal/man/dayif required, retention of thermal heating and cooling newer
of the
food till
food types, It is,
food
itself
tions,
therefore, in-orbit
such
- all became
as meat
chunks
therefore,
recognized
its variety
but also
stowage,
approach
for
and
eaten
etc.
and feels total ease
The
important
and high-nutrient that
the
acceptability. of readjustment
maximum It also
offers
use
has
recently
of foods maximum
liquids,
involves
and convenience
Office
Additionally,
cold
food acceptability
time
MOL Systems
it now offers
factors.
flexibility
necessarily not only
of preparing evaluated
and packaging, flexibility
to incorporate must
and eating, this
for planning
of the
size
new feeding
more
be considered.
the quality
of por-
systems
convenience,
and,
purposes
and allows
if required.
!
41
SYSTEMS
OF MANNED
ORBITING
ANALYSIS
Corp.
is using
(MOL)
program.
feeding
man
to attempt
It is my hope
individual
on years
shotgun
replica
cerned.
of the
The
food
195 cu in.
in this
2900-Kcal
inefficiencies sible,
Some and others,
of the
nature volume
"shoe
box"
of 3.7
could
not be efficiently
foods
form
foods
presented
the acquired
out by using
did not relate
integral
Orbiting
Laboratory
of the problem
than by a shotgun In my opinion,
and Apollo
system
feeding
emerged
as packaging
However,
per
of
approach which
is
programs,
in the contract
and
day for
food items
each
The average because
of food,
a
oriented
and
confood
of the
of packaging
when
were
astronaut's
volume
as an
of
dehydrated
food-shape
as efficiently
as pos-
of 195 cu in.
related
irregular
However,
Whirlpool
of the art.
volume
day of food
in.
to shapes
of foods
used
components
used
in MOL was
in a theoretically
with the baseline
either
from
development
attempts
water
are
problem entrance
stowage
dimensions
to the valve
and tended
as molds
for freezing
for producing
thick,
in the menu
in the package.
system,
was
volume.
systems
to crush
The 195 very
this
efficient
storage
space
First,
foods
samples. feeding
prior
The which
to drying.
However, system.
portion,
The dimensions
in intimate
work,
used
was
contact. rehydratable was
carried
These
cans dimen-
a bar,
the size
it dimensionally
in the baseline
they were
merely
in-
which
the arbitrary
In general, nor
regular
the package tablet
arbitrary.
products
fairly
The rehydratable
waste-stabilization
development
standpoint;
These
together.
integrator.
serving
or nutritional
them
purely
experimental
of the
foods.
bite-size
were
original
not a satisfactory
storage
to package
foods the
bite-size
and a hard
experimental
requirement
the engineering work.
from
Apollo
made
of the rehydratable
of any available
from
of the current
difficult
to any specific
of no value early
when
more
and handy
can and 1 in.
factor
other man
current cans
sions
of a Spam
and
pattern
their
inexpensive
Gemini
insofar
were
per
and sizes
were
state
volume
rather
components.
of 2900-Kcal°
available
of valves
at efficient
Spam
system
overall
88 cu in.
allocated
poppit-type
shapes
this
the dimensions
an even
all attempts
Second, foods
1 shows
a hard
understanding
the
88 cu in.
by 8.3
facilitate
which
utilized.
no regular
corporated
menu
approach
for the Manned
on both
storage
1 Corporation
system
MOL baseline
inefficiencies
by 6.3
will
system,
system,
packaging
of storage
FigUre
only
the allocated
cu in.
shape
was
the
a total
a baseline
baseline
filled
to the
for
feeding
or hardware
the
feeding
allocated
menu
in this
completely
defied
Gemini
MOL system
approximately
to advance
Wh_rlpoo
systems-analysis
spacecraft
items
papers,
the
discussion
of a total food
in other late
this
as a contractor
do little
As mentioned exact
that
improved
will
the overall
in light
of experience
approach
is to present
to improve
in a spacecraft
of developing based
of my discussion
SYSTEM
ROTH
NORMAN G.
I
LABORATORY
FEEDING
The purpose
I
system
an were
a carryover 43
_T--
11 1
3 4
16
i___
15 16
3 4
5 16
I
$
16
t
I
I
t 1
1
5
II 7 8
Edge
Figure
1. -Dimensions
The baseline point if properly sired.
used,
Considerable
the foods.
MOL foods were acceptable but under actual data presented
Our task at Whirlpool
acceptable
feeding
concerned
with the nature
44
of current Apollo bite-size
system
under
previous
by previous
was to perform actual
of this systems
spacecraft analysis
foods.
view
of all
Dimensions
from both the nutritional system
application
speakers
attest
a systems
and the basic
are in inches. and organoleptic
they left something
to the fundamental
analysis
conditions.
cubes
stand-
to be de-
acceptability
of
which could lead to an overall
The remainder conclusions.
of this paper
will be
First, is
involved
broken they
lines serve
let us look
in the system. are
At the center
not within
to describe
at the interface
the
scope
the total
charts of the
(figs.
chart
2 and 3) so that we can understand
is a typical
of the feeding-system
system.
After
this
look
rehydratable
contract,
but they
at the overall
system,
food are
all
package. shown
that The
because
the analysis
was
undertaken.
En romen, /
r
//
/
EnviroJnment
/
'
/
"
..-(_1
Size
] co.'i.r.tion I
/
_
" ">('/
>-- ' I _o_,_=.,,on I \
/
/ /
I
|
attachment
[
I
I
\
/
]
I
u_,t.i_tion
\ \
r St:bi,,t ,
_
/
Y
/
/ _ole
\
l
\ _
I
rehydration
-|,_ack_ ....
I1-"-" L,
"/
\ \
•
_
1
protection
_
Food
\
"
1 I
I
,If / NN
/
'Handling
\ \
Figure
2. -Feeding-system
interface
chart. bite-size
Rehydration packages.
interfaces
not applicable
to
45
Q
ment
Temperature
I
Factors
Vibration
Removal
Means
!
Crushing
Force
I
Dimensions
]
Configuration
[
Dispensing Protection C onfigu ration
Material Shock
Accelation
Oxygen Moisture Acoustical Ener
Quality
I
Food
Light
Color,
Odor
]
Portion
Size
]
Dimensions
Temperature
Rehydration_ Palatability
Nutrition
Taste
]
Texture
]
Variety
[
and
Acceptability
Increment Volume
Nutritional
Rehydration
Appearance
_Figure
46
[
3.-Interface
constraints
imposed
on foods.
[
Overall
provide (For
goals,
(1)
Optimize
(2)
Provide
about
the
example,
spacecraft packages
all
meat
items
goals,
Make
Eliminate
(3)
Allow
(4)
Provide
and beverages, These system.
should
for normal efficient
of all types
interchangeability. goals.
However,
(2)
Identification
of all foods
(3)
Accessibility
of all foods
(4)
Efficient
(5)
Ability
to open
(6)
Ability
to add water
(7)
Containment
(8)
Compatibility
(9)
Overall
safety
(10)
Overall
noncomplexity
(11)
Anthropometric
integrity,
i.e.,
food-waste
criteria
are
food of the
same
class.
to: on the fixed
dimensions
for the nutritional
of the
modularity,
in two dimensions,
with the third
valves
and disinfectant
tablets.
eating.
of foods,
other
including
constraints
rehydratables,
v_ere imposed
bites,
by the
and institutional in increasing
modified
that the portion This
resulted
of "main
of meat-
portion
dish"
in a decrease
the values
should
normal
recommendations
size
a comparison
size
and reliably
spacecraft
not all
of the nutritional
to reflect
of 22 to a maximum
in itself
easily
and emergency
but certainly
food-portion
menus;
foods
pack
with an analysis
the portion
I shows
easily
to rehydratable
illustrative,
resulted
Table
a package
environments
compatibility
military
an average
of food to the atmosphere
and meals
with all normal
food portions
It also
of loss
handling
in a ration
to modify
items.
minimization
and close
tive was
decreases.
many
of food would
included:
began
noted
modularization
class
food items.
as hard
spoon-and-bowl-type
the basic
based
of individual such
max{mum
were
to allow
sizes.
)
dimensions
and efficient
System
of dessert
being
fixed
adjustments
with
The study
mended
and still
protuberances
of a given of another
standpoint
to do this,
for weight
inefficient
serving
the size
strictly
or portion
interchangeable.
the packaging
have
to:
serving a serving
as any other
modular,
(1)
The foregoing
day from
from
were
satisfactory so that
were
These
standpoint
be nutritionally
In order food
to allow
(2)
should
food packages
compartment.
variable
content
in brief,
all
the food to provide
modularization,
nutritional
and contained
dimension
from foods
nutritional
same
Overall (1)
in brief, baseline
and dietetic sizes.
number
aspects.
This was
as a guide. food items
in total
done
Generally,
and decreasing of food packages
The initial by using this
objec-
standard
modification
the portion
sizes
required
per man
of 16.
of portion are
inclusive.
based
sizes
in the current
on use of normal
menus
portion
and soup-type
foods
increases
help to eliminate
some
of the valid
with
sizes.
those
in the
Generally,
and that of dessert-type complaints
of too many
recom-
it can be foods sweets
in the menu.
47
TABLE
I.-COMPARISON
OF DRY
PORTION Current portion
Food item
Weight, g
WEIGHT_
AND
MOL sizes Volume, cu in.
VOLUMES
Modified portion Weight, g
MOL sizes Volume, cu in.
Cereals Sugar-coated
corn flakes ..........
36.8
5.63
42.9
6.57
Toasted oat cereal ..............
24.0
9.24
36.0
13.87
Applesauce
35.0
6.99
20.0
3.99
21.0
7.25
21.0
7.25
19.0
7.25
22.2
8.47
22.5
7.25
22.5
7.25
3.46
Fruits
Fruit
...................
cocktail
Peaches
.................
.....................
Vegetables Cream-style
corn
..............
Puddings Apricot
......................
70.0
5.94
4O. 8
Banana
......................
70.0
5.24
40.8
3.06
70.0
5.93
52.5
4.45
70.0
5.51
52.5
4.13
41.0
6.80
41.0
6.80
42.0
6.80
42.0
6.80
42.0
6.80
42.0
6.80
31.0
6.80
20.7
4.54
35.0
6.80
46.7
9.07
29.0
6.80
58.0
13.59
27.0
6.80
45.0
11.33
22.0
6.80
58.7
18.14
21.0
6.80
56.0
18.12
38.0
6.80
63.3
11.32
29.0
6.80
58.0
13.59
40.0
5.80
40.0
5.80
24.5
6.80
40.8
11.32
46.0
8.81
69.0
13.22
27.5
1.88
38.5
2.57
30.0
6.59
52.5
11.53
35.0
5.19
49.0
7.26
39.0
7.46
54.6
10.44
49.0
6.10
58.8
7.32
40.0
4.42
56.0
6.19
42.0
3.56
58.8
4.98
84.0
7.12
Butterscotch
..................
Chocolate
....................
Salads Chicken
.....................
Salmon Tuna
...................... .......................
Shrimp
cocktail
................
Meats Beef
and
Beef
hash
gravy
Beef
pot roast
Beef
with
.................
vegetables
Spaghetti Veal
.................
....................
with
meat
in barbecue
Car_adian
.............
bacon
Sausage
patties
Chicken
and
..............
sauce
...........
and applesauce ................
gravy.
..............
......
Soups Cheese
......................
Cream
of chicken
Cream
of mushroom
Cream
of tomato
Lobster Pea
bisque
............... ............. ...............
.................
........................
Potato
......................
Beverages Cocoa
Tea
.......................
8.2
........................
• 56
13. I
.84
19.7
i. 27
31.5
2._5
37.8
2.46
54.6
3.52
66.3
4.28
64.4
4.05
78.2
4.92
Drinks Fruit
Fruit
drinks
drinks
Grapefruit
48
- class
- class
drink
1 ............
4 ............
- class
4 .........
21.0
39.0
46.0
1.37
2.52
2.89
After
analysis
modularlzation, study the
of the
indicated
that
modularization,
optimum
a maximum
MOL requirements.
table
food
to determine
the next
utilization
of 16 packages
Volume
per
requirements
step
was to perform
of the available day,
for this
stowage
distributed
as
distribution
a dimensional
space.
shown
were
The nutritional
in table
II, could
determined
to be as
meet shown
III.
TABLE
Type
II.-DETERMINATION
OF MODULAR
Portions ration
of food
INCREMENTS Modular increments per ration
Volume factor
per
J
Rehydratable
28
Liquid
20
Bite
16 64
TABLE
Type
HI.-FOOD
AND PACKAGE
Maximum food and package vo lume, cu in.
Average food and package volume, cu in.
Average food volume, cu in.
of food
ASSUMPTIONS
Rehydratable
8.0
14
19
Liquid
3.5
10
11
Bite
3.5
4
5
The first ages.
Spacecraft
engineering interface
task
was
the
packages
within
the best
dimension Figure
5 shows
a few of the
number
indicates
width
and the second
age high.
dimensions this
shown
overall
dictated
in figure
dimensional
for individual
) All configurations
considered
to determine
constraints
fit within
were
VOLUME
food
from
4.
the optimum
that
There
limit.
possible
are
The
packages
the ration
this
1 by 1 through
height;
shape as
many
tradeoff
configurations
indicates
(defined
obviously
first
within
modular
food for
possible
study
for the
was
food pack-
1 man
for 1 day)
dimensions
performed
for
16
to select
system. studied.
e.g.,
(In these
2 by 1 is 2 packages
10 by 1 were
examined;
sketches, wide
configurations
the
first
by 1 packover
11
not feasible.
Tradeoff
factors
(1)
Package
(2)
Availability
used
in the
study
were:
access of space
for mounting
rehydration
aperture 49
in
(3) Compatibilitywith hot-water-probeenclosure (4) Anthropometriccompatibility (5)
Maximum
package
(6)
Bite
(7)
Number
(8)
Minimum
acceptable
bite
volume
(9)
Maximum
acceptable
bite
volume
(10)
Flexibility
of bite
cross
depth
section of bites
('11) Permissible
per
modular
serving
serving
face
volume
sizes
as function
of thickness
T Ration Pack
3.7-in. Height
Depth 6.3-in. Width
_,_ -[
feeding system
Figure 4. -MOL
All factors were
were
assigned,
into the total
assigned
and any single mathematics,
spacecraft
system
which
does
not permit
from
further After
sion
was
package order use
of formed
for individual 5O
no-go
constraint, access
in the tradeoff
configuration
but I would
a thorough
selected
to make
ratings
like
eliminated
to present
the hot-water-probe to the hot-water
study.
a particular
one example. cavity
probe
In addition,
dimension.
Figure
dimensions.
for rehydration
go-no-go
numbers I cannot
6 illustrates
Any package obviously
go
a fixed
dimension
would
be discarded
the
5 by 1 dimen-
consideration.
dimension
for nutritional
numerical
assembly.
the bars,
as optimum
system was
most
body
can only be mentioned of the MOL food
rehydratables, efficiently,
desirable.
between
of different
which
modularizati0n bites,
work most
analysis,
for
for all foods,
modularity men
systems
foods sizes
With and and,
a variable
for ease therefore,
packages.
and beverages,
a loose
here,
fill of rehydratable length
An adjusting different
This
as shown
dimension, portion calorie
foods, loose sizes intake
resulted in figure
in a 7.
rather
than
fill would
of a given
In
allow
menu
requirements.
/
/
/
7
////
/ odule
./
[ Module
I
,/ //
Module
(d) 4 x 1 Module
/
/,/
//
V
le
(f) 2 x2
,_
Module
le Figure
5.-Some
food-package
configurations
studied.
51
Mouthpiece
1.125
Figure
6.-Hot-water-probe
cavity
dimensions.
J
-_-I
j
m
L
I
L__ 3.6
' Figure
52
7. -Dimensions of package module. Dimensions are in inches.
Dimensions
are
in inches.
TableIV shows,with samplesof Apollofoods,thatloose-fill foods(aftervacuumpackaging} require nomorevolumethanformedbars. Themodularpackagingrequirementalsodictateda change in shapeofthe bitesfrom shapespreviouslyshownto wafersabout½in. thick by slightly over 1 in. square. Fortunately,this shapeis in generalagreementwithAir Forcedentalresearch results onoptimumsizeof bites. TABLEIV.-COMPARISON OF FORMEDANDPARTICULATEFOODVOLUMES Volume,cuin.
Fooditem
Guide
weight,
g Formed
Shrimpcocktail
31
Beefandvegetables
22
Spaghetti andmeat sauce
21
Chickenand
21
vegetables
After were
selection
performed
of dimensions
to establish
separate
tradeoff
studies
closure
concepts.
The
of the modular
the basis were
first
rehydration
(1)
Maximum
diameter
(2)
Maximum
length
(3) Requirement
for package performed aperture
for adapter
to mate
(5)
Reliability
(6)
Potential
for
leakage
around
probes
(7)
Potential
for
leakage
during
kneading
packed
4.771
5. 381
8.665
5.259
4. 832
7.444
4.710
5. 320
7.933
5.137
4. 893
7.872
4. 710
4. 893
7.811
4. 710
4. 893
7.689
4. 771
4. 527
8.177
4.283
4. 832
8.238
4.527
4. 771
8.055
4.466
4. 893
8.482
4.527
5.137
9.031
5. 747
5.137
8.299
5.442
5. 259
8.665
5. 564
5. 259
8.909
5.625
packages,
similar
In the case the rehydration
systems
tradeoff
of the rehydratable aperture
studies package,
and package-
included:
with water
Self-closing
Vacuum
7.811
by selecting
(4)
fill
5. 015
designs.
concepts
Loose
bar
probes
feature
53
(8)
Feasibility
(9)
Valve-food
(10)
Material
(11)
Tooling
requirements requirements
The package-closure
The
concepts
Compatibility
(2)
Capability
(3)
Cross
(4)
Tendency
to be soiled
(5)
Simplicity
of operation
(6)
Capability
to be opened
with
one hand
(on console)
(7)
Capability
to be opened
with
one hand
(hand held)
concepts
(1)
face
over
end of package
of opening
were
then
package factors
functional
package
to be folded
and bite-size
were
with
section
The tradeoff cepts
included:
(1)
selected
Beverage
interference
by food removal
used studies
utilized
factors,
in developing were
performed
in selecting
system
the overall
factors,
the
rehydratable
in a similar most
and program
feasible factors.
package
concept.
manner. rehydratable The
food package
functional
factors
conwere:
Manipulation (a)
Insertion
of water
probes
(b) Rehydration (c) (2)
Opening
and reclosure
Temperature
maintenance
(3) Rehydration (4) Access
to food
(5)
Compatibility
(6)
Total
operation
factors
were:
The system (I)
Weight
(2)
Volume
(3)
Reliability
The program
factors
(1)
Schedule
(2)
Unit cost
(3)
Tooling
The tradeoff the same
aperture
three (I)
time
gloves
requirements
were: (time
to qualification)
cost factors
factors.
utilized
The functional
in selecting factors
the
most
were:
Manipulation Ca) Initial
54
with unpressurized
seal
opening
(b)
Insertion
and removal
of clamp
(if any)
(c)
Insertion
and removal
of straw
(ff any)
feasible
beverage
package
concepts
were
(2) Rehydrationaperture (3) Terminalseal (4) Safety(protrudingtabs) (5) Easeof microbiologicalstabilization Thesystem
factors
were:
(1) Weight (2)
Volume
(3) Reliability The program
factors
(1)
Schedule
(2)
Unit cost
(3)
Tooling
The
same
The functional
Cube
(3)
Crumb
Weight Volume
(3)
Reliability factors
(1)
Schedule
(2)
Unit
(3)
Tooling
bite
package
concepts.
cost
been
total
greatly
been
through
rules. the
system.
specific
developed.
These
design
and have
met
and flexibility
concepts These
as one does Design
system.
a thorough
systems
analysis
and
Preliminary
design
concepts
have
concepts the basic
on Earth. concepts
been
goals
of the
of food portions
for packaging
design
have
concepts
foods
for the foods
provide
are
the
beverages,
modular
and pro-
consumed
for greater
inPackag-
within
foods,
completely
Rehydratable
study.
usable
rehydratable are
thoroughly
with
a
flexibility
compatibility.
the progress or radical
improved,
a straw.
anthropometric
system.
Design
much
discussion,
MOL feeding
requirements
has been
in a manner
beverages,
feeding
increased.
have
the foregoing
on the
spacecraft
of the ration
foods
from
performed
for a new baseline
of the packages
(if any)
cost
has
eating
devices
to qualification)
study
improved
grated
(time
you can gather
has been
now start
feasible
were:
As I hope
ground
most
were:
(2)
During
the
the
retention
(1)
and bite-size
and
in selecting
retention
factors
ing efficiency
spoon;
utilized
were:
and reclosure
with the
for
were
{b) Opening (2)
tegrated
vide
factors
of accessory
evolved
ration
cost tradeoff
Insertion
The program
been
to qualification)
Manipulation (a)
The system
(time
factors
(1)
tradeoff
were:
Of the changes
On the basis developments
systems
analysis,
in food production
of the
systems
leading
analysis, to provision
no attempt techniques.
was The
the designers of all the
made
to establish
detail
design
systems
engineers
and food
technologists
can
as a complete
inte-
components
have
set
55
APOLLO
APPLICATIONS
I
PAUL C. RAMBAUT
REQUIREMENTS
I
NASA
Center
PROGRAM
Most mission
of you are
which
ever,
will
succeed
it is only recently The AAP
space
station
orbital
will
an Apollo
are
telescope
which
will be left
primarily
medical
The food Mercury,
Gemini,
different utilize
for
system
be different
satisfactory system, profile
and are
system. better, source,
(2)
the
much This
but is rather yet also The
reasonable
to allow
spacecraft
will
impose
Two primary ing system. criteria provides
First,
which
make
the equipment
than
of a need
will
factors:
upon
the foods
objectives there
inside
spent
mission
mission
will
the
have
same
SIVB
two AAP
flights
from on our
used
part
that
things
pressure
to
the AAP
used
system
by the AAP
as good
storage
feeding
in the past to achieve
any previous
indeed
on
to make
is substantial
foods
upon
that
not
mission
flight
feeding
conditions
as a good
are
a better
will be
conventional
food
experiment.
will
meet
AAP
missions
missions
a set
of requirements as well
profoundly
on habitability,
environment the
first
employ
requirement
feeding
a food system
the
and
objective.
flight
for
or
adapter,
The first
there
placed
station,
which
we consider
as of the constraints
that
the
and packages.
of the AAP
is an experiment
a habitable
the flight
of a medical
of the
will
a desire
Some
conditions,
to make
56-day
The requirement (1)
upon
The
different
is a pressing
How-
IB rocket.
second
in reality
space
It is actually
missions.
from
history.
docking
9 months.
an astronomy
the requirements
of the objectives
Saturn
the NASA
A three-man
This
a multiple
The
not stem
a long
Earth.
All missions
has
so there
be one which
the
of about
between
(AAP),
hardware.
of AAP.
of the
practicable.
for the conducting
solidified.
essence
system;
rigorous
or less
be substantially
does
a novel
has had
module,
be 56 days.
will
imposed
of more
system
in the light
This
two major
stringent
feeding
each
concept
above
a period
the third
of standpoints
because
over
wherever
from
is not because
true
on AAP
of flying
requirements
more
is the
state
hardware,
a number
service
in a deactivated
or MOL.
stems
from
and
Program
available
ml.
assembly.
to be used
the sake
Apollo
200 n.
to the orbital
whereas
Applications
more
or SIVB stage,
two will
missions,
Apollo,
simply existing
in orbit
been
Spacecraft
of currently
about
stage,
added
system
use
will be flown
the other
mount
has
the
workshop
second
long and
Applications
of a command
AAP missions
be 28 days
The Apollo
in orbit
consist
of the
the Apollo
upon
The orbital
fuel tank
with
its configuration largely
be assembled will
Three
tank,
that
workshop.
hydrogen
familiar
Apollo.
is based
assembly,
an orbital
will
probably
Manned
SIVB which
are
postulated
will put this
influence
which in this hypothesis
the design
is designated
M487.
experiment.
The
to the test.
The
of the feedCertain experiment habitability 57
of anyenvironmentis in largepart a functionof its foodsupply. It is theintentof M487to make absolutelycertainthatthereis nothingaboutthe foodsystemor anyothersystemwhichwill unnecessarilydetractfrom habitability. TheAAPfeedingsystemis oneofthe mostcritical elementsof theoverall life-support systemof theAAPorbital assembly. Properfoodconsumption is essentialfor sustainingthe healthandperformanceofthe astronauts.Thequalityof thefoodandtheeasewith whichit may bepreparedandconsumed will havea profoundeffectuponthegeneralpsychological,as well as thephysiological,well-beingof thecrew. Foodwhichmaybenourishingbutwhichis nothighly palatableandwhichis difficult to prepareandconsumemayadverselyaffectthe moraleandperformanceof theastronautsandwill beincompletelyconsumed. A secondprimeobjectiveof AAPis to obtainmedicaldata. A large complement of medical experimentation will beimplemented onAAPin ordertoassesstheeffectof spaceflightupon thehumanandto gatherpredictivedataregardinghis ability to withstandweightlessspaceflightof very prolongedduration. Onepart of this experimentalpackageis designedto assessthe effect of spaceflightuponmusculoskeletal function. Thecoreof theexperimentis essentiallya very preciselyperformedbalancestudy,whichis designatedM070. Sucha balancenecessarilydepends uponvery accurateknowledge of the inputandoutputof majormetabolites. Thefoodmustbesufficientlywell definedthatthis knowledge of nutrientintakemaybe derivedfrom minimalinflight datawhichwill berecordedduringthecourseof theexperiment. Thecrewwill adhereto a prearrangedor nominalmenuplanchosenby theprincipal investigator in advance.Therewill beavailablethecrewman'sdaily logof itemsleft unconsumed or of items consumed in a sequence whichdiffers from thenominalmenu. Wewill haveaninflight loggedrecordingandvoicetransmissionregardinganyresidual,partially consumed food:ternwhichcontainsmorethanI percentof theoriginal massof food. Sincetheseinflight massmeasurements imposea burdenon thecrew, it is highlydesirablethatthefoodpackagebegraduatedin a manner whichwill allowa visualestimationof foodmassremainingwithoutmassmeasurement.As additional data,wewill haveassurancethatthewatercontentof anyrehydratablefooditem will not differ from thatprescribedby theinstructionsonthepackage. Wealsoproposeto placeontheAAPfeedingsystema numberof nutritionalrequirements. It is essentialthattherecommended dietaryallowances of all vitamins,minerals, essential fatty acids, andaminoacidsbemetor exceeded by thenominalmenuwhencompletelyconsumedby thecrew. Thedietwill besodesignedthat eachcrewmanwill consumeeachdayabout 800mg of calcium. This mightbeaccomplished eitherby distributingthecalciumevenlyin a constant
calcium-to-calorie
which the crewmember a similar manner.
is most
The food flavor, For purposes governing sure 58
of designing
criterion
ratio
likely
texture, the AAP
for any increase
that the nutritional
throughout
requirements
the food or by incorporating
to consume
first.
and appearance
will
feeding
system,
or decrease of the crew
Dietary
be varied
complete
met
phosphorus
to obtain
consumption
in food variety. are
the calcium
complete
be controlled
in
consumption.
will be considered
Complete
as efficiently
will
in items
consumption
as possible
the
will
without
en-
food
waste. Menusandfooditemswill bevariedin moisturecontent,flavor, texture, nutrientcomposition, andparticle size in a mannerwhichwill ensurecompleteconsumption.Wewouldlike to avoid unnecessary variety. Consideration will begivento a modularfoodconceptwhichwill consistof a fewbasicitemswhichcanbe manipulated to providethe necessaryvariety in flavor, texture,moisture, particle size, etc. Thebalanceexperimentwill imposea requirementfor as muchhomogeneity as possible. Ideally,rehydratablefoodswill behomogenous to theextentthatany1-percentsampleof anyfood in a particularpackagewill constitutea representativesampleof thatfood. Thisrequirementwill applyto thefoodbothin wet anddry state. Thereforerehydrationoffooditems musttakeplace completelyanduniformly. All fooditems to be included in the AAP menus will be of known chemical composition. The permissible of items
variance
fed,
the intake
but it must
of each
99 percent
over
be packaged
1 percent
wise tion.
the foods
must
allow
flexibility
manipulating which
will
menu and
I have
gone
to conduct
just
choices
which
through
meets
will
ing system,
we must
The food must,
The foods
and
Telescope
will
experimental
be weighed
encourage
complete
requirements
the required
which
However,
be given
programs
will
envelope
or otherconsump-
of M070
will
seem
largely
the primary
of habitability.
If there
with the provision
sorts
numerous
the type
of course, which
of vehicles;
Mount.
and yet to means
of
be developed
on the
basis
of food
to arise
from
the effort
requirement
is to provide
are experimental
of a palatable
a
requirements
flight
allowance
of at least
withstand constitute the
double
and experimental
of environment
the rigors
in which
menu,
those
re-
of a launch
foods with
of which
the Multiple
the food will
will
its associated
will
will
at their
maintain
extremes,
to
stresses. be launched
Adapter,
will be maintained
conditions,
on the feed-
be expected
I speak
Docking
be stowed
Temperature
these
requirements
and the a nitrogen
between
40 °
and allow
8 months.
for food and flexible the caloric
these
system
Module,
1 psi.
to withstand
of at least
in which
the feeding
Command
of at least
be able
for a period
The weight
nutritional
The containers
The food must thereof
the provision
which
must
As
to remain.
demands
upon the food packages
and 85 ° F. variation
to the crewman.
consideration
a lot of requirements
levied
food packages
different
pressure
available
Computer
incompatible
consider
function.
Apollo
be readily
of a package
At
not be imposed.
Now that we have
in three
the
consumption.
progresses.
experiment.
out to be obviously
quirements
within
food known
to ascertain
complete
content
items,
requirement
facilitate
and experimental menu
as the flight
will
in a manner
of the crew's
an inflight'metabolic
system
that turn
choice
consumed
be packaged
upon the number
1 percent.
must
of the original
to the nutritional
the food supply generate
reported
feeding
in the
which
will depend
with an overall
to within
of any food package
exceeding
to adhere
period
in a manner
all food residue
In order
of any food item
to be compatible
a 56-day
of the contents
estimated,
composition
be low enough
nutrient
The food will least
in the nutrient
needs
packaging of the
crew
will
be generous
in the form
of dry
in that it will food.
The
permit packages 59
employedto protectthefoodwill
constitute
only
10 to 12 percent
of the weight
of the food plus
packaging. The choice
of the kinds
ability
of a food-heating
device
There
will be a food-management
of a conventional
eating
I have
outlined
will
hopefully
I might
elicit
reflect
compatibility medicine. progress opportunity regard.
that
such
which We shall we obtain
as Apollo
is from
within
the requirements which
much
been
has
I like
future
the
oven
more
flexible
by the probable
and a food-cooling
SIVB which
said
of experimental which
will
provide
device many
furtive
orbital
avail-
(to 40 ° F).
of the
These
to rapid and
on AAP,
greater
to glean
to endure ventures.
and amenable
of much
one for the other, humans
system.
requirements
All experiments
allow
feeding
will be flown
it is essential
not compromise
first
flight
imaginative
a precursor
present.
will
both
sets
enterprises
which
of an AAP
are
to believe,
AAP will
our
considerably
amenities
location.
of the two experimental
to these
is made
as a microwave
area
solutions
AAP is,
formation
6O
of food
i.e.,
on AAP
but we shall mission
in-
habitability
possible
are
optimize
profiles
supposed
to come.
all information
carried
implementation.
of the
things
requirements
and
Before from
the
of importance the quantity
as removed
we
in this of in-
from
AAP
SESSIONII
SPECIAL
CHAIRMAN: Chief, NASA
Office
of
Human Advanced
PROGRAMS
FRANK
B.
Research Research
VORIS Branch and
Technology
I d
OPERATIONAL-EXPERIENCE
I
FOOD SERVICE ON NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
It is timely aboard
nuclear
officers
were
missary
officers.
specialty tastes
sons.
selection
is assisted
by recognition
dishes.
There
relatively
Equipment
is similar
is minimal
and to assure devices
from
stats
and avoidance vents
frigerant
coming
storage
used
Water able.
The
care
is taken
Leaks
not to distill
and solutions
this
need
water
bags,
have
in outer can have
items
no relevance or inner
space,
a profound
tanks
are
influence
recipe group
to take
serving
care
of
100 to 150 per-
advanced
prolonged bacterial
planning standing
is reof creamed
contamination.
be taken
to prohibit
would
elements.
boxes
a potential
with
include
Cooking
All
possibly mercury
odors
are
and dry-storage source
monitoring
are
thermoexhausted
of halogenated
power
(reactor During
areas.
The rehydrocarbon
is required.
the abundant
harbors.
and still
and storage in-port
capability
avail-
batteries).
periods
Special
appropriate
bacterial
made.
the sanitary
be a subject
to the space must
toward
must
heating
and discharged
could
with
Examples
is by equipnlent
through
weighted,
of com-
Navy
and minority
in provisioning
to prevent
sources.
atmosphere
in polluted
storage
effort
and freeze
problem
of water
is discharged
Any one of these
whether
minor
of potable-water
in synthetic
chill
and careful
duties
by the
birthdays,
charged
efforts
with
provided
medical
traps.
of refrigerant
consumption
waste
contact
are
to eliminate
special
heat
grease
include
is a relatively
Liquid placed
facilities
Frequent
major
examination
in direct
or galley
preparation
and
of senority,
service
is encouraged.
of poultry
with
appropriate
is freon.
contamination.
cooking
lack
in food
with collateral
of flexibility
foods
so special
in food
in contact
submarine
holidays,
latitudes dense
experience
of their
Guidelines
of any ship
powered
of Teflon
containing
Food
wide
is taken core
of the
matter.
for food preparation,
electrically
by reason
of national
of ration
to that
sufficient
are
material
through
Use
attention
toxic
air
are
crews.
to you about operational
speak
easy
Research
Medical
Laboratory
to the romance
is a relatively
BLOOM
Submarine
primarily
Variety
Particular
heating
introduced
of the various
quired.
officer
In the past,
commonly
Space
items
a medical
submarines.
Menu service.
that
D.
through
system.
Solid
a garbage
ejector.
of a lengthy
mission.
eat and that
tank
discussion.
It is quite failure
on the completion
clear,
to consider
wastes
and debris
Many of the however,
carefully
that
are
problems man,
all aspects
of
of the mission. 63
PSYCHOLOGICAL SUBSTANTIAL
AND FOR
z
EFFECTS
|
CHARLES
F.
GELL
I
MENUS
APPETIZING
SUBMARINE
OF
Research
Submarine Medioal Laboratory
PERSONNEL
|
I ship
is,
this
stage
Comparing
the
feeding
to a large
degree,
like
of development
and the space
vehicle
food and being
unhappy
ships
to say,
prepared
and in comparative whether The
fresh
a happy
meat
storeroom
space
to carry
background
music.
late
and stimulate
the
and
its inconveniences,
process
for the
many
years
one as early
snackers
and that
reports sional
were men
sailor.
amounts
that
other
"happy
human
ships,
because,
a morale
coffee
in both trait
space-
shop.
At
the submarine
of enjoying
" and
good
"good-feeding
as we all know,
factor
the disadvantages
that
a rather
insofar
As an example,
habits
ships.
food
"
tastefully
as all military
by data,
men
are
icebox
patterns while
a submarine
The space
fleet
type.
This
relatively
constricted
space
cise
habits
significantly
so as to reduce
his
A relatively
old study
that
2400
a man
calories
per
to titilspaceship
will
require
to equalize.
were
disquieting. great
preference
narrative
there
for
Two
between-meal sweets.
observations
is a great
the feeding
format
large
vessel,
is 5 cu yd on an FBM
can very energy
in 1949 which
day
which
rather
submariners
try
and
on the eating
submarine,
been
they
imposes
engineering
is a relatively
limited.
conducted
for
for the
merely
a day,
to modify
is definitely
state
sufficient
space,
the present
with
is,
a
These
of profes-
basis.
24 hours
appear
dining
this
with a great were
daily,
that
have
that
available
a kitchen,
attitude;
the weightless case
include
adequate
we compare
said
in fact,
goods
chef
technological
on a temporary
an open
French
carbohydrate
and,
which
relatively
of submariners
and one in 1951, largely
facilities,
with bakery
weighted
of spaceship
was
hotel
the
When
as 1949, diet
have
of the crew.
of the feeding
feeding
reported
than
of food stores,
man
quirements
a standup
ship
a bakery
cooks
we have
given
certain
with
ships,"
complete
machine,
in submarines
Although, get fatter,
has rather
appetites
not supported riding
as "taut
is quite
The ship's
their
restaurant
the usual
of a projected
is unpalatable.
development
reports,
those
comparison
abundance
large
astronauts,
reports
with
who display
a good-feeding
cream
plus
of further
Some
submarine
or afloat.
an ice
even
to invite
confined
is also
submarine
freezer,
a good-sized
described
ship
ashore
modern
men food
are
Needless
concerned
is little
are
if their
of a modern
comparing
there there
In the Navy
capabilities
used
man was
weU affect
the
output,
and
oxygen
consumption
needed
in turn,
during
tendency
for fat boys
of the average the cubic type
individual's reduce
submarine
space
and only
to
for
each
2 cu yd on a
physical
exer-
food requirements.
as an index
a temperate-zone
of calorie cruise
rein a
65
fleet-typesubmarine. Shultein 1951(ref. 1)reportedfromthe Submarine MedicalResearch LaboratorythatanArctic cruiseof 42daysanda complement of 80menutilized4480cal/man/day. Actually, a 5200calorieequivalentper manof foodhadbeenprovided. Theaverageweightgain per manwas½pound. Anotherfactorthatcouldhavesomeinfluencein modifyingeatinghabitsona submarine is the shifts in carbondioxideconcentration.Carbondioxidetendsto buildupin a submarinebeff,veenair scrubbings.Thereare some200particulatesubstances in theair which,with thedayto-dayslightpressurevariationsof thevariousgaseoussubstances, mayhavesomeunknown effectsuponappetiteandfoodpreferences. Still anotherfactor thatmayaffectfoodintakeby theindividualis thatin submarinesthe olefactorystimulusis relatively high. Thedifferencethreshold(JND,"just noticeabledifference") is correspondingly high so thatit takesa "wallopof odor" for the submarinerto say, "I smell something." Theodorsof stalecigarsor freshlypeeledonionsare notordinarily noticedbecause the denominatorofWeber'sfractionis so high: DeltaI I An interesting olefactory sory
research stimulus
modalities
area
level
that
have
= (Noticeable (Absolute
increment) level of smell)
not been
exploited
has
upon
gustation
fully in view
When
34 percent;
educational
pertaining
the
chow
lines,
asked
most
66
effect
does
relationship
the high of the
absolute
two sen-
frequently
or failed
of submarine
life
(The number mentioned It should to qualify life
than
qualified they
most
of responders "most
be noted for any
liked" that
number
of the sample
80 percent;
find
anywhere sample
in the
aspect a larger of reasons
of 186 men
portion
who failed
of the
indicated who qualified.
24 percent. For
3).
life was sample that
85 percent
Along
to qualify listed
It can be seen
ex-
"I believe that
distributions
by f. )
of submarine
(ref.
follow-
61 percent;
collected.
" indicated
"true"
the percentage
pay,
to the statement,
and those
is indicated
gave the
excitement,
been
Navy,
responded
submariners liked,
and
to food have men
men
extra
and thrills
related
and 256 enlisted
of the enlisted
who were
221 enlisted
of men,
25 percent;
and opinions
you'll
OF FOOD service,
class
of 185 officers
of submarine 4).
the submarine.
disqualified aspect
ref.
beliefs
and 90 percent men
submarine
a better
eat is the best
enlisted
aspects
(see
the fifth aboard
when
what
resulted
sample
for
with
distributions
the submariners
RELEVANCE
opportunities,
to the prevailing
response
of the officer lar
volunteered
Identification
food,
the
why they
2):
Data ample,
asked
(ref.
good
what
? PSYCHOLOGICAL
ing reasons
is,
of the intrinsic
simiwere
in table
in table
I
I that
the food served of 175 men
the food was
who were
a "much
liked"
TABLEI.-ASPECTSOF SUBMARINE LIFE REPORTED AS MOSTLIKEDBYQUALIFIEDANDDISQUALIFIED SUBJECTS Qualified group
Most-likedaspect
Disqualified group
f
%
Closeinterpersonalrelations High-caliberpersonnel
49
26
32
18
27
15
34
19
Good duty
27
14
15
9 10
Money
26
14
17
Food
13
7
22
13
Friendship
8
4
14
8
Travel
and adventure
5
3
8
5
conditions
4
2
9
5
Operations
4
2
8
5
Morale
7
4
1
1
16
9
15
9
Working
Other
things
186
Total
175
Chi square p (9df)
a Since
18.52
a
< 0.05
one of the
categories
expected
were
values
combined, FOOD
The laws approximations
cruise.
diesel-powered
Guppy of total),
products
legumes
Although
able,
on the
85-day
men,
and civilian
10 tons
of meat,
tables,
bread,
total submerged
rate
of data
during
scientists
consumed
935 lb of ice cream
buoyancy
kind
a 42--day
available.
For
patrol, 2137
1038
(2 percent),
and
data
from
most
87 men lb of cereal
Ib of sweets
two
and volume be available example,
consumed
nuclear
of the Triton, of provisions, mix,
3547
(13 percent),
and lesser
that
prior
to a
lb of meat 1132
lb of
445 lb of food products
submarines the
require
in an older,
(6 percent),
726 lb of miscellaneous
modern
of the 38 tons 460 Ib of cake
to its mass weights
(6 percent),
circumnavigation
mix,
last
of various
are
(38 percent),
foods
5, the
Consumed
of foods
of this
food-consumption world
of Foods
the submarine's
943 lb of fruit
356 lb of fatty
than
OF SUBMARINERS
Kinds
6219 lb of vegetables
(7 percent),
(3 percent),
(4 percent).
and
submarine
less
9 df.
consumption
Examples II type
was
PREFERENCES
relating
of the expected
long-submerged
(21 percent
of physics
for morale
leaving
Amounts
dairy
f
%
are
225 officers,
not availenlisted
including
1300
lb of coffee,
amounts
of canned
vege-
and so on.
67
Changes in AppetiteandFoodPreferencesDuringProlonged Submerged Cruises Reference5 containsindividualsubjectiveestimatesof thedaily foodconsumption ofa randomsampleof the Nautiluscrewduringa 2-weeksubmerged cruise. Fromtheplotsof averages for this sampleof 30menit appearsthatfoodconsumption remainedrelativelyconstantalthough therewasa greatdealof individualvariabilitywithin thegroupfrom dayto dayas thecruiseprogressed. In thedecadesince1959,morethan40FleetBallistic Submarines (FBM's)havebeen commissioned.Manned by twocrewsof approximately125officersandenlistedmen,this classof submarineshasbecomethe centralfocusfor a greatdealof research,includingappetiteanddietary research. Therefore,therest of thepaperwill presentdatacollectedfrom FBM'sduring protractedsubmerged cruisesin excessof 50days. Whena dietarystudywasconducted onboardtheUSSNathanHale(SSBN623) duringone patrol, 50enlistedvolunteersprovideddataconcerningdaily foodintake,daily mealandsnack distributions,Weeklyappetitechanges,weeklyfoodpreferences,puretastethresholdsandbody weightvalues. Thesedata(abstracted andslightly modifiedfromref. 6)are givenin tableH. TABLEH.-SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OFAPPETITEDURING EACHWEEKOFSTUDY
Week
Muchbetter f
%
1
their
%
f
%
2
7
15
37
2
4
5
11
0
0
2
1
2
0
Nu mbe r of subjects, N
f
%
79 2
4
0
0
47
30
64 10
21
0
0
47
3
51
84
8
13
0
0
61
5
10
31
63 12
24
0
0
49
0
5
10
33
67
9
18
2
4
49
1
2
5
10
32
67
8
17
2
4
48
1
2
3
6
37
75
7
14
1
2
49
appetite
that,
in general,
remained
reported
their
the
same.
appetite
from
f
Muchworse
%
of the sample 68
Better f
It is seen that
Appetite Same Worse
two-thirds However,
to be worse
to three-fourths as the cruise than
reported
or more
progressed it to be better.
of the crew
reported
disproportionately Responses
more to a
a direct questionpertainingto whichmealsa mancharacteristicallyate indicatedthatas thesubmergedcruiseprogressedmorepeoplemissedthenoonandeveningmealswhilefewermissed breakfast. Somerather grossinformationpertainingto changesin specificfoodappetiteduringextendedperiodsof submergence canbeinferredfrom a comparisonof therelative frequencywith whichthe samesampleof crewmembersindicatedthe 'best" andthe "leastliked" foodsat different timesduringa 7-weekcruise. Thesedatapertainingto foodpreferences(abstractedandslightly modifiedfrom ref. 7)are containedin tableIII. TABLEIII.-BEST ANDLEASTLIKEDFOODSELECTIONS Prepatrol (control)
Foods f
Second
Meats
f
[ I
liked
selections
% Best
115
74.2
week
117
Fifth
%
Seventh
week
f
%
week
f
%
81.8
119
90.9
108
78.3
Green-yellow
veg.
19
12.3
9
6.3
10
6.8
11
8.0
Carbohydrate
veg.
14
9.0
13
9.1
12
8.2
11
8.0 1.4 4.3
Legumes
2
1.3
2
1.4
2
1.4
2
Desserts
5
3.2
2
1.4
4
2.7
6
Total
Least Meats
147
143
155
Selections
138
selections
liked
23
16.8
18
13.6
0
0.0
16
12.9
Green-yellow
veg.
82
59.9
65
49.3
66
57.4
57
45.9
Carbohydrate
veg.
23
16.8
37
28.0
38
33.0
40
32.3
9
6.5
12
9.1
11
9.6
11
8.9
Legumes Total
The authors tables, liked
point
in that as the
order.
cruise
In short, not remarkably pect
out that
report
tion,
"If you could
distribut
already
ions
liked"
also
concluded
on patrol.
of the environment,
study
"most
and
"least
liked"
is the possibility
foods
that
are
124
consistently
carbohydrate-type
meat
and vege-
vegetables
are
less
progresses.
changed
FBM
the
Mentioned
the
Additional
115
132
137
Selections
but,
data
bearing
mentioned order
of these
dinner
choices
that
in general
The changes
in any event,
are
that
6).
from for each
week
are
difficult
not considered
of specific
food preferences
The authors (this)
do occur
motivation
of a nature
on the question (ref.
the hunger
menu, of the
simply what course
asked
would are
your
the
to relate
is
to any one
as-
alarming. are
50 men
choices
abstracted
of submariners
contained
to answer
be ?" in table
in an the
ques-
Frequency IV. 69
TABLE
IV. -ANSWERS
Food
TO MENU,
QUESTIONS "IF WHAT WOULD
YOU COULD ORDER DINNER YOUR CHOICES BE ?"
FROM
1
Number 2
in week6
3
6
4
4
5
5
4
35
36
38
41
37
36
37
3
2
3
0
4
4
4
item
of men 3
choosing 4
item 5
(THIS)
7
Appetizer Kadota
figs
.........
Seafood
cocktail
.......
Herring
with
sour
aspic
.........
cream
Salad Tomato Avocado Red
kidney
bean
16
13
16
17
16
17
16
16
17
15
17
17
17
18
11
14
15
13
14
12
12
13
16
15
17
21
14
14
23
20
21
23
18
20
26
10
9
10
13
7
Soup Cream
of tomato
Beef
.......
broth
Potato
.......
8
9
Entree SpaghettiCold
cuts
..........
Pork
sausages
Vegetables Rice
22
24
26
25
24
22
27
15
14
15
16
16
15
14
7
7
6
8
9
i0
7
8
8
........
(2 choices)
.............
Spinach
...........
Carrot
.....
15
18
7
5
3
5
8
7
29
24
10
15
7
8
Cabbage Corn Broccoli Potato
............ ........... ............
6
15
9 11
10 11
7
8 13
9 13
7
7
5
10
11
8
8
26
24
23
29
28
13
16
16
16
16
12
12
7
10
Beverage Black
coffee
Coffee
with
Coffee Coffee
.........
20
22
22
25
27
26
26
sugar
16
15
13
15
14
13
15
_ith
cream
5
7
10
6
7
5
6
with
cream
and
sugar
-
-
2
11
28
31
28
29
26
31
29
11
9
13
13
14
10
12
6
5
5
9
6
1
Dessert Banana
7O
pudding
Assorted
cheeses
Assorted
nuts
........ .......
5
7
CONCLUDING It can reasonably (1) The abundant
Navy
be assumed apparently
and appetizing
critical
rarely
food
(3)
Mom's
Except
for
and
character.
procedure
such
for the
provide
as may
appear
Hopefully,
on the
results
of the
has
are
in the
matter
paper
that:
of supplying
it is one
high quality.
One
to be good.
of food aboard
been
a submarine
of foods
unearthed
seem
detailing
neurotics.
sailors,
seems
to be
to be of a normal
is quite
of engineering
6 are
best
space
is due to the
ship
which
will be unsatisfactory.
atmosphere
presented
habits
thorough.
in space
congenial
eating
no doubt,
a rotating
feeding
a more
erotic
This,
which
periphery,
in reference
sailor,
is not overdone.
submarine
provide
its present
supposed
Choice
confirmed
in its outer
study
in the present
to the submarine
from
ingestion
snacking
in some
Moon will
concern
open.
NASA is capable
G loading
residence The
until
sailors
they
the
literature
of potential that,
a moderate
because
is always
be found
submarine
by its
it degenerate
deviations,
submarine
presented
to be a major
should
the icebox
of the data
cruises.
Between-meal
selection
It would can
though
No specific
and preferences
well
dinners
moderate
even
satisfactory
arise
Sunday
a review
done
not seem
could
not immoderate
(4)
does
attitudes
compliments
has
food on prolonged
(2) Although in which
from
REMARKS
for
by quoting
eating.
the
abstract
eat abnormally
high
of that
report: "Some
previous
reports
and
their
of carbohydrates
that
would
lead
one to expect
patrol
for long periods.
Hale
(SSBN623)
ported
beliefs.
a moderate
great
diet oral
A detailed
to evaluate It was
amount
indicated
that
habits
include
health
problems
dietary
that
the
The FBM
of between-meal
between
meal
in submariners; health
findings
crew
snacking.
crewmen
many
and oral
the problem.
found
submarine
snacks.
If true,
particularly
study
was
essentially
done
ate an essentially
these
in those
aboard
disprove
amounts
the
facts
on
USS Nathan
the previously
re-
diet
only
well-rounded
with
"
REFERENCES 1.
Schulte,
2.
Youniss,
John
Apr.
Richard
Weybrew,
King,
Patrol
Weybrew,
6.
Kropp,
in the Arctic.
MRL
Rept.
No.
171,
No.
H.B.
278,
Nov.
MRL Rept.
of Disqualification
Submarine
Duty
and Its Relation
to
1956.
: Approaches
Service.
Correlates
B. : Psychological
MRL Rept.
August
Members.
Rept.
for
to the No.
321,
Study Oct.
of Motivation
of Officer
1959.
in the Submarine
Service.
MRL
Rept.
No.
1957.
Submergence.
Summitt,
Submarine
T. : Some
Benjamin
and Oral
MRL
of Motivation
B. ; and Molish,
for the
Aug.
5.
Success.
Benjamin
Bert
291,
7.
of a Submarine
P. : An Investigation
School
Candidates 4.
Study
1951.
Submarine 3.
H. : A Dietary
D. ; and
Hygiene James
Status K. ; and
NSMC
No.
Shiller,
Rept.
and Psychophysiologteal
281,
Feb.
William
in Submariners. Shiller, No.
William 539,
July
Effects
of Long
Periods
of
1957.
R. : Personal NSMC
Rept.
R. : Dietary
Habits No. Habits
and Diet 528,
May
in Relation
to Periodontal
1968.
and Related
Factors
in FBM
Crew
1968. 71
TEKTITE I FOOD DEVELOPMENTS
Tektite Research, with
I is a multiagency
the National
participation
which
Aeronautics
by the U.S.
furnished
the
and and
Coast
undersea
industry
R. W.
I
General
program
Space
jointly
The prime
and assisted
SCARLATA Electric
sponsored
Administration,
Guard.
habitat
I
and the
contractor
in program
Co.
by the
Office
Department
is the
planning
of Interior,
General
and
of Naval
Electric
scientific
Co.,
mission
coordination. On February floor the
in Great four
April studies;
is nearly
time
to the scientific
sight
cleanup
of fish
a picture
U.S.
Virgin
Islands
and occupied
a new world's
record
for
returned
to the surface
activity
developed
the underwater
for living,
operations,
expected
to require
mission.
The scientific
biologic
and geologic swimming
of this
sea
by changed
story.
) An overall
the system,
studies.
scientific
The scientific
evaluations, unknown
man's
first,
description
mission
and behavioral hazards
ous
similarities
that
in both
studies
of long-term between
the crews
categories
take
were
The habitat tion.
Each
cylinder
compartments
have
cupola
for additional
consists
of two,
scientific
as well
plexiglas observation
on
appliances,
cook-
apply
more
of undisturbed
(Perhaps
"psychological
needs"
the
fish,
tempting
for food,
mission
but that
and habitat
will
on food.
into the sea.
of sleep biology, of men as the
to zooplankton marine
under sharks
programs
Almost
biomedical
Stresses
and barracuda.
may
aqua-
distribution
geology,
stress.
every
be summarized
included The numerby stating
along.
DESCRIPTION
interconnected,
is 12_ ft in diameter 2-ft-diameter
marine
environment HABITAT
On
scientific
could
studies
of the scientific
analysis
and aerospace
their
in situ
mission
group
diving
the hydrospaee must
the
of an isolated
saturation
team.
MISSION
scientific
from
18, 1969,
the emphasis
aquanauts
Bay.
and the constraints
long-term
significance,
crew's
with
preparation,
the
in Lameshur
the
of marine
habitat
so that
involved
specimens
By March
by a single
58 days
Food
time,
mission
to the ocean
record.
and maintenance. minimum
diving
over
engineering
I was
had
with
descended
the habitat.
saturated
Co.
SCIENTIFIC
naut
scientists
diving
of the program,
Tektite
of Interior
saturation
and lobsters part
Department
the previous
were
and other
is the latter give
double
of design
and
lobsters,
team
Electric
ing,
U.S.
Bay in the
the aquanaut
General simplicity
four
had established
1969, this
1969,
Lameshur
aquanauts
15,
15,
and is divided observation of underwater
18-ft-high
cylinders
into upper ports.
installed
and lower
Atop
on a base
compartments.
one cylinder
secAll
is an observation
life. 73
TheSurfaceControlCentersupplies11.6CFHof air to thehabitat,whichmaintainsthe oxygenlevel at 160mmpartial pressure. This exchange of air is 0.34percentof thetotal volume. Onecanconsiderthehabitata 99.66percentclosedatmosphere.Carbondioxide(CO2)is scrubbed withbaralyme. Thatsea-waterpressurein themainhatchis equaledby the 2_-times-normal atmosphericpressureof thehabitat,permitsthis hatchto remainopenthroughout themission. Aquanauts enterthehabitatby openingthesharkcagedoor, swimmingthroughthebase tunnel,andclimbinga ladderthroughthemainhatchintothewetroom. Scuba equipment andwet suits are removed,rinsed, andstoredin closets. As cleanlinessanddrynessare very important to health,a shower,hair dryer, andclothesdryer are put to constantuse. Wetanddry laboratoriespermit dissection,preparation,andexaminationof specimens.Thewater, air pressure, communications, andelectricumbilicalsfrom theSurfaceControlCenterenterthewet roomnear theladderof theengineroom. Uponclimbingtheladderintothe engineroom, oneseesthelarge EnvironmentalControl Systemin the center. It containsheat-exchanging, dehumidifying,filtering, andCO2 scrubbing systems. Theelectricpowersystemandcontrols,a largefoodfreezer, a washbasin,a toilet, anda hot-waterheaterare installedalongtheroom'sperimeter. Theinterconnecting tunnel leadsto thebridge. Thebridgeprovidesfor stationmonitoring,communications, andscientificequipment. A NASAatmosphericanalyzercontinuouslymonitorsnitrogen,oxygen,water-vapor,andCO2 partial pressures. Portablebackupatmosphere monitorsare usedto checktrace gasessuchas carbonmonoxide(CO)andacrolein. A mastercommunications panelinterconnectseachhabitat compartment,the SurfaceControlCenter,andwaystationsin thesurroundingwater. Additional communications systemsincludeopenmicrophones,a sound-powered phone,anda regularphone for talkingto surfacepersonnel.A dualtelevisiondisplayis usedto monitorcrewactivitiesin eachcompartment andnearbyunderwaterareas. Downtheladderfrom thebridgeare thecrewquarters. This sectioncontainsfour bunks, refrigerator-freezerandoven-stovecombinations, anda counterwith a built-in sink. Radioand televisionprovideeveningentertainment whilethecrewsit onfoldingchairsandeatdinnerat a fold-awaytable. Underneath therug is anemergency hatchwhichpermitsthecrewto escapeto nearbywaystationswithemergencyair bottles. RESEARCH TEAMCONCEPT Crewparticipationbeganearly in theprogramwhenthe researchteamconceptwasdeveloped"to encourage teameffort andspirit withthe singlepurposeof a successfulmission" (ref. 1). Initially, this conceptwasdesignedso thatthecrewcouldcontributeto all phasesof missionplanningandoperations.However,interestspreadandall theengineersweresoondeeply involvedin developing Tektiteonschedule.Thetime between proposalsubmittalandthe start of 1 theoperationalmissionwas 14_months.
74
FEEDINGSYSTEM Initial SystemConstraints Foodequipment originallyconsistedof a combination"GriddleandPressureCooMng Fixture" developed for torpedoboatsduringWorldWarII. The freezerstored16cu ft of foodand therewasanadditional2.2 cuft of frozenfoodstoredin thecombinationrefrigerator-freezer. Sincethehabitatenvironment wasapproximatelya 99.66percentclosedatmosphere with limited scrubbingandfiltering capability,cookingwaslimited initially to heatingfood,pressure cooking,occasionalbaking,andbroiling precooked meats. Pressurecookingwaseliminatedduringa test sessioncalledthe "live-in. " Thecookingfixture wastoocomplicatedandall cooking wouldbeunderpressurein theregularmissionregardlessof thecookingvesselin use. Frying foodrepresented a primary sourceof contaminants.Inthefrying process,animalfatswere brokendowninto COandacrolein. Early in the closed-atmosphere studiesby the GeneralElectric Co., COwasfoundto appearandslowlyincreasein a two-gasspacecraftsimulator. Detailedinvestigationsfoundthat smallamountsof COwerecontinuously producedin thebodyandexhaled(ref. 2). Sjostrand demonstrated thatit occursthroughthebreakdown in hemoglobin (ref. 3). Manexhalesabout 10cc of COper day. If theoxygencontentis lower thannormal,andthe CO2 contentincreased, the formationof COis increased(ref. 4). Thefour aquanauts couldproduce40cc of COper day. Theoretically,onthebasisof human-produced COalone,theAir Forcesafetylimit of 25ppmfor continuous occupancy wouldbe reachedonthe 60thday. Actually, theCOlevel stabilizedearlyat 20ppmandremainedthere throughoutthemission. The0.34percenthourly changein thehabitatatmosphere wasgivenas theprobablereasonthatCOdidnot buildupandpasssafetylimits. Menu Themenuwasdeveloped througha seriesof iterationsbeginningwitha 5-dayrepeating menu. As expected,theaquanauts complained of novariety andthevegetables wereevaluated as "like occasionally." An Air Force "foodfor spacetravel" report (ref. 5)hada 30-daymissionmenuthatwas distributedto the crewfor comment. Thecrewcommented,"This is morelike it, butcouldn'twe havechili, enehaladas, tacosandtamales?" TwomembershadstartedSealabIII trainingandhad heardthatpreviousSealabcrewslost their senseof tasteduringthemission. Their theorywas thatspicyfoodwouldhelppreventeverythingfrom havinga blandtaste. Thesespicyfoodswere assignedto snackprovisioning,sinceit wastoo lateto obtainaccuratecaloric contents. An additionalrequestwasthat25percentof all mainmealsbe frozenTV dinnersbecause3 hoursof swimmingwouldmakethecrewtootired to preparemeals. Finalrevisionsto ttiis menuoccurredduringthe3-daytrainingperiodin December. Fresheggswererequested,but nooneknewif theycouldsurviverapidpressurechanges.At leastonemealeachweekwouldbe fully preparedby thecrew, andwouldincludemuffins, 75
biscuits, or layer cakes. Againnooneknewwhetherstandardbatterwouldrise properly in oven.
Following
higher
atmospheric
to the next
this
meeting,
one
pressures
batter
food company
had never
if the first
cake
searched
been
reported.
did not rise
properly.
the literature They
and found
recommended
that
adding
the
baking
baking
under
powder
Training Two pamphlets, were
developed
assure
that
and included
proper
growth
cool
water
manual thus
and
(ref.
an excess
and steadier
supply
training
prevents
neither of water wet
to underwater
the liver
from
rendering
could
by eating
too many
Eating
and also
protein
calories nor
of 80 ° F was
foods
provide
extra
like
heat
meat
while
U.S.
starches
animal
unless
for
immersed
The
beforehand
through
protein
eat-
in
Navy diving
and sweets
will provide protein
and
a longer
digestion.
Requirements
swimming
swimming
occur
to
(For example,
animal
not the answer.
Concepts,"
emphasized
diving.
were
hyperglycemia
Food
were
of how to keep warm
rate
of 1 mile/hr,
in snacks
be in the
were
water
not considered
the
aquanauts
considered
for more
sufficient
than
an important
would
3 hours
caloric
expend
as the crew
daily.
factor
360 would
The minimum
since
the crew
wore
suits. Food Since
Frozen-food were cluding
frying
was
priorities
supposed dozens
hamburger,
were
eggs,
and bread.
This
of the mission
director
16,
Sunday
told
them
but went are
more
Second pie was
quested
along Third
the first
with week,
month
to celebrate
started,
several
9 half-gallons
change
it was
was
stored.
provisions,
unable
that
to find
Note : the crew
an approved
items
procedure
to eat.
food
were
of ice cream,
anecdotes:
the crew
ready
Although
food
in the following
evening,
frozen
and TV dinners.
in an interesting
week,
missing,
the
an apple
crew pie
requested suddenly
the missing
started
toward
food.
The
did not follow
appeared
by the dumbwaiter.
fresh
daily
the
pref-
eggs.
on the television Additional
eggs
monitors. were
re-
and vegetables.
the crew
an aquanaut's
began
requesting
wife prepared
30th day underwater.
more a beef
fresh stroganoff
foods. dinner
in-
and 24 pounds
Mexican
since
priorities
to the crew.
to the habitat
their
purchased
resulted
where
milk
were
steak,
the mission
important
week, sent
foods
as described
to snack
End of first
crew
to veal,
48 TV breakfasts,
erences
This
given
of fresh
Feb.
menu
also
Selection
all fried
before
week
test
not permitted,
to be complete
cake,
of the first
76
concepts
and carbohydrates
additional
temperature
food
"Basic
led to discussions
of a maximum
be continuously
'' and
Sugar
of dextros
One thousand
Basic
and applied
Caloric
calories.
I>reparation
) This
of insulin.
On the basis
Food
manual.
understood
hours. that
in Frozen
protein
maintenance.
several 6) warns
causing
was
with animal
for
Facts
in the
nutrition
ing carbohydrates body
"Basic
At the end of for the
of
the end
Duringthe secondmonth,foodlists weresentto thesurfaceonthe averageof threetimeseachweek. Preliminaryreports from thecrewindicatethateatingturnedoutto betheir majorentertainment. Pre-preparedmealswerepoor. Individuallypreparedmealsweregood. Therewere lntermittantannoyances with therefrigerator andstove. Wedonotknowpresentlywhetherthese annoyances werefailures or a functionof thehighatmosphericpressurein baking. If Tektitewereto bedesignedoveragain,thefollowingchanges wouldbe made:
are
kept
(1)
Add a fast
(2)
Develop
recipes
(3)
Monitor
food
cool, (4)
In addition
Provide
food kept
for
with
(3)
Does
the complex
sense
(4)
Should
cooking
be assigned
(5)
Space
to Mars.
to the
and frozen
only
frozen
foods
foods
are
cooking
equipment.
into more
appetizing
frozen,
meals.
refrigerated
foods
a food subsystem. consider
foods
the following
remain
safe
questions:
to eat and palatable
?
Could
frozen
?
of the appetite
are
iron
properly.
frozen
part
as a voyage
that
to develop
Salmonella
scientists
and a waffle canned
the future,
What
is a function of taste
of food
really
change
as the primary
concerned Food
about
preparation
preparation
cooking
odors
?
?
activity
crew
and
of one crew
member
on such
long-duration
inactivity
and cooking
could
use
6 hours
?
every
space day.
Is
? interplanetary
for the
challenge
foods
to see
(2)
Future
the
to turn
shipments
changes,
infected
the answer
enough
designed
How long can different
become
this
a toaster,
a food expert
to these
missions
baker,
and nonfreezable
(i) eggs
potato
crew
spacecraft
to have
canned
is to provide
and frozen
foods
and orbiting
foods
for
technical
advances,
delicious
dinners
into
many
space
stations
meals.
Tektite
training, in closed
recipes,
are
expected
started
to be large
in this
and menus
direction,
to make
basic
but canned
atmospheres.
REFERENCES 1.
Miller,
2.
Schaefer,
May
Gerald: 15,
Sjostrand,
Clemson,
5.
Taylor,
nautik
6.
Anon.
T. : The
and
Cohesiveness.
Gen.
Elec.
Co.
Memo,
Formation
4,
no.
Vol.
133,
; Finkelstein,
Capabilities
and
Space
Flight,
Monoxide
by the
Decomposition
of Carbon
: Toxicological
vol.
A.A.
in Manned
Bioastronautics.
The
Mac-
1964.
Scandinav.,
C.J. 1,
Current
Compatibility
Requirements
(New York),
Physiol.
4.
July,
: Gaseous
Co.,
Acta
Crew
1968. K.E.
millan 3.
Tektite
26,
No.
Aspects p.
338,
of Hemoglobin
(in Vivo)._
1952.
of Sealed
Cabin
Atmospheres
of Space
Vehicles.
Astro-
159.
B. ; and Hayes, Future
Needs.
R.E.
: Food
ARDC-TR-60-8,
for
Space Andrews
Travel: AFB
An Examination (Washington,
of D.C.
),
1960. : U.S.
Navy
Diving
Manual.
l>t.
1,
Navships
Rept.
250-538,
1963.
77
FOOD PLANS
FOR SEALAB
[II LOUELLA C. PETERSON Navy Subsistence Office
The food Whereas
most
foods"
service
foods
home
for
use.
tations
many
the-sea
favorite
foods
Officer
had proven
there
was
problems
simply
sent The
cases
of chili
weather than
shopper,
used
Bond,
for
day:
From
to them
steadily.
tion with
enough
been
for the Office
they
are
in supermarkets
despite
chili,
for
the cooking
limi-
will
meals
aquanauts
balls,
stressed
beef
Sealab
by Captain
III phase
of the
had not participated
how the experience
eat
stew,
and
foods fond
little
experiment
menu.
to provide
meals
It was
to 10 days,
3 weeks
under
Sealab
the men
I
Someone
fortunate
because
Soalab
of the many
stocked
probably
Sea-
opera-
For
concern. for
foods,
for
these
Because
of minor
Bond,
man-in-
system.
food was
else.
Navy's
during
service
of Mexican
George
in food plans
gained
food
and no planned
canned
but with
varied
annoying divers
to time they
were
Although
menu
prepared
consisting
of nourishing,
problems
the men
and wouldn't
the
I with
that
bad
had had more
of canned satisfying
encountered food when
requested
that
wanted
some
roasted,
tired
of meat-and-gravy
combination
cook
on the top,
and
the aquanauts
averaged
meals
toast
a 5-1b weight
it,
and some was,
in the 45-day
they
fingers
foods
according
operation.
perhaps
dishes.
There
gain,
were times
or fried
meats
Their
pancakes
and peanut there
foods
to Captain
six or seven
grilled,
burned,
dehydrated
butter
was general
no a
be sent
down
scorched consumption dissatisfac-
the food. In May 1966,
system
has
the experiment
the 21-day
II, the provision
the
because
on the bottom rose
Sealab
time
foods
to be extremely
tamales,
a reasonably
meals;
and
flights.
"tomorrow
because
even available
and meat
space
food.
one of the most
organized
foods"
atmosphere,
spaghetti
program
before
to buy
shortened
of this
are
for
considered
"today
on board,
food and an organized
service
who happened
conditions
enough
fries,
in detail
of good food
and
cook
planned
are
HI are
and many
no rated
familiar
explained
divers
con carne
feeding
Subsistence
to be resolved
Although was
defined
one of the
sea.
has
missions
for Sealab
Investigator
the Navy
Bond
space
as that
men.
and for
the importance
no clearly
technical
planned
French
and Principal
II, Captain
tions
during
helium-nitrogen-oxygen
of Navy
Since
III is as interesting
use
III will have
and
for variety
program. I or
Sealab
hamburgers
Medical
for
foods
by the pressurized
The need Chief
all
Sealab
and institutional
though
chicken, other
for
or planned
public,
restaurant Even
imposed
of fried
labs
used
by the general
available
planned
for
Sealab
HI,
when Captain
the
Navy
Subsistence
Bond and
Comdr.
Office Jackson
was
requested
Tomsky,
to develop
On-Scene
a food service
Commander
for 79
SealabIH, briefedus aboutfutureplansandfurnishedsomegroundruleswhichwouldaffectthe foodservicesystem. For successive12-dayperiods,five 8-manteamswouldlive in andworkoutof a habitat in oceandepthsof 450to 600ft off SanClementsIsland,Calif. Duringthe 60-dayoperation,experimentsin oceanography, physiology,deep-seaoceansalvage,equipment performance,and constructionwouldbecarried out. Because of thephysicaldemands,thecomplexityof tasksthe teamswouldundertake,andthe psychological effectsof living undertheseunusualconditions, CaptainBondrequestedthatmealsfurnish4500caloriesper manper day, besatisfying,andbe as normalas possiblewithin thefollowinglimitations: (1) Therewouldbenoratedcook;theaquanauts wouldtaket-turns preparingmeals. (2) Sincetherewouldbea predominantly heliumatmosphere in thehabitattherewouldbe nofresheggcookery,no frying, andnogrilling, in orderto avoidproductionof toxic gasesin the Sealabenvironment.Theheliumatmosphere wouldalsodull the men'ssensesof smellandtaste. (3) Foodswouldbeunderpressuresof upto 270psi; canscontainingdry lightweight foodswouldcrushto thepointthat theycouldnotbeopened. (4) Therewouldbe onlylimited storagespacefor food:7 cu ft chill, 27cu ft freeze, and 75cu ft dry storage. Replenishments wereto beheldto theminimumthatwouldnotseriously compromisethe makeupof themenu. In additionto menus,preparationinstructions,loadoutandreplenishment schedules, recommendations onfoodpreparationequipment,andcoordinationof requisitioning,procurement, andpositioningof all foodsupplieswereneeded. Figure1 showsSealabIII. Theoverall lengthis 62½ft; its width, 19ft; its height,38ft; andits weight,299tons. Thegalleyis in the centersection. Dry storageis overheadin the sectionto theright of the galley, andthefreezeris in the lowerright section.Galleyequipment consistsof aninfrared oven,a 4-burnerelectric hotplate,a smallrefrigerator, andhotandcold runningwater: Thesleeping/dining areais in thesectionto theright of thegalley. Figure2 showsanartist's conception of the surfacesupportshipandSeaIab III. TheUSSElk River (IX - 501), built originallyas a LandingShip,MediumRocket,wasmodifiedto supportunderwaterprograms suchas SealabIH. This shipprovidesstowagefor thevariousgasesrequiredin the Sealabexperiment, thecommand andcommunications centerfor SealabIII, thephysiologicalmonitoringand medicalcenter, twodeckdecompression chambers,andtwopersonneltransfercapsules.Figure 3 showsthedeckdecompression chamber. Theplancalls for four mento entereachchamber for compression to a pressureof 270psi (requires24hr). Then,four menwill entereachpressurizedpersonneltransfer capsule(fig. 4) for descentto thehabitat. Whentheyarrive there, the SealabIII FoodServiceSystemwill beput tothetest. Indeveloping anyfoodplan, thefirst logicalstepis to determinerelativeacceptance of differentfoods. SincetheNavyExperimentalDivingUnit is locatedabouta blockawayfromthe NavySubsistence Office, it providedanideal, thoughunusual,site for a test galleyand,in addition, a cooperativegroupof taste-testpanelists:Navydiversin trainingfor SealabIII. Thefirst acceptancetestsconducted wereontheexcellentfreeze-dehydrated entreesdeveloped by theArmy 8O
!
Figure1.-SealabIII.
Natick Laboratories points
for the
of stowage,
amazingly cause
tested.
For
they
small
Next,
first
stability,
good,
of the
rejected
piece
maximum
out because
out and approved
selected
precooked
frozen
that
would
stated
often
as once For
and
they
Patrol
completely
(in their
and ease tubes
Ration.
of preparation.
for use.
tested
Using
rendered the oven,
entrees. to eat
some
were
ideal
the divers
as
III food plans
Sealab
entrees
under
entrees
Although
the similar
frozen
seepage
and canned be willing
These
of reconstitution
were
helium
as far
opinion)
of precooked
speed
checked
and
them
size
Microwave
ruled
Range
and ease
the acceptances
necessary.
and were
Long
selected
of these
entrees,
simulated them
inoperable.
of them
Were
canned
as often
these
entrees
An infrared
as twice
were oven
was
of Sealab
oven was
acceptance highly
a week,
be-
entrees.
conditions
entrees
were
concerned
a microwave
and conducted
rated
the stand-
the entrees
of different
atmospheric
we prepared
The divers
thought
appearance and
from
III
then
tests
on
acceptable
and many,
as
a week. maximum
Sealab
IH, we developed
12-day
stay
stowage
on the bottom.
efficiency
a 6-day-cycle Remembering
and for simplification menu. that
Each the
team Sealab
will
of the food service repeat
II aquanauts
the cycle had
tired
once
system
aboard
during
its
of meat
and
gravy 81
Figure 82
2.-Artist's
conception
of surface
support
ship
and
Sealab
HI.
Figure
combinations, that were was
the
we made packed
without
frankfurter;
help
both
The
was
precooked
to satisfy uncertain
that
related
to Sealab
III's
atmospheric
infrared
oven,
additional
acrolein
production
find a way to serve
acrolein tested sulted. roast
frozen hazard.
When
in atmospheric Other pork
loin,
most
serve
roast
turkey,
Sealab
6-day Swiss
steak,
those are
common
are
the precooked
the
of Sealab
pot roast beef
stew,
were
category
fried
chicken
included
in the
because
of a problem
were
concerned
menus
We found in aluminum into
the bun.
chili
spaghetti
con carrie, and meat
heated that
But we were
l]I and no problems
of beef, and
also
though,
III atmosphere.
fat renders
in this
entrees,
hamburgers
officers
them
meat
meats
meats.
for awhile,
medical
or easy-to-prepare
popular
or gravy,
and familiar
and wrapping
is heated,
menu
and most
so we experimented.
buns
simulating
frozen
Two other
sauce
When
hamburgers,
the hamburger
in the
ham.
in the Sealab
in hamburger
precooked
hamburgers
conditions. off.
chamber.
obtainable
for plain
be a problem
entrees
easily cooked
desires
we could
conditions
suitable
without
the aquanauts
hamburgers
to find
and frozen
fat rendered
would
decompression
boneless
the divers'
It was
cooked
effort
gravy.
another
and hamburgers, and will
a special
3.-Deck
that
in the
resulting
determined placing
to the pre-
foil eliminated This
the
method
was
with acrolein
re-
beef
shortribs,
balls. 83
Figure
Since after
several
decided along hash
fresh
egg cookery
was
failures,
Sealab
II aquanauts
to take with
the work
precooked
and creamed
all in either
fresh
produce
to send
mail
plenished
of the food
items
in the
supplies
The instructions by-step
84
directions.
foods,
list
guide
to prepare
cooking
with
and cheese
varied, menus
each
(vegetables,
cereals,
The aquanauts
forms. by means
Fresh
to support
the first
for
Teams
4 and
pancakes.
we
These, corned
beef
breakfasts. desserts, bread
beverages, and
some
teams,
5 and perishable
etc.
that
support
will
is used
ship.
and perishable foods
bread be re-
schedule.
of the will
of each
hour" eat
needed
on what
three
regular
for
to do first meals
8 generous
portions.
and how to proceed, together
each
day.
)
pretrimmed
container
and the surface three
Although,
of pancakes,
and canned
of a pressurized
items foods
ham,
and satisfying
the habitat
and quantities
"cook
omelets,
challenging.
version frozen
hearty,
4 days
was
precooked,
between
Frozen
items
planning a "crepe"
and forth
frozen
to an approved
menus will
back
menu
able
plain
every
capsule.
breakfast
or ready-to-heat-and-eat
will be furnished
be preloaded.
according
toast, provide
and other
out,
out of their
French
ready-to-eat
transfer
were
will
items
will
ruled
beef,
All dry-storage and produce
and worry
frozen dried
The rest are
4.-Personnel
Preparation with stepA fourth
meal,
consisting
of soup
wants
Fruit
it.
between-meal
use
Daily
the
cocoa,
are
checks
during
menu
items
along
with
Other
will be available
coffee,
and tea are
on usage
aquanaut than
evaluations
the operation.
the aquanauts data
or snacks, milk,
on each
planned.
in the physiological
meals
service
sandwiches
also
for each
man
provided
to prepare
in sufficient
when
quantities
he for
if desired.
weight
decompression cluded
and
juices,
will
weight
check,
in Sealab
III.
In addition, complete
of individual
for 3 days
in order
food acceptance items
will
permit
before
compression
no nutrition-related No doubt
there
to document reports. an objective
studies
will the
and for
be verbal
acceptance
An analysis evaluation
3 days
have been reactions
after into
of individual of these of Sealab
reports III's
food
system.
85
ADVANTAGES, AND
PROBLEMs,
I
EDWARD
l
EXPERIENCES
U. S.
OF
I appreciate
having
and the opportunity by between
16 years
and programs
of attending
to you about
$40 and
Natick
Army
although
Laboratories
the Aerospace
irradiation-preserved
$50 million
which,
Food Technology
foods.
of expenditures
of the
not of this
magnitude,
:reference
1: "Soviet
I shall
U.S. are
cover
a program
Government
planned
Conference
during
or are
the last
underway
in 74
countries. The following
5 flights
became
the
flights,
mixes,
quotation first
radiation-preserved ture
the privilege
to talk
supported
other
FooDs
IRRADIATED
JOSEPHSON
S.
men
meats
Soviet
as well
is from in space
wrapped
scientists
as meats,
to eat
irradiated
foods.
in polyethylene
film,
to substitute
irradiated
expect
for the vacuum
cosmonauts
freeze-dried
The
as well
aboard
four
foods
which
recent
cosmonauts
as dried
vegetables,
the
meats fruit
Soyuz
had with
in cans.
salads,
now constitute
4 and
them
On fu-
and dry
the basic
soup
diet
of
cosmonauts." The Soviets
see the
in space.
I propose
to present
can decide
whether,
and to what
uals
and
subject
small
groups
is included
advantages the current extent,
in isolation
in refs.
of irradiati0n-preserved status
of this
irradiated
foods
and where
resupply
foods
process will
in support
of manned
for food preservation
fit into
feeding
is not possible.
so that
systems
(More
flights you
for individ-
information
on the
2 to 10.) IONIZING
RADIATION
Definition Ionizing particles
radiation
or electromagnetic
molecules
of matter.
(or electron)
and gamma
hits,
effect,
ripening
of fruits,
suggests
that
ner
energetic force.
the nuclear
particle
calling
which
may
rays
projectile subjects
The organization
are are
ionizing
or to destroy
as a fast-moving
which
there
radiations
and those
ing the desired
waves
Although
The way in which for direct
for food preservation are
is the employment energetic
a number of il_terest
radiations
act
for indirect
hits.
be to inhibit
strikes
the molecule(s) of electrons
within
is not clearly Both
each
of such
defined.
There
types
probably
of these
food
electrons)
near
electrons
classes
of tubers
causing
its target.
to strip
subatomic from
atoms
radiation,
or
only beta
in food processing.
sprouting
microorganisms (or high-speed
enough
of different
of fast-moving
strike
during
the vital
which
it passes
molecule
spot
much
the
theory
that
transient
and many
to achiev-
in the same
suggests
to an intense,
calling
to slow down
The direct-hit
theory
is disturbed
theories
contribute
storage,
spoilage.
The indirect-hit
are
man-
the highly electrical
molecules
along 87
thepathof
the
molecules
enter
particle
become
almost
producing
as
their
secondary
products,
molecules
in the cell,
"excited"
instantly
or ionized.
into reactions
end products free
radicals
thus
enlarging
of the more
shown
in table
I.
mitted
by food
are
frigeration that
of fresh
and peroxides,
relay
rupted;
these of fruits
foods
radiation
will
a few days
to shorten
not spoil
slow
rehydration
toes an irradiation dose to less than 4 minutes.
time
of 8 megarads
have
molecules
of the cell.
The unstable
in turn
can keep
to other
certain
and in bulbs
and papayas these
foods
shorten
vegetables. cooking
time
from
will
be dis-
of sprouting.
Ex-
doses
shelf
life
I is the use
For
re-
functions
as onions
because
trans-
approximating
to intermediate
in table
are
without
physiological
an extended
not included
of dehydrated
for years
such
for as long as 1 year
of food
and pathogens
of acceptance
doses,
potatoes
and give
can
organisms
a degree
irradiation
One application
and cooking
ionized
to the treatment
spoilage
and seafood
mangoes,
ripening,
weeks.
free
neighboring
the disturbance
radiation
all food
still
storage
bananas,
down
to several
will
as white
during
as tomatoes,
state,
of injury.
poultry,
At the lowest such
and with chemistry
of ionizing
doses,
meats,
in tubers
will
such
irradiation
cooked.
scope
reactive
to Food Preservation
of the consumer
sprouting
and
applications
prepackaged
food freshly with
posure
from
killed;
and on the plate
associated
ionizing
At the highest
one another to the
the area
promising
highly
strange
Applications Some
with
new substances
notably
In their
example,
of
ranging of irradiation
with
approximately
diced
pot2-
20 minutes
Advantages The irradiation foods
during
undergo
process
the course
minimal
is attractive
of the treatment.
changes
in texture,
food is almost
advantage
is that
under
process
the waters,
in the air,
Another serve
a wide
packaged
variety
flour
methods
by ionizing
of the food and snacks
serve
or cook-and-serve
trend
for greater extensions
vegetables and are and shellfish. 88
in a range
meat,
convenience, without
of sizes
to large
roasts
fresh
well
with
and personnel
processed
rise
in the
irradiated
foods
of the consumer
food freshly
(beef,
prepared.
of the consumer
and possibly
even
the process from
The
on land,
lamb,
pork),
to pre-
future
of the sea
radiation
and reduction
longer
of potatoes
or weeks
in the case
and hams,
of products
or sandwiches,
in days
to pre-
turkeys,
and anticipated
at the bottom
can be used
crates
and dimensions
present
by ionizing
measured
is,
ranging
of slices
in preparation, are
that
The variety
Foods
3 to 5 years
" The
on the plate
on the plate
and shapes
in the form
refrigeration
food
process.
so that
from
is its flexibility;
form,
simplicity
a "cold
temperature
space.
fit in very
Astronauts
items.
is only a slight
and color
indistinguishable
and chicken.
radiation
in ready-to-eat
from
sacks,
fish,
industry.
meals
shelf-life
of the process
or 100-pound
of sliced
odor,
we can put freshlike
and in outer
of foods
in 50-
to sandwiches be preserved
advantage
there
It is considered flavor,
the irradiation-preserved of this
because
that
can
processing
can have
their
or as warm-and-
are
compatible
of labor for
the
in the kitchen.
certain
of meat,
with
fruits poultry,
The
and finfish,
TABLEI.-SOMEPOSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OFIONIZINGRADIATION TOTREATMENTOFFOOD [Informationtakenfromref. 2] Meansof attaining Dosage, Mrad objective Food Main objective Group a4 to6 Destruction of spoilage Meat, poultry, fish Safe long-term a and many other highly perishable foods
organisms pathogens particularly botulinum
preservation without refrigerated storage
and any present, C1.
Meat, poultry, fish and many other highly perishable foods
Extension of refrigerated storage below 3° C
Reduction of population of microorganisms capable of growth at these temperatures
0.05
to 1.0
Frozen meat, poultry, eggs, and other foods, including animal feeds, liable to contamination with pathogens
Prevention poisoning
Destruction Salmonellae
b0.3
to 1.0
Meat and other foods carrying pathogenic parasites
Prevention of parasitic disease transmitted through food
Destruction of parasites such as Trichinella spiralis and Taenia saginata
0.01
to 0.03
Cereals, flour, fresh and dried fruit, and other products liable to infestation
Prevention of loss of stored food or spread of pests
Killing or sexual sterilization of insects
0.01
to 0.05
Fruit and certain vegetables
Improvement of keeping properties
Reduction of population of molds and yeasts and/or in some instances delay of maturation
0. I to 0.5
g
Tubers (e. g., potatoes), bulbs (e. g., onions), and other underground organs of plants
Extension storage
Inhibition
0. 005 to 0.015
h
Spices and other special food ingredients
Minimization of contamination of food to which the ingredients are added
aThere
is evidence
d
bA higher
dose
may
that a lower be needed
dose
of food-
of life
might
if pathogens
of sprouting
Ito3
Reduction of population of microbes in special ingredient
suffice with
of
for certain
greater
cured
resistance
products. to radiation
are
present.
89
Withionizingradiationwecanprovidefoodshighin nutritivevalueandfoodshighin moralevalue. Wecanprovidebetterqualityfoodthanhithertopossible. Thefoodcanbedisease free, thatis, free of all pathogens associated with food-bornediseases. Wecanprovidea larger variety of foodssuchas fresh fruits andshelf-stablemeatsandpoultrywhichhavethecharacter of freshfood. Becausethefoodcanbeprepackaged andprecooked at oneplaceprior to irradiation, the costin money,time, andlaborfor foodhandlingall thewayto theultimateconsumercanbereduced. Further reductionsin costresult from reducingrequirementsfor refrigerationandrefrigerationmaintenance.Spoilagelossesfrom insectinfestation,sprouting,or refrigerationbreakdown will beminimized. Byprovidinga broaderspectrumof foodsthroughintroductionof irradiated items, discordfrom foodmonotony,particularlyduringlongvoyages,will bereduced. LegalAspects Ionizingradiationis thefirst entirely newmethodusedto preservefoodsinceNicholas Appertdiscoveredthermalcanningin 1809. Theirradiationprocessis thefirst majorfoodpreservationmethodto appearsincefoodregulatoryagencieswereestablishedat thenationallevel in many countries. In the Administration also has legal
United
There Among
States
are
the laws
several
is legally
try
Inspection
great
interest
ing Act;
from
including
ervation
by ionizing
The law also processing.
affairs,
of the Food,
this universal
control
we have
Drug,
radiation,
seen
Act;
for a long passage
and,
the FDA for approval
radiation,
approval
FDA's
approval
by FDA of packaging
ation
and the uncertainty
States
is sponsored
effort
is primarily
on the
other
hand,
The on Atomic 90
overall
Energy,
that
cost
petitions
by the U.S. in the use is concerned program Congress
of developing
the process
Army
and the Atomic
of radiation
sterilizing
in the
United
of the United
States.
with the
Packaging
and
Poultry
Act.
The law provides
for exemption For
food processed
in contact
Label-
all new food addi-
of new food additives.
for preserving
by FDA, Energy doses,
with applications States
years,
is to outlaw
for each
ioniz-
food pres-
in this
with food during
fashion. radiation
Involved
will be approved
primarily
of 1958
materials
Organizations of the high
of the Fair
this law
Act and the Poul-
In recent
of the Wholesome
is required
Under
Inspection
time.
(USDA}
for food processing.
in 1958.
application.
ban by petitioning
requires
Because
Act
is the Food and Drug
of Agriculture
radiation
Meat
in 1966
in 1968,
commercial
involved
of ionizing
Act as amended
and Cosmetic
from
directly
the Department
The Federal
on the books
Meat
most
the use
and Cosmetic
Act have been
ionizing
agency
and poultry,
as a food additive.
of the Wholesome
The impact tives,
which
Drug,
defined
in consumer
in 1967,
of meats
statutes
are the Food,
ing radiation Products
the food regulatory
(FDA}. In the case responsibility.
is reviewed
most
Commission i.e.,
doses
of radiation periodically
The Interdepartmental
foods of the
by ionizing
effort
(AEC). above doses
in the United The Army's
1 ]hTrad. below
The AEC,
1 Mrad.
by the Joint Committee
radi-
Committee on Radiation
Preservationof Foods,consistingof tendepartments andindependent agenciesof thegovernment (NASAis a member)assistsin promotingearly commercialization of radiation-preserved foods. Ionizingradiationfor foodpreservationis consideredto beanimportantpeacefuluseof atomicenergy. It is, therefore,part of the President'sAtomsfor PeaceProgram. At theinternationallevel thefollowingthreeagenciesof the UnitedNationsare concerned with preservingfoodsby ionizingradiation:the InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,the Foodand AgricultureOrganization,andtheWorldHealthOrganization. Status Exceptfor proofof wholesomeness convincingto FDA, technology is sufficientlydevelopedto supportpetitionsfor theirradiation-sterilizedproductslistedin tableII. Thesefoods canvary in degreeof doneness frompartially cookedto readytoeat. Otherirradiation-sterilized foodsin variousstagesof development are groundbeef(hamburger),pork sausage,cornedbeef, frankfurters,turkey, lamb,fish fillets, andprefriedbacon. TABLEII. -MINIMUMRADIATION DOSEREQUIREMENTS (MRD) FORIRRADIATION-STERILIZED PRODUCTS Product
Irradiationtemp., °C • 10°C
MRD,Mrad
Beef Beef Chicken Ham Ham Pork Pork Shrimp Bacon Codfishcakes
-3O -80 -30 -30 Ambient -30 Ambient -30 Ambient -30
4.66 5.70 4.48 3.66 2.90 5.09 4.56 3.72 2.30 3.17
TheAEC, whichconcentrates its food-preservation programonlow-doseapplicationsof radiationgearedprimarily to thecivilian market,hassuccessfullyprocessedcod, haddock,shrimp, clams, chicken,strawberries, tomatoes,citrus fruits, papayas,mangoes,peaches,bananas,and mushrooms. Packagingis anotherimportantaspectof radiationsterilization. Mostof theearlier work wasdonewith therigid metalcanwith anoleoresinousor epoxy-phenolic enamelbecauseof its reliability as animpermeableandruggedcontainer. Nowtheemphasisis onlighter weightand less expenseive flexiblepackagingmaterialswhichwouldnotrequirecritically shortmetalsduring a nationalemergency.U. S. Army andAEC'researches havebeensuccessfulto theextentthatthe followingflexiblepackagingmaterialshavebeenapprovedby FDAas foodcontactants for theirradiationprocess: 91
Upto 1 Mrad: Nitrocellulose-coated Saran
coated
Glassine
cellophane
paper
Wax-coated Nylon
cellophane
paperboard
11 film
Polystyrene Rubber
film
hydrochloride
film
Up to 6 Mrads: Vegetable
parchment
Polyethylene
film
Polyethylene
terephthalate
Nylon
6 film
Vinyl
chloride
film
and vinyl
acetate
copolymer
film
Up to 50 000 rads: Kraft
paper
In radiation
for wheat
sterilization
high radiation
doses
in functioning
as an impermeable
als
must
flavors, metal
can.
stable
products
In order
adverse
color
barrier
materials.
only
the need
and low temperatures
be sufficiently or toxic
flour
the food Two of the
to moisture,
TABLE
Their
strength
III.-FIRST
92
materials
they
reliability and keep
are
of flexibility
the
laminated are
shown
OF FLEXIBLE
These
do not impart
must
approach
out iight
of the
to aluminum
foil and
other
III.
Outside layer
Mylar, O. 5 rail
Medium-density polyethylene, 2.5 mil
Aluminum 0.35 mil
foil,
Paper (water resistant), 2 rail
panelists 11):
who rate
the foods
processing
rigid
PACKAGING
Middle layer
in radiation
off-
can accelerate
foil,
of success
materi-
off-odors, that
that
in table
stress
or impairment
and microorganisms. that
laminates
SPECIMENS
loss
can withstand
Aluminum 0.5 mil
taste (ref.
which
Nylon-11, 2 mil
The proof
Pilgrim
all-around
promising
Food-contacting film (inside)
consumer
gases,
processing
of the material
contactant more
materials
to -40 ° C without
irradiation
to the food.
to reinforce
changes,
down
barrier during
is for flexible
of foods
on the 9-point
is in the eating.
hedonic
scale
We use
developed
expert
and
by Peryam
and
of
9
Like
extremely
8
Like
very
7
Like
moderately
6
Like
slightly
5
Neither
like
4
Dislike
slightly
3
Dislike
moderately
2
Dislike
very
1 Dislike In table
IV are
as
components
is
considered
irradiated
much
dislike
much
extremely
shown
the
of meals to be foods
nor
scores
given
of the
type
satisfactory
scored
volunteers
at
in mess
halls
served
if it receives
slightly
lower
the
experiment),
they
scored
well
for
incorporation
into
Army
rations.
TABLE
by
IV.-ACCEPTANCE
OF
a score
than
within
their
the
Fort
Lee,
in the
above
the
fresh
range
IRRADIATION-STERILIZED
who
United
5 on
nonirradiated
acceptable
Va.,
and
tested
States.
irradiated
An
9-point
irradiated
scale.
considered
MEATS,
food
Although
counterparts are
foods
(the
control
to be
POULTRY,
the in
satisfactory
AND
SEAFOODS
Nonirradiated control
Irradiated Item
StorDose, Mr_
Temp., oc
Ham
3.5-4.4
Ambient
Ham
4.5-5.6
-30
age, months
Av hedonic rating 9-point
men rating
Av
No.
men
on scale
hedonic
rating 9-point
rating
on scale
570
5.84
739
6.45
1657
5.87
1437
6.66
297
6.50
Chicken
4.5-5.6
-30
313
6.14
Chicken
4.5-5.6
-30
270
6.00
251
6.22
Pork
4.5-5.6
Ambient
305
7.27
345
7.28
Pork
4.5-5.6
-30
391
5.71
458
6.85
Beef
4.5-5.6
a-60
515
6.11
66O
6.79
Beef
4.5-5.6
-185
502
6.25
710
6.79
Beef
4.5-5.6
-80
589
5.99
644
6.61
Shrimp
4.5-5.6
-30
247
5.79
446
6.25
Shrimp
4.5-5.6
-30
292
6.39
4O3
6.23
Codfish
4.5-5.6
-40
531
5.40
578
6.30
a_60
° C at
start
In table experimental for
No.
apple
of irradiation.
V are
preference
luncheons. pie
and
ice
The
scores preference
for scores
irradiation-sterilized for
these
hams hams
are
in the
that same
have
been
range
served as
are
at those
cream. 93
TABLEV.-ACCEPTANCE OFIRRADIATED HAM WHENSERVED ASCOMPONENT OFREGULAR MEALS [Irradiatedhamsstoredat roomtemp.for 1 to 12monthsprior to serving;testingperiod, June to April Irradia-
Average
tion temp. oC
Dose_
Mrad
,
No.
Items
men
(i 10 ° C)
4.5
-30
17
7.29
4.5
-30
46
6.95
4.5
-30
20
6.88
4.5
-30
19
6.80
3.5
-80
11
7.40
3.0
-80
22
6.91
3.5
-80
20
7.84
3.7
-30
15
6.87
4.5
-80
Baked
ham
with
pineapple
18
8.11
4.5
-80
Baked glaze
ham
with
orange-pineapple
20
7.91
3.5
-80
Baked
ham
with
orange
12
8.16
4.5
-30
Baked
ham
with
raisin
15
7.20
3.5
-80
Baked
ham
with
mustard
20
7.58
4.5
-30
18
7.5
4.5
-30
18
7.29
4.5
-30
28
7.20
4.5
-30
Fried
18
7.38
4.5
-30
Grilled
15
8.26
3.7
-30
Baked
10
7.60
3.7
-30
20
6.69
rating
Baked
ham
with
ham
pineapple
material. only
most
arrest
or
tation
practices
of all
reasonable
cannot
prevent ; its
these intended
precautions.
sauce
glaze sauce glaze
ham
steaks
ham
applications
Radiation
glaze
steaks
Description
94
acceptance rating on 9-point hedonic scale
(+12 to +25%)
For
1966
1969]
it is reverse
important
to use
deterioration
conditions. use
of the
is
Nor for
insurance
Process good
and should
quality
spoilage radiation
against
ultrafresh of food
be
used
contamination
food
once as
it haz an
which
as
starting
begun;
it
for
poor
excuse might
occur
can saniin spite
Fruits
and vegetables
ous handling
and to keep
pasteurizing
doses
prior
processing
to extend
prepackaged
promote
long-term
inedible
material
to inactivate ternal
in boxes
costs
refrigerated
shelf
meats,
poultry,
stability
without
as possible
the proteolyte
temperature
or crates
to minimize
to a minimum.
Meats,
shelf
be wrapped
life
should
metal
enzymes
cans
freezer
or liquid
-30 ° ± 10 ° C either
to gamma
electron
linear
cal changes
excessive
poultry,
and fish
and
chilled
vitamins)
or flexible
packaging
rays
may
so that
and
extrane-
fillets
to be given
without
delay
are
or
vacuum
The
state
are
of the product
then
as much
of the step
color,
is
to an insealed
frozen
while
without
while
held
deat
or electrons
from
chemical
and physi-
adverse
(taste,
to
The next
and
exposed
X-rays,
minimizes
doses
(blanching)
packaged
foods
Cesium-137},
frozen
fat.
by treating
of -30 ° C and are
Cobalt-60
the quality
is to remove
and excess
then
materials.
in the
step
sterilizing
odor,
texture,
an
and
is maintained. Clostridiumibotulinum
cern
(from
first
is done
foods
to a temperature
Irradiation
occur
This
The
to be given
off gristle
foods.
75 ° C.
are
the
and trimming
in these
nitrogen
which
refrigeration,
65 ° C and
accelerator.
which
and seafood
by deboning
between
hot in rigid
lay by blast
this
irradiated
to irradiation. For
still
are
is the
in food preservation. bacterium
or public we aim
will
A dose
automatically
health
importance.
for a dose
high
strain
of C1. botulinum
every
case
most
high
radiation-resistant
enough
destroy
all other
In determining
enough
to reduce
spores.
This
by laboratory
the
the
most
organisms minimum
in number dose
of all
to destroy
in food radiation
by a factor
is different
the microorganisms
which dose
food
are
strain
of
of food spoilage
(MILD) for
of 1 x 1012
for each
of con-
radiation-resistant
sterilization,
the most
highly
resistant
and mus t be determined
in
experiments. Who le s omene s s
Under
existing
to the appropriate processed search
statutes
health-regulating
by ionizing to appraise
radiation
microbiological
toxic
which
Under radioactivity in food from
regarded of X-rays in table convened energy
in food. as free
from
in contact
foods
not induce
radioactivity 5 million
measurable
by FAO/IAEA/WHO level
generally
regarded
radioactivity food.
volts
as below
Italy,
In the in April
the threshold
re-
and other
radiation. absence
of induced
the background energy
of the gamma
radiation
shown
doses
at the radiation case
of electrons,
established for inducing
radioactivity
of elements isotopes
level
In our
of induced
of carcinogens
two radioactive
1964,
of foods
Absence
for activation
(MeV)
convincing
will be approved.
categories:
The maximum
by these
radioactivity.
in Rome,
foods
above
level
proof
(wholesomeness)
law concerning
at the highest
electron
countries
and absence
the
the threshold processed
these
into four
to ionizing
interpreted
other
consumption
adequacy,
with the
is below
induced below
before
by the exposure
induced
in many
for
is divided
nutritional
FDA has
Accordingly,
at energies I will
material
and
of safety
be provided
of measurable
and Cesium-137
States
the field safety,
statutes
as absence
and packaging
occurring
must
may be formed
existing
Cobalt-60
officials
wholesomeness,
radioactivity, products
in the United
rays
normally are
universally
in table
sterilizing an expert
I.
doses
Use shown
committee
10 MeV as the maximum measurable
radioactivity 95
in radiation-sterilizedfoods(ref. 2). TheUnitedKingdom,however,hassetthemaximum figurefor electronsat 5 MeV. Microbiologicalsafetyin radiation-sterilizedfoodshasbeendiscussedpreviously. The useof dosesrequiredfor reductionin numbersofthe mostradiation-resistantstrainsof C1. botulinum
by a factor
range,
the problem
resistant isms
associated
and upsetting with
The current
permit
microorganisms
numbers
to give use
none
of the
maximum
fatty
For
lots
which
the untreated
sterilization
treatment
shown subjected
to rats, The U.S.
foods mice,
level Army
found
investigated stable
in addition
food General
source
of gamma
This
are
issue,
cinogenic
or toxic
be solved
before
exception
with
figures
being
reported
have
which
muscle
as a
is a rich
source
and ham
of pork
study
less
was are
from
meats
expanded shown
susceptible
the
were
by
in the case
on a dry-weight
electrons
and nutritionally
of the rodents, basis
irradiated
of North
was
with
energies
adequate. evidence
foods
abroad. products Department.
Americans
were
fed
for 4 generations.
doses
In reference of 5.6
Mrads
up to 10 MeV have
Feeding
to indicate
for
Medical
35 percent.
up to absorbed
foods
or toxic
U. S. Army
in the diet
thermal
studies
carcinogenic
by the
ribo-
VI and VH
for those
and by investigators
from
compared
to destruction
Similar
same
to include
in tables
as developed
quality.
studied
and,
not uncovered
skeletal
quality
for essen-
that
by the AEC
food classes
or with
upon
reported
in irradiation-sterilized
The data
freedom
foods
At the
been
is pork
process
conducted
diet
required.
of thiamine
The
nutritional
extensively
that
radiation safe,
reduced,
at -30 ° ± 5 ° C then by the conventional
their
the major
in the daily
i.e.,
though
to
shellfish
for the processed
lots.
generally
dose
for 2 years
abroad
studies that
foods
process
does
4 the with
been
sponsored
by the
processed
by
not wholesome. the
ability
products this
Mrad
been
or monkeys
Sturgeon
radiation
are
impair
are
all
low enough
in the nutritional
have
not depend
major
thiamine.
of wholesomeness--the
representing
does
the radiation-sterilization
doses
to be wholesome,
The
to the
results
retention
the same
studied
to 5.6
or no impairment
and compared
from
B vitamins
aspect
dogs,
man The
by heat.
and ham
that
and produce
finfish,and
the high doses
Similar
origin,
needs.
not significantly
and by scientists
ionizing
96
vitamin
at a 4.5
of irradiated
a Cobalt-60
AEC
of animal
in food by irradiation--has
Twenty-one
poultry,
and digestibility.
shelf
to substerilizing The fourth
formed
to meats,
of USDA the percentage
loin
the four
II will
doses
is little
It is concluded
in table
is limited
organ-
warning.
I, there
made
that
in sufficient,
in table
was
doses
to survive
shown
foods
to germinate
radiation
radiation-
food spoilage
spoilage
doses
and pyridoxine
treatment.
obvious
is to use
of inducing
vegetative
Clostridia
can withstand
for his daily
and indicate
by the possibility
permitting
pasteurization
with
In the radiation-pasteurization
by eliminating
of foods
pork
niacin,
balance
classes
most
had been
is complicated
major
loin and ham
with
of safety.
other
At the request
pork
flavin,
for radiation
ample
margin
thereby
of radiation-sterilizing
source
of thiamine. canned
color,
or in its availability
acids.
significant
and
consumer
radiation
of the protein
safety
associated
the
a wide
the ecological
off-odor thinking
The because
provides
of microbiological
mutants
toxin.
tial
of 1 x 1012
process
to demonstrate
which
will
harm
that
the irradiation
the consumer,
can be established
commercially.
is the number
not produce
1 problem
which
carmust
TABLEVI.-EFFECTOFPROCESSING ONTHEVITAMINCONTENT OF SHELF-STABLE CANNED HAM [Data furnishedby Mrs. Miriam H. Thomas NutritionDiv,,NatickLabs.] mg/100ga % retention Treatment Vitamin Control 4.5 Mradat-80° +5° C Thermallyprocessed
3.82_+b0.38 3.25_+0.79
85
1.27
32
Control 4.5 Mradat -80° +5° C Thermallyprocessed
1.01±b0.18
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Pyridoxine
aMoisture,
fat,
bAverage
tables
someness
question
data
wholesomeness
further
be given
iterim
luncheon
Control 4.5 Mradat -80°_+5°C Thermallyprocessed
31.5
+ b0.81
23.8
± 2.92
76
14.6
_+4.49
46
Control 4.5 Mradat-80°_+5°C Thermallyprocessed
1.11
± b0.15
1.02
+ 0.12
92
0.64
+ 0.03
57
basis.
these
1969.
data
to resume
to assess
1970's
conducting
wholesomeness on several
when
by the AEC of a meeting
the deliberations
June
1974.
This
30,
approval
to prove
feeding safety
of experts
will
for these
allow
of ham,
on irradiated
the World and
time
Health wheat
to accumulate
but on
countries.
by the World
irradiated
the whole-
research
other
din-
I am
Health
Organization
will
and wheat
sufficient
flour
additional
foods. ? The beef,
for consumption.
will be submitted
from
on our
that
General's
convened
group,
potatoes
commonplace
my expectation
Surgeon
and by reports
wholesomeness
studies
become
I base of the
of this
irradiated
studies
ultimately
quality.
that
petitions
varieties
excellent
outcome
final
their
will
not only on the results sponsored
we doing animal
foods
countries
to support are
treatment.
generally
From
until
per
irradiated
of the
its member
what
meats
samples
studies
the middle
by those
109
of their
approval
wholesomeness
is planning
_+0.24
because
to all
Now,
1.10
can be resolved
in April
recommend
123
that
because
encouraged
Organization
_+0.09
+ S. D. Three
ing-room
from
1.25
salt-free
I am optimistic
_+0.36
!
chicken,
We expect
to FDA bananas,
U.
S. Army pork, this
and to USDA strawberries,
Medical frankfurters,
work
Department and
to be completed
for approval. and papayas
by
The AEC
is
to be followed
of fish. 97
TABLEVII.-EFFECTOF PROCESSING ONTHEVITAMINCONTENT OFSHELF-STABLE CANNED PORKLOIN ] [Data
furnished
by Mrs.
Vitamin
Miriam
Nutrition
Treatment
4. 5 Mrad
at -80 ° ±5 °C
Thermally
processed
Control
Riboflavin
4. 5 Mrad
at -80 °±5
Thermally
processed
° C
Control
Niacin
4.5
Mradat-80
Thermally
° ±5 ° C
processed
Control
Pyridoxine
4.5
fat,
Mrad
at -80 ° _+5 ° C
salt-free
basis.
Three
samples
_+S.D.
Natick ga
Labs.
]
% retention
3.69
_+b0.22
3.14
_+ 0.25
85
0.76
_+0.08
20
1.02
_+b0.28
0.79
_+0.06
78
0.82
± 0.02
81
20.3
+b5.1
15.9_+2.6
78
13.2±1.8
65
O. 76 + b0.05
Thermally
aMoisture,
Div.
mg/100
Control
Thiamine
bAverage
Thomas,
processed
per
0.75
_+0.07
98
0.63
+ 0.07
84
treatment.
Approvals Those restricted
foods
which
consumption Canada:
have
are,
been
approved
for commercial
by country:
Potatoes Onions Wheat,
Israel:
wheat
flour
wheat
flour
Potatoes Onions
U.S.A.
: Potatoes Wheat,
USSR:
Potatoes Grain Dried
fruits
Dry food Fresh The 98
Soviet
Union
has the
concentrates
fruits greatest
and vegetables number
of approvals.
production
and
sale
and for un-
Thosefoodswhichhavebeenapprovedfor testingof experimentallots or for markettesting, by country,are: Potatoes to Greenland Denmark: Potatoes Holland: Potatoes WestGermany: Onions USSR: Dressed
poultry
Partially
packaged
processed
packaged
meat
packaged
UnitedKingdom:
hospital
as essential
Here,
too,
the
Soviet
Union
has
the
beef,
pork,
and rabbit
products
products
(fried
meat,
steak)
in plastic
for
organ
raw
in plastic
Kitchen-ready
Foods
in plastic
patients
factor
transplant
longest
requiring
in medical
sterile
treatment
diet (e. g.,
recipients)
list
of approvals.
SUMMARY (1) life
Ionizing
of foods (2)
foods
of slices
by ionizing
opens
on the plate
The irradiation
tion-preserved the form
radiation
which,
a new
process
lends
can be offered
require
for food preservation-the closely
itself
very
as components
or sandwiches,
radiation
era
of the consumer,
resemble
readily
no preparation
or as snacks
preparation
with
the
of convenience.
shelf
Irradia-
in ready-to-eat
or cook-and-serve
or simple
to extend
food.
to the concept
of meals
or as warm-and-serve
means fresh
foods. reduction
form, Foods
of labor
in
processed in the
kitchen.
morale possible
(3)
The irradiation
process
value
to individuals
and small
on land (4)
the
number
or sea,
Proof
in the
can provide
air,
groups
1 problem
before
wholesome
or where
supply
food
is difficult
of great or im-
the ocean.
to health
ionizing
nutritious,
isolated,
or under
convincing
to be resolved
quality,
who are
in space,
of wholesomeness
high
authorities
radiation
on the national
can be used
level
remains
commercially.
REFERENCES 1.
Anon.
2.
Anon.
Nucleonics : The
Weekly,
Technical
FAO/IAEA/WHO Ser.
No.
report 3.
6,
is printed
Energy
September
12,
1) and
for
and Agric.
Govt. 1966;
Mar
30,
1969.
Legislation
on Irradiated
(Rome,
Organ.
in its entirety
Congress
U.S.
30,
Comm.
on Research,
of the
Program.
(Part
Basis
Expert Food
Subcommittee
Jan.
in the
Apr.
of the
Printing June 1960
9-10, (Part
United
United
1964).
Nations
1968 hearings
Development, of the
21-28,
Food.
(Washington,
1965;
May 13,
2); June
4-8,
1963; 1956;
March and
Atomic
Energy 1965.
(This
3. )
Hearings D.C.),
of Joint
Italy),
of the Joint
Published
Office
FAO (Rome,
of ref.
and Radiation States:
Rept.
Committee
on Atomic
on the
Food
July
18 and
30,
6-7,
1962;
May 9,
Jan
Irradiation 1968;
14-15,
1960
1955. 99
4°
Anon.
: Food
June 5.
6°
6-10,
Anon.
and Food
: Chemical Progress
Anon.
Symp.
: Radiation
Anon.
Publ.
14-16,
Energy
Ser.,
vol.
(Vienna,
Advances
no.
of Foods. Sci.,
Proc. Tech.
Int.
83,
by IAEA and FAO Austria),
in Chem.
of Radiation.
64,
Acad.
Research. Off.
Organized
Agency
Applications
Natl.
1963),
Jointly
of Foods.
Preservation 1273,
: Radiation
Jan.
Symp.
Atomic
Preservation
1964). So
Proc.
Int.
Anon. : Radiation 1967.
Eng. 7.
Irradiation. 1966),
Nuclear
Int.
Conf.
Natl.
Res.
Conf.
(U. S. Army
U.S.
Set.
65,
Eng.,
Am.
Pt.
Chem.
XIX,
Soc.,
Chem.
1968.
Proe.
Services,
(Karlsruhe,
1966.
Council
Dept.
(Boston,
Mass.,
(Washington, Natick
Commerce,
Sept.
D.C.),
Labs.,
27-30, 1965.
Natick,
Mass.,
1963.
9o
Anon.
: Report
1961). 10.
Anon.: and
11.
vol.
on Meeting
entitled 11,
no.
Organ.
Preservation
Development D.R.
on Wholesomeness
and Agric.
Radiation
Peryam, Insert
100
Food
Ser. ; and
No.
Pilgrim,
"Studies 9, Sept.
of the of Food
Govt.
F.J.
: Hedonie
pp.
Science 9-14.
Nations
Foods
(Rome,
by the Quartermaster
1, U.S.
in Food 1957,
of Irradiated
United
Printing Scale
Office Method
and Technology,
(Brussels,
Italy), Corps,
Oct.
U.S.
Army
(Washington,
D.C.),
of Measuring
Food
Pt.
I."
23-30,
1962.
Food
Res. Aug.
1957.
Preferences.
Technol.,
SESSIONIll
AIRLINE
CHAIRMAN: Vice
President,
EXPERIENCE
R.
Marriott
TREUCHEL In-Elite
Services
It is certainly discussion ation.
of this
to most
in Houston our
panel
We share
known
than
series
operations
tiago,
Chile,
and cover
every
Most
of you
has
sonic
The in-flight
catering
been
described
superjets
Contrary of air
bagged
food
handling freon
freezing,
and cardboard
of reconstitution in being respected leader
industry.
do more
recognize
the need
service
for more
needs
Boston
to San-
and lodging
field.
since
1927.
on the brink
as the
of a new jet age
"spacious
aircraft
will
meal
Our
age."
wiI1 be our
continue
service
The
sub-
partners
in
drying
to be an important
and its
different
industry
to adopt
more
extensive industry
it must
become
will
1928 brown-
technology
in
and onship
of cryogenics,
If it is to survive
community,
parts
the
transportation,
the technology
and to make
integral from
needs
the food-service
geared
and challenge
the curious food
must nature
technologists is in great
and scientific
of imagination
be launched
program,
in Florida,
age and we have been
experience
and discovery.
industry
technologies
new areas will
here
space
and in packaging,
and universities
to excite
food-service As your
nology
Center
travel
stands
service
dining
to encourage
Our colleges curricula
program,
food
In the past,
of the business
to present
commercial
Space
studies has
liquid in the areas
contented
itself
as an identified
a frontrunner
and
and a
technology.
We must our
in the
of future
and freeze
in technology
member in food
and
of the food-service
commercial
lap trays.
industry
processes.
a follower
to Rome
the supersonic
processes
radiation,
Honolulu
presently
in-flight
and reconstituting Our
Parkway
Corpor-
Although
at the Manned
from
manufacturer
speculation,
The configuration
processes.
the Marriott
State
for
the
century.
but so is today's
sandwiches
frozen
of this to some
travel.
be different,
and even
hotel
lead
program.
Sunshine
facet
industry
represent
on the
of pioneering
service
conference,
in the aerospace
the motor
conceivable
by one aircraft
or airbuses years
with
stretch
phase
feeding
the remaining
part
some
in in-flight
and
interest
of restaurants
based
in your
representatives,
company
Washington
that
me to share
a passing
of you as the
represent
for
of airline
more
or the
pioneering
102
a pleasure
to improve
attract
to the volume
people
and for those need
of this
studies
a more
and anticipated
to seek
outstanding
of the young.
will be sparked and build
young
bear
and women
businesses
must
research.
The
in pure
in
t_llent. fruit
in the
Our
men
careers
in the manned
commercial
efficient travel
field.
and total time
in-flight
aerospace New techfood-
of the new jet age.
Werecentlycompleteda 7-acrestructure, costingover 11million dollars, dedicatedto research,technology,andmanufacture of qualityproductsfor our business. Ourcompany- in its research,qualitycontrol, andmanufacturing process- is making extensivestudiesintoqualitycontrolof its products. Weare lookingto imaginative packaging to maintainthe integrityof thecomponents.Alongwiththevariousairlines, wewill bejointly studyingandrefiningtheproblemsof reconstitutionandtransportation ofproductsfrommanufacturing to storageto in-flight consumption. Wehavesomeexcellentmenandorganizations represented heretoday. It will be mypleasureto bechairmanduringthe presentation of their remarks. R.
Treuchel
103
AIRLINE
The purpose airline
VERSUS
of this
and aerospace
primarily
change.
increments
is to introduce
of knowledge
dynamic
concepts
may
to be jolted.
The same
"shock"
of space
- but isn't
it conventional
We speak
food
An airplane checks
the fuel,
board
?
No.
sengers
He takes
The airlines
realize
that
The
passengers purchasers.
ticket,
your
You want
to create
may
choice
a feeling
is associated
with
is an illustration
of the kind
ardess.
You recognize
the food that
this
helps
to enforce
your
feeling
In classifications
by comparing
the astronaut's
audience
going
day,
the weather,
tickets
of mother's
of confidence
on board,
on board,
deeply
system
we
of space
food.
? checks
because
the airplane,
and
if the coffee relaxation
of the
but at the ticket ticket
is on of the pas-
that
you have
counter
from
kitchen.
to the pilot
by pretty
service
in preference
so the atmosphere
or grandmother's
attractively
so many
creatively
But for the
partly
you transfer
is served
I have
role.
on the impression you are
to
is to add small
the stewardess
of safety.
tend
at a new feeding
to think
to buy one airline's
based when
you and
in space
an important our
_f a university
to look
go aft to ask
plays
be a captive
the security
feeding
as organizations
in order
eaten
checks
you and I buy
concept
in order
food
off,
eating
is largely
space
to divide
Similarly,
as it is not part
of security
system
BUCK University
for
the aim
be needed
the pilot
If you are
ideas
youth,
food that
may
seen
it for granted, calm,
our
he takes
you ever
mental
discriminating
vided.
before
but have
and for their
provide.
airline's
pilot,
about
A.
to a university)
or old knowledge.
ingrained need
and prejudices
I
Cornell
metric
is similar
with
to existing
PAUL
is discussed.
NASA
involvement
I
creative
Use of the
schedule,
(and I suggest
Despite
FEEDING
systems.
to his eating
Universities resist
paper
feeding
in relation
SPACE
airline
that
they
they
are
to another the service
pro-
the airline
wants
The home
cooking
and to the airline stewardesses,
stewand
of security.
of food service,
eight
groups
of feeding
establishments
are
well
recog-
nizable: (1)
Hotels
and fancy
(2)
Motels,
(3)
Clubs,
(4)
In-plant
(5)
Hospitals,
(6)
Primary
(7)
Universities,
(8)
Transportation
restaurants
drive-ins, resorts,
etc. etc.
feeding,
cafeterias,
etc.
state
institutions,
etc.
and secondary dormitories,
schools etc.
industries 105
Althoughtheairline feedingsystemfrequentlyhasbeenlistedunderthecategoryof to me the proper (category
3).
serving
listing The
of food
space
food,
the emphasis
similarity
a steak
Just as the A third
Food one
becomes
weaker
break
than
a man
When
the other,
you are
are
especially
you go to a restaurant to take
minutes,
you are
suppose
quickly,
a piece
of bread,
become
longer,
pilot,
concerned
to relieving
may depend upon his blood sugar are under tension, your shoelace By film didn't upside
drop.
sault the
Would
down ?
manner
we have this
Because
have
spoon
over
food instead to make
mouth,
just
on our
as good Earth
we must
of eating
an astronaut
in space
Earth
prejudices
if we plan
carries
along
be jolted
to develop
these
improved
When
turned
a spoon
his
Earth
Earth space
about over.
feeding
necessity and said,
performing
prone
to tension. has
had
turned
a spoon
like
if you
food himself
in a conventional
turning
space break
a sommer-
busy
turned
orientation. through
We must
the
tasks
the astronaut
not the
are
Par-
been
and the
down
to use
tasks.
to perform
an astronaut's
are three astronauts and the pilot and the copilot with possibilities of boredom and tension.
to be "Cut
it now is to wait
upside
systems.
But
a knife
his ability
We must
for several
busy
The reason
prejudices.
come
the same
shoelace,
orientation,
up.
the taste.
easier
if the astronaut
to think
build
doesn't
you tie your
and expect
a spoon
may
meal
The astronaut that
can be used
the food tastes_
very
passenger
Similarly,
Food
with
better
were
not realizing
conventions
under
How much
tension.
an experience
it by turning was
flights
of relaxation.
one.
your
does
one is one thread
tension
not serve
"
be an idle
yet
to the
of the person.
and the waitress
How much
this
an astronaut
his demonstration
Even
because when there comes a passenger 106
while
been
we rely
to put food in our to eat the
engineering,
and his state breaks.
watched
for whom
schedule,
salad.
and Apollo
that
tension.
a loaf of bread
you are;
will at times
also
a month
How often
and do not appreciate
time
brought
an astronaut
the
it,
is your
tense
Gemini,
same
can contribute about
nothing,
you gulp the food
and here
How less
in Mercury,
in food service
airplane
is coming,
are
he reacts
state
acuity.
on the broken
if he is under
does
on the
volume,
variety
even
flight,
perhaps
stress
take
one thing:
meal:
best
does
did just
of your
put more
and,
restaurant,
meal
except
meal
she
previous
shoelaces,
for your
that
flight
and emotional
only a few minutes
same
your
on the
factors
airlines
for weeks,
his next
he will retain
doing
and the waitress
into the
boards
the
to our
phases.
to weight,
Although
and
devoted
is in the major
be eaten
etc.
menu.
perform
after
has been
attention
food.
food may
as that
of a passenger
transporting,
on the engineering
so that
but you have
tension
The astronauts flights
Both
cannot
those
order,
?
holding,
systems
of food to the physical
so much
the remainder
ticipation
same,
been
of the
same
on long flights
resorts,
care
careful
if a passenger
in a rush
with
your
under
you went
served
As
the
has
require
to a monotonous role
same
feeding
systems
the
This
program
and aerospace
menu
or a spacecraft
tensions,
immediately
example,
is in the
when
in an airplane
to relieve
For
to the pilot
dining.
space
1) or clubs,
and preparation,
of flatulence
flight
reacts
(category
and aerospace Both
or lobster
similarity
selection
in our
per
astronaut
important
shoelace
for
systems.
and receives
monotony
meals
restaurants
to gourmet
and low degree
or two
for both
given
of a menu.
convenience,
is a factor
to menu
in the airline
selection
only one
and fancy
is given
though
in the
serving
that
to that
even
preparation,
later
care
is similar
Another considered
is with hotels
transportation,
our
begin
fairly
the third
man
soon, be-
Anotherproblemis our Earthboundtime system;perhapsweshouldconsideradopting a metric time system. Howmanybreakfastsshouldanastronauteat? Shouldhehavea breakfast everytime heseesthe sunriseashecircles the Earth? Howmanyluncheons shouldanastronaut haveonthewayto the Moonwhenheis in sunshineall the time? Shouldhehavebreakfasts,noonday meals,anddinners? Whatscheduleis followedin Alaska,with its almost24hoursof sunshine ? To keeptheconventionalism of the U.S., youdrawyour curtains. Whykeepthesestatesideconeeptsin our astroaquarium ? Whynotadoptthemetric systemof time andalsoadoptsomeof the pleasuresof a siesta? A properdayfor anastronautmightbe4 hoursof workand5 or 6 hours of rest. Hecouldenjoyrelaxation,work, andsleepin a metric system. Let us divide the day into
10 equal
lenging
parts
and
ourselves
son to keep
divide
to do this.
seconds,
may be a very
healthier
when
they
Further,
concept
will
the
concept
a grocery
for hours,
charm.
knows
can have
ever
by the food.
is scrumptious.
A dry
chicken
It can be that
participation
and he will
The
astronaut
also
entertainment to be spread
popular
because
sandwich
that
to continue needs
"rec"
of spreading on crackers. reaching
"rec"
after
they
you and I enjoy
barbecuing. entertainment on bread. Let us give
in the refrigerator
Gathering
but there
been
I understand the astronaut making
that this your
in a station
The decor has
space
charming
give
he will
even
own selection
about with
a can
entertaina husband drive
the
pit is entertaining.
We can give
opportunity
age we
it can be ac-
In fact,
in the next
is the
a bit of charm.
is excellent
the barbecue
in
an attractive
the refrigerator
to rain;
system.
bought
One goes
confined
that
Every
recreation.
is something
when we barbecue.
around
Food
by candlelight;
leg from
it starts
away
the office.
food and in the
although
in his feeding
and
of the word
not just
in
tension
in a restaurant.
have
abbre-
degree to Perhaps
is taken
only food.
that
though
The
and he desires
for space
are
industry,
she
menu.
stewardess,
I.Q.
from
of a children's
of a chicken
even
While
you go to a place
is not charming,
barbecuing
items
the
concepts
not be a miniskirted
continue
are
they
or relieve
resulting
is food bought
value
The taste
to relax
to buy
can be accomplished
leg.
to our
denotes the to the eater.
to be entertained,
charm
important
The charm
need
out of the garage
he wants
is no reanutritional
that
of the restaurant
to a restaurant
to a restaurant
are
similar
tension
chal-
a day.
_n a restaurant.
than
of time,
indicates
meals
The ability
to eat in a restaurant
value
animals
we started
but there
10 periods
in terms
of the
the entertainment
Entertainment
car
are
children
wife
of charm.
of beer
cheese
taken
with
of food.
is a lot cheaper
and
into
- a concept
and wife dine
to relax,
It is time
a day and a year,
eat three
feeding
you do not come
100.
quotient," which and are satisfying
he is relieved
at home
your
of a well-prepared
the
that
and aesthetic
the challenge
they
of the food
entertainment,
a snack
ment.
dishes,
you appreciate
concepts
complished
a husband
he wants
When you take
The atmosphere
S.Q.
Research when
value
Relaxation, If you have
wagon
than
of space
when
because
atmosphere.
to keep
If a day is divided
you to think
and cooked
to a restaurant
a reason
the recreational
of washing man
store
into 10 to make
a partly coined term, '/satisficing satisfactory in terms of nutrition
is an important
restaurant
parts
schedule.
let us consider
influence
good
feeding snacks
to discuss
the boredom
is still
and hours.
valid
we tend
from
There
eat frequent
viation S.Q. denotes which the foods are
which
10 equal
minutes,
snacking
this
those
Apollo
the astronauts there
will
to participate.
be Snacks
is participation. 107
Withthemetric system,wewill notbeboundto breakfasteverytime thesunrises, or to lunchbecauseit is midday. Withthemetric system,thechallengeof newideascanbecarried into thefood. Ourjobas scientistsis tobe concerned with nutrition,but this is nottheastronaut'sjob. Theparticipation,the relaxation,andtheentertainment leadto the challengeof nutritioussnacks. All ofus, includingmyself, mustacceptthechallengetothinkof spacefoodinstead of conventional Earthfoodin space. Aswestart thinkingof spacefood,werealizethatit is no longerthethreemealsthatweare so accustomed to onEarth. Whenweleavethis conference perhapswecando morethanjust lightly talk aboutthe metric system. Perhapswe canuseit to think of spacefood. I amnot advocating champagne flights, butto mefoodwithoutbeverageor food withoutsomegourmetaspectof participationwill notproducea goodfeedingsystemfor aerospace travel. ThehospitalitythatyouandI cultivatein about
in terms
of our
sions
increase
if we ignore
are
under
tension.
food an important
108
space
If we are part
feeding food. going
of the whole
system. Insurance to prevent system.
our
homes
It is my personal companies accidents,
is the thing belief
tell us that we must
I am asking
that
risks
we cause work
to think
of aborting
accidents
as a team
you
and
mis-
when consider
we
PAN AMERICAN
WORLD
PRESENT
AND FUTURE
'_Velcome ately
after
may
takeoff,
we suggest
Water
guns
good
Flight
we will
be offering
a dehydrated,
for
What's
but in some
systems
with
a capsule
space
mediate
future
There
I am
in an aircraft.
utilize
research
Pan
time
and dinner.
Airways,
World
today
will
Included
Inc.
be 3 hours,
in your
easily
disposable,
unappetizing,
that ?
If it is good
enough
from
are
space
travel
?
not the particularly
is no difference. not talking
and,
choice and
for
immedi-
this
evening,
misshapen
meal.
the astronauts,
in all possible
have
long missions
astronomical
must fields.
future
It doesn't
We of the airlines
about
We certainly
and how can we benefit
Amerioan
is it not
?
different
really
in mind.
or space
ing and must
really
there
I
Our flight
with
industry
situation. ways
J" P' TREADWELL
cocktails
wrong
us in the airline
it is not in a zero-G
I
1 to Londonl
low-residue,
How is the airline
face,
PLANS
Aboard
on request."
enough
AIRWAYS:
take
into
which
must
space;
a gravity
I'm
systems
detail
some
they
design
our
talking
about
weight
and packag-
consideration
whether
the astronauts
also
Let us look at the airline.
food
problem:
What
space
is our
be weightwateher
in
im-
or weight-
less? Professor on these
except
but one that quickly
our
has been
free
used
and
What
lives,
747's.
in that
selling
seats
do you
item
used
to it in its
Beirut now;
forced where last
year
San Francisco.
the quality we produced We meet
suppose
eaten.
tell you a little
into production
between
people
live add
and I will
"Creature
our
comfort"
and their
prejudices
with
them,
Professor
the airlines
and we need
can we provide
is just
were
hopefully
something,
comforts
that
Let me
us that
to throw
So .we must
way,
differences
is not something and we are
like
prejudices,
comfort.
to tell
We would
and,
are
of creature
How many
by psychologists
of our
not linger
habits
is not my term cannot
change
out of the window try
to bring
Buck's
'rrecff
as
and say
favorable
ones
(relaxation,
en-
comfort).
the airlines kind
a creature
but we cannot.
One of the basic stage,
in great
food is indeed
technology.
of them,
everyday
tertainment,
mentioned
to say that
as can their
that we are into
Buck
that
It's
about
Am.
by an operational of food wasn't
what
11 000 000 meals the volume
seen,
earthbound Pan
demands
to pamper
I shall
opening
also
current
?
and space
people
discuss
this
announcement and it's
travel
is that, in order
from
and it's
to sell
the viewpoint
I made
felt,
at least
would
sell ?
heard.
at this
tickets. of the None.
Food
It is a textured
form. We started
need
of moving
we had hoped in our
producing meals
it to be.
two frozen-meal
and the demands
frozen
food
from
New York
We've
progressed
kitchens,
of the latest
in 1950.
We
to Karachi beyond
at New York technology.
or that
and
Many 109
peoplehavesaid, "Youhavethebig jets. Howare yougoingto handle vidu_l
basis
?"
This
is indeed
Let us consider 1973
we plan
hour.
This
to this
large
to have means
to be vastly
found
that
Airport
at one terminal
have
about
the public
on this
to be increased.
alone
building
because
eight
3300 passengers
quicker.
shove
under
his
things
have
been
have
space
into
dealing
per
it is our
707's
hour.
(Lexan)
in our
considering
plastic
wine
and six It will
The
of which
We shall
have
airplane
at each
9 ovens
on an indi-
largest 747's
indeed
station.
during
In
a peak
be difficult
and
ahead
the general
is stargazing, any lesson
three,
when
traveling
about
has
to cater
going
of aisles
and segmented
so that
and he can sit down
We are
and
to feed
experiences.
utilizing
the poly-
in the engines.
We are
even
liquor
seems
Tetrapak
"entertaining" 350 people
to
All these
of our previous
and weight.
package. at the same
of 52 sq ft of galley,
and 15 000 pieces
too large
it in the hatrack.
is used
going
the number
his bag is 2 inches
is.
in space
an average
volume
we are
that
are
of equipment
which
will
time.
Each
is quite
small.
go on and off each
nightmare.
moving
volume,
quicker,
curve
it an attractive
will
between
we not really
find
Titanium
and we are
is a logistic
to the time public,
to learn
make
much
industry
40 percent
10 coffeemakers, This
but are
weight.
comforts
coded
he can'tput
space
creature
to be increased;
the learning
the
save
six galleys,
transit.
Think
things
geniuses
are
that
through
the
to be color
He won't
which
there
going
to put things.
for light
bottles
is going
are
by the stewardess
galleys
747 will have
complex,
spacing
that
he can board
the same
but the packaging
understand
quicker,
consideration
with
carbonates
unappetizing
Seat
much
and be told
taken
We are
really
All the compartments
He will seat
doesn't
airplane.
can get his baggage
much
people,
International
at one time
increased
a passenger
galley
people
number.
We've
is going
those
a big problem.
Kennedy
we shall
all
be a problem
planets,
to the
Moon,
in the direction going
not with astronauts and so forth.
of volume
to be learning
it,
but with
?
Well,
Granted
if there
that
were
and I hope
not the hard
used
although
it
ever
way.
h
The
modular
are
not of immediate
benefit
concept
eventually
and containerization importance
to your
We find that They they
board board
airline;
another
they
so simple be used
entrees
only the
of time, in the 110
we have
to solve.
mouth
to try taste
nothing
that
are
this
they
are
and,
lessons
year
What
happens
and are
and by the
to as
that
I think
these
things
will
be of
a captive
dog experiment.
after
? We are
problem
palate,
Pavlov's
364 days considered
is simple
alone
is $ 43
At this
of meals, a chicken
to identify 000
point
000
we use
as I mentioned
but not
and that about
before,
is to
90
we mean
not
and the sight.
"demand"
with,
degree.
later,
we put aboard.
the sound,
is faced
to a lesser
The
food and supplies
the palate,
the astronaut
trapped
again.
the foods
referred
as in the a year
onboard.
for
the texture,
to airlines then,
chicken
but for all
is that
our passengers
They
being
chicken;
but chicken
to satisfy
but also
so to speak,
and are
program,
relate
and have
and have
chicken
approach
747.
psychologically
My budget
Another
faces
to the Apollo
in January
airplane
not only for
different
ment,
say
here
industry.
people
an airplane
are
i.e., Take,
audience.
type being
food service. rigid
in one
for example, We have
been
The same seat
for a long
the 302 economy finding
enclaveperiod
passengers
out through
studies
thatpassengers donotnecessarilywantto eatwhen when
the stewardess
is ready
to serve
vice,
i.e.,
to allow
the passenger
a system
them,
they
so we are
are
told
to eat.
creating
to eat when
They
may
not want
what
we call
"demand"
to.
It could
also
he wants
to eat
food
ser-
be called
a snack
service. On the 747 on our to London,
or from What
What
to the skilled
degree No,
we must
give
but the
them
same
room.
Each
that
can be prepared For basic
ings,
because
maintaining
used. ume
protein
less
and
Some food containers, temperatures material
will
we will other
solve
products
and our
ladies
some
are Also
which
being
in a dry-heat
Volume
create
that
are
imagine
the
from
scratch
very
well
designs
?
pre-
one of us here
technology
discussing,
up to 1100 variations
insulated working
in
foods
of protein and more
the more
prepackaged
of frozen
include
that and
food.
time
food flavorusing
passenger people form Then,
de-
some gets,
are will
bebe
as the vol-
containers.
high-heat
plastics,
and low in cost
is a high-heat,
we must
through
and at the same
shipping
lightweight,
which
provide
and will withstand
polyethelene,
moisture-proof
(600 ° F).
necessarily affect
our
to the old chef?
started
in every
we have been
problems
environment there
occur
in a convenient
considered
factors
stewardesses
that
conscious
of the logistic
we are
that
Our
the amount
sauces
one-way,
a recipe
of the food
weight
Can you
meals
genius. that
to increase
disposable,
and gentlemen,
technology.
girls
presentation
and basic
them
Seattle
1000
What happens
stewardesses.
be sure
meals
6, and
becoming
with that
can be placed
In short,
about
lightweight,
of up to 600 ° F.
technology
are
protein
need
or plates,
which
are
We want
people
So fish
Containerization increases,
there
or from
at a full configuration
foolproof.
so we must
to London,
to do this ?
to hand
in those
of frozen
the psychological
more
active.
is
occur
Francisco
3600
who is not a culinary
volume
products.
to be able
if you were food that
San
be serving
we have
differently,
by somebody
of which
more
coming
preparation
will do things
going
Today,
of difference
sauces,
of the latest
?
from
we will
are
a convenience
tremendous
goes
to London,
worker
degrees
this
while
which
of automatons
of food
this
sign
kind
of variance
pared
flight
Los Angeles
in 12 hours. happens
Polar
must
passenger
be many travel,
interfaces whether
between
your
in the atmosphere
or in space.
111
| JAPAN PRESENT
First policy
I shall,
of Japan
force
behind
diet
food
or alternative
$560
gether
April
Asia,
and to the
I
Japan
give
and,
the present
state
style
national
food planning
the primary
briefly
Western
our
Lines
is perhaps
I shall
is to serve food,
Air
and define
what
third,
IKEGAMI
motivating
our future
aims.
food as the principal
diet,
is served
or
as an additional
to March
plan
food,
and
Middle
31, $1
1969,
560
we spent
to 33 percent
we have and Near
of our
flight East,
$4 000
000 for beverages
routes
total
other
the
service
Pacific
via both
the
or Western
subsidiary
transportation
across
to Europe
000 for the main
and
foods.
To-
expenses
for
Oceans,
to
and Atlantic
Polar
and
Southern
routes,
Union.
is used
plan
consists
to determine
of service
which
along
of two elements meal
every
flight
: a "meal
- breakfast, route.
plan"
lunch,
The menu
and a "menu
dinner, plan
or snack
determines
plan.
"
The
- is to be served
the components
of
meal.
are
tion
we have
rotated.
of our
to dictate
to comply
the tastes
us a pleasant
force
in the Japanese land."
feeling some
food,
local
food
note
behind phrase
a man
of service
may
for each
be and are
is done to our
meal
at each
modified
in the belief
meal
to suit
that
passengers.
as much
our
that
I would
food planning
service.
"furusato-no-aji. phrase
who comes
from
materials
to express
food"
passenger
this
the taste
us who study
This
of "good of our
As implied,
that
menus
menus
loading
the general
in general
we are
On the contrary,
as possible,
in order
station tendency
of
not in a posi-
we feel
to make
and
obligated
his short
sojourn
one.
It is on this motivating
these
passengers.
the meaning
with
six different
However,
diet preferences
112
menus;
TOSHIMITSU
to explain
Japanese
amounted
food service
the order
these
term
try
at present,
Currently
In principle,
tive
policy,
1, 1968,
to the
Soviet Our
with
of our
of its universality.
flights.
Southeast
each
I shall
selection
expenditures
international
and
Second,
000 for Japanese
these
meal
of a few statistics,
|
specialty.
From diet,
PLANS
the help
Lines.
service
because
AND FUTURE
with
the final
Our main
Air
AIR LINES:
of which and cooked
food service the
strong
like
a flood
by his mother
in Japan, conservative
this
prepared
own and simple
phrase
has
a broader
nature
of an inherent
way.
meaning. diet
habit
is captured
of food
used
in the big city
of a dish
the primary
or attitude
"a taste
and is often
but now lives
in her
force
it means
connotation
of memories
is perhaps
of this
directly
a nostalgic
the countryside
triggers
what
The essence
" Translated has
to introduce
of the
to describe gets
nathe
when
he eats
with simple
typical
However, It is used
of either
to those
of
as a symbolic an individual
or
a nation. Ofcourse, a an individual nations
that
absorb
furusato-no-aJi ticularly
foreign
albeit
a person
a piece
road
to full recovery.
childhood
of dried
when
abroad
more
excitement
may
experiences
home,
or trip
itself
this
is the appetite.
time
But,
to time
of such
a situation
illness
a nutritious instead
in many
may
have
traveling
- a time
been
this
in the case
be reflected
despite feeling
given
one's
surfaces,
par-
In Japan
well-balanced
modern
of plain
served
white
to spur
of
in
changes,
is the following:
a bowl
cases
may
by air.
For
of heightened
excitement
- different
elements spoils
surfaces
thoroughly
a
hospi-
rice
gruel
the patient
to him by his
a great
created
customs,
languages,
be a result
many
excitement.
or tension
people,
who under
which
one's
to one's
accustomed
restaurant
friend
are
in the
tension
Tension
furusato-no-aji
Japanese
own.
as
may
on the
mother
in his
flying
and
To one passenger,
when
this
he contemplates
and
of the accumulated
of them
the new
situations.
fatigue
To a per-
produced
by a heavy
schedule.
One of the human
though
has
in turn,
dyspepsia. people
encounter
their
preferring
meal
a new experience
he will
it, meal
simple
from
manifest
son on his way business
same
and more
present
a serious
on the surface,
This,
and from
rejects simple
at least
with
An example from
This
This
them
subconsciously,
the patient
plum.
change,
or occupation.
and blend
recovering
he suffered
Today
gradually
of abode
situations.
but sometimes
with
may
cultures
remains,
gives
tal meal,
habit his place
in extraordinary
hospital
going
diet
who changes
regular
to a Western
by such
and here
I can point
style
upon
circumstances
influenced
appetite,
consciousness.
if one is available similar
is readily
diet,
landing
feels
like
desire
as you well to suggest
a few Japanese
of tension
in a foreign
a strong
we would
to quite
in times
tension,
city.
dash
I also
for a good
that
friends
for
have
know,
who,
the nearest an American
old American
style
ham-
burger. I know or
service
est
of food
and perhaps
gap that
which most
negative
passenger
important
to his
fashion
and
the whole
not solve
this
peculiar
passenger diet
he might
meal.
Use
problem.
today
dissatisfaction
the food each
expectation,
because
However,
for passenger
own or his nation's
against will
- mistakes
complaints.
reason
our passenger's
reaction
in the fanciest
infrequently
the food we offer
according from
- I hope
incurs
between
partially,
strong
we do make
the
exists
consciously even
that
habit, show
that
with
in-flight
expects ff our
quality
a totally
preparation
I find
not only
of the best
Rather,
of improper
one of the greatmeals
consciously
or sub-
food happens
to divert,
displeasure
but also
nutritious
different
is the
a
food prepared
approach
must
be
used. Of course of each back
individual
to his
course,
childhood,
time We,
grasp
passenger showing
is a practical
a limited
and
the ideal
cultural
food
is met.
We should
however,
to the
are
backgrounds nation's
service
since facilities
at least
of each
able
nation
peculiar
diet
plan have
the food he liked
impossibility
and limited
an individual
in-flight
would the diet
be one wherein
the furusato-no-aji
history
passenger,
and how his mother
in-flight
food
service
of each prepared
is a form
it. of mass
dating
But this, feeding,
of within
of an airplane. to survey or country; habit
carefully and with
so that
and analyse this
information
we can meet
the different
historical
we can attempt
our passengers'
to
satisfaction 113
by preparing
menus
either
to comply
with,
or,
more
importantly,
avoid
conflicts
with his
furusato-no-aji. Take, main
dish
taste
of ham
nation with
for example,
on our
lunch
with
the
along flights
We therefore
where,
sengers
is quite
where
no alternative
high.
Another side
their
steaks
pared
on the
rare
with
Japanese Two years A Japanese Today,
dish
good
vise
with
was
serving
ground
try
aims, such
the demands
are
we shall
letter
- of the
Japanese
food of the native In closing, of your
114
dining
astronauts'
land.
out of Tokyo
leaving
ever,
of dill
pickles
of our trans-Pacific to non-American class
Europe's
native
trend
pas-
on any route
it both
from
steaks
are
by statistics. we are
flights
Tokyo pre-
In order
promoting
returning
to Japan.
of a regular
Western
courses
for first-class
passengers.
passengers
as well
Japanese
of the main
style
based
believe
on cautions
dinner
enjoy
fun and adventuresome
We sincerely
of passengers
cities,
indicated
for
on the well-done
outbound
passengers,
non-Japanese
foods.
prepared
gateway
especially
they find
are
of passengers
food as a part
but many
we shall
the
today
Jumbo such
and
things
continue in the
to try
that
such
course.
something
a delicate
observation
con-
is essential
flight
kitchen usher
mignon
technologically.
to
prepared continue
which
methods
in.
However,
in the area
or cream
of mushroom
and
I mean
we shall
served
in a manner
to meet
the
that
spirit
translated
directly
spirit
be incorporated
re-
on the
by tube
to try
again
We shall
and loading
By conservative,
foods
We shall
furusato-no-aji
to grow
SST age will as filet
conservative.
and present
a pleasure.
phrase
of course
preparation
remain
of our passengers
aeroflight
a combi-
passengers
in the economy
own Japanese
than
Japanese
as food
by tablet
make
as a the
service.
where
deed
of American
dish
of the opposite
tendencies
and service,
the needs
this
such
first-class
only on menus
ratio
is served
in combination
Japanese
to our
the majority
flights
varieties
traditional
diet
future
that
food because
selection
meet
the
as one of the choices
food
in vogue,
routes,
of our
to serve
to their
with
is included
which
to enjoy
for a combination
applesauce
prepared
show
passengers
procedures
feeling
dish
steaks
because
more
Japanese
in-flight
to cope
beef
On inbound
offered
Japanese
As for our
other
with
able
to the average
the same
we do not serve
of medium
of the various
maintain
our
of furusato-no-aji
in addition
sideration
This
statistics
way.
side
The latter
different
is that
we started
not only
food.
this
service
ago,
steak
and applesauce are
is offered.
our
the sense
food
ham
Accordingly, dish
because
prefer
have
choices. with
example
of medium
to cope
other
steak
people
However,
would
serve
in comparison
of ham
American
of applesauce.
You probably
with two or three
dish
menus.
sweetness
is unpalatable. ice cream.
the American
or dinner
of food soup
continue will in-
- if not the
means
"a taste
of
"
let me be so bold as to suggest aerospace
diet.
I hope
I have
that given
this
you some
food
for thought.
in the planning
to
=
i
SESSIONIV
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
CHAIRMAN: Secretary,
Space
National
Academy
Nutrition of
Sciences
HERBERT Panel -
of
SHEPLER the
National
Space
Science
Research
Board
Council
Dr. Space
Chichester,
Science
Board,
Board,
National
welcome
laborated
4 years
of Sciences,
of the
Space
Nutrition
you in the name
but
he is unable
programs
useful
has
made
all of us in this
national
advances for agency
of the Science
and has asked
stand
field
we should
It appears
aspects
space
me to
prove
1964
of value
gained
and,
this
line,
available
for
I think the
the importance technology.
and food handling
knowledge
definite
research,
along
and nutrition
col-
we had here
derived
to emphasize
of nutrition
NASA have
with the objective
program
information
continue
and
4 years
of nutrition
the best
that
Board
that the meeting
since
of nutrition
probable
may even
the
progress
to provide
in the field
I feel
in the field
considerable
in some
undertaken
which
still
Science
have
in the war against
of
Already resulted
in the studies
Herbert
116
Panel
of the Space
to attend
in the last
crews.
and one from
I believe
research made
everyone. has
of South Florida
we cannot
of the future.
continuing
that the Space
for our spaceflight
very
However,
our country
meeting
University
the diet
it behooves
space
to have welcomed
is the second
ago was
benefits.
benefits
Academy
in at the
of improving
certain
was
is the Chairman
you in his place. This
since
who
hunger.
Shepler
the
in
|
military ferent
This
in which
The
ratios,
nutritional
Co.
undertook
a research
meat-analog,
of food
a smooth
could
foods,
materials
continuing
with
a wide,
individually
of small
cubes
allow
the modification
may
be eaten
both
undertaken
individual
and collecit might
a rod-shaped
be
sealed
within
contin-
their
pressure
of 4 different
types
generated
governing
the
from
soft
was
Materials
were
developed
ingredients
of rod-shaped
without
acceptable, date,
one or more
unique
food
we have been bars, other
menu
This
and as is,
effort
involved
in the creation
Further,
accessory taste
providing
resulted
compone'-ts
bars
thus
the
form.
principal
to individual
plastic
properties
compressed
array.
foods
the
manner
varying
and formulas,
end requirements.
compressed
form
dif-
areas.
desired
of base
in a rehydrated
remain
texture
tailored
our
to create
flavors
of special
These
can be combined
research
the way in which
be controlled.
to the present
food bars.
being
of the bars
must
reasonably
the result
the form
contract
information
to a chunky
stable,
selected
and
of many
problems.
could
to meet
of the aerospace
in the evolution
of some
confection
the selection
highly
in 1962 and
resulted
to determine
they
much
be modified
of compressed
natural
and
texture
through
of a low-cost,
variety
when
requirements
has
of 12 different
of the research,
structure
Beginning
are
aerospace
vegetable,
activity
in the delivery
future
crew
Company
all of us to reevaluate
technology)
a flight
Further,
nutritional
spinoff
in the delivery
WEISS
Pillsbury
which
to encourage
resulted
from
value.
as water
I hope
Pillsbury
M.
with you the results
(especially
the course
and
research
to share
to sustain
effort
brittle
of a wide
like
of the special
much
Further,
the physical
nutritional
in support conducted
in solving
in the fruit,
which
The
information
During
such
I
Co.
food designed
to hard
EXPERIENCES
I would
In 1966
foods
AND
has
as a baseline
suits.
ROBERT
industry,
technical
gency
I
The food
products.
used
DEVELOPMENT
programs,
by The Pillsbury tive
FOOD
of
in variable flavors
preferences. for
greater
in Some
texture
variability. An obvious as compared
with that
contributing in such foods
as chile
proportion
both are
for achievement of natural
of this
dual-function
food forms more
bar
is the high
counterpart.
can be effectively
con carrie
Currently low bulk
that
of the
of its rehydrated
components
a manner
opportunity
problem
encapsulated
become
bland
Current
highly
in the
of extremely
flavor
work
within
high nutritional
has
shown
materials
palatable.
unrehydrated
intensity
densities
that
such
highly
Compressed while
bar
flavor-
of controlled
In fact, form.
of an as-is
solubility seasoned
foods
continuing
provide
use
an
of a high
foods. in excess
food system,
of 5.75
Kcal/g
an individual
can be provided can be sustained
in a hydratable at a daily
caloric
bar. intake
Because
of the
of approximately 117
2500cal for a periodof 7 to 10daysfrom a foodstoragecontainernolarger thananordinary shoebox. Althoughthis foodis beingprimarily designedto meetmilitary requirements,it has becomea foodformworthyof considerationfor aerospace use. Nutritionallyvariableediblecoatingsandbindersprovidephysicalstrengthandcrumbcontamination controlwhile, in addition, allowingthefoodscientistto strengthennutritionaldeficien.cies ofthenaturalfoodsembodiedwithin thebar. Recentlycompletedtaste-panelevaluationshaveshowna highdegreeof acceptabilityfor all of the 46mealitemscurrentlyunderinvestigation.Thelevelof acceptance,as recordedona 9-pointhedonicscale, is shownby scoresof 6 or better givenby morethantwo-thirdsof the taste-panelmembers. Theaverageof the meanhedonicratingsof thefoodscurrentlyunderevaluationis 6.7, as comparedwith anaverageof 5.9 for thefoodbarsdeveloped in 1967. Wealsoundertookthe development of a low-costprocessfor manufacturing bite-size foods,primarily in thebakeryandcerealfoodareas. This effort requiredtheapplication,andin someinstancesmodification,ofpreviouslydeveloped technologies plustheevolutionof somenew techniques.For example,theprotein-encapsulated vegetable-oil--carbohydrate dispersion,which providedthebasefor rod-shapedfoods,wascombined with speciallypreparedcerealandbakery ingredientsin sucha manneras to createa formulatedfoodin a recognizable"natural"form. Thetechnique whichevolvedallowsfor thecreationof a widevarietyof flavorsandtexturesin anydesirableshapefrom a single-processsystem. Thematerialnormallyusedfor coatingwasusedas a binderintegralwith the otherfood components.Thedangerof capsulecontamination by brokenfoodcanthereforebegreatlyminimized. This nutritionallybalancedfoodform hasa caloricdensityin excessof 4 cal/g. Anotherinterestingfooddevelopment project, althoughit wasnotrelatedto humanfoods onthesurface,at least, wasthedevelopment ofa primatediet in pellet form. Prior to our involvementin this ongoingprogram,thepelletswerepreparedby compacting the specifiedingredientsby meansof standardhigh-pressurepelletizingtechniques.Sincethis pellet is dispensed from a mechanicalfeedernot sealedfrom thespacecraftenvironment,very rigid specifications wereimposeduponthemanufactureof this food. Someofthesespecificationswereas follows: (1) ThepeIIetwas3/4 _+0.020in. square,with a thicknessdimensionof 0.190to 0.205in. ; (2) it musthavea breakingstrengthin excessof 15lb whencenter-loaded between knife-edgesupports 1/2in. apart,"and(3)whendropped6 in. for 120timesupona nouresilientsurfacetheweightloss mustbe lessthan1 percent. All theaboveparameterswereto bemaintainedthroughout anambientatmosphere spectrumof 40- to 72-percentrelativehumidityand35° to 80° F. It hadbeenconcluded after manymonthsof effort prior to our involvement in theprogram thatstandardpelletizingtechniques couldnot successfullymeetthesespecifications.Thecurrent pelletis manufactured by adjustingthepHof thecaseinin thediet to put it in a water-dispersible form. This materialis thencomplexed with sucrose,vegetable oil, andsomeof thevitaminsand spray-driedin a speciallow-temperaturedrier. Thisprocessingresultsin a powdercontaining lessthan2 percentmoisture. Whencombined with theremainingvitaminsandmineralsin the diet, it canbepressedinto dense,homogeneous pelletsmeeting,or exceeding,all therequired 118
performancecriteria.
Dimensional
tolerances,
for example,
are
now maintained
within
0. 005-in.
vat ianc e • My only reason to food
scientists
rather
than
if they
maintained
have
may
research textural
of special upon
ability from
techniques.
Our efforts
testinal
have
at their
(2)
Near-zero
packaging
(3)
Foods
containing
Foods
greater
that
may,
be used
stay
sufficiently
been
a convenient
money
constraints
period
at original
formula
of this
particular
nutritional
that has
been
and greater
food.
Addi-
compromise)
to
in support
will be placed
with long-duration
departure
from
demonstratable
Some
evolved
demand
food compatible
be a considerable create
has been
to glass.
Greater human
criteria.
existing
improvements
examples
of possible
mis-
foods
and
in accept-
ultimate
results
aimed
microorganisms desired of their
or modify
in-
Manmade
food.
food because end product
to control
will
for truly
real
liquid,
vehicle
history more
prior
has
creativity.
new approaches.
and a challenge
to their
physical
use
the many
foods
constraints
to the quality
?
of many
and development,
I suggest
foods
limitations
be a marriage
Time
as
that these
acceptable
to avoid
research
or other
shown
naturally
undoubtedly
of human-fuel
to stimulate
to our creativity
brittle,
can be designed
system
any program
for not stretching
plastic,
of the space
foods
The final
upon
in our approaches
as a stimulus
loads
or designed
fibrous,
natural
Is not the desired
excuse
fecal
end results
components
for more
concept. natural
at near-zero
requirements
because
As we embark broad
foods
to give
a call
acceptability.
fuel.
?
radi-
viability
(again without
technology
of consumption.
as structural
heard
by so-called
of human
food
we must
selected
in a manner
That is a much broader imposed
point
low-residue
fuel. We have
will
Simultaneously
character
of soft caramels
to create
approach
Extremely
characteristics,
those
of the total
technologists final
(1)
(4)
food can be modified
from
storage
impervious
can have
nutritional
that vitamin
is the
are:
microflora
human
the
foods
high-moisture
chemicals
of research
by the consumer
any of the
available
and inorganic
of this kind
is an indication
What then of the future
and packaging
of these
sacrificing
of this work
that this
organic
import
and acceptable
without
the opportunities
as modifiable
the major
recognizable
but a part
needs.
We all realize
processing
I feel
to the highly
ranging
is obviously
is to demonstrate
ingredients
the high-temperature,
variations
the food
sions.
example
is."
aspect
be due in part
feeding
their
"as
characteristics
has shown
This
this
readily
interesting
throughout This
form
physical
Another
tional
for use
that a food
modified
levels.
look upon
as material
realization cally
for including
we use of our
forms let us
have time
always and
results.
119
MEAT-TYPE-FOoD AND
The geared
efforts
mainly
stant
have
been
and physical
end-item
& Co.
to problems
efforts
value,
of Swift
made
This
is especially
meats,
are
which grade
to judge
the main
and cut
food in the
matter
items. other
L.
PAVEY & Company
and production
than
of space
to development
product
Since
controlled
tent
of the
and
in many
quality
foods
have
of new meat-type
in regard
while
also
ducing
meal
Gemini
the
been
items.
to safety,
improving
Con-
nutritional
production
units
product
weights
by varying specified
rate
and
formity
in nutritional
content
would
costly
because
weight
basis
have
prescribed prior
weights
weight
to cutting
very
all ingredients
requires
to be predetermined
of the production
quantities
a gigantic
order.
weight
has
more
required
the
to the fat conof meat
15 percent,
variance
which
in dry-
unit,
this
re-
for
this
was
that
weight
occurred,
greatly
that
nutritional
more except
variable This
is closer
Pro-
can be made
content,
lot.
considered
be determined
a high degree
to be highly
production
was
to a
factors.
in achieving
to preparation.
batch
weight
content
helped
to provide
found
to cut products
adjustments
uniform
A 10- to 15-kg
fat con-
to nutritional
dry-matter
each
be fairly
judging
product
obtained
related
are
could
requirements.
In order
prior for
by precisely
was
in order
degree.
and adjusted
technologist
which
5 to 6 g in final
that
This
used
meat
than
meal
dimension
variance
closely
the bars
to some
as _+5percent
permission
of the products.
uniform
as
to meet
was
within
weight.
the weight
but not necessarily
is more value,
dry
rather
of
variable
dry weight
of a meat-type
The reason
weight
10 percent
in
In the case
related the
in as much
Apollo,
is higMy
therefore,
cut to a physical
dimension.
in that
the thickness
is considered
was
variable
and vegetables.
is inversely
(e.g.,
of as much
of Project
to a physical
product which
and,
wet weight
to minimize variances
phase
lot produced
value,
content
product
highly
even an experienced
content
had to be reprocessed
dimension,
calorie
product
attempted
latter
having
on each
in final
the
for
water
result
100 g is the
are
the fat content
of _+5percent
would
production
of meats
is difficult
the dry-matter
However,
than
than
content
Since
variance
in their
products,
_+5percent.
20 percent)
products
rather
of our
a ±5 g variance
cases
critical
of the water
approximately
used.
used
fat content
to control
and it was
During dry weight
true
than
Project
meat
ingredients
This
direction,
During well
other
A fat-content
in approximately
form
rather
components
closer
difficult
content.
more
Swift
for Our astronauts,
of meat.
to a figure
it is very
sults
l
improving
characteristics
composition.
or,
EXPERIENCES
in the development
toward
and some
space
R.
of production
items
tent,
I
uniformity. Meat
same
DEVELOPMENT
would
unifor
of uniin nutritional be extremely
A 30 kg batch to the norm.
in
on a wetPreparing 121
sucha smallproductionbatchis and cleanup,
inspection,
a procedure able product
thought
uniformity
of products.
production
required, Project
and effort
provide
which
Gemini,
proper
were
filling
all
made
pieces.
sandwich,
the number
depending
wise
rather
making
with
than
fewer
the sandwich
a three-unit cedure.
to the thickness
using
a crude
Currently
for
etc. 30 bites
ed the rate bites.
was
mold,
bites
logs
bar these
with
bars
were
cut
in more
width uniform
beef
and chicken.
duces junction increase
the shredding
greatest
This
in the dice
process
or falling
with an increase
we feel, has greatly chicken products. 122
the
size
by hand
were
from
mixing
into
each
logs
prepared
and freezing.
enough
for approximately
and reduces
the labor
of predetermined
improvement provides apart
a binding
of the meat
characteristic
when
of the mouth piece
of the meat
particle,
the eating
has
characteristics
it is diced
has within
were
the proper corners,
mis-
and long enough has
greatly
increasof the
items,
been
into a canfrom
and molded each
This The
especially
which
This, which
size.
the
of textured
piece
pieces.
particle
into
log.
i,_ the use
pouch
the
and cutting. by varying
the meat
small
in a larger of these
the bites
removed
removal,
of the rehydratable
resulted
was
can be adjusted
into
pro-
by hand
component
to be cut from
filling,
products
by using
the thickness
is now premixed
yields,
in rehydratable
each
product
24 bars
in mold
drying
in the size
improved
formula
in
however.
by weighing
The frozen
The total
This
length-
bites
in layering
by varying basis,
in the
to a depth
of rounded and width
one
large
sandwich
cases
is frozen.
to
a one-by-one
cut into
in many
can be adjusted
one
required
in trays
was
height
mold
of holes
large
layered
or errors
of proper
from
is still
because
the product
of
cut by hand
the time
each
the product
on a one-by-one
initially
mold.
initially
not level
the
development.
is now sliced
reduces
and
and
number
however,
slow,
perish-
sandwich
sandwiches
preparation,
of material
and weight
a spatula,
and long
were loss
log with a saw after
be coated
weight of the bars, on the basis thickness of the bar being cut. Perhaps
is molded
was
highly
volumes
equipment
and the
This
was
small
in gelatin
can be cut from
chilling,
that
of bread
sandwiches,
Such
and improving
an individual
dipped
manner.
After
of trays
by using
sandwich
formula
to 40-percent
products
mixing
of the proper
results
still
for
of course,
of production,
must
slice
sandwiches
This,
the material
and efficiency
can and three
made
the product
a 30-
each
of the
of items.
handmade.
to cut 6 to 9 bite-size
of the bite-size
because
also
Rehydratable type
possible
number
costs
or justify
individually
individually
for preparation
by the very
to automation
manner
of labor
with a very
production
limited
basically
then
required.
one is working
severely
in the conventional
cutter.
to be cut from
These
were
especially
bites,
in thickness
cuts,
were
on the shape
of the bite
cookie-type
There
been
when
for a small
to reducing
themselves
items
Coating
of meat
equal
variable
have
It was
the loaf
cutter.
thickness.
devoted
and 39 to 42 bite-size
stamp
In the case
highly
been
They
holes,
across
is critical
of the high costs
to returns
in the conventional
thickness.
into bite-size
Bread
This
do not lend
almost
because
in relation
efforts
at a time
bread.
have
These
Sandwiches
costly
and maintenance
is also time consuming. such as meat.
Much
During
extremely
in con-
permits This
re-
an
process,
in the case
of
Thereare threefutureareasof researchfor improvingthesefooditemsthatare believed to beworthyof considerableeffort. Thefirst, andonein whichit is believedmuchimprovement canbemadein a relatively shorttime, requiresa critical lookat flavorsor spicelevelsin existingrehydratableitems. It is believedthattheseitemscouldbe mademoretastysimplyby altering the levelsof their spices,by modifyingthespiceformula,or, perhaps,by modifyingsomeprocessing procedures.This, however,wouldrequirea considerable amountof preparationandtesting. It is notbelievednecessaryto freeze-dryandrehydratetheseitemsfor this purposeuntil after any major changes are made. It is proposedthatthe initial evaluationandrecommendations beperformedby a professionalprofile panel. After themajormodificationshavebeenmadeit is also believedthatour astronautsshouldbepermittedto evaluateandmakerecommendations onthese productsbeforea final formulais established.Again,it is believedthis couldbedonewithout freeze-dryingandrehydratingas longas processingis donein thesamemanneras thatto befollowedin production. It mustbegranted,however,thatsomeflavor loss or alterationdoesoccur duringfreeze-drying. Perhapsit maybepossibletoprovidemeansfor theastronautto spicehis ownfoodto suit his owntaste. A secondareaworthyof considerationfollowsfrom thenewconceptof spoonandbowl feeding. This shouldgreatlyaffectfactorssuchasparticle sizeandconsistencyof theproducts, andit mayaffectotherfactorsrelatingto foodpreparationandformulation. It appearshighlyconceivablethatgrilled steak,pork chops,andhamcouldbepreparedandconsumed in this manner althoughsuchitemshavenotbeenusedbefore. It is proposedthatthesepossibilitiesbeinvestigated. Suchitemsshouldgreatlyenhance mealtimein space. A third areathatI considerworthyof investigationis theconceptof usingtheintermediate moistureor moisturemimeticagentfoodstoreplaceor improvetheacceptabilityof the current very dry andfragile bite-size meatitems. Thesemoistitemswouldalsoprovidea muchhigher weightandcaloric densitythandoour currentbite-size items. This conceptcouldbe applied towardnewitems or to improvementof our currentitems. Theuseof sucha conceptshouldgreatly improve themouthfeel or textureof the productandalsoprovideimprovedflavor characteristics. It is conceivablethattheseproductscanbecompressed or extrudedand, therefore,would be moreuniformin physicaldimensionandweight. Suchitemsmayor maynotrequirea coating tobe appliedto the outsidesurfaceto preventcrumbs. It is alsoconceivable thattheseproducts maybeprovidednotonlyin bite-sizecubeform butalsoin strips or stickswhichwouldpermit the astronauttobite off andchewa part of the materialandnotbe forcedto placethe entirepiece in his mouthbeforechewing. In this wayhecouldadjustthesize of thebite to suit himself. Myremarksin regardto our currenteffortsandproposedfuture effortsfor spacefeeding are nowconcluded.I feel thatgreatstrides canbemadeto providemoreenjoyablemealtimesfor our astronautsin the futureandthatsuchwill result from this conference.
123
BEN
GENERAL
FOODS
CORPORATION
DEVELOPMENT
PRODUCT
AS RELATED
F.
BUCHANAN
|
I
TO
General
AEROSPACE
Although development that
program,
some
of our
some
relevance
plified
in the
needs
General
experiences
"The
future
Before
and the
is the largest
business else,
supply
represents
involving
man.
per
tables), are
and
perishable;
company shelf
Satisfying requires
today
traditional
were
not there
curve
shown
market
continuously
desires
must
Many
to the voice nical
year
new product be satisfied,
year
needs
New product
vitality
ideas
exem-
flights
and world
always
be a part
of the consumer,
and
Fifty
which
constant
improvement,
milk,
) An ade-
of the
foods.
to any
100 billion
eggs,
and vege-
processed It is this
the consumer.
that
translated
originate
year
of the items life
foods last
new products from
with
efforts
are
in research growth on the
must
and in a food
supermarket follows
be brought
the to
new products.
should
always
into new product other
development,
of a new product
It is the consumer
of a new product then
per
and maintaining
and useful
growth
new product and these
dollars
percent
it is evident company
also
above
and strength is over
worth
to the
needs,
to be a food.
processed
of the consumer
from
may
dollars
400 million
The profitable
are
individual
(meats,
requires
ago.
needs
relative
The food business
food budget
category
22 billion
facts
to the nation,
shelf-stable
of over
from
every
is considered
strength
and process
to sustain
some
primarily.
and needs
come
These
and bear
is well
must
of a company.
since
water
food business
and the development
of the consumer.
researcher.
is for the ourselves
country
1,
which
us review
the consumer
About
flow of new products.
after
let
so,
context
foods.
the demands
in figure
we felt
be of interest
aerospace
Of the voice
is in the fresh-food
10 years
manned
recognition
to the
alone
development,
a constant
might
because
of my message
needs
individual,
States
growing
in this
conference
two further
logically
(In this to the
38 billion
process
by an expenditure
development.
and quite
address
prosperous,
future
food products
of new products
In the United
we will
for
namely,
about
40 billion
Part
in the NASA food
sought.
life.
the remaining
improvement,
supported
add
is in processed
to which
A viable,
" We might
strength
Of this,
60 billion
classification
product
specific
food to sustain
year.
time
in the world,
quate
dollars
lead
objectives
relationship
everything
endeavor
for long
in this
problems.
Corporation
responsibility
of new food products
feeding
program,
the
we become
food business
food
need
Foods
contract
to participate
development
is evident.
to attain
had no direct
the invitation
in the
development
funding
has
of the aerospace
sentence, and
Corp.
we accepted
of any food-product adequate
Foods
to some
present
FOOD PROBLEMS
personnel
whose give ideas
wishes
and
a high priority by the tech-
of a company
such 125
J j .
YEARS
researchers,
research,
university
is the
desire
two considerations Next
come
sons
include
free
samples.
than
once
means factor.
taste
and
needed
screening, 2 more
the
is the fact
test
about
that
must
build
40 percent reaches
R&D funding.
concept stage,
rate
of the total a successful
Nutrition into
are
market
running
labora-
ideas,
consumed distribution,
must
On the average
only 1 which
shows
Of these research reaches in research a fact
Other
and
the family"
ideas
in the preliminary
and development
stage,
distribution.
and development pointing
this
eval-
60 new product
national
less
acceptability
be reviewed,
45 are lost
rea-
as a reason;
as an incidental
many
These item.
packaging,
"to please
ever
by the
second.
of a new food
better
an item
its products
product.
a close
item
30 percent.
price,
rarely
4 in the intensive
costs
of a new food
for another
selects
one winner.
leaving
government
for choice
quality,
of new product
marketable
thereby
account
of good
nutrition
testing,
convenience
the consumer
to produce
in one successful
market
which
of a new food product.
from
for selection
of the reasons
and expectation
reevaluated
during
the one product
for adequate 126
to result
at the
curiosity,
of the high mortality
sometimes
with
50 percent
or come
laboratories. reason
and change,
then
new,"
food company
8 more
cidentally, time
it's
Of interest
Because
are
and
cycle.
personnel,
compelling
for almost
and flavor
'because
the most
DECLINE
development
and consulting
for variation
account
in 200 selections
that
uated,
that
product
or purchasing
research,
7
MATURITY
i.-New
salesmen,
It is interesting consumer
Jl
5
GROWTH
Figure
tory
/ ' COMPANY GROWTH
5
MARKET DEVELOPMENT
as market
j
J
up again
and In-
by the the need
Recent foods,
that
trends
is,
foods
ments,
packaging
of such
a product;
fruit--drink by the
sumer
high
dried
coffee
unique
it applies
simple
necessary
from
of technically
as nearly
designed
the product
earthbound
foods
with
precise
known
moisture recently
acceptable
in flavor
and
honey,
range,
is stable
the production manifest
many
and
must
maple
syrup.
by virtue
Even
themselves
only as
nutritious
in the development
much
of human
instant-
makes
un-
coffee.
These to the
of the efforts
made
to
of all tech-
high-quality
to eat,
standards
recently soft
is that
in
as catsup, content.
for our pets. should
Some
The soft,
items
same
products
in the higher moist
of modern
represent
moist
moisture
although
These
of
to the touch,
and packagable.
the application
and
and
as intermediate
a product
foods
when
and nutritious
attention
nutritious,
and salt
foods
with
year.
ready
represent
freeze-
in the development
controlled, after
the con-
and ground
illustrations
be classified
of its high acidity
acceptable,
roasted
offer example,
technology
cup of coffee
significance
receiving
such
fruit-flavored
product;
refreshing,
for carefully
and now in the marketplace
of highly
from
might
of flavor
marketable
the brew
satisfying,
which
An instant
acceptable
For
be shelf-stable,
texture,
years
is an example
convenience.
application
day and year
pudding
products
brewed
foods
require-
rehydratability.
as acceptable,
offered
storagability
in freeze-dried
a freshly
Of high
demands,
with
acceptable,
and serve
designed
which
for
just
day after
products
fruits,
developed
are
consumer
of technically
to the consumer
dried
of preparing
designed
nutritious,
of painstaking the
of technically
banana
flavor
of rapid
to attain
direction
Instant
advances
of the consumer.
uniformity
moisture
to the bite,
years
is the opportunity
One category intermediate
Recent
products
and demands
consumer
popular
as possible
bother
designed
as to the
the desires
nically
are
a dozen
in the
uniform,
the convenience
techniques
it resembles
in space
meet
over
been
etc.
of a highly
water.
with
the time-consuming
samples
certain
a shelf-stable,
of cold
processing
ly reconstituted
to meet
the concepts
acceptability
resulted
have
characteristics,
the consumer
addition
flavor
development
fabricated
transportability
offers
engineering
man
specially
and
mix
drink
in new product
pet foods
technologies
principles an ideal
in
will
line
soon
of products
for the astronaut. Similar being
pursued
by General
partial
support
pressed
bars
eaten.
It was
yet retained must
U.S.
of the bar,
must
be chewable
floor
from
Examples fructose,
Army
content
Natick
cases
of 3 ft,
of additives sorbitol,
it has
than
calorie
crumbly
fats,
simulate
and oils.
In addition,
effect
are many
glycerol, additives
withstand within honey induce
in the mouth
of such
content
and obtain
water
comwhen
additives
on appearance,
30 ° and 100 ° F.
to swallow,
to treat
moistness
the additive
of 4 Kcal/g,
under
of moistness
Selection
nutrition,
in hot or cold
moistness
objective
resembled
to limit
between
or difficult
and be rehydratable which
with
aim
content
at temperatures
our
2 percent.
along our
been
development
investigations
the impression
which
about
prototype
moisture
It has
materials
been
product
intermediate
as to give
of less
a minimum
becoming
mimetic
Laboratories.
and acceptability
by the incisors
a height
with the
a manner
in the bar
In all
without
of moisture
to add certain
flavor
maintain
along
in such
necessary
sheared
is the area
Corp.
foods
consideration
is easily
sucrose,
the
and rehydration.
by weight
crete
Foods
therefore
into
stability,
bar
from
related
of dehydrated
a moisture
take
which
and closely
bulk,
to 20 percent
a compressed
bar
In addition, dropping a 15-rain
solids,
this to a con-
period.
dextrose,
salivation,
among 127
whichare salts, fruit solids, andorganicacidssuchas malic, citric, andtartaric. Invariably combinations of additivesservebetter thananyonealoneandtheoptimumcombination will depend upontheparticularfoodproductunderstudy. Obviously,combinations to beusedfor essentially meatitemswoulddiffer from thosefor vegetables,cereals,fruits, dairy items, or mixeddishes. In all cases,however,it wasfoundthatto obtainbestresultscertainof the salivation-inducing agentsmustbeusedalongwith theadditiveswhichsimulatemoistness. It wasfoundthatthe mois_re mimeticcompositionis bestintroducedinto thecompresseddehydrated or, frequently,freeze-dehydrated foodbar bywayof emulsiontechnology.A typical emulsionformulationis: Water ....................... 50 Fats ........................ 22 Sucrose...................... 12 Gumarabic.................... 10 Emulsifiers(mono&diglycerides).... 4 Sodiumcaseinate................ 2 Emulsionsrepresenta suitableandconvenient meansofattainingcompatibilityandreproducibilitywith a widerangeof compositions andof servingas a bindingagentfor thebasematerials becausetheir rheologicalcharacteristicspermit efficientcoatingof thefreeze-driedbase materials. Asanexample,80parts of freeze-driedchickenin 3 -inchdiceswereblendedwith 20 parts of the aboveemulsion,pressedintobarsandfrozen, andfreeze-dried;theresultwasunusuallyacceptable dry chickenbars of highnutritionalvalueandhighcalorie content. A widevarietyof otherdry meat,vegetable,andfruit barshavinga moistsensationwheneatenhasbeenprepared. Toevaluatemoisturemimeticfoodsfor acceptabilitya taste/textureprofile panelwas specificallytrainedto judgeprototypesamplesagainstsimilar barsmadewithoutadditionof the moisturemimeticcomposition.Todo soa specialterminologywasdeveloped to describecharacteristics of differentiationsuchas initial mois_re sensation,plasticity, amountof salivation,ease of chewing,crumbliness,cohesiveness of the chewedmass,dehydrationof themouth,easeof swallowing,stickinesson theteeth,aftereffectthirst, andgeneralpalatability. Inapplyingthese evaluationcriteria to a numberof moisturemimeticbarsit wasshownthatanincreaseof 2 to 3 pointswasattainedona 10-pointacceptabilityratingscaleoversimilar bars withoutadditionof the moisturemimeticagent. For example,a chickenstewbar wasincreasedin acceptabilityfrom a 2.5 ratingto 5.5, plain chicken from 3.0 to 5.0, and cereal bar from 3.5 to 6.5. These are surprisingly ure
128
content
moist-appearing below
about
items 2 percent.
when Typical
eaten,
yet are
products
are
typically shown
freeze-dried in figure
2.
products
with
moist-
Figure2.-Compressed dehydrated bars containing moisturemimeticagents. Theforegoingare Justsomeexamplesof technicallydesignedfoodsof thefuturewhich are notonlyfor theaverageconsumerbut are alsofor the military andtheastronaut,or aquanaut, sincetheyfit admirablyintotherigid projectedrequirementsof stability, compactness, highcaloric andnutritionalvalue, convenience, and variety. Much more time and effort is needed to achieve their
acceptance
by the
critical
consumer,
but they
are
on the threshold
of reality.
129
SESSION V
LONG-MISSION-DURATION
CHAIRMAN: Deputy
Director, NASA
Office
Biotechnology of
Advanced
PROGRAMS
LEO
FOX
and
Human
Research
and
Research Technology
Division
You have cury,
and Apollo
future
missions
Operations, etary
heard missions.
which
Space
are,
be utilized
to supply
this
regenerative
loop
sider
the possibility
approaches:
will
by also
(1) By means
food
context,
the first
talk
will
search
Center,
who will
talk
about
be given
as
Operations, which
part
are
a physicochemical
and
Jacob
Lunar
eventually, being
We would
method
Plan-
like
to close
When we con-
we do so from
of the Ames of regenerating
two
means. Refood.
Leo
132
for
systems
(2) by biological
Shapira
Base
planned
life-support
wastes,
means by Dr.
Extended
of the food.
metabolic
Mer-
to potential
and,
and water.
at least from
such
Regenerative
as oxygen
Gemini,
will be relative
missions
not be used.
of physicochemical
In this
Base
long-term
such
missions,
- missions
Space
regenerating
of regenerating
approved
morning
undefined
of these
essentials
about
this
Operations,
supplies
will
talks
as yet,
In some
expendable
a bit to date The
Station
Exploration.
the future,
quite
Fox
FOOD
SYNTHESIS
BY PHYSICOCHEMICAL
METHODS
As space that will vantages.
before
mentary
would
useful
of predictions
have
regeneration
result
study,
mission
in savings
the Lockheed
imal are
to keep
Missiles
it alive very
fat,
and carbohydrate.
The
protein
20 simple cannot
organic
acids. they
are Only
are
the
carbohydrate. cause with
very
nucleic
high
one-half
a diet
in metabolism
vitamins,
acids
in the protein of the diet
The
are
which
perhaps
contained
depending salts.
In a similar 1 and 3}.
upon
polymers
essential
has
source, the
primarily
of
of approxi-
to a man
for protein
or an-
the
However,
of complex 8 are
mis-
by a plant
composed
only
frag-
NUTRIENTS
and are
been
diet
with
long-chain
saturated
are
considered
to be essential
as little
since variously
whether
there
exclusively high
contains
and unsaturated to humans
as 1 to 2 g/day.
of relatively
of the very
our
simple
organic
is a minimal
protein
requirement
and fat might
nitrogen
load
relatively
compounds,
amounts
for
be expected
and the ketosis
small
pri-
to
associated
of various
salts,
elements. diet
arederived fatty
acids
polymers
It is not known
and trace
acids
and the glycerol contribute
2).
(refs.
and assimilated
requirement
combined fatty
are
because
American
from
I and
conclusion
and inorganic
of which
minimum
amounts, diet
In addition,
the calories
the calories
ponents
small
However,
third
acids,
of glycerol
in our glucose.
In the typical that
number
amino
composed
in very
fat diets.
acids,
a large
are
only very
75 g/day.
sugar
difficulties
in number
a few of the polyunsaturated
required
hexose
limited
be re-
of carbohydrates
(refs.
themselves,
relatively
of our diet
50 and
substances materials
by the body.
mostly
The
system
into
ad-
for a 6000-man-day
REGENERATED taken
a system mission
would
By using
that,
similar
net
that
regeneration
of organic
compounds,
The carbohydrates marily
are
components
to be between Fats
and
by man
be synthesized
estimated
it to grow.
substance
point
offer
duration
in savings.
to a very
CONTAINING
at some will
as to the mission
physicochemical
came
is any
mixtures
required
mately
fatty
complex
Co.
that
products
of the food supply
DIETS
sense
and enable
materials
protein,
they
basic
it is obvious
to result
Center
Research
in 1966 concluded
crew),
and volume
Ames
metabolic
made
Co.
a 10-man
SPACE
NASA
be expected
and Space
FOR
in its most
generally
major
with
,I
from
been
Dynamics
in weight
RATIONALE Food
General
JACOBSHAPIRA
and longer, foods
of food would
the
a Mars
longer
recover
information,
(i. e.,
become
partially
A number
quired
sion
missions
at least
I
virtually
the
major
from
the hexoses
in the fat, content
chemical
present
The
are
as shown
in the carbohydrates,
and the remainder
of the fat.
no calories.
components
minerals,
are
composed vitamins,
in table about
I.
Note
one-
of the amino and other
com133
TABLEI.-MAJORCHEMICALCOMPONENT_ OF Material
Weight/day, g
Hexoses Aminoacids Fatty
come
from
ods.
The
be emphasized
carbon
is that for
(3)
C1.00H1.6700.83
+ 1.00
O2--_1.00
CO 2 + 0.83
H20
that
for
other
essential'component_of
the catabolism
94 percent
of the carbon
is converted
C1.00H1. be noted
85 percent
fat 134
(ref.
an even
are
diet
shown
meth-
In the
equations
case
on a per
of mole
Only
+ C0.20H1.0700.32N0.27
in table
H20
food is exhaled relatively
I as
follows,
again
on a
+ CO. 06H0. 3000.09N0.08
as carbon
small
consideration
02 _
proportion
and that,
produced
difficult
on the
+ 1.01
greater
dioxide let
The remainder
more
along
the carbon And further,
dioxide
amounts
to permit
and that
of material
0.97
CO 2 + 0.75 diet
are
resynthesis
85 percent
carbohydrate
the current
American
diet
environment.
given
with
H20
carbohydrate
be composed fat,
a diet
of vitamins,
by the body
to carbon
excretion
than
is
and
other
than
sufficient
of the diet
be safe
its excessive
dioxide
products
More
85 percent
which
and acceptable
caris and in
fat and protein.
of synthesis it appears
this
+ CO. 03H0. 1700.05N0.04
system.
should
to the problem
Unfortunately,
of such
purposes,
of the
that
by chemical
as protein,
is converted
a regenerative
would,
would
such
Catabolism
containing
has been
us postulate of the diet
mission.
of this
from
and water
to synthesize
for all practical
can be discarded
than
5) in the aerospace
in which
foods
6700.72N0.04
Such a diet
may be healthier Serious
these
H20
CO 2 + 0.72
of our
of the diet. the
and water
O2--_0.94
into carbohydrate.
of a typical
and water
carbohydrate. fact
that
CO 2 + 0.30
of the diet
to water.
a system
and the like which would be carried shown by the following equation:
dioxide
or physicochemical
feces.
us postulate
about
O2---_ 0.80
+ 1.12
and
comprise
+ 1.00
7400.46N0.08
be converted
that
substances
by the body.
(starch),
H20
only,
these
as food.
of food substances
and (3) carbohydrate
CO 2 + 0.96
of the hydrogen
dioxide
the catabolism
and acceptable
O2--_1.00
would
bon
be safe
whether
biological
+ 1.42
Now let
carbon
by in vitro
C1.00H1.9200.12
in the urine
than
synthesized
to the body
(2)
83 percent
water
no difference
C1.00H1.6700.22N0.27
It is seen
It should
4O 2600"
(1)
C1.00H1.
means
900
respectively,
A net equation can be written per carbon basis:
excreted
400
90
the material
(2) fat (tripalmitin),
are,
1260
90
it makes
or are
can be written
(meat),
basis
origin
consideration
Equations (1) protein
that
DIET
Kcal/day
10 505
a food of natural main
i!
AMERICAN
315
acids
Glycerol
It should
TYPICAL
that
of protein very
(ref.
complicated
4) and
processeswill berequiredfor their be economical
even
for
synthesis,
long-duration
space
can be made as food, (ref.
is: certain
a major
comprise
fraction
OF PURE
carbohydrates
of regenerated
a significant
portion
in all
likelihood
automatic
systems
would
not
missions.
SELECTION The hypothesis
and
NUTRIENTS
or carbohydratelike food.
Any such
of the diet,
nutrients
substance
and be readily
present
must
be safe
synthesized
with
in our
diets
and acceptable high reliability
6). During
molecules
which
tolerated
metabolism,
might
when
trioses,
ingested
by rats The
in large
amounts
in only
small was
for prolonged glycerol,
amounts.
periods.
calorie
same
study,
evidence
the catabolism
There with
of compounds
are
that
few such
of the
which
could
compounds.
normal
blood
OF GLUCOSE
Route
LD,
be
10 000
Glycerol
Rabbit
Oral
27 000
Glycerol
Mouse
Oral
31 500
Glycerol
Rat
Oral
27 500
Glycerol
Guinea
Oral
7 750
that
is known
pig
gylcerol
which
propandiol,
have
study for
to both
50 days.
larger
This
orally
no more
as a large
percentage
of the
to have
low toxicity
This with
last
and
of II (ref.
7).
and Johnson of glycerol
of glycerol
are
is the
acutely diet.
Other
diglycerol,
simplest
even-
acid.
ill individuals
Carlson, amount
compound
acetic
and no deterimental amounts
toxicology in table
is probably
reported
normal
of Johnson,
of the subjects, fed even
been
of glycerol
administered
of glycerol
acceptable
and triacetin.
the esterificati0n
In the classical
administered
to be highly
in very
mg/kg
Oral
were
could
AND GLYCEROL
Dog
requirements
be
the
of glucose
glucose,
Glucose
been
example,
The known
sugar,
17 000
has
might
be consumed
Intravenous
from
smaller
of these For
Rabbit
compounds
animals
from
case.
Glucose
polyglycerol,
of the
to be the
some
20 000
low-molecular-weight
110 g/day
arise
that
Oral
which
consumed
which
hoped
to successively
Rabbit
glucose,
periods.
did not prove
down
Glucose
toxic
tended
broken
It was
Animal
it can be seen
GlyceroI
This
II.-TOXICITY
species,
fat and arises
easily.
for reports
is compared
In several
chain
are
amounts.
Compound
triglycerol,
molecules
relatively
examined
TABLE
than
food
and dihydroxyacetone
literature
one of these,
large
be synthesized
glyceraldehyde,
tolerated
large
normal
(ref.
were
50 weeks;
amounts
for ex-
8), 14 subjects
represented
effects for
in large
about
observed. again,
each
20 percent In the
there
was
no
of toxicity.
135
In recentyears, therehavebeenreportsconcerningtheadministrationof glycerolto over 1000patientswithglaucoma(ref. 9), increasedintracranialpressure(ref. 10), anddiabetes(ref. 11). Patientshaveconsumed as muchas 300g/day, whichis morethanone-halftheir foodrequirement. It is apparentthatglycerolcansafelybemadea substantialpart of thediet, whetherit comesfrom a naturalsource,suchasfat, or is synthesized from metabolicproducts. Theevidencefor thesafetyof ingestionof propyleneglycol, triacetin, andsomeother compounds by humansis limited. However,theyare generallyrecognizedas safeby theU.S. Food andDrugAdministration(ref. 12). Thesematerialshavebeentestedrather extensivelyonanimals andthereis goodreasonto believethattheycanalsobesafelyconsumed in significantamounts by humans. Thesituationwith theformosesugarswhicharisefrom the self-condensation of formaldehydeis moretenuous.All studiesthusfar reportedindicatethattheunpurifiedmixturecauses a gastrointestinaldisturbancewhenfedto animals. This maybedueto thepresenceof a limited numberof components of themixturewhoseformationcanbeavoidedby appropriatechoiceof conditionsand/orcatalyst. Alternatively,undesiredcomponents couldbe removed from the crude product
by fractionation. SELECTION The
and water.
There
the liquid
or gas
the byproduct produce
materials are
phase
prototype
oxygen,
(ref.
A process
and water
(ref.
14}.
or consumed
and hydrogen,
Accordingly,
available
13).
although
the
methane
PATHWAYS
for the physicochemlcal
to produce
and hydrogen
carbon
available
currently
hydrogen
methane
to oxygen duce
starting
OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL
which
by the this
fairly
well
through
developed
is of high purity The
methane
appears
may
CH 4 ----- HCHO
the methane
to formose
sugars
sible
pathways
which
might
of methods
conversions
136
would
or condensed
leading be used
be converted
from
methane
as food will
for accomplishing It is of interest :
to propylene
(HCHO)
would
which
be catalytically
glycol,
not be discussed.
the desired
to write
which
utilizes
this
in either cabin,
hydrogen
to
electrolyzed
be cracked
to accomplish
to proin practice.
control
for the
and
system
synthesis
of
Glycerol
_,,
to formaldehyde
to trioses
spacecraft
envisioned
Formose Thus,
the
of the atmosphere
The pathway
dioxide
of water
possibly
(HCHO) 3 _ CO 2
carbon
and can be either
to be difficult
as the byproduct
was considered to be available for food synthesis. glycerol and the formose sugars was:
are
for electrolysis
can be recycled
crew.
reaction
produced
apparatuses
also
The water
syntheses
acetic
However,
acid, it should
Sugars could
be condensed
reduced and other
directly
to glycerol. simple
not be difficult
Pos-
molecules to conceive
conversions.
a completely
balanced
set
of equations
describing
some
of these
AH
Reaction
+1638.2 Kcal 24H20_24
H 2 +12
02 -362.4
6 CO 2 + 24 H2-----* 6 CH 4 + 12 H20 -468.6 6 CH 4 +6
The
net equation
equation quite
6 CO 2 + 6 H20
C6H1206
synthesis
reaction
action
that
starting
the
stored
A NASA Transportation accept
formaldhyde of this methane
is oxidized
during
each
pass
relatively
The
recycle
gas
0.2
percent
nitrous
In the recycle
methane.
in a Sabatier The
The other
initial crude
produce
oxide shown
were
by a
the sole
recovery
of oxygen.
equation
always
dioxide
energy-
is the
sufficient and water
pro-
but with was
40 g/day
than
of 35 the
methane,
of figure
carbon
byproduct
about heating
85 percent
of formaldehyde,
the
right
carbon
Conversion
approximately
oxygen,
main
are
35
45 percent hydrogen. loop
gases
reconverted
to
loop. for insulation
if the combined
The first
but subsequent
was
oxides
figure,
pellets.
of the
in this
be required
effective.
of the
and 1 percent
50 W to compensate would
side
yield
only
A representation
coated
fraction
apparatus
and produce
10 percent
system
American
prototype
recycled.
oxides,
1, a small
enters
required
no external more
ratio
15 percent
also
on the
tetraborate
30 percent
dioxide
loop
are
sodium
a recycle
General
materials
and byproducts
wherein
of the
a breadboard
as starting
recycle
AND HYDROGEN
laboratory
prototype
losses heat
exchang-
system
systems
will
and
could
produce
more.
Various (ref.
Division
containing
reaction
SYNTHESIS
version
are
carbon
Research of assembling
In the main
on the left
system
However, system
for the
DIOXIDE
and oxygen
catalyst,
of carbon
laboratory
approximately
appreciably
low,
catalytic
feed
inefficiencies.
er and insulation
1.
composition
loop
that
of the net
CARBON
All intermediates
in figure
nitrogen,
is processed
process
hydrogen,
15).
percent.
the
proceeds
be noted
There
neglecting
American
at 675 ° C in a reactor
was
even
FROM
in the
dioxide,
is shown
required
the reverse
of carbohydrate.
cycle,
the General
(ref.
also
to the net
of the diet.
is currently
and water
apparatus
the
of water
is identical
photosynthesis
It should
Further,
catabolism
to close
reaction) that
pathway.
OF FORMALDEHYDE
carbon
formose
be emphasized
complex
during
contractor,
+672.0
(via the
exothermic.
components
Corp.,
will
+ 6 02
is the electrolysis are
produced
SYNTHESIS
which
more
in the body
-135.2
it should
in the sequence
materials from
although
of the reactions
occurs
H20
of a hexose
and considerably
The remainder
duced
----* C6H1206
of photosynthesis,
requiring
HCHO+6
6 HCHO
for the
different
02--.6
15) and
methods
considerable
of formaldehyde
have
OF GLYCEROL been
progress to trioses
evaluated has
been
and their
FROM
FORMALDEHYDE
for the synthesis made
toward
subsequent
of glycerol
implementing catalytic
reduction
from the
formaldehyde
scheme to glycerol
requiring (ref.
con16). 137
Methane reactor
Formaldehyde reactor
Heat
exchanger
f
Carbon dioxide
Separator
Hydrogen
Nitrous
Extensive condensation oxide
oxide
because
desirable
on alumina
effect
sugars type
has been of reactor
of the reaction to the kinetics
investigated
to 900 g/hr varied catalyst 138
between calcium
whereby
had previously
4 and
for the
stirred
30 percent
hydroxide.
of optimum
Several
Glyceraldehyde period
formed.
The most
SUGARS
for over
synthesis
catalysts
was
suitable
found
possible
18 and tank
formose
Depending
maintained
sugars.
upon
based
upon
the calcium
to be desirable reaction
hydrogenation
as a
and had a catalyst
a laboratory
was
prototype
to produce (refs.
which permitted
a complex
6 and 17).
permitted
mixture
Recently,
much
the collection
of
a new
greater
control
of data
relevant
19).
reactor
in aqueous
100 years
and also
for
FORMALDEHYDE
condenses
of formose
conditions
for the autocatalytic
FROM
formaldehyde
been
(refs.
into
catalyst.
induction
intermittently
than
of formaldehyde
to the selection
found.
OF FORMOSE
developed
a 500-ml
and water.
There is a continuing effort to develop convert formaldehyde to glycerol.
was
By using
the
on the products
reaction
of the reaction
been
reduced
SYNTHESIS
related
formaldehyde
heterogeneous
have
found to be ruthenium on carbon. apparatus that will continuously
The formose
made
of the best
it greatly
directive
for producing
have been
and selection
or ferric
cocatalyst
1. -Apparatus
studies
Fo rmald ehyd e water
oxide (catalyst)
Oxygen
Figure
V
Recycle blower
solution space
The
at 60 ° C, it is possible
concentration
and usually velocities,
to convert
of formaldehyde with a 0.1
conversions
molar
has ratio
been
of the
of 30 to 100 percent
up
canbe obtainedreproducibly. A methodhasbeendeveloped thatpermitsfacileexaminationof the formoseproducefor its composition(ref. 20). Theobservedkineticscanbe explainedby usingrate expressionssimilar to thoseemployedfor analysisof heterogeneously catalyzedreactions. Complexing-decomplexing stepsin the homogeneous systemare equivalenttoadsorption-desorption stepsin theheterogeneous system (refs. 19and21). It appearsthatdecomplexing of theproductmaybethe rate-limiting step,whereas thedistributionof productsis governed by thenatureandconcentration of thecatalyst. FABRICATION OFFOODS It shouldnotbe expectedthatcrewsof long-durationspacemissionswill readilyconsume thepurenutrientssynthesized onboardwithoutmodificationor theadditionof flavorings. However, it is notdifficult to envisionusingglycerol, whichis quitesweet,andsugarsin a variety of acceptablefoods. For instance,theymightbeusedas sweeteners for coffeeandtea;alternatively, theymightserveas thebasisfor flavoredsoftdrinks. If, or rather when,it becomespossibleto convertthesematerialsto higherpolymerssuchas starch, theonlymajorlimitationwill be in the ingenuityof the cook. Onecanreadilyforeseestarch-basedfoodssuchas potatosoup,pancakes, andpastabasedonregeneratedmaterialsbecomingquiteacceptable fooditems. REFERENCES 1. NASAAmesResearchCenter: TheClosedLife SupportSystem.NASASP-134,1967. 2. Drake,G.L. ; King, C.D. ; Johnson,W.A.; andZuraw, E.A. : Studyof Life SupportSystems for SpaceMissionsExceeding OneYearin Duration. ContractorRept. (NAS2-3011),General DynamicsCo., 1966. 3. Jagow,R.B. ; andThomas,R.S., eds. : Studyof Life SupportSystemsfor SpaceMissions ExceedingOneYearin Duration. ContractorRept. (NAS2-3012),Lockheed Missiles & SpaceCo. (Sunnyvale, Calif.), 1966. 4. Fox, S.W.: Prospectusfor ChemicalSynthesis of Proteinageous Foodstuffs.NASASP-134, 1967,pp. 189-200. 5. Frankenfield,J.W. ; Kaback,S.M.; Skopp,A. ; andShapira,g. : SyntheticFatsas Part of a Closed-Loop Life SupportSystem.J. Spacecraft andRockets,vol. 4, no. 1671,1967. 6. Shaptra,J. : SpaceFeeding:Approaches to theChemicalSynthesis of Food. CerealSci. vol. 13, no. 58, 1968. 7. Spector,W.S., ed. : Handbook of Toxicology.Vol. I. W.B. Saunders Co. (Philadelphia,Pa. ), 1956, 8.
pp.
Johnson,
151-152.
V. ; Carlson,
on the Animal 9.
Consul, vol.
10.
B.N. 60,
Cantore, Pressure.
no.
A.J.
Organism.
; and
Kulshrestha,
900,
G. ; Guidetti, J.
; and Johnson, Am.
J. O.P.
A. : Studies
Physiol., : Oral
vol. Glycerol
of the 103,
no.
Physiological 517,
in Glaucoma.
Action
of Glycerol
1933. Am.
J.
Ophthalmol.,
1965. B. ; and Virno,
Neurosurgery,
vol.
M. : Oral 21,
no.
278,
Glycerol
for the Reduction
of Intracranial
1964.
139
11. Freund,G.: TheMetabolicEffectsof GlycerolAdministeredto DiabeticSubjects.Arch. Inter. IVied.,Vol. 121,No. 123, 1968. 12. Anon.:RegulationsonFoodAdditives. Pt.121,Ch. 1, Title 21, Sect.121.101,U.S. Food andDrugAdmin. 13. Wydeven,T. ; andJohnson,R.W.: WaterElectrolysis:Prospectfor the Future. J. Eng. for Ind. Vol. 90, No. 531,1968. 14. McDonnellDouglasAstronauticsCo.: 60-DayMannedTestofa Regenerative Life Support Systemwith Oxygen andWaterRecovery. NASACR-98500,1968. 15. Budininkas,P. ; Remus,G.A.; andShapira,J. : Synthesis of Formaldehyde from CO2 and H2. Paper68-0615,MeetingSoc.of AutomotiveEngrs. (LosAngeles,Calif., Oct. 7-11, 1968). 16. Weiss,H.A. ; Ramsden,H.E. ; Taylor, W.F. ; andShapira,J. : Physicochemical Food Synthesis for Life SupportSystems.I. Researchona Processfor the Synthesis of Glycerol. AbstractAGFD-5,Abstractsof the157thNatl. Meeting,Am. Chem.Soc., 1969. 17. Shapira,J. : DesignandEvaluationof ChemicallySynthesized Foodfor LongSpaceMissions. NASASP-134,1967,pp. 175-187. 18. Weiss,A.H. ; andShapira,J. : TheKineticsof the FormoseReaction. AbstractC-65, 155thNatl. MeetingAm. Chem.Soc. (SanFrancisco,Calif., 1968). 19. Weiss,A.H. ; LaPierre, R.B. ; andShapira,J. : Homogeneously CatalyzedFormaldehyde Condensation to Carbohydrates.J. Catalysis,1969(inpress). 20. Shapira,J. : Identificationof Sugarsas their TrifluoroacetylPolyolDerivatives. Nature, Vol. 222,No. 792,1969. 21. Ugolov,A.M. ; Adamovich,B.A. ; Krylov, O.U.; Sinyak,Y.E. ; Uspenskaya, V.A. ; and Shulgina,I.L. : SyntheticMonosaecharides for Nutritionof Manin Space.Abstractof Presentation,XII COSPAR PleneryMeeting,1969.
140
BIOLOGICAL
FOODS I
Several role
biological
of food production,
noted
that
bases)
is thought
it is for
have
submarines.
scheme,
system
carbon of human
cycle
these
their
rate
The
most
excreta
as well. is slower
candidates
more
The
Chinese
uncharacterized
cabbage,
researchers food-synthesis
systems.
Two different yeasts,
can grow
on cellulose
in media
but could
further
the
be linked
inedible
portions
The most
elaborate
animal
intermediates.
scientists
who seek
nutritious
food
stability
in this
way.
with
be used
bacterial
fungal
and nutrients
dioxide
would
In all
cases
are
containing
with
human
plants.
schemes
anticipate fleas,
in ecologic The
very
but less
fish, diversity
complex
plants
In this and
min-
and thereby
efficiently,
in that
of photosynthesis.
fairly
primitive
and reasonable
so far
plants
and
growth
suggestions
carbon
rate,
with
sugars
systems
rabbits,
algae
systems
are
probably
best
growth.
or be used
as food for had proponents
more reserved
and
may
and produce
plants
Other
chemical
molds
Mushrooms
system
to provide
from
forms,
oxygen
and fowl all have
In one,
system.
for bacterial
added.
or higher
and who hope
acids
simpler
use
as yet
schemes.
needed
The
to return
utilized
removal
or fatty
the nitrogen
an auto-
of water have
dioxide
sugars
useful.
using
coupling
atmosphere-regeneration
of formose
These
involves
with electrolysis
atmosphere-regenerative
of higher
systems
the nitrogen
is not capable
Other
Sabatier
and feces
a chemical
Water
cells.
potentially
wastes.
of gardening,
Chlorella.
green
surface
eutropha,
contributes
urine
leaf
as
potato.
chemical
urine
usually
and other
consideration
with the
conversion
systems
from
a large
of bacterial
aboard
system.
dioxide;
tissue
duckweed
Hydrogenomonas
in the form
proposed
are
serious
algae,
similarly
of plant
have
chemical
be
and fixed
be carried value
of the microscopic
and sweet
in conjunction
organism have
that
given
bacterium,
bacteria
plants
radish,
system
and food
a methane-fixing
higher
It should
stations
recreational
of carbon
can function portion
food plants
only bacterial
oxygen
plants
and a larger
among
traditional
hydrogen-fixing
breathable
Higher
of green
growth
the triple
) All of the bioregenerative
reduction
to support
in planetary
a purely
on growth
to fulfill
in spacecraft.
food would
for the
over
proposed
removal
otherwise
be made
advantages
been
that
of spacemen.
is based
utilized
nutrients
likely
could
by photosynthetic
are
with
role,
breed
have
studied
is recycled
as endive,
trophic
might
most
(in contrast
a case
have
and waste
of a multiple
an exceptional
of growth
a few of the such
in spacecr_aft
(I suppose
but some
complexity
regeneration,
in terms
assumes
The
erals
of food
of only
drawbacks,
of varying
atmosphere
production
but it probably
more
systems
DORIS HOWES ofCALLOWAY University California
acceptable
be grown
carbon to process
one or among and
for planetary 141
habitation subjects
or major before
items
nitrogen
compositions
are quite
are
much
or cell-division rapid
weight
stations
of leaves,
high in protein
different
rate
growth
able
laboratory
where
they
can serve
from
rates
that
are necessary
and volume
algae,
content
fungi,
and bacteria
on a dry-matter
in normal
of the organism,
human diets.
the higher
I.-PUBLISHED
Protein
Leaves
(N x 6.25)
20 to 40 5to
Ash
9 to 15
Carbohydrate
effectively
leaf
ribs
algae,
or methods
this
a given
they
that have
a laxative
rein
digestibility, This
before 142
brief
qualifying
and algae with
reason-
cause
6to9
2to
4
9
40 to 55
5 to 20
1 to 10
Nil
a polymer intestine.
food.
of lipids.
offensive
ileum gas
and a number
if deprived
of nitrogen
instance
they
or
occurs
before
organic
when
consump-
can be acted
upon
by
compounds
in general.
or oxygen, acid,
there
vary,
Sometimes This
of short-chain
of the diet
of beta-hydroxybutyric In this
respect.
not ruptured
where
content
harvested.
of polysaccharides
the cells.
are
and colon
absorption
in this
within
are
form
of changing
of ash
the cells
in the
and the cells
means
Estimates
when
usually
of the microorganisms
The usual
medium.
of nutrients
the lipid
of composition
but in the cases
removed
wall
poor
is chiefly
as human
6to
nutrient
absorption
lipid
discussion
65 to 85 8
particularly
the lower
because
30 to 50
6to
solids,
are
accumulates
probably
Bacteria
2to7
content
the
intestinal
may
the animal
biomasses
the
in the cell
reach
This
lipid
from most
These
within
4 to 10
in carbohydrate,
indigestible
both excessive
effect.
Hydrogenomonas
be absorbed
the growth
content.
Fungi
2to9
not thoroughly
some
residues
This
to
and roots.
rich
are
is included
produce
bacteria.
of carbon
%, in-
25 to 45
is by altering
interferes
material
bacteria,
cannot
strain
Leaves
If the unabsorbed
other
9
for increasing
contain
material
the indigestible
are
media
carbohydrates.
indigestible
tion.
known
mineral-rich
All biomasses complex
but not stems
and fungi
are
within
All of
OF BIOMASSES
40 to 60
a8 to 15
because
test
I.
the higher
oxygen
COMPOSITIONS
40 to 60
(by diff. )
Fiber
Leaves,
ratios
acid)
Algae
Lipids
aIncludes
Their
in table
(and nucleic
are to recycle
TYPICAL
solids
Dry
often
as biological
given
In general,
the protein
if the systems
are
basis.
Amount,
composition
role
limits.
TABLE
variants
a dual
they are eaten.
Typical these
space
as do a number which
we have
is no interference
of
shown
with pro-
is intracellular.
serves The first
to illustrate is to assess
two basic
judgments
the closeness
to be made
of fit between
the
composition
of the product
detect
the presence
(e. g.,
cellulose).
knowledge
Neither
guesses
grams
for
the
system
tem
fat,
(high
these our
the least
important pattern
R.
ance
L.
quality
of the crew.
with
tract uric
cells which
acid,
than
meet
than
prevent
proby about
The other favorably
Studies
In rat
studies
joints.
is increased be considered
present
in tissue
to the
high
endogenous
gram
maximum
is removal
levels
of dietary
the amount
allowable
of purines
from
safe,
protein
cells;
this
also
is degraded
also
would
of un-
by man
increase
to
urinary
roughly
be necessary
the least
com-
in the urinary
contain
it might
bal-
of the protein
consumption
on individual
intake,
of
nitrogen
all
as stones
depending
the
limit
and have
(courtesy
protein
protein
poorer,
laboratory
meet
acid
casein
support
The biomasses
To be perfectly
day,
will
Purine
precipitate
of evi-
amino
somewhat
in our
may
acids.
may
synthesis.
of protein. per
and
lines
protein
bacterial
that
determined,
the
are
theoretically
factors
as nucleic
fluids
Unfortunately,
by stimulating (RNA) per
nonnutritional
for essential
is obviously
proteins,
CMorella
and casein
could
need
balance)
completed
yeast,
of the biomasses
not saturated
several
the milk
ethanol-extracted
Fat
70 g/day.
products
with
recently
are
not been
acid
animal
to of
in the latter.
From
and amino
men
45 and 300 g/day,
minimum has
a sys-
On the basis
between
is about
with
protein),
of healthy
acids
600 g/day.
if major
stored-food
intake
accepted
ketosis
of the biomasses.
of purines soluble
the
In comparison
of the
vary
carbohydrate
greater
but compare
in the diet or low-fat
all the fatty
(the digestibility
any
to 20 to 40 g of protein
tion
that
and metabolize
Torula
intake
could
of present
perhaps
inadequate.
water
could
will
was
and adequate
commercial
acid
ing that
effects
of research
the tolerance
may
from
important
is the amount
in the
oils
as soybean.
Thus,
carbohydrate
protein
50 g of protein
of ribonucleic
If consumption
is to
But some
required,
be present
explored
to 35 to 40 g of egg protein.
casein.
presumably
of cells
basis
or a minimum-weight,
provided
limits.
AFB),
is sparingly
or crystals
(high
dietary
case
that
those
such
less
One of the most
acid
second
physiologic
on the
absolutely
information
that
is much
to methionine,
in contrast
needs
to absorb
among
Brooks
favorably
uric
do have
the direction
and fat would
published
of biomasses
proteins,
slightly
pared
processed
The
of the biomasses.
to set
are
system
in the former
tolerance
respect
Miller,
in man,
systems
ratio).
but that
or attributes
We have
of carbohydrate
is best
plant
that
C/N
conclusively
be made
protein,
of 7 g of some
of these
with
quality
such
concluded
can be absorbed
protein
of leaves
indicated
must
of 200 to 250 g/day,
amount
in view
particularly
Dr.
we have
capacity
which
The
and these
on a chemical
is assured
Maximum
dence,
in space
for which
A minimum
amount
value
low fat or carbohydrate),
cases
is in the range
acids.
of man
and carbohydrate).
studies
that quality
but the
good
placed
in those
long chain.
fatty
the
can be established
of carbohydrate,
low protein
own and other
tolerance
(i. e.,
no nutritional
by the time
(high protein,
patterns,
provided
and
ratios
for food were
biological
of man
mission.
Distorted dependence
have
needs
the facts
needs
factors
permissible,
supply
Mars
that
of these
nutritional are
that will
1984
of substances
of either
informed
and nutritional
tolerance amount
require
1 g to limit limits.
of processa new direc-
in food technology.
143
Nucleic biomasses. erals,
acids
The list
are
nitrates,
fuI to lethal
by no means
includes
glycosides,
among
Recently,
of either
ill from
a few grams
of dry
On the basis
of the present
to the function
of providing
chemically of this they
order
have
stances, about
been
fully
one-half
recognizable
cells,
H.
with
processed
of the needed would
diet
could
be quite
extensive
TABLE
the major
tolerate
A. aerogenes.
it would
OF BIOMASS
......
Leaf
from
Protein/man/day,
g- - -
_
Energy/man/day,
Keal
-
_, 260
Yield
after
Protein/man/day,
g---
Energy/man/day,
Kcal-
crude
25-30
complete
min-
but harm-
even very
Subjects
became
small acutely
of food poisoning. consumption
of crude
and minerals)
fiber,
value
toxins,
portion
of present
be a challenge
II).
USEFUL
Algae yeast
&
a
Regeneration
unwanted
Bacteria
could
candidates.
to produce
IN SPACE
is
in a spaceship.
and other
of a diet.
biomasses
to accompany
(table
is of doubtful
of the composition
and
Yield
144
men cannot
in
pigments,
edible
to the crew.
II.-AMOUNT
Biomass
acids,
present
low dosages
in fat or carbohydrate
nucleic form
to earlier,
areinnocuousat
a few vitamins
260 Kcal)
on the basis
as food and acceptable
and
view,
high
and
that
compounds
alluded
reminiscent
(plus
to remove
food,
eutropha
optimistic
protein
or yeast
Many
symptoms
most
coincidental
carbohydrates
we found
(7 g of nitrogen
algae,
steps
tested:
or stored-aboard
of magnitude
leaves,
processing
of two bacteria
regenerated
the
and steroids.
levels.
amounts
limited
others
amines,
at high-intake
the only undesirable
DIETS
Bacteria
product
,_ 40
?
,_,280
?
processing
185
300
300
2800
2200
1360
After subprovide The
products
CLAYTON
SPACE MISSION LONG-TERM REQUIREMENTS
Spaceflights compared (AAP)
for
with
flights
missions
have
of present
the Mercury,
for future been
accomplishments.
to last
Incorporated
and Apollo
programs
now in the planning 28 or 56 days,
The missions TABLE
Astronaut
Gemini,
designed
HUBER
Technology
I
programs
S.
for AAP,
I.-LENGTH
stages.
however,
Date
are
I), are
Apollo
the minimum
OF ORBITAL
or mission
(table
Applications
time
only
extremely
being
intermediate
twice
brief Program
the length in length.
FLIGHTS Duration
Mercury John
H. Glenn,
M. Scott Walter L.
Feb.
Jr.
Carpenter M.
Gordon
20,
1962
May
24,
3, 1963
Schirra,
Jr.
Oct.
Cooper,
Jr.
May 15,
1962
1963
4 hr
56 min
4 hr
56 min
9 hr 14 min 34 hr 20 min
Gemi_ Gemini
3
Mar.
23,
1965
Gemini
4
June
3, 1965
Gemini
5
Aug.
21,
Approx 4 days
1965
8 days
1965
2 days
Gemini
6
Oct.
25,
Gemini
7
Dec.
4,
Gemini
6-A
Dec.
15,
1965
1 day
Gemini
8
Mar.
16,
1966
3 days
Gemini
9
May
17,
Gemini
9-A
June
3, 1966
3 days
Gemini
10
July
18,
3 days
Gemini
11
Sept.
12,
1966
3 days
Gemini
12
Nov.
11,
1966
4 days
1965
1966
1966
15hr
14 days
3 days
Apollo Apollo
7
Oct.
11,
1968
11 days
Apollo
8
Dec.
21,
1968
6 days
Apollo
9
Feb.
3, 1969
10 days
145
The purpose long
of this
term.
It should
No definite
have
planning
are designated
been
stages.
as the
three
is to discuss
be emphasized
programs
ing initial
These
paper
will
Program,
on three
the Lunar
will
increase
orbiting
both
space
tion of such flight). missions.
equipment
a flight
the
within
Near
the latter
by a crew
be about
this
time
part
on a permanent
be equipped
and the
Resupply
would
loop operation.
of the decade will
and equipment
would
space which
(This
and
crews
quire
landings
will
be confined
multiman
for the
during
vehicles
be utilized
establishment
permanent.
Conceivably,
members
could
a lunar
be rotated
are
base
a spacecraft
station.
Present
plans
and a Mars
orbital
cade
nonresupply
being
of long-term
could call
which
The requirements sions
categorized
Missions
will
The extreme ment 146
in a large
with
conditions space
for
longer
than
The dura-
any previous
as long-term
will
shuttle
could
men
have
and
the capabil-
The space
vehicles
resupplying
traveling
between
expendable
and subsystems
which
storage
planetary
space
support
a station
as a centralized
lunar
mater-
require
facility
open-
for expend-
missions.
exploration
of the spacecraft. systems
will
be resupplied
utilize
Future
for Increased
developed.
small
vehicles,
exploration
will
times.
Concepts
stay
Such a structure
would
with expendable
materials
re-
be somewhat and crew
Unique respect
from
Earth
require
to crew
There
is that
or from
manned by the year
system
size,
surface
may
associated extent are
quite
is one common
of planetary
a permanent
fly-by
during
1984.
420 to 540 days
features
on the lunar station.
missions
or landing
would
PROGRAM
space
a Mars-Venus
for a feeding
earlier. vary
be launched
mission
missions
possibility.
periodically.
category
missions
Space
Apollo
area
could
of an Earth-
environment.
thereby
missions
PROGRAM
PLANETARY Another
They
Program.
launching
which
Such
area.
supporting
base
dur-
exploration.
Earth-orbit
be classified
facility
for subsequent
to the immediate
of a lunar
must
support,
serve
and post
and additional
13 times
for expendables also
the
artificial-gravity
and docking
could
Apollo
time.
expended
Planetary
Subsequent decade
in space.
logistical
LUNAR Lunar
ones
a space-station
be reserved
could
of space
is a distinct
is about
in an Earth-like
station
has been
and the
the AAP.
In the next
be assembled
provide
probably
This
time.
and longer
with a hangar
Earth
with
of 8 to 12 individuals
frame
basis
Program,
at the present
effort
concepts
as
PROGRAM
begin
180 days.
50 to 100 individuals
would
ables
would
will
and mission
manned
Flights
station
ials.
size
are classified
individually.
programs
in crew
station
ity of housing station
Earth-orbit
which
possibilities
considerable
be focused
be discussed
the AAP,
are only
although
EARTH-ORBIT Future
beyond
concepts
implemented,
Attention
will
missions
that these
Earth-Orbit
programs
space
These
for
each
of activity, different denominator,
base
the latter flights
such part
would
For
such
as a space of the
next
de-
be extended
completion.
not be identical with
exploration.
for all
program
of the long-term
will
need
and environmental from
to be satisfied. conditions.
the artificial-gravity however;
mis-
as the length
environof
manned
spaceflights
and become
and exploration
more
complex
As previously including
food.
as those tion
for past
and eating
equipment able
will
that
and much
noted,
The
increases, more
the space
requirements
and present
systems.
could
be provided
will
which
of resupply
be resupplied
system
will
It is anticipated
with
associated
with
life
support
multiply
speculative.
station
for a feeding
will be compatible
the technique
the problems
heat
lunar
foods
exploration
and not so restrictive methods
the space
prior
with expendables,
flexible
conventional
within
and cool
for the
be quite
that
the environment
periodically
of food
station.
Hardware
to consumption.
programs
preparaand
It is also
could
also
conceiv-
be applicable
for
=
!
a portion
of the nutritional
not be restricted, Extended tem.
this
several
methods
planetary
missions
supporting
adequate
systems
with
for the
life-support
man
distant,
cade.
days).
but such
In fact,
for electric
power.
a concept could
must
will
be integrated
be qualified
feeding
sys-
be designed
to
sources.
With
acceptance
but not
the program.
The
those
for
or for an This
(ref.
probably
wastes
into the feeding for which
for resupply
Co.
will
food from
equipment,
regeneration.
Dynamics
of oxygen
on missions
life-support
the penalties
General
of regenerating
into
supplies,
point
and the recovery
could
might
food
be integrated
exceed
of the
will
and performance.
At some
Division
reliable
of one or more overall
of expendable
of the mission
of water
health
system
the weight
The feasibility
systems
crew
which
surface.
system
failure
compromise
and weight,
a highly
A nominal
would
is to reduce
for the regeneration
(100 to 1000
require
for complete
food source
of space
on the lunar
will
redundancy.
a closed
duration
feasible
no resupply
provisions
by the Convair
of the factors
be quite
with
to maintain
loops
in a study
may
required
ecuipment
supply
illustrated
more
point
Because
in some
of a single
nutrients
of closing
result
sources,
failure
At some objective
may
food
approach,
the available
and
recycling
Such reliability
include
requirements.
1).
be used
in a closed
systems
resupply
point
was
Closed-loop first
system
during
is
the next
de-
is the core
of a feeding
systems.
Three
food
consisted
system. Recently subjects
spent
repeatable
house
as
5-day
menu
(refs.
"Very
long
duration
chamber.
Air
vegetables
from
chocolate, devised.
cottage During
included
statement
test
of life-support
and water
were
a "cosmic" cheese,
the
cabbage,
missions
before
may
regenerated; greenhouse.
and prune
second
cress,
life-support systems
(hydropomcs),
herbivorous
Board
(ref.
made
and third
cucumber,
require
of such systems
which
that:
issued
production
Dehydrated
paste.
To provide
stages
this
greens,
diet
was
and dill}
procedures
been
and
human of
foods
in-
variety,
a
augmented
from
the green-
"Consideration
Space
Science
their
conversion
Board
(ref.
Further into edible
study
7): of
food is
can be assured."
proposed
investigated
animals,
by the
of food in the spacecraft.
substances
have been
have
invertebrate
8) suggested
in a report
important
the practicality
Biological
in 1966
was
of the nutritionally
Several wastes.
was
a 1-year
2 to 6).
production
necessary
salmon,
(which
The following
the
conducted
and fresh
items
vegetables
Union
in a sealed
products
such
by fresh
Soviet
1 year
vacuum-dried clude
the
fungi,
whereby include and plant
should
also
food
is produced
algae, cultures. be given
bacteria, The
from
biological
higher Space
plants Science
to the production
of 147
higher that
plants
sweet
or animals
potatoes
human
wastes.
acids,
has
grow
"
also
been
form,
the total involved.
system
In reference
9 several
by the crew.
The
straint
method
in this
Feeding maintain
behavior,
the
crew
longer,
be necessary
havior
in respect
for
original
health
have
Possible
been
areas
of future
of less
than
of research
(1)
The analysis foods
from
(2)
The study
(3)
The toxicological
(4)
The effect
(5)
The investigation
(6}
The
(7)
The investigation
of changes
effect
In summary,
flora
each
associated
with
for these
long-term
space
will
148
systems.
be completely
it.
with
of individuals
are
two significant
pertain
to the nutri-
of the produced to be the major
food re-
Science
the
nutrients
of crew (ref.
which
performance,
10):
success
of the dynamics
missions.
which
Union Studies
long-term
"As flights
of missions. of man's
be-
provide
important
Board
(ref.
could
conducted
research
needs
in the United
to be conducted.
11) might
of the presently
due to long
on waste
adequate
Board
affect
standpoint
in foods
provide
include:
available
take-along
confinement
may be used
production
long-term
consumption
of unconventional
food
materials
and motility on flatus of changes
program
in metabolic
- Earth
missions.
upon
lunar
approach
Life-support
however,
balance
orbital,
An all-incluslve
It is doubtful, dependent
into an
performance."
Science
appeal
of continued
material compatibility
These
prove
by the Soviet
More
stability
regimens
"There
a high level
knowledge
man's
by the Space
properties
of diet
concepts
duration.
in dietary
of dietary
extensive
for ilong-term
a storage
must
increasingly
to the one conducted
60 days'
the
or rejection
may well
by the Space
to predict
concepts
and amino
and chemical
and the number
effort.
and maintain
will
and
as outlined
on intestinal
feeding
in a report
an intensive
biological
efficiency,
subject:
missions
crews
of the astronauts
similar
food
of
"
flight
to food and to be able
in the development
States
stated
duration,
acceptance
aerospace
of the
adequacy,
on this
of the synthesized
long-term
It was
studies
made
lipids,
and converting
and development
for example,
of the stabilization
systems.
with each
of purifying
were
the ecology.
systems
to have
associated
mission
shown,
end products
of carbohydrates,
nutritional
research
It has been
the
to biological
loop and the ultimate
of closing
Long-term data
statements
the attitudes
It will
are
support,
of future
acceptance
and morale.
become
alternative
in terms
logistical
of the food-waste
utilizing
the synthesis
and palatability,
system,
aspects
including
be evaluated
life-support
to humans.
culture
as a possible
food acceptability
tional
palatable
and disadvantages
must
with a high probability
be more
synthesis,
suggested
areas
will
in hydroponic
advantages
Each
edible
may
well
Chemical
Inherent system.
that
that
food production
will
systems a feeding within
under
exploration, not completely will
system the
the stresses and
of flight
planetary satisfy
probably
be integrated
designed
for
spacecraft
- has
into
any long-term
as the sole
unique
the requirements
source
long-term mission of nutrients.
REFERENCES 1.
Drake,
G.
L. : Regenerable
Engineering
z
Dec.
Symp.,
Gen.
2.
Izvestiya,
3.
Garodinskaya,
4.
Tass,
Krasnaya
Zvezda,
5.
Tass,
Izvestiya,
Dee.
6.
Vason,
7.
Space
Space
M. Pravda,
9.
Acad.
Drake,
10.
Life
SP-134,
Sciences
Palatability ton, 11.
Space Natl.
5,
1968, 26,
Board:
Report
SCi.,
Natl. C.D.
1968,
p.
6, cols.
1968,
p.
Natl.
Panel
cols.
1-5.
Rept.,
Biomedical
and
25,
1968,
p.
4, cols.
1-3.
3-6.
Res.
Group
on Nutrition
Council
of the
D.C.},
; and Zuraw,
and
(Washington,
Nutrition
(Washington,
W.A.
Dec.
2-5.
on Space
Council
; Johnson,
pravda,
of Working
Sci.,
Res.
3,
skaya
6, cols.
Report
of the
Convair
1-6.
p.
Acad.
General
1966.
Komsomol'
25,
Summary Natl.
Feeding
D.C.),
Committee
Problems.
Man
1963. on Life
Sciences.
1966.
E.A.
: The Closed
Life
Support
System.
1967. Committee, of Food
D.C.),
1966.
Science
Board:
Acad.
L. :
Systems. Co.,
cols.
Dec.
Dec.
G. L. ; King,
NASA
p.
26,
Board:
Comm.,
Science
Natl.
1968,
Support
Dynamics
V. ; and Repin,
Science
in Space 8.
24,
Life
Sci.,Natl.
Space
Science
for Manned
Report Res.
of the
Space
Panel
Council
Board:
Summary
Missions,
Natl.
Report. Acad.
on Space
Nutrition
(Washington,
D.C.},
Symp. Sci.,
Natl.
of the Committee
on Acceptability Res.
Council
on Life
and (Washing-
Sciences.
1966.
149
U,S,
ARMY
I
FOOD
The food their
technology
development Proper
field rations
design
these
(2)
Stability:
(3)
Nutritional
(4)
Utility:
meets
of these
criteria,
meet
any
major
of military
covered are
rations
Natick
Laboratories
and space
in numerous
required
HOLLENDER
foods
publications
for any feeding
and the problems
(refs.
system
associated
1 to 6).
or subsystem.
For
military
are:
Acceptability:
the use
been
criteria
(1)
With
Army
aspects
have
A.
I u.s.
R&D PROGRAM
with
HERBERT
liked
by majority
6 months
of troops
at 100 ° F
adequacy:
calories
specific
and essential
serving
requirements
a food product
operational
situation.
nutrients
or feeding
The
system
can be developed
same
criteria
can also
be applied
military
utility
in the field
or modified
to a system
to
for
feed-
ing in space. A product and delivery
which
systems of a product
perishable
foods
ice
for
cream
several were
stable
enough
to meet
ration
prototypes
military
specific
for
such
easily the
must
criteria,
that has
and stability
a situation.
A product
or requires of the
intensive
soldier have
must
For
not been
correctly
have been
established
preclude is not if
is required adequate,
All new products
criteria.
de-
addressed
of products
line.
supply the
they
resupply
nutritionally
these
the force
example,
and wherein
supply
against
address
and applied,
or combination
long military
which
defined
no preparation,
evaluation
requirements
still
the system.
by the
utility
requirements
technical
properly with
to be carried
prepared
undergo
when
is integrated
Obviously,
proposed in weight,
the
which
days.
is light
These
or a ration
in a ration
which
against
outstanding
involved.
velopment
feasible
has
This
and
includes
through
and
testing
translation
of the
requirements. FR E E Z E-DRYING Some
12 to 15 years
battlefield
tactics
which
the potential
ber
had
analyzed,
after
the
needs
for new field
freeze-drying
was
products
and rations
of providing
chosen
rations
as the
that
would
that
method best
would
meet
changing
of food preservation fulfill
the maximum
num-
of criteria. Up to that
work
were
ago,
in our
practical products.
time
laboratories
method
the freeze-drying and in closely
of preservation.
Admittedly,
the
high cost
of food had been related
Today,
research
freeze-drying
of processing
is still
largely
groups is being
a laboratory demonstrated used
a disadvantage,
curiosity. that
both for
However,
it could
military
and a product
be a
and civilian selected 151
for this methodof preservationmustshowanadvantage in somecharacteristicssuchas flavor, stabilitywithoutrefrigeration, convenience, or light weightbeforetheproductcanbesuccessfully marketedto eithera military or civilian customer. TheArmy FoodR&DProgramhasdeveloped or modifiedandintroducedinto themilitary supplysystemmorethan45newitems. Manyof theseare freeze-driedandrangefrom peasto shrimp. Theyare usedin garrisonmealsas well as in thecombatarea. In additionto these45components completerationsareunderdevelopment.One which has
been
completed
developed
are
technology
which
Packet,
precooked
Long
packet
but is not yet
evolved
Range
contained
trees
were
mately
products
first
than
ment
the story
the products
does
of Vietnam,
was recognized
foods
for
available
acceptable
the Army have been
you never
know
in what From
combat
20 minutes food
time
patrol
was
packet
while
in hot and cold
consumed
without
rehydration,
developed
for space
water, that
and,
is,
be applied.
than
could
missions.
)
be
The need
if possible,
suitable
ex-
in the jungles
longer
on patrol
have been
and develop-
it may
experience
With-
we have
of research
frequently
limited
would
what
or when
back-
if freezewas
leadtime
an inventory
this
requirements.
illustrates
direction
unheated.
water these
en-
approxi-
However,
longer
(This
Each
different
by the Army,
to meet
a much
you build
that
was
application.
developed.
when
found
the water
of cabin-temperature
program,
not end here.
Eight
but required
received
immediate
the Food
to be used.
and rice.
when
were
is,
the rehydration when
longer
From
the first-generation
received,
had to be developed
of the long-range-patrol
to shorten
well
space
All of 21 meals water.
actually
or chicken
by means
from
it was
came
ration
Were
for
which that
meals
stew,
and much
New technology
and experience,
for preparation
beef
meal.
of hot or cold
freeze-dried
reeonstitution
in R&D work;
the addition
packets
for
is the quick-serve
of these
first
as chili,
was
26 items
times
paddies
the
requirements
the
However,
allowed
was
such
of experience
many
development
in hot water
10 minutes.
information
and rice
item
to be used,
to provide
perienced
This
technology
were
out the background required
the
system
to eat after
The first-generation
of freeze-drying
to no more
through
to rehydrate
When the
dried
ready
an entree
20 minutes
ground
and are
Patrol.
available.
in the supply
to make
for eating
out of hand
like popcorn. Using tested
the technology
in pilot-plant
months.
Unlike
receive
fan mail.
ing information
production, most
Many
see how good
lion per
year.
actually
being
letters
they
entrees
(pork
chicken
with
could
not have
been
rice,
these
have been
the small
with
with
meat
reengineered
that use
of these
packets
of troops
(less
this
potatoes,
as they
saying
for future
number
rations,
escalloped
spaghetti
completely
received
indicates beef
sauce,
they
was are
known
are
excellent
currently than
beef
and chili} frame
runs
usage
hash,
beef
they
in less
and
3
request-
so that
around
Mom and
10 to 12 mil-
in Vietnam} rate.
with rice,
without
that are
Needless
long-range-patrol
indicated
than
were
in Vietnam,
home
10 percent high
of the
reengineered, written
or for sending
a very
stew,
in the time
were
document
new "LURPs,"
Procurement
on combat
the products
procurement
can be obtained
are.
Considering subsisted
stew,
152
rations,
as to how they
Dad can
the eight
combat
and a suitable
foods,
to say,
chicken food packet
the use
of the
technology
developed
cold
and
water
for
may
space
be eaten
foods.
These
out of hand
products
(fig.
rehydrate
in 5 minutes
or less
with hot or
1).
!
i Figure
The technology the use
of metal
In individual Rubinate
cans
serving
of flex canning
sizes.
(refs.
of 0. 0005-inch
polyester,
as the
food contactant.
The
process
is normally
trolled variety
at the above balancing of products
CANNING
is being
developed
items
The packaging
and Szczeblowski
carried
7 and
temperature
to provide
air
is used
pressure (fig.
2) and processes
to reduce
as meats,
material
aluminum will
foil,
withstand
using
steam-air
bursting
for them
have
weight
vegetables, have
now used
fruits, been
or water-air
of the pouch been
developed.
described
during
con-
polyolefin
of 250 ° F.
mixtures
with Carefully
processing.
goods
by
laminate
modified
temperature
of the product.
by eliminating and baked
is a 3-ply
and 0. 003-inch a retort
for thermostabilizing to prevent
package
and the process
The pouch
polyolefin
out in a retort
such
materials
8).
0. 00035-inch
special
food packet.
FLEX
for heat-processed
sisting
time
1. -Long-range-patrol
The
sufficient conA wide 153
Figure2.-Flex-cannedfoods. Thetexture of a tendency
of these
and flavor
of the cake
products
to compress
and bread
The availability program
for the flight
of Apollo
before
the flight,
of technology made 8.
the U.S.
Air
was
and safety-tested
at the U.S.
was
to use it.
at hand from
for space feeding (figs. 5 and 6).
154
feasible.
This
quick
the military purposes
was
Force,
and were
turkey
consumed
turkey
Natick
response ration
products
in a series
This Army
moist
although
to provide
The product
in weightlessness
decision
for
it possible
would
not have
9.
items
cake
packages
(fig.
possible
products Others
are
from
determined
without have planned
satis-
the Army dinner
ration
entree
A few months that spoon
eating
processed,
following
the technology
been
To date
from
4) was developed, 5 weeks
because
pouch.
with a spoon.
in approximately been
to control
ranging
as a Christmas
flights,
product
Additional
on Apollo
some
the pouch
of parabolic
difficult
in the sealed
in flexible
from
and gravy
been
processed
and gravy
Laboratories
program. used
have
when thermally
we do not have a fully acceptable breadlike product factory to excellent have been developed (fig. 3).
development
products
the which
developed
especially
for subsequent
flights
POUND-CAKE
DkTE-NUT-CkKE
Figure
Figure
3. -Cake
4. -Turkey
items
and
suitable
gravy,
for
processing
a thermostabilized
in sealed
wet
meat
pouches.
product. 155
Figure
Figure
156
5. -Thermostabilized
6.-Thermostabilized
wet
wet
meat
meat
products
products
in closed
in open
containers.
containers.
FUTURE As was cern
for
the logistics
volume
become
on the
developed
as
such
awarded
described
nology with
a volume
mittedly,
(ref.
20,000
compressed
than
to 22,000 a shoe
were
)COLATE CUBE BUTTERSCOTCH CU_E
Figure
from Kcal
box.
provided
10).
potatoes,
previous
in approximately
it was possible acceptable
but they
could
that
These
efforts the
could
foods
be
was
by using
on edible
32 familiar
that
a contract
of compressed
provided
-of
for foods
10 Ib and a volume
combinations to provide
work
the state
in funds
and vegetables
contract
awarded
of a reduction
by NASA,
shown
and
effort
were
for advancing
con-
weight
an extensive
components.
It was
both
of contracts
guides
of meal
rice,
tech-
be combined
coatings) of 408 sauce (fig.
have
and cu in., or gravy-
7). Ad-
a beginning.
CUBE SAUCE CUBE
-
7. -Compressed
funds
constant
person,
because
of production
the line
By various
not highly
a technology although
(ref.
chicken,
(developed
food bars,
of the foods
along
requires
supporting
A number
to build
With
use
on the soldier's
initiated.
writing
meals.
as beef,
matrix
with
into
for field
of contracts
successful,
9) and Brockmann
such
larger
which
to permit
of prototypes
products
to provide
some
were
development
slightly
cubes
upon
suitably
a series were
contracts
insufficient
a calorie-containing
compressed
mix
were
In 1963
of research
of rations
is to be carried
or compaction
these
by Durst
available,
food
important.
or combined
for the
the development If the
of compression
On the whole
data
been
involved.
the background
the art.
used
earlier,
extremely
subject
to provide
the
mentioned
OUTLOOK
sauces, gravy mixes, provide 32 familiar foods
and food bars which, with a total of 20,000
when combined, Kcal.
will 157
Onecan where
food
supplies
which
would
supplementation acceptance
of the
food items Work
cherries,
of water,
with of such
prepared
meat
it will
come
equilibrated
After
be expected,
able
damage
is apparent
(fig.
9). Several
compression instrument elevated
158
redrying
custom
procedure
compressed
pieces in order
features
(100 ° F) temperatures
of equipment
we are
either
are
understand
attempting
on compressed
product
the addition
product
to better
balls
been
behave
the
what
based Occa-
assure
the
the acceptance
as peas
able
(fig.
has
utilized
food.
are
a memory
way.
freeze-dried,
moisture. phase
By use
the effect
then
from
500 to
or convection
in studying
Early
carrots,
Upon the addi-
to be determined.
happens.
8),
to provide
the same
in a vacuum
of added
to determine
dehydrated
might
at pressures
if the compression
being
items
or
peas.
items
and compressed
for each
products
be essential.
can be compressed.
is as follows:
without
such
and rehydrated
is accomplished
using
flights
might
to improve
products we have
Meat
moisture
specialty
space
"
flavoring,
shape.
products
in the reconstituted
specialized
recently
added
that
is underway
blocl_s.
compressed,
6 to 8 percent
successfully
and texture with
most
the appropriate
are
with
8.-Dehydrated,
compression,
the cherries
beef,
be planned
savings
of individual Just
for extended
could
or other
work
'building
to its original
with
Menus
of this
basic
application
and space
as steaks
and sausage.
back
to approximately
psi.
might
used
such
Extension
This
have
the weight
on the compression
Figure The procedure
may
be required.
foods
these
balls,
chunks.
would
frozen
from
beef
approach
provide
menus.
is continuing
shrimp,
in freeze-dried
1500
that this
prototypes
overall
tion
see
prepositioned
on these sional
quickly
oven.
For Little
conducted
parameters
of a universal
of storage
subjective
example,
or no notice-
is properly
the
of test
at ambient data
As
obtained
and in
Figure9.-Compressed freeze-driedcherries. conjunctionwith storagestudiesfocusedattentiononobjectionable texturechangeswhichoccurred in storage. Althoughhardeningis the mostcommoncomplaint,wehavefoundthatnotall cubesof thetypepresentlyusedas spacefoodharden during storage. Tables I and II and figures 10 and 11 show
that
the hardening
or softening
which
take
place
during
storage
depends
upon
the nature
OF COMPRESSED
SPACE
FOOD
CUBES
of the
material.
TABLE
I.-TEXTURAL
Sample
CHARACTERISTICS
Storage time, mo
Hardness,
kg,
40 ° F
at storage
temperature100 ° F
3
12.8
15.2
Custard
3
17.2
28.1
Sugar
3
15.8
16.5
Cheese
crackers
159
TABLEH.-TEXTURALCHARACTERISTICS OFCOMPRESSED FOODBARS(marinepacket) Sample
Hardness,kg, at storageconditionInitial
100°F for 6mo !
Beefjerky Cerealwith lemon Datefig Lemonstarch-jelly candy
10.2 2.6 2.3 5.6
15.5 3.3 2.2 1.0
76 Vanilla
60 C offee
(D
36
Shocolate
12
J
0.5
Work,
Kg-cm
l
I
2.5
4.0
Figure 10. -Crushing work and penetration hardness of dehydrated compressed ice cream cubes after storage at 100 ° F for a period of 6 months. From freeze--dried cal/cc, ucts.
research products
will
as compared Defining
to date
with
we can project
enable
the provision
the present
the parameters
for
that
the weight
of a wide
average
and volume
variety
of products
of approximately
successfully
compressing
advantages
1.41
at approximately
cal/cc
a variety
of compressed 3.76
for uncompressed
of dehydrated
food
prod-
is con-
tinuing. Additional or in any situations how about when 160
stored,
a rare
varieties where steak
we have
of freeze-dried prolonged
? Although indications
foods
consumption it is generally that
if a steak
will be needed of dehydrated not considered
does
not come
to support diets
flights
is necessary.
possible, in contact
as it loses with
oxygen
of long duration For red after
example, color it is
46
36 _28 _D
_20
hr 100 ° F
_,336 \ \ \ \
12
\
\ \ \ \ \ \
4
3 hr 4'0
135 ° F _
8'0
140
Temperature, Figure
placed
in the freeze
indicate
that
exposure
dryer
to oxygen
marked
in flavor
was used
for removing
low
a palladium
level
95 percent ium hydrogen
catalyst This
system
Continued
advantage
of drastic
Laboratories
used
provide
ance.
Under
apples,
in appearance, storage
flavor,
conditions,
The
smallest
by 39 percent modate
a small
available and
tray
which
(figs.
keeping
12 and 13).
to reduce
small
There
lots
to if
is a
technique
the oxygen
5 percent
data quality
A glove-box
containing for
we have
improved
eliminated.
In order
especially
commercially
to this
hydrogen
of product.
and
The pallad-
in England.
of texture with
are
and flavor,
greatly
receiving
coupled
improved
variety
have
with
flavor
that
of compression
and texture
plus
technology
mouth
provide
by 45 percent.
been
the marked
feel
been
of military
developed.
resembling
calories
and technologists.
per
import-
Carrots,
the
natural
cc.
Under
products normal
is required. carried
(ll0V-AC
2450
The cavity
to quickly
to products
has
added
or refrigeration have
by the food scientists
products
a moist
also
lkW unit
can be used
this
of prototype
and they
packaging
attention
to apply
experiments
commercial
its volume,
dryer.
is practical,
for example,
and texture
support,
is totally
in an atmosphere
contracts
a wide
no special
With NASA
employed
Also,
a markedly
and storage
oxygen
the freeze
appearance.
in volume.
awarded
and beef,
processing
when
foods
one contract
and pork
have
products
reduction
has
carrots,
in the areas
Intermediate-moisture Natick
like
from
technique
is being
should
of normal
throughout
was
research
or densification,
steak
deterioration
the product
nitrogen.
a rare
products,
Is minimized
reduction
11.-Effect of storage temperature on compressed chocolate cubes.
we can have
oxygen-sensitive
o F
rehydrate
out with MH) was
a modified reworked
microwave to reduce
is now 10 by 10 by 5 in. and heat
the rehydrated
oven. its weight
and will
accom-
food
or to heat 161
6.2
i
_6.0 I
_5.8
"_ 5.6 o
?,
5.4
r/l
o
_5.2 O
a.o 4.8
4.6 1
2
3 4 Storage-months
5
6
Figure 12. -Storage evaluation of freeze-dried chunks by a consumer panel of 30 judges.
I
beef
I
O Zero oxygen-glove X Tripple N2 flush _D
/k 2% oxygen-glove
u6
box 5% H2+ pd cat. box
t
C9 O cD
One Month at 100°F
_5 ¢9 O
3
0
0.5
1.0
Figure 162
13. -Relation
2.0
1o
% Headspace
.5
3.0
02
of flavor scores carrot dice
and oxygen in storage.
levels
of freeze-dried
3
regularpreparedfood. Thebakingof breadandcakes the
cavity
bread
is being
from
in weight types
investigated.
a special and volume
of oscillators, Using
struction
a room
various
heating
provided
large
developed
device
for Army
a feeding
have
not been
can be achieved
by use
Force,
tube
feasibility
placed
Further
of smaller
in
of preparing
successful.
give
Natick
in a controlled
of products a much
clearly
shows
carried
field
as they
better
has
been
However,
program.
system
the
out at the
rations
Force.
Army
cakes
apparent
glass
reduction
magnetrons,
other
Laboratories
now has
environment.
come
It will
into the room
understanding
enable
and pass
of methods
for
under
conthe
through
the
controlling
in food.
described
NASA and the Air
indicate
in a special
components.
levels
R&D program
to the
to date,
by NASA and the Air
and thus
levels
results
food can be processed
processes,
The work
viding
of the
in which
microbiological
benefit
However,
of contamination
unit
rather
mix.
and solid-state
funds
determination
Preliminary
at 6 psia
mutual U.S.
would
have
that
Natick
brought
these
A continuation
which
Army
quickly
meeting
benefits
maximum
to bear
gained
in turn,
efforts
and
from
the
The technology
on the unique has,
combined utility
been
Laboratories.
requirements
of these
have
has
requirements been
the potential
acceptability
of
of considerable
for future
for promissions.
REFERENCES 1.
Hollender,
H.A.
: Plugging
2.
Hollender,
H.A.
: Discussion:
3.
Klicka,
Projects.
NASA Mary
May 1964, 4.
Klicka,
the
SP-70,
pp.
Mary
6.
7.
V. ; Hollender,
etetic
Assoc.
t vol.
F.J.
vol. 8.
18,
no.
Szczeblowski, 38,
9.
H.A.
Rubinate,
Durst,
no.
10, J.R.
AD-662060, 10.
Brockmann,
of Space
H.A.
Foods.
51,
; Klicka, Sci.
15,
no.
62,
1963.
of Foods
for
Present
Space
J.
Am.
Dietetic
Assoc.,
vol.
44,
no.
5,
3,
No. ; and
Sept.
Mary
1,
P.A.
Jan.
Lachance,
1967,
pp.
Obstacle
13,
no.
2,
: Development
of Space
Foods.
Svenska
1966. P.A.
: Foods
for Astronauts.
: Space
Feeding:
J.
Am.
Di-
238-245.
V. ; and Lachance,
vol.
P.A.
Meeting
the
Chal-
1968.
Course
Yields
F.J.
: Integrity
; and Rubinate, 1965,
: Compressed Contract M.C.
no.
Lachance,
a New Look
in Food
Packaging.
Food
Modern
Package,
Technol.,
1964.
J.W. June
H.A.
Today,
: Army's 11,
; and
Tidskrift
Mary
Cereal
vol.
and Storage
358-361.
V. ; Hollender,
lenge.
Rept.,
Handling,
1964.
Klicka,
Hollender,
Activities
Preparation,
V. : Development
Ekonomiforestandarinnors 5.
Holes.
pp.
of Food
Packages.
Vol.
131-134. Food
Components
DA19-129-AMC-860,
: Compression
of Foods.
to Minimize U.S.
Army
Activities
Storage Natick Rept.,
Space. Labs., vol.
Tech.
Rept.
68-22-FL
1967. 18,
no.
2,
1966,
pp.
173-177.
163
SESSIONVI
EQUIPMENT/SYSTEM
CHAIRMAN: Biotechnology NASA
Office
JOSEPH and
of
INTEGRATORS
Advanced
Human
N.
PECORARO
Research
Research
Division and
Technology
We have for crews butions
by food speakers
space
travel, distinct
ance,
technologists, have the
who have
the
functions vehicles.
include
task
free
nor
represented
minimal promise
and the physical the mission.
food,
primarily
design like
here
cussions
the
during
temperature of safe in use.
form
in this
speakers
with
to cite
technologist.
Several
years
of corn
in Nebraska
soluble
grown
produced in either
of vehicle their
from
can contribute
two examples
(ref. highly
hot or cold
water
in which
an edible 1) was
developed
amylose and
starch.
(I would
as a result
film
The
stability
film
must
at possible of problems
of handling
assisted made This
is unusual
food item.
of dis-
requirements
have
commercially.
is a digestible
and on system
and ease
packaging
can be
on conventional
to the solutions
engineers
soluble
diet
needed
these
be
of the dis-
"normal"
wfsh,
preparation,
could
is not pos-
and environment.
vehicles
in which
not to com-
of the food and its
volume,
this
in all
of foods,
if they
of some
is accus-
and there
Since
the
acceptable
research
constraints
papers,
acceptability
packaging
the
and packaging
) In the case
ago
from
whose
within
be a kitchen
experts
can be sufficiently
preparation,
We as engineers
like
deviation
integrators
and of those
foods
diet.
that
one can identify
to modify
minimum
I would
chemically
of the food
maximum
of conventional
session,
the crew
would
of an individual's
final
hardware
to which
Each
in appear-
systems
the food,
system
it is important
session
session.
extremes.
storage,
stock
so that
the requirements
this
not be in conflict
a basic
cooperate
In this
food and preparation
management
space,
in processing,
to satisfy to invite
from
in limited
that
food
of the composition
ciplines
We hope
166
start
choice
practicable
the best
attractive
of the
that
for
and the airlines.
more
equipment,
The pre-
food systems
Force),
food
resemble
contri-
and engineers.
for preparing
food should
and tasteful
it requires
manageable.
about
the processed
that
Solving
and Air
and more
nutritious,
and planned
- to make
the hardware
as possible,
could
goals
of engineers
integrating
It is obvious
of current Army,
nutritious,
of providing
food preparation
sible
more
be safe,
psychologists,
status
(U. S. Navy,
the views
As much
relatively
the
will
problem.
nutritionists,
but common
tasteful,
food which
is a complex
discussed
military
coordinate
tomed.
preparing
vehicles
problems,
more
we will
that
of aerospace
vious
has
heard
It also
when
the
from
food
a new type
new film
is
in that
it is
meets
the
most
rigid
food
potential
packaging
is aerosol
of aerosol
cans
of volume
and safe
(ref. and
Some
laboratory
efficiency should
greater
solution
to this
ucts
use
needs
has the
address
cooperation themselves
for
market
but the use
at this
time,
because
in suitable
to this
containers
and the
will
will
shortly
necessitate
an overall
heating
technique probe.
food processing be mass
fully
may prod-
The aerospace
development this
and
cooked
heating.
Our speakers
The
engineers.
produced
preparing
for microwave new product
food
for this
internal
of
be developed
4 lb and have
developed
of the vehicle
heating
As a result
a three-container
approximately
industry.
technical
that
flight
and dielectric
technique
the
of this
of the processing
induction
Corp.
aerospace
food container.
internal-probe
containers
proponent
during
aceommodiating
This
Transportation
foods
the
weigh
for the household
mid 1970's.
a leading
the
The food
cooperation
been
with
encouraging,
limited
It concluded
would
requires
them
technique
American
included within
container.
pocket
by the
been
for heating
that
75 percent.
oven
General
probe
technique
than
has
extremely
considered
an internal
and packaging
industry
food
this
A microwave be in wide
the
it recommended
upon
contain
appears
of methods
heating
necessary
based
packaging
through
methods
evaluation
food packaging
problems.
resistance
with the
foods
study
of the
Another
Food
AMRL
a feasibility
2).
warmer
storage
1963,
an internal
along
dispensing.
for processed
In May completed
standards.
program afternoon
and will
area. Joseph
N.
Pecoraro
REFERENCES
1.
Anon.
2. Anon.
: Food
and Drug
: Methods
TDR-63-135,
Packaging.
of Heating
Foods
Magazines During
for Industry,
Aerospace
Flight.
Inc.,
Nov.
TDR
No.
9,
1967.
AMRL-
MaY 1963.
167
WERNER SELL EQU IPMENT DEVELOPMENT
I am
grateful
for the opportunity
one attending
who comes
not yet given
sufficient
from
directly
my own experience,
WERNER Giessen
to participate
from
consideration
I
in this
Old Europe.
German
to food technology
as at the present
time
SELL University
conference. and other
and technical
I am probably European
universities
equipment.
I am one of a few teaching
the
this
only have
This
I can verify
subject
at two uni-
versities. More first
one.
This
commerce layout
than
40 years
was
in this
a milestone
branch.
of a spacecraft
unrealistic
at that
time similar
Paris
or
London
for
these
coast
and
imagine
15 years
in an airplane
I turned
by courtesy
completely
of the
for a 3-week
- maybe toward
Whirlpool
flight.
will
all
the
very
engineering
Corp.,
This
at noon
and
I obtained
seemed
the
their
somewhat
or lunch
time
from
oven,
of the ?
Leaving
time
The question
and one pleaded
oven which
have
local
we find
difference arises:
?
the deep-frozen
This
of the
are
and the basic
transport
Breakfast
for breakfast.
meal
space air
astronauts
the middle
in time
hot air ?
improvements
you:
the
above
But because
Sell high-temperature
Steady
between
lunehl
microwave
steaks
of fast-circulated
in service.
to serve
the relative
grilled
a Werner
just
of meals
commercial
in an SST plane
going
you expect
mentioned
fresh
future
sitting
Am
cycle
is no relationship
considering
3 hr earlier,
have
a method
There
you are
you determine
speakers
to the conservative
when
of Pan
Airport
rewarming
and uses
later
crew
agree. Even
New York
considerations
pany
a 3-man
Treadwell
at Kennedy
defrosting,
ago,
had objections
life.
Please is Mr.
Some for
Buck
daily
What
which
for
I definitely
of our
you arrive From
Paul
conditions.
At;antic_
4 years
appliance
time.
to maintain.
periods
a cooking
and a few years
About
kitchen
Professor required
ago I installed
oven
resulted
for ovens
condition, has
been
is the result
etc.
developed
I add to
in my com-
of extensive
in a tiny box with
equipped
May
research
the following
ad-
temperature
con-
vantages: (1) Regulated trolled
within
temperature
3 to 5 percent. between
(2) Very on the weight defrosting
temperature
A continuous
all areas regular
of the oven. thermostat
Food makes
serving it possible
to adjust
the
50 ° and 250 ° C (120 ° to 480 ° F).
short
defrosting
and the layer
time
within
of the ovens
time
thickness is between
from
-18 ° to 80 ° C (0 ° - 176 ° F).
of the foods,
as well
as on the available
This
time
electric
is dependent energy.
The
20 and 30 min.
169
(3) When the thawing time is properly burn, or brown around the edges.
not boil,
(4) at 266 ° F, permitted.
Normal
because
(5) (6) is significantly
The
of the heat
oven
Moreover,
(8)
It is no problem
The
electric there
prepared
my return to Germany Europe will contribute
170
is well
(7)
be well
defrost
and cook
circulation
suited
for
at 390 ° F.
system
according
to the
With
ovens
Juno
and ventilation;
grilling
steaks
thus
instructions,
it is possible
power
to bake
to keep
food warm
requirements
is any chance to develop
or boil
are
the use
for a spaceship a special
small
to defrost
of plastic
dishes
is
and poultry.
eggs
in this
for a specific 3600
the food will
it is possible
It is also possible to bake cakes and small baked goods in this sl;c.rtez than in the usual baking ovens without air circulation.
In case would
ovens
adjusted
cabin
I will carry with me a lot of problems its part in these great tasks.
time
of time.
and 200 V for the
to accommodate
and lightweight
The baking
oven.
period
W for heating
oven.
motor.
such
equipment,
oven with high
efficiency.
and ideas,
and I deeply
hope
we On that
AIRBORNE
MICROWAVE OVEN DEVELOPMENT
_
For those
with
is placed
in an oven
cavity
the water
molecules
in the food try
magnetic
field.
rub
against
vection has
each
and/or
been
other
conduction
exposed
to the
to heat
and ceramics
are
through
with
ated,
them
or frozen)
not perform ever,
because
may
have
better
to package
the product speed
that
turned
with which
appearance,
quality,
product
the
development
concepts, April
summer
of 1963
of a microwave
an incubation
1965
the first
period
are
test
Litton
airborne
they
properly
in cooking
with
allow
plastics,
energy
to pass
(fresh,
refriger-
microwave
as the product effects
occur
oven
does
put in.
How-
and the
product
value.
was
the in-flight between
of a prototype
good
microwaves
BACKGROUND
Industries
necessary
as
The
by con-
of the food
paper,
of preservation
prepared.
few detrimental
heats,
as glass,
microwave
the oven
and nutritional
was
speed such
molecules
Heat transfer surface
is 'only
oven for
flight
since
oscillating
the outer
Materials
energy
electro-
after
out of the oven
Litton
The
Food
to microwave
time-varying
friction.
occurs
maximum
is in order.
exposed
rapidly
of food in any state they
HISTORICAL In the
which For
All types
provided
When the
GRAFF
explanation
intermolecnlar
six sides.
the food
a brief
with
by this
all
DAVID
at 2 450 000 000 cps.
process
from
AND
agitation.
themselves
excitation.
no retardation.
of the
by microwave,
oscillate
microwave
HAGBERG
by molecular
is a secondary
can be used
magic;
Litton Industries Atherton Division
is generated
the product
used
l
to aline
molecules
and heat
CALVIN
heating
_nd heated
The water
it is desirable
:
not familiar
1
oven
approached
by a major
preparation
of meals.
initial
was
conception
conducted
airline
to undertake
As with
many
and a working
jointly
by the airline,
new
unit.
In
Litton,
and
the FAA. This oven, oven
weighing cavity.
at the time
simple
systems cated
86 Ib, The
most
as possible as possible
solutions
approach.
are
Therefore,
unit
operating
T-20
but used
With as
first
design
400-cycle
at 2450 utilized
and add
available.
designated
Mc,
the T-20
and providing
many
model.
It was
approximately
of the commercial
1200
a single
magnetron
W of power
in the
concepts
prevalent
state-of-the-art
components.
revolutionary
within
was
concepts
two design
approaches
necessary,
whereas
on only when
the given
space
The nature
the design
envelope
and extract
of the T-20
incorporated
sensing
may be taken; the other them
after
microwave
oven
devices
to ensure
one is to make
is to provide new and less
dictated
following
complete
it
as many complithe
later
protection 171
against
any possible
lowered
as well
servative
line and
Litton
Model
Mc,
concept
deleted
to be used
"necessity
is the mother sensing
the
was
shut the
oven
detected
gram.
T-20
a given
A lossy
negating
to permit
bottom
ceeding
the maximum
adequate
occurs.
close 172
to allowables
and
oven
operating
cavity.
The
pattern
that
reliability,
for the
of greater
ovens
new
food
quantities.
and the old cliche
took
place
that
in the evolution
heating The
established
tests
moisture
which oven
extremely
roll
No interference
or the operational
in the
shutoffs
of RF leakage
of the aircraft.
sensor
were
the effect
lacked
were
programmed
to
the leakage
from
operation
down
and required
density
the
intri-
and increased
sufficient
running
pro-
or that
sensitive
during
flight-test
front
the
to prevent
of the
oven
the
over
the
brought
inexpensive
shelf
now serves
as a medium
for a no-load
capable
and reliable
sensor.
thus
which
the energy
to both
can absorb
The glass
no extensive
of absorbing
solutions
the micro-
or ceramic
detrimental for periods
effect
is not on the
of time
ex-
of the timer. and choke-type
the necessity
was
devices
of the art
are
systems
no load
of the food product;
shelves
and reliability door
was
had been
sensor.
requirement
of seal-plate
eliminated
protection
of microwave changes
110 lb,
on simplicity,
handling
flight
as a Danish
Accumulated
the
setting
success
a seal-plate-type
if not used
unit weighing
development
in nuisance
the door-seal
or ceramic
thus
virtually
prepared
2 min.
to permit
and a door-seal there
such
in the state
glass
pattern
load
T-20
- observed
these
resulted
actuating. to actuate
cooking
has
FAA
Both
which A light
from
sufficient
The
the
level.
circuitry
energy,
too lossy
during
that
New advances
wave
tool
and trans-
of only frozen
in the enlarged
and communication
sensor
of the equipment.
problems.
navigational
a no-load
exceeded
sensor
than
the drastic
of a valuable
to inventory
heating
of all types
initial
in the event
cost
was
the
cycle
electronic
seal
the boarding
an acceptable
enlarged
explain
had both
cate
no-load
during
on the many at any time
The
was
of the art
of invention"
concern
off the heating door
The cavity
and the
in the specifications
and concentrated
it retained
con-
Both the air-
domestic
culminated
magnetron
requirements
while
design
ovens.
both
to be returned
W of power
this
and
devices.
A primary from
2400
original
state
included
is a double
this
forerunner
included
which
in less
raised
transports.
which
foods
which
standpoint
microwave
will be the
of changes
a passenger oven
weight
in flight.
tests
devised
the impact
and supersonic
allowed
to feed
of the
in the general
E-30
plan
discount
which
objectives
approximately
a number
jets
was
an operational
of airborne
a concept
a series
microwave
and reduced
Advancement
of the
airline
art
of the in-flight
This
and providing
serviceability,
of the
The feeding
it possible
E-30
at 2450
E-30.
from
we cannot
state
underwent
to order.
make
The
products
review
the design
would
successful,
on the
mechanism
Although
in the age of the jumbo
to be heated
ideally
than
for pioneering
a complete
the present
A sophisticated
food product.
made
credit
feeding
flights,
foods
the less
tests
take
After Atlantic
was
flight
for in-flight
interference.
as rotated
approach
operational
for
RF
for a door-seal at reduced
tested
before
by reference
initial
and after 1 was
doors
in over
sensor.
25 000 commercial Simplicity
and sustaining 30 days measured.
of flight
cost. testing
applications
in design
has provided
The
oven
which
and no leakage
even
E-30
has
HEATINGPATTERNCONTROL Oneof the majorproblemsfacingmicrowaveovendesignersis directingthewavesuniformly to thefoodproduct. Sincetheheatingis by direct interceptionof theRF wavesandnotby conduction or convection,hot andcoldspotscanoccur. Someearly designersutilizedthe rotatingshelfconcepttobalancetheexposedfoodproductto the energy. Otherconceptsbrokeup thedirection of thewaveformsby puttingstirrers in the feedboxor wavegnide.TheT-20 utilizedbothapproaches. Theresult wasa near-perfectheatingpatternfor nearlyall typesof foodproducts regardlessof their geometricconfigurationor their density. However,thecomplexityandreliability of the mechanicalsystemrequiredto providethis optimumheatingpatternwerenotcompatiblewiththe aircraft environment.Therefore,onlythe stirrer conceptis usedin thepresent E-30. Theapproachhasbeenquitesuccessfulandit is possibleto obtaina uniformheating patternovera 1 ½-sq-ft area. COMPONENTS Theprimary andmostdramaticimprovementin the E-30designis in weightreduction. Newcomponents andnewelectric conceptspermitteda 30-percent ireductionin weight. Thenew components alsoimproved reliability and permitted use of modular construction techniques which improve
serviceability. The magnetron
prone new
to filament L-5181
5000
have
in the
T-20
especially
permanent
to fabricate
was
in the
magnets
a magnetron
of an electromagnet shock
13 lb.
It was
environment
of an aircraft.
The
New construction
techniques
and vibration
and weigh
which
type
6.5
can withstand
lb. shock
and weighed
and vibration
and
provide
make 4000
to
hr of operation. A plate
tect
failures,
tubes
it possible
used
transformer
the magnetrons
techniques
from
transient
The transformer
in the Model
have E-30
voltage
from
in the aircraft been
weighs
electric
instrumental 13 lb.
200 to 3500 system.
in reducing
The
V and to pro-
original
New design the weight
T-20
by
transformer
26 lb.
The E-30 evaluation
concept
during operation
and several
oven
new aircraft
was
reduced
Results
or technical
problems
were
are
currently
installations
designing part.
and older E-31
The first
programs was
Litton aircraft
AND SPEED
influenced
the development
OF DEVELOPMENT
to practice
of 1968.
as an integral
Two other
STATE
the summer
airlines
microwave
ovens.
the input
present
epoxies
PRESENT
serious
to raise
voltages
and new high-temperature
50 percent. weighed
is required
in early of these
flights
encountered. in-flight
and underwent were
The
feeding
is engaged
very
feeding
systems
in a full-scale
an in-flight
encouraging. objectives
which
No were
include
marketing
achieved,
a Litton
effort
E-30
for both
retrofits. OVEN
to a large of the
1968
E-31
DEVELOPMENT extent
the state
oven.
The
E-31
of the aS
of airborne
is a single-magnetron
microwave oven 173
operatingat volume cycle
2450
of 4.3
cu ft.
version
The success the aircraft
bakery
approximately
1100 W to the oven
was
specifically
developed
commercial
model.
These
of this equipment has demonstrated shock and vibration environment.
of a U.S. products.
actual field failure.
The E-31
of a standard
The Speed concept
Mc providing
oven Army
is a large-cavity, field
kitchen.
The ovens
operations.
used
At last
report
4-magnetron,
Speed
the ovens
The 6 years.
only 14 W/lb. more.
state
of the art
We are
of airborne
now able
The use
microwave
to provide
of solid-state
The use of microwave
22 W/lb
power
supplies
have
been
have
fleet
and is a 400for 14 months.
components
oven
200 men
82 lb and has a
in operation
of the electric
to feed
had over
It weighs
the presidental
400-cycle
kitchens
CONCLUDING
last
ovens
the ability
It is designed
in the
for
cavity.
to withstand
developed
for
or to supply
5000
demonstrated
good
800 hr of operation
an advanced men
reliability
without
with under
magnetron
REMARKS ovens_has of oven, could
improved whereas
conceivably
significantly
originally
during
we could
increase
this
the
provide
ratio
even
ovens for any mode of transportation depends to a large degree on
the totalfeeding system.
The type of food, food packaging, food storage, and oven must be com-
patible. The microwave
oven system is superior to more conventional methods for small amounts
of food and individualmeals.
Full power is attainedin seconds; no warmup
of the oven is required.
Therefore, the actual high electric power drawn from the vehicle power system is required only during the actual cooking time. Although cooking by microwave
in aircraft is a relativelynew development,
significantadvances in the last few years. make
174
ithas made
The speed, cleanliness, and reliabilityof the concept
itan ideal system for all forms of transportation.
WILLIAM
FOR MICROWAVE HEATING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF SPACE FOOD
This discussion
is a conference
seems
far
ing Department.
to discuss
removed
from
Our concern
is not applicable
in space
we could
our conveyorized
been
discuss
led to believe
think
small
if hot meals
the
?
is, was
is the
of no unit
for the
considering
conveyances
system
time before
for heating
this
such
Microwave
quantities
Process-
of food but this
with many passengers,
meals
quickly;
will be necessary.
however,
It appears
I have
that we must
to the question:
convection to fame
the walls
currently
oven
available
market
or some
be considered
be used
in a space
conventional
form
is converted
to heat
energy
satisfy
produced heavy
more
should
of electric inside
the oven.
that would
wherein
heating
microwaves
other
heating;
inside
mass
microwave
Why should
of microwave and air
oven being
consumer
efficient
the
needs
of a space
by our Amana
emphasis
is placed
vehicle.
division.
There
This appliance
on chrome
trim,
port-
and price.
could
produce
design
are
materials,
a design
controls,
many
of a microwave
be the minimum
amount
of power
2450
namely, parameters
mHz 915,
drain could
5850,
source, food,
light-weight
are
with reliability,
of equipment
energy
specifically
There the heart
piece
supply,
Reliable,
amount
of emphasis,
a usable
power
struction
used
If NASA were
the use of highly
claim
to heat
A redirection
that
of large
leads
a 91-1b microwave
designed
ability,
lines
of a forced-air
The answer
however,
Industrial
processing
microwave
This
food and is not used I know
in Raytheon's
thought
for NASA.
desired.
instead
and at first
the speedy
it may be some
the foregoing
are
application heater
that
and light
Along
vehicles.
Company
food technology,
my experience
has been
Raytheon
I
aerospace
STONE
supplies
(or,
now exist
application
factors
to be considered
heating
system.
necessary
vehicles.
applicator
for this
from
are generally
space
and size
as the prime
Factors
requirements,
to be considered
as it is commonly
called,
in such
oven),
a
con-
and radiation.
power
the vehicle's
22 125 mHz.
for
space
applications.
There
is no doubt
is not too far away.
to heat
be investigated. and
for
weight,
Of prime
importance
the food,
since
electric The Very
in the selection
system.
FCC has little
this
allocated
has been
of an energy is the power
amount
done
output.
is directly
Frequencies three
source,
other
other
which This
related
is
should
to the
than the commonly
frequencies
at the two higher
for this frequencies
usage, where
smaller. 175
Ourexperience over
80 percent
heavy
could
material
between signed
the
roast
sandwiches The
warrants
the usual,
heavy
that From
stored
a microwave
parameters,
The intent
than
176
from small
To replace
efficiencies
the present
fairly
samarium
cobalt
which
package
present-day
heating unit
contains
the food,
to be heated.
This
microwave
a cup of soup
in coin-operated
its design
requires
an interface
ovens
are
to completely
vending
de-
cooking
machines
used
refrigerator. in the frame
to save
and power
considerable
coating
engineer's
point
density,
engineers
design
the design of the art.
which
over
function
a weight-reduction
be of uniform
In summation, the current state
have
new light-weight
equipment
Most
materials
exist
should
or people. Many excellent radiation use in a space vehicle now exist.
within
which
weight
supply
is one area
in the cavity
a light-weight
plastic
which
by painting,
form
to replace
reliably.
It
cavity.
microwave
of the
is the
conductive
of controls more
of the
designers.
be possible
a microwave
not much
generator.
Raytheon's
of the food
in a nearby
light-weight It may
variety
viously mentioned, problems.
shape
so that any process
stainless-steel
A wide
lectric
are
of strong
or laminating
power
utilizing
is the part
and
An exception
which
investigation.
plating,
appears
in use
is possible.
use
size
and space-food
to be universal
a large
(oven)
by the
microwave-oven
to heat
magnet
generators
be considered.
applicator
be conditioned
microwave
to a lower
a permanent might
Since
high-power
be extrapolated
electromagnet,
magnet
should
in producing
very
well
program
of view,
need
be launched.
the food should
and completely
load the
and food technologists
be to cook
and extremely
always cavity
should
food - the heat
containment
techniques
that
of a microwave
heating
unit for
should
have
same
electrically.
jointly
discuss
not be wasted
may be made
space
the
vehicles
lighter
die-
As prethese
on equipment in weight
is quite
feasible
for
INTEGRAL EQUIPMENT
The
heating. and they
3M Co.
to have been
of speakers
mentioned
our
I
DEVELOPMENT
is pleased
A number
HEATING
have
laboratory
invited
referred
work
to say a few words
to our
as well
JOHNCompany 3M M. MAHLUM
development
as our
in explanation
of
as a new concept
activities
with
integral
for cooking
the commercial
airline
food
indus-
try. Frankly, on costs, where
performance
we are
fidence
it is much
actively
under
varied
selling
this
in the potential
work
and,
Tests
been
to reconstitute mance
of this
as reported
have
too early
for
typical
conditions, method
under
frozen
of this and,
specific
We do have
a successful
7 weeks
airline
etc.,
in any
technology.
by others,
run
in the development
meals
therefore, form
we are
conditions
fine results
We do have amount
Airlines where
in terms
specifically
not yet at the point
us a substantial
by American
operating
with
to articulate
to the public.
behind
evaluation
normal
concept
system
of quality
con-
of laboratory
of this
our
great
system. has
been
used
of food and perfor-
of the equipment. Integral
coating
heating
can be applied
is applied
to become
heat
directly
face
area
required, the heat
course,
the
choice
(1)
portion
It uses
the principle
you want
More
a resistive
coating
its composition
of the surface
areas
of low watt
contours
of any kind,
and the manner
applied
to a surface
is of a variety from
density,
which
has
to one composition same
The
of materials,
is unrestricted
of processing
area.
it is intended
and basically
it. " It is not restricted
of materials heating
and it
to deliver
in terms
of the sur-
the capability
for
of materials
and,
is proprietary
of
to 3M.
provides:
efficient
heat
transfer.
of low-thermal-capacity
The low mass
materials
which
and large
give
up their
surface
heat
area
quickly
is supplemented
to their
surroundings,
food. (2)
Quick
energy
inputs
are
ments,
such
(3)
by the
an integral
where
from
of manners,
can accomplish
Integral
by choice
in a variety
to food.
'butting
i.e.,
is accomplished
food,
food being
response. reduced.
Minimal
with heated
the
surface
heats
It is therefore
residual
as a calrod
The
type,
"_eating
and rarely
controllable
heat
problems.
are
nonexistent.
surface" exceeding
extremely
fast
and also
and responsive
Conventional Heat developed
temperature
climbing
a surface
temperature
flame
cools
extremely
to critical
cooking
the temperature of more
than
when
demands.
or high-watt-density
on the
fast
heating
surface scale
ele-
is removed parallel
10 percent
that
to the of the
food.
177
(4) permits
Easy
programing.
a variety
of the food possible
of performance
with
simple
tional
cooking
ciencies.
terms
be said
of electricity,
date
and
or temporarily shell
- the walls (2)
energy
becomes
electric
to match
the requirements the
maximum
where your
A casserole to heat
dish.
you wish
to do your
I would food service We found
is no induced
it essential
Performance
that
types
the heat
food
the system
The reliability
other.
All parts
refrigeration
this
system
(i. e.,
is capable
of being
of the system components, have been
and heating
that
and is,
designed plus
those
the
tests
and
in commercial such
reason
it back
sys-
there
to edible
as hospiis an ad-
temperature
at
and can be installed
contains
electrodes
appended
to
of the
of these
three
of going
established
from
have
in 15 min
temperature an oven
three
physical
demands
of the more
mundane
facts
or less,
of 10
period
of
or a combination
and operational such
as warm.
and we also
concern.
of life
it to
and held
to the system
to withstand
to the new.
of reconstitution
or refrigerator,
of parts
any new
programmed
cooked
of
is necessary
for a substantial
a primary
pieces
the old method
a parameter
and starch)
interchange
serves
the
in developing
and previously
is of course
It also
components
We therefore
chilled,
the electric
It transforms
requirements
phase
dish.
heated.
A combination Each
the
carry
the kitchens.
is integrally
as either
are
is not a classic
which
in and out and nest
the desired
units this
permanently
circulation.
food.
vegetable,
its parts
some
that
be versatile.
a free
with
in flight
facilities
control
performance
utilized
and used
The
which
and we have
of holding
effi-
food service
can operate
for
cooking.
to and from
- frozen,
meat,
developed
Let me emphasize
rack
to the
of ours
90-percent of gas,
3M in-flight
in land-based
air
an interchange
had to be fast mixes
the capacity
time. Also the unit of these two.
interlocking
is always
the
insulated
slide
now on general
response
conven-
equipment:
up the system.
of food preparation
in general
to 12 oz of frozen
to have
There
which
is the item
and delivers
to comment
system.
all three
into
like
center.
food is moved
This
than
of all
it was prepared.
is thermally
of trays
and
fast
a system
where
following
This
use
and bringing
unit
or rack.
a series
the dish
it,
where
the
operational
shell
been Such
any facility
that
at better
with the
and submarines;
includes This
operate
we will has
or freezing
from
shell.
oven
it has
by which
energy
chilling
of the energy
of either.
system
ships
equipment in a variety of styles makes for the system to operate properly.
both
components
3M system
two-thirds
operates
acceptable.
do not get hot and there
to the dish;
(3)
oven
An interior
as the means
178
it possible heated
home,
further,
and in almost
system
into the area
and this
for this
location
of the
An outer
heating
system
aboard
the food,
The design
the
makes
surfaces
the danger
the
restaurants;
heated
integral
commercially
or at a remote
(1)
that
aircraft;
to preparing
a later
Integrally
The hardware
and military
vantage
built
with electric-electronic
the integrally
in the average
and without
to be generally
colleges,
handle
energy
in turn,
giving
that,
of explaining
as a reference.
aircraft
say
is wasted.
It can also
can be said
oven
This,
adjustments
we may
As a means
this
levels.
control
devices
convenience
tals,
of the input
versatility. In lay
tem
Control
It is necessary from
one unit demands
as commercial
to of
dishwashing facilities. It is interestingto note liability
or failure
vidual our
service
is related
There
its
glass
the concern
of 600 ° F,
conventional
and
there
any
a lower
Styling
for airflow
is also
is unrestricted.
performance
claims.
from
Use
a 0 ° F storage
Approximately
unit
the
oven
within
a factor
and the
of modern
system
updated
perature, drawn
and,
is working
in favor
stay
product
cold
One might
for
exposed
and choice
cooking
time
construction
material.
factor
is a con-
to food
of a china odoris its low
The
casserole
operate
at surface
temperature.
found
We have,
in most
consumption.
ovens. We use
our
efficiency
is substantially
a given
results
less
than
in
that
of
shell,
cause, system.
inasmuch
compare
needed
demand that
that
in this
I might
the casserole
the heat from
out that does
dish
to a thermos
we can transfer
the power
not deliver bottle.
ver-
we justify a typical less
from
dish
92 percent
our
10-oz than
food
5
0 ° to 32 ° F. or melting
32 ° to 180 ° F.
materials
in a frozen
and color
permits
of fusion
the casserole
Using
shape,
Note that
approximately
the food.
which
the food temperature
in bringing
dish
from
to process
heat
can be of almost
of size,
condition.
the sensible
example
point
as the casserole
hot"
itself
materials
premise
to accomplish
is used
of heating
choice
required
to raise
is required
the oven
and
Approxi-
to proper
tem-
of the energy
of low thermal
storage
condition
heat
to the food
capacity the
It works
ideally
required
for a given
food will
and thus warm
whether
the
end
is to be hot or cold. Table
heating-time complish
other
permits
balance
to accomplish
energy
it can be said
of the
longer
are
is required
of the total thus,
of the heat
of the energy
is put to a worthy
it up.
to
scratchproof,
electric-electronic
to a 180 ° F "piping
BTU requirements
45 percent
8 percent
I is a study
temperature
45 percent
an additional
also
Table
of the total
mately
abuse
However,
per
in controls and performance of the system. I would like to make a few statements on the general
percent
attempted
of its properties
power
is a prerequisite.
consumption
that
units
when
stainproof,
density
with
and this
the power
is no concern
shape.
and generally satility
the job done
welded
acceptability
maximum
or high-watt
indi-
likely
stackable
as low as -350 ° F and will
is accomplished
therefore,
for
physical
of almost
accepted
each
ovens. Since
any size
to get
waste;
source
and we have
need
Not the least
temperatures
heat
performance
of power
to that
is the generally
the intense
Our total
power
is superior
which
and general
properties.
it is most
stainless-steel
of its heatproof,
ageproof
cryogenic
the
because
made
to withstand
and hence selected
is,
system.
tremendous
and
which
total
the potential That
and therefore
to withstand
was
level,
storage
limiting
minimum.
into a new system
cleanliness,
designed
we are
possible
is made,
to the
We have
lnnerface
eliminated
amount
for
operation.
was
transfer than
system
lowest
can be built
fadeproof,
retention
designed
that
in this
to the
rather
of strength,
casserole
porcelain
in fact,
mix
advantages
that
down
the energy
one unit
Of course,
temperatures
less
to that
many
rustproof,
bacteria was
is where
characteristics
environments. The
proof,
to function
in any high volume
obvious
or
are
these.
sideration
oven
of a meal
liability
appraise
of the
II indicates relationship
the delivery
that
and we say of BTU's
arbitrarily
consistent
with
that our
or watts
if you deliver previous
heat
240 W for balance
meal
15 min you will
to a ac-
study. 179
TABLE
I.-HEAT
BALANCE
Process
% total
a BTU 10 oz of food
Heat to raise from 0° F to 32 ° F (10/16) x 0.5 x 32 =
10
4.8
Heat to thaw (10/16) x 144 =
90
43.1
Heat to raise from 32 ° F to 180 ° F (10/16) x (180 - 32)=
92.5
44.3
Casserole
Heat to casserole 0.9x 0.1x 180= Total a 208.8
BTU
16.3
7.8
208.8
i00.0
= 61 W-hr.
TABLE
H.-POWER
LEVEL
AND HEATING
Heating time, min
In any and which
you want
the circles illustration. air
to bring
air
space,
surrounding 180
indicate At the this
61
30
122
20
183
15
244
systems
it.
the four
Figure points
top we will
heat
it eventually the surface
Power
60
all heating
to receive
TIME
to transfer
1 is an enlargement of temperature
assume
to the proximity encounters
it is necessary
that
we have
of our container a stationary
of any material.
There
air is,
energy
of a casserole
level.
level,
from
the
food.
As indicated,
of course,
oven
unit.
a temperature
through
is a thin drop
bottom; as an
We depend
In passing this
to that
surface
convection
a 1200 ° to 1800 ° F calrod carrying
a source
or heating
We use a typical
film.
W
film
this of air
at the point
on
where This by
it hits large
this
air
drop
air
movement.
it passes
food.
The
net
source.
The
pletely
bypassing
til dish
it
reaches is
forward
At
temperature
high-velocity
bottom,
film.
through heat
3M
the
or Co.
is
air
films,
food.
restricted. to any
This comments
is
in all
the
point
and
loss
where
the
at
some
of the
food
introducing therefore
addition principle might
as
guides have
our
or
systems
energy
or
heat
predictable portion
the
source
temperature low
/x
we have
mentioned
thinking
in developing
regarding
possible
it
A
is
the
and
of that
from the
or
casserole
the
power
bottom,
delivering
thermal
capacity
heated
devices.
of this
dish
contact
at the
its
integrally
applications
realized. somewhat
to
generated
T drop
is
casserole
emerges
at the
before,
T,
minimized
reaches rate
a small
a very
a large and
is
realizing
to that,
of efficiency,
air-conducting
bottom
absorption
you
a severe
casserole
successfully
In
point
inherent At
the BTU
this
com-
point
un-
of the We
look,
principle.
,....:.v. _
.:.:.:-:.:.: '.v.'._' '.v:.'." •., .:.... .:..::: ":::.v, v.-::.', v:,':.',
MEAN AIR TEMP SOURCE TEMPERATURE
":.v.v. ...._-::. v.v:.'. v::.-.'.
F OOD
HEATED
SIDE
SIDE
Z
":::.v. -:.-:,v. ,:.v:... "::.'.v. ":.v:.'. ":.v:... ".v:::. .:::::. ".v.v:. '.v:.':. '.v:::. .:.-.-..._ ....-:::. :.:.:,:6:.
%
:.:-X-:,:. .v:.'.-. .v.v:. .'::.v. .:.:.:.:.:,: v.v:: v::.v v:.v." v.'.v." v.v:., v.'::: -.v:.'.v.v.v v.v.v v.-:.v .::::.. ='.v::. v.-.-.v_ v.-::.'. .:..:.-:.
O
-:::: -. ":.v::. ":.v::. .:..::... ":::.v. "::.v:. '::.v.'. ':.v:.-. '.'.v.':. ..:..:. .':.v:. ,.: .-... :::.v. .v...=.. .,::..:, .v.v.-. .:.:.:.:.:.
_9
(9
AT
ACROSS
FILM
:::::::::::
HEAT
.:-:.:.:.:. v.v.v .v:,v. .:::..,.-: ...: :.:,:.:.:.:
FLOW
[-,
I
v::.': v:.-:: v:.':." .-..::..
•: .:.:-
• .::::. v._'.v. v_v.'. v:.v:. v:.'._-. ..-::::
,::..::.
AT
THROUGH BOTTOM
...::.:
CASSEROLE 3M INTEGRAL
HEAT
".m':.t .:::::.
.'.v.-:. ..:::... ..::.....
Figure
1.-3M
Co.
integral
heating.
181
BOEING
I
747SYSTEM LOWER LOBE GALLEY INTEGRATION
System proper
forms
The system pared
integration of interaction
that
meals
I shall
and timely
provisioning
discuss
The
let
as
Minimized
main
deck
(4)
Minimized
ramp
congestion
(5)
Equipment
interchangeability
main-deck
Reduced
(2)
Increased
airlines
Increased
because
lobe
function.
to store
pre-
to the passengers of the
in
food and beverage
airplane. in a lower
is illustrated
lobe
by listing
galley
on any air-
the advantages
and
capacity loading
equipment
during
during
to service
passenger
ground
with
cargo empty
airplane
cost
and this
of the
other
galleys
loading
servicing airplane
types
lobe
is an increase
an additional some space
passenger
servicing, incentive
same
piece loading
we have - that
is taken
level
4 additional
the galleys.
and cabin
galley
and
and baggage This
cleaning
congestion
to the airlines.
First,
up by the lower
lobe
area,
with
the overall
30.
high-lift
to service
through
airplane
cargo
In the
case
galleys
without use
congested
other
arrange-
the cargo/
the
can be continued
in an extremely
galleys.
seating
eliminates
on the ramp
interchange
of any air-
to over
If we do not need
vehicles
of equipment
capacity
passengers
as the cargo
fewer
less
seating
main-deck
of equipment.
If we have
disadvantages
from
to service
an expensive
that
of the original
is on the
loading.
in the maIn--deck
can vary
can be utilized
doors,
for galley
of the
weight
is a function
galley
truck,
the galley
are
capacity
747 the capacity
equipment
main-deck
have
to the
part
some
function
them
only that
interested
on airlines
congestion
airplane
length,
service
vehicles
we are
and its
to present
discussing
that
seating
to the airlines
a lower
There duced
lower
advantage
from
galley
to perform
with
to airline:
(1)
the
personnel
system
components,
:
(3)
loading
lobe
at the entrance
galleys
of cargo/baggage
commissary
cargo
lobe
Utilization
baggage
terference
begins
Increased
Since
trained
the reason
to airline
In the case
through
that
(2)
of a given
747 lower
therefore,
(1)
(3)
ment.
system
a whole
of many
follows.
Disadvantages
plane
I am,
of lower
Advantages
A principal
is the assembling into
Boeing
and to enable
us consider
net effect
disadvantages
is the
manner.
and serving First,
purposes
and interdependences,
and beverages
an elegant
plane.
for practical
C. LINDOWCompany The V.Boeing
capacity of the
in-
of the place.
Some
types. is re747, 183
this amountsto
about
cause
of structural
more. option
It is clear on the 747.
2000
provisions, then
the
storage
flights
of 800 meals.
meals.
Particularly
to use used
chilled very
rather
seating
maximum
area
consistent
the already
on the
main
galley
deck
through-stop those
temperature
the
flight.
reduce lations.
technical
for two of our the
Boeing
course,
airline
area
customers
a Boeing
requirement
we have
in both
cases all
these
case
we have
Douglas
the meaning a Boeing there
Airline
requirements
to yield,
mode
is to be
to
unique
747 market in the
of noise,
to reduce
10-ft
cargo/baggage
and exterior
ventilation,
present
Public
during
and weight
be minimized
to
Health
Service
747 lower
lobe
equipment
of
lighting,
there
levels,
must
the
service
who work
Regu-
galley
interchangeability
particular
airlines.
on
We,
of
appeal. framework
McDonnell
has
a DC-10
B requirements.
for a common airline.
of the foregoing
Douglas
and Airline
as possible,
activity
commissary
a common
some
to each
also
the lower
U.S.
movement
replenishing
changes
of those
is striving
maintenance,
on the interior
at their
to create
galley,
from
galley
use
level
A requirements
as far
mode
and enhance
of passenger
high-lift
to meet
integration lobe
20 per-
seats
to maintain
and tends
and system
for a broad
Douglas
will be requirements
the
be kept
airplanes
747 lower
of passenger
time
the congestion
rather
to utilize
DC-10
say
the prime
warm.
of the attendants
a requirement
of system
are
same
and tear
it is necessary
to design
747 and McDonnell there
must
and a requirement
McDonnell
if we assess 1),
In addition,
them
on
400 complete
of entrees,
the number
a satisfactory
structural
meal
we do not expect
loading
wear
for the benefit
The airplane
requires
which
the obstruction
We would
maintain
maintainability
for a common
is to reconcile 184
we must
require
choice
mode,
It eliminates
17 ft.
this
747.
passenger
and so reduce
and
and in each
that
to about
747,
A second
Eliminating
of the airplane.
reliability
lobe
nize
earlier
the
an
to store
entrees.
to reduce
areas.
we need
of frozen
at the
and eliminate
galleys
(fig.
striving
it is desirable
is therefore
and an adequate
flights
and keep
and
For
costs
Incidentally,
to increase
of the basic
lobe
quirements galley,
area
management
Now,
appeal
airlines
be-
entrees.
and a third
arrangement
and
long
on the use
is a requirement
for all
a reasonable
onto the airplane
cabin
is increased the airplane
a beverage
such
frozen
entrees,
in the lower
747 and the
have
entrees
the galleys
and flow times.
In the
frozen
enables
extended
to a minimum.
costs
the
weight
And, of course,
on long fl__ghts.
to provide
is based
empty
In the food category
to serve
of unused
perso,mel
times
for loading
Safety,
be kept
galley
area
of the airplane
with beds
In the and
we need
and in the cross-aisle
or turnaround
loading system the airplane.
must
servicing
and cabin-cleaning to the
trucks,
the
service
and New York;
and waste
passenger
In the ground
adjacent
there
with
considerable
commissary,
warm
as follows.
to be able
Chicago
lobe than
is to load
In the the
747 lower
foods
often,
between
factors.
is not optimum
are
It is necessary
the spoilage
of the
galley
a beverage
on long flights
and to reduce
of operation
lobe
with
The airplane
and other
requirements
meals
as long as those
cent,
a lower
system
two complete
capability.
elevators,
that
The principal and serve
cu ft of cargo
DC-10. The task
a common
lower
relower Boeing
We all recogat this lobe
stage galley
is
h
Req
ff
Airline
747 LLG Boeing
A
1
h
747 Common Unique
I
Airline Req
Oven
I
C ommon LLG Concept
I
Equipment
B • 747 Unique • DC-10
Ah Y
Req _
Coffeemaker Freezer Refrigerator Tray Cart Mod Tray Cart Liquor Cart Mod Liquor Cart Entree Cart Mod Entree Cart Waste Cart Dry Stor Ins Service Center
Airline
Douglas DC-10 LLG
DC-10 Common Unique
I
•
I
Definitive Req Spec or Drawings
Unique
Airline Unique
A
• Airline Unique
B
Complete Airplane Elevator Communication Lighting Waste Disposal Emer Exit APU Fuel Cargo Handling Galleys Oxygen Water Air Cond Service Centers Int Flr& Side Structure Electrical Mockup Class II Mockup Class HI
A/C SubSys
L
|
Airline Req B
Figure
concept. and,
At the
within
these,
specifications tionally,
time
features
of our
Now that
Forward
we have
an aft lower
lobe
and a 2-unit
service
plane
are
stowage
3 is a view
the airplane
modules
above
which
is a freezer
module,
and can contain
480 entrees
747,
and the airplane
can carry
4 liquor
carts
affected
lobe
galley
set
which
a typical
Each
definitive
requirement
inhouse.
Addi-
Integrating
all
lobe
system.
galley
these
let us look at some interior
complex.
747 or DC-10
arrangement
In the case
complex
of the
is composed
of the
of the
747,
factors
there
of a lower
re-
747. is also
lobe
galley
deck.
the airplane about
lower
to the
is built
extent.
integration,
2 shows
come
which
functional
of system
unique
work
to some
a completely
60 in.
can accommodate
food
contains
for equipment
aft of the wing.
through
situations
or drawings
Figure
on the main
integration.
Out of this
the tasks
lower
system
to be certain
are
including
complex
galley
airline.
subsystems
outlined
center
3 refrigerated areas
to each
is a forward
galley
lobe
continue
and solutions.
of the wing
Figure
will
equipment
airplane,
configurations
lower
peculiar
aircraft
in a complete
sulting
there
for purchased most
results
same
1.-747
cross long,
each
960 entrees.
up for two complete
food
liquor
that
module services.
right-hand
contains
or dry
to 0° F for
Remember The next
On the
of which
refrigerated
is controlled
and ice cubes.
section.
frozen there
side
4 tray
stowage.
carts
and has
On the
left side
of
food or 40 ° F for chilled are
2 identical
is the liquor-cart The
of the air-
third
module,
galleys
module, which
on the
which is partly 185
obscuredbehindtheelevator, contains Above the 35 min.
service
shelf
4 ovens
center
are
fixed
....
the entree
and waste
to the airplane
; each
carts
is designed
_
Aft
unit
of aft
s e rvice
and on it a dry-stowage to reconstitute
_
service
-----k
60 entrees
in
center
Forward
center
module.
unit
s e rvice
of aft tit
cent_///_
(_
-8"
_ominal
i i Figure
The elevator right
small
two ends
above, A waste
counter
through
of the waste disposable these
are
cart items.
serviced
is the electric stewardesses
These
emerge
the two elevator
doors,
coffeemakers,
and dry
attendants
are There
cart
are
three
waste
has
separate
may
The aft unit With electric
going
from
additional in the
right-hand
be thrown
drawers
coffeemakers,
contains
spaces
wherein
for keeping
equipment
that note
I have that
service
center
under
of the waste of soiled
two additional entree-cart mentioned
the counter, so that system.
(fig.
On the
5).
is being
with
six in each
service
an opening
in the
cart.
carts
deck.
telephone
part
articles
from
can be stored, heated,
procured except
maga-
The bottom
reusable
contents
all the equipment
above
of the airplane,
providing
The
on the
is provided
airplane
position
the separation
connectors
as shown in table I. You will on both the 747 and DC-10.
outboard
into the top part
to enable
thus
stowage
the
aisles
the galley.
on the main
system
through
the longitudinal
for
The elevator
center
and dry
An intercom
747.
center
or carts.
in the service
below. without
for the
control
is the aft unit of the forward
accessible
is positioned
which
stowage
can talk
aisle
closets
All the vendor-supplied specifications fit and function 186
module for moving
only.
lobe
lobe galley
either
for carts
of the cross
of the units
racks
center.
side
of the lower
the entree
refrigerator
and lower
On the other
zine
4 shows
a mechanical
main-deck
arrangement
can be used
and is used
Figure with
box above
on the left is open
2.-Interior
that
and
if required. under
Boeing
indicated
will
Figure3.-Crosssectionof airplane. Oneof theprimary meansof decidingwhethersystemintegration is to carry
out a system
system
tests.
testing
on the
laboratories go to our From
Vendors articles
lower then
cargo/baggage
for
flight
lobe
they
testing.
is the equivalent
prototypes
subsystem
To explain
of these
test
vehicle
- those
items
go into that
first
this
fully,
our
lower
of our
aircraft lobe
airplane;
been
galley
tests.
and module
the
handling
qualification Boeing-Everett
Those
that
of performance
pass
the tests
in a whole
system.
in our lower
lobe
organization
to be tested
of our of this galley
accomplished
and perform
run through
involved
part
our
section
are
are
particular
lobe
articles
for verification which
go into
of the forward
the lower
verification
The others more
for
articles
and subsystem
functional two paths
the logic
and preproduction
Some
component
vehicles.
of part
6 shows
provide.
galley
we have handling
test
Figure
provide
to accomplish
there
appropriate
test.
has
type
functional
it is set
for
ground test
on the floor
galley
module/
testing
vehicle so that
(fig.
in and 7)
we can 187
Figure4.-Forwardunit offorwardservicecenterof 747lowerlobegalley. workconveniently with it throughouttheprogram. After completionofthis testingwewill be satisfiedthatthe systemwill in fact functionin accordance with the standardswhichwehaveestablished. Theairlines thenwill providehostesses andproceduresappropriateto their meal services.
188
Figure
TABLE
I. -747
5. -Aft unit
LOWER
of forward
LOBE
GALLEY
Number Oven assembly,
60B50103
Coffeemaker,
60B50104
aGalley
60B50105
aElevator
60B50107
Liquor
60B50108
Tray
60B50109
Entree
60B50110
Waste
60B50197
Cart
60B50111
Insert,
65B50112
Coffee
aWill
fit and function
center
of 747 lower
PROCUREMENT
lobe
SPECIFICATIONS
galley.
AND VENDORS
Title
60B50102
60B50165
service
general
Vendor purpose,
Sell
electric
REF
electric
service
cart
Airesearch
assembly assembly
cart
base
- lower
assembly assembly
server
lobe lobe
- lower - lower - lower
refrigerator/freezer
asink/equipment on both
- lower
assembly
cart
Dynamics
Hitco
centers
system cart
Haus
galley
lobe lobe lobe
galley
galley galley galley
- service
center
REF
Dynamics
retainer console
747 and DC-10
- lower except
lobe
galley
Hitco
as noted. 189
TABLE I. - Continued 747 LOWER LOBE GALLEY PROCUREMENT Number
SPECIFICATIONS
Title
60B60010
Tray cart
60B60011
Freezer
module
60B60022
Liquor
and entree
60B50172 and 60B50179
Stowage drawers,
refrigerated
Vendor
module
cart modules miscellaneous
Hiller
Fairchild
Hiller
Fairchild
Hiller
Everett
• Prototypes • Preproduction • Qualification Testing
Lab
L r
Component and SubSystem Verification
Module v
Handling
_Fairchild
- lower lobe galley
Vendors
LLG
AND VENDORS
A
Everett Lab LLG Test Vehicle System Verification
Aircraft • Ground • Flight
Figure
190
6. -Logic
Test Test
for lower lobe galley
and module handling
system
test.
IIIIII III
.....
L lil
/
--
/
l I I
I I I I
I
/ I
/ I
/
/
/ I
/ i
30
_ Figure
7.-Lower
lobe
galley
test
vehicle
00000000000
,_I __
FOOD
SYSTEM
INTEGRATION
RESPONSIBILITIES
(Presented
OF I
AIRFRAME
A majority business quires
venture good
in competition
management,
cally_ service and,
The
expand
service
operation
providing
by adequate facturer's
developing
since the ultimate
riding services
beyond
revenue have
conducting
equipment
is less aware
aware
of the number
of hydraulic
operate
for large
aircraft,
ules and prompt
the cabin baggage
crew,
delivery
system
to maintain
provided
These
normal
traveler
equipment
of the airframe systems,
selection
The
round
adds
The
business
and the food and beverage out the passenger's
manu-
and smiles
is mainly service.
kits, cargo
complexity
bulk of passenger activities.
of the number
of full power
of pro-
of responsibility.
to support
passenger
up
manufacturer
Quick-change
over
and the flexibility of the electric system This
airframe
with the capability
concerns.
the advantages
be backed
airframe
environment
manufacturer,
or development
obviously
The
features
aware
use
a satisfied clientele is indirect
customers.
is not always
and economical
leading to certification, and
of this area
and generally
the airline to
with the operational
by the air carrier.
to the carrier's
traveler
Reliable
factors must
incorporating
of an aircraft
that will permit
design,
test program
into the operational
either in parallel or isolated.
ate surroundings,
re-
reliably and economicampaign
criteria commensurate
are typical examples
of the passenger
the aircraft,
features
of a quality to maintain
equipment
belief to the air carrier's
flight controls
profit picture
and production
lie with the individual carrier.
within a latitude acceptable
that this experienced
in the design
and functional
service
must
is paid by the experienced
indicated
design
maintenance
for producing
introduction
of a favorable
a satisfied clientele.
logistic support.
in providing
propel
may
to maintain
a comprehensive
field-servlce
and food service The
in a profit-motivated
aircraft that will operate
and incorporate
structural
responsibility
is directly responsible
systems,
sound
levels of In-servlce
Monroe) Company
are involved
Achievement
is directly involved
of a quality necessary
involvement
F.
of service.
reliably and economically
postdelivery
B.
a satisfied clientele, and an active promotional
manufacturer
of qualified components,
air carriers
structure,
is a direct result of establishing
of the aircraft,
most
route
the volume
airframe
that will operate
commercial
with other carriers.
a good
to maintain
hopefully,
provide
MANUFACTURERS
of the world's
by
L. W. KING Lockheed-California
alfare Surveys
of engines
that
politely when
made
manual
where
concerned
reversion
the generators about his immedi-
Adherence
criteria for evaluation
to flight schedof the air
carrier.
193
The air pelled
to seek
carrier
ways
the passenger's aircraft,
to cause
accommodations, provides
and complements transcontinental
in-flight
entertainment,
to offer must
of in-flight pictures
other
and ground
manufacturer
of support
aircraft
role
sition
and
carrier.
the air
of all
craft,
equipment
but the major
new aircraft phased
and facilities
must, portion
is integrated
out of operation
obviously,
must
and their
facilities
and facilities
service
vehicle(s),
is primarily
the
operational
impact
airborne this
The air
and
carrier,
facilities
of optimization has
be accomplished
but subsequent
in a timely
models.
the interface
The airframe
between
manufacturer port
194
define
requirements,
interface
of a galley
between
system
the objectives describe
the aircraft
and its
integration
of the system,
hhe elements and the
develop
of the airborne
ground
equipment
must
ground
the
aircraft
are
the
part
desired
for
galley,
the
current
efficiency,
as well
and
carriers
can
as for facilities.
ground
adaptation
equipment
or upgrading
to accept
contribute
as the
aircraft
toward
by air
equipment
equipment
to new air-
and the aircraft
system
of equipment
manner
older
oriented
for adapting
systematic
of aircraft. unique
of the galley
This
acqui-
only as required
are
improve
service.
INTEGRATION
of the
manu-
preclude
the requirements
system
and ground
and the
the air-
the ground-based
it is design
manufacturer
the aircraft SYSTEM
The design
and
both
in the area
As the
obsolete,
integration
responsibility
as it enters
with
places
would
fleet.
pooling
airborne
interface
requirements
beyond,
obsolescence,
the primary
the new aircraft
the
food
Cooperative
for both
is fully
of the airframe
operations
become
manufacturer,
to" minimize
service
importance
will be upgraded
carrier's the
flights, for a
for the new generation
or perhaps
Although airframe
performance.
necessarily,
must
by defining
of the
and facilities
to accept
the air
the commissary.
equipment
process
and facilities
comprising
responsibility
equipment
improve
craft
elements
and beverage
required
responsibility
the carrier's
and equipment to,
spacious
Food
time
responsibility
to support
with
or
facilities.
carrier
designed
operation
equipment,
TASK
air
be acquired
of the system will be upgraded systematically the most efficient operation with the aircraft. The major
support
be a joint
of most
of the equipment
and its
from
on short-duration
to their
with prime
and
especially
into parallel
service
integrator
The economics
new equipment
New support
of this
service
offered.
the entire
compared
Since,
decor,
the food and beverage
OF INTEGRATION
food
of the cabin
especially
is com-
trips. of basic
service
virtually
when
equipment
SCOPE an operational
systems
of system
for ground
Developing
of differences in terms
requirements,
passenger
for subsequent
entertainment,
Recognition
in the position
a secondary
in the area
to occupy
functional
equipment.
to return
and food and beverage
motion
In terms
the fare-paying
be expressed
source
in-flight
toward
to wish
the
the aircraft
facturer
oriented
an excellent
flight.
and
is little
individuality
as many
aircraft
there
are
passengers
carriers,
as complex
frame
services
these
viewpoint,
between
service
whose
not only the to this
of new air-
planning
effort
that
the airframe
and facilities.
TASKS into
the aircraft
equipment system, and facilities.
requires
performance and
specify
and aircraft the details
of the
sup-
Theobjectiveof food in an attractive specific
flight
manner
served
in a good restaurant.
temperature,
him.
The nutritional fall into
and presented
service
the aircraft
is provided
viding generally
a review
storage
feel
that
the
design
lished
the
volumes
all food require
storage
service
and when
cabin
required
one analyzes
space
allocation,
quires
storage
possibly
by most
the
standard
volumes
by removing The commissary
equipment
is the prime
must
consider
pared
in this
must
commissary
must
prior
the capability be kept cool
without
overcooking
is gaining presents
either
requirements
liquor.
The commissary
tailored
to the
capability
of those
a vital
must to the
role
is charged of the galley
for refurbishing handling
rigorous
design
criteria
operator
in procurement
food
system
galley
of the galley
boilers,
equipment
on the in this
manufacturer
and processing
and
ice making
personnel.
equipment.
The food preand the food
task.
or storage,
aboard Cold
be kept
the
foods
at temperature of frozen Beverage soft drinks
foods service and
the food and beverages,
Additionally,
cycle
supplying
and
manufacturer
be provided.
this
of providing
return
can be provided,
equipment,
reconstituting
re-
space.
galley.
must
to perform
ground-based
service
hot food is brought must
Hot foods
of raw foods
The
and storage
the airframe the
flights
its operation
airborne
temperature
its operating
equipment
for the airframe of handling
of the
with the responsibility and
caterer,
When precooked
are required
water
although
and equipping
to the capability
units
to per-
appreciably
whose
required
carriers becomes
able
location,
support
is
estab-
service.
do not vary
the
and,
are are
carriers
to gain
or his
in designing
ovens
For galley
pitch
carrier
Cooking
for coffeemakers,
The
air
focus.
or by refrigeration.
and improved
service
most time
high-density
equipment
optional
of the galley.
drying.
food
seat
food at the proper
by insulation
of waste.
in the
facility
loading
into
available,
be tailored
to hold this
is responsible
to come
of the
of this
their
this
food
Pro-
structure
Since
requirements
and timely
to the passengers,
or reducing
responsibility
or excessive
in popularity,
starts
seats
plays
the capability
be prepared
aircraft,
of food service
in excess
an adequate
to support
route
service,
Short,
sys-
performance
the carriers
complement.
support
carriers.
on a carrier's
crew
be
when the galley
of food service.
cabir_
con-
will
facilities,
Equipment
and generally
crew
to perform
galley
passenger
minimum
this
carriers
appear.
flight
and will
to several
for a full hot-meal
agency
with
attendants
the flow
The
regulatory
to the passengers
additional
volumes
equipment.
Government
as it may
flight
in
quality
requirements
complicated
to be delivered
by the quality
shortest
interest
that this
commissary
more
of the shortest
established
is the
the airborne
by the cognizant
form
time
at the appro-
objectives
of these
structure,
of aircraft
cc_,straints
and weights
block
for
of a type
at least
a personal
upon the above
becomes
is not as impossible
by the time
60-min
point
part
be of a quality
objectives.
route
This process
by the
arranged,
reflecting
Establishment
of the air carrier's
nutritious
as established
but it is anticipated
be based
in service.
must
be attractively
in a manner
will
palatable,
of time
passenger
to debate,
of food service
requirements
system
to the
The food must
pattern
high-quality,
the constraints
to the passenger
personnel.
galley
determined
and the
may
system
as an integral
a common
within
of the food is subject
general
and operating
is to provide
is to be served
as it is to be placed
after
equipment, tem
value
the same
Food
accomplished
to the passengers
The food that
priate
sider
food system
segment.
as high as that
should
the aircraft
from
the aircraft
pipeline the galley
the
presents
commissary and disposal some
rather
and for the commissary 195
TheUnitedStatesPublic missary
to the
galley
and establish
The commissary craft
galley
facilities
for
airborne
van
all
ing galley
the
aircraft.
galley
unloading
of galley
van
must
also
the basic vice
airframe
and
customer
then
established. mode,
factors
such
offs
involving The
increasing
gers served from
from
ment 196
will
seat
than
properly
the air
in turn,
that
the
required
aboard
the
to permit
into
loading
the aircraft
carrier.
reflected
after
The type
of ser-
in food service
system
design
for the
of the
loss,
service
criteria
will be determined
L-1011
and the
the galley
be configured.
size
cabin-level
or lower-deck
gal-
and
Individual
For
and cabin-traffic
level
or lower
cargo
releases
sufficient
lower-deck
carts
may
function
is returned.
galley
Elevators in service as a satellite
and it is advantageous
concept to locate
during
space
service
food are
load to permit service
used
will
is utilized,
carts
to move
to individual from
pas-
on trade-
and anticipated
is adopted,
Hot beverage
lower-deck
flow
will be based
cabin-level
galley
be used
they
deck
capacity,
to the passengers.
and so that
is impractical
the galley
either
position
on the cabin
consider
cost.
These
When the
will
cool-
to the
galley.
units.
service
by the heating, facilities
be
food service
When the
waste
of food
will
flow during
seats,
galley
galley
capa-
and location
the concept
established
of the
and service
size
traffic
of passenger
and to which galley
and
food and beverage
in a convenient
upon
by ground-servicing
by 20 seats.
the cabin
galley
in compliance
divisions,
on the cabin
underfloor
the
dependent
class
performance
to food preparation
is determined,
The location
weight,
to permit
but principally
equipment.
access,
capacity
locations Once
about
the return-
pickup
the galley
with
as related
concept
service,
value
the cabin-level
at strategic
delivery
comparative
to the passenger
service
is,
will be partially
support
to transport
or secured
integrating
for establishment
concept,
of the galley
Lockheed
between
itself
will be developed
the
The location
seating
required
carts
or cart
of units
the
of positioning
of the
INTEGRATION
and
the basis
galley Once
of the galley
as potential
service.
the quality
to accept
greater
air-
adequate
and congestion
volume
is generally
in conjunction
its elements The
ground-service
factors.
are
size tray
the number
senger
traffic
postservice
for
carrier
are
and
and beverage
passengers, leys
by the
be established.
The
storage,
contain
not degrade
of the hurried
AND GALLEY
established
requirements
system
handcarried
ing,
been
requirements.
must
be capable
must
the
its equipment.
The galley
bility,
typical
is responsible
established
These
system
with
have
necessarily,
requirements. galley
manufacturer
requirements
is,
volume
com-
equipment. AIRCRAFT
The
so that
the
the gap between
will
adequate
from
requirements.
vehicle
that
is used
return-cycle
of the disarray
The commissary
This
of providing
boundaries
to close
cycles.
one vehicle
all
processing
is required
in a manner
be capable
This
cross
and food
and unloading
that
also
because
cleaning,
equipment
In the event
and waste.
regulations
transporter
loading
it must
equipment
for loading
handling,
food and support
is minimized,
Service
or galley
the galley
food service.
aircraft
and
both
to store
Health
which
the
passenfood is
be provided hot beverage
food service
support
units
storage
arrange-
level. location pieces
have
been
established,
of equipment
the equipment
will be located
with
and
consideration
to their
frequencyof use, workingheight,weightof materialhandled,andotherfactors. Whenlocating equipment oneshouldalsoconsidergroupingtheelectric, water, drain, andcommunication services to achieveminimumComplexityandweightandmaximumsafety. Thedesignof thegalleyunitsand theequipmentmustbein compliancewith certainGovernment regulatordocuments.Federalaviation regulationsare primarily concerned with the structuralandflight safetyaspectsof thegalley unitsandrequirequalificationthroughtest or analysis,in someinstances,for certification. The U.S. PublicHealthServiceestablishesthestandardsfor galleysanitation,andaircraft operated by carriers within this countrymustoperategalleyscertifiedby this agency. Thegalleysystemas installedin theaircraft interfaceswiththe electrical, environmental control, water, lighting, andpossiblyhydraulicsystems. Structuralattachments are required, andtheunitsmustbetrimmedin a mannercompatiblewith theareaof theaircraft in whichthey are located. Electric poweris requiredby virtually all functionalequipment within thegalleysystem. The10adrequirementsof theovenswill bethegreatestsinglefactor. Thisloadwill dependonthe typesof foodtobepreparedandthe amountof time allocatedfor cookingor heating. Theair carrier's philosophyfor entreepreparationcangrosslyimpactthis ovenrequirementby requiringpower onlyfor holdinghotfoodat temperatureor cookingof raw frozenfood. Thetrendof improving qualityof foodwill result in a greatlyincreaseduseof precookedfrozenfoodsandlater, raw foods, as ovenswith improvedperformanceare developed.Coffeemakers andwaterboilers usedto support thehotbeverageservicewill probablybe thenextlargestelectric powerusers. Brewtime or waterheatingrateswill establishpeakloadingandthe old-modepowerwill fall withinthesepeak requirements.Theuseof anicemakeraboardthe aircraft will presenta fairly large electricpower requirementalmostcompletelydependent uponice productionrates. Theelectricpowerconsumptionby thecold-storageunitsis relatively smallby comparison,as is thatof bunwarmers,hotplates, andhotcups. Thetotal electricloadanalysisfor thegalleysystemwill considerall individualloadsandthetypicalduty-cyclecharacteristicsin theflight serviceenvironment.Peak loadsandequipment dutycyclewill thenbe integratedintothe electric systemtotal powerloading andcontrol. Theelectromagnetic interferencecharacteristicsof the galleyequipmentmustalso beconsideredfor compliance with standardsestablishedfor theaircraft. Thegalleyandits equipment will bedependent uponthe environmental controlsystem(ECS) for coolingandventilation. Heatgenerated by theovens,coffeemakers,hotplates,etc., will be rejectedto thecabinarea. For thelowerdeckgalleythis heatwill berejectedto the galleyitself, whichwill beestablishedas a separatetemperaturezoneof the ECS. Mechanical refrigeration systemsmustbeprovidedwithcondenser coolingair andequipmentcavitiesin galleycabinetry will beventilated. Cabinexhaustair canbeutilizedfor this functionbeforeit is ductedoverboard throughthepressurizationoutflowvalves. Greasyor moisture-laden vaporsgenerated by the galleymustbe ductedoverboardin a mannerthatwill precludeaccumulation of greasewith a resultantfire hazardandthatwill minimizecondensation withinthe aircraft in inaccessibleareas thatwill promotecorrosion. 197
Water and water
and drain
boilers.
Flow
pressure
range.
tablished
to ensure
with
must
must
with
lower-deck
installations
vary
somewhat
integrity
of the this odor
type
must
of galley
control
practices
that could
absorb to liquids
cleaning
by providing
ing the maximum accumulate The
practical
surfaces number
locations
successful
integration
(1)
Establish
(2)
Define
(3)
Describe
(4)
Determine
(5)
Design
(6)
Communicate
corners,
sealing
common
The
Lockheed
but one part
The part
volume
Corrosion
and
sealing
faying
and
off areas
in areas
be established
of
likely
to be
to facilitate surfaces,
condensation
and utiliz-
should
always
accomplished.
into
an aircraft
to installations
requires involving
that
a few basic
two or more
systems
interfaces system
At this
L-1011
Gen-
elements
installations constantly
Lockheed-California 1966.
and
will
an integral
centralized
be utilized
lower-
and constraints
with
affected
L-1011
September
Spillage
is readily
while
installation.
becomes
liquids
conand
installation.
cabin-level
all
vary
requirements
criteria
system
may
and rounded
are
system
The structural
installation.
trap
should
system
the
installations
units.
the galley
equipment
fasteners.
loads
Cabin-level
weight
could
will
crash
The larger
or coatings
cleanup
when
and the water
the cabin-level
standards
of a galley rules
for
since
that
peculiarities.
the cabin-level
and side-wall
Design
of flush
performance design
areas paints
where
These
loads.
installations.
and efficient
corrosion.
in accessible
ground rules be followed. and are as follows:
localized
Special
to minimize smooth
character
of eliminating
liquids.
flight
the lightest
equipment
es-
be specified
draining
structure
to resist
centerline
provide
be properly
must
proper
will be between
or provided
different
simpler
consist
or trap
exposed
will
is of a quite
a more
between
must
of the equipment
be designed
of limit
the acceptable
with
and installation
with the aircraft
must
be ascertained
structure
permits
units
along
standards.
variance
on the basis
floor
somewhat
installation
coffeemakers
services
to insure
Design Service
greatest
galley
requirements
with
equipment
The
be designed
installation
aircraft
design
Health
and to the
performance to these
characteristics,
the galley
Cabin-level
system
maintenance of all
stations
be established
of connections
environments.
location.
stabilizing
types
Public
in mounting
overhead
lower-deck
to the
U.S.
beams
and water
The
of integrating
will
supply
characteristics
consider
the galley
of the
erally,
must
be given
galleys.
deck
the water
for
to cold-climate
also
The task siderably
rates
compatibility.
is subjected
interface
at all water
for the reliability,
attention
aircraft
will be required
Equipment
consideration
Special
facilities
Company time,
incorporates
of the airborne
food
studies
GALLEY
organized were
a galley service
groups SYSTEM
the
conducted under
system
level service centers and the food and beverage an integral part of the basic aircraft. 198
L-1011
out of which
the floor which service
Preliminary
also
the basic
of the passenger includes
carts.
This
Design
Group
galley cabin.
early
system
in evolved.
This
galley
two elevators,
three
cabin-
galley
is included
system
is
as
Theunderfloorgalleyoccupiesanenvelope239in. long, 164in. wide, and74in. highand is locatedforwardof thewingbox. Thelowercornersof this volumeare cutoff by the mainstructural rings andleavea fiat floor widthof 96in. Thetotal usablevolumeof this envelopeis 1 584 cu ft. Theentirecompartment is sealedoff from theaircraft andliquidflow pathsfollowdownthe sidewallsalonginternal contour and lead out onto the galley floor, where spillage is observable for easy
cleanup.
sidewalls secondary sible
seal
leakage
corrosion dary
All galley
to maintain in the
form
through
interphone. beverage
the electric
units
floor,
is circulated
galley
is equipped
counter,
carts.
The
in a dry
provided
condition
A special
cold
will
as a part
and will
storage
chilled
be capable
hold
50 lb.
for the raw
chilled
The lcemaker with
has
in a nominal
capacity
and
design 20 rain.
food.
a bin capable
of 10 cuft
warm. dry-
for 18 food
precooked
a production
secon-
and a cabin
at 38 ° F or frozen
have
a capacity
floor
an intercom, areas
pos-
create
the
be of an advanced
chilled foods
between
an icemaker,
parking
the A
against
it would
the galley
area,
will
from
floor.
to insure
is located
entrees,
food or heating
sealed
where
units,
galley
will
floor
and to keep
frozen
equipment
(38 ° F) compartment
which
and provides
of holding
of the galley
center,
cold-sterage
or cooking
on standoffs
aircraft
a waste-disposal
to be developed
raw
galley
of the
any leakage
and lighted
entrees,
of cooking
in the galley
An lcemaker
ovens
the
area
ovens,
a bun warmer,
frozen
or mounted
and out onto the
beneath
load
to dry
beams
thewalls
the bilge
with
is alr-conditioned
be capable
installed
air
floor
is provided
from
The galley
also
pans
Warm
of reconstituting
oven will
down
of plastic
a work
service
capable
the
path
reaching
and the galley
cabinets,
from
flow
floor
The underfloor storage
is hung
the galley
problems.
seal
equipment
an iuninterrupted
The
Cold-storage foods
at -10 ° F.
of maintaining
ice
of 30 lb clear
ice/hr.
is an integral
part
of the
icemaker. Dry-storage Storage galley A work galley.
cabinets
compartments
are
in the bottom
of the
counter
including
Through
are
installed
provided
for
storage a wash
a window
items
that
miscellaneous
cabinets. basin
over
for
the work
waste
These
is located
the
left
at ambient
in compartments
compartments
on the
counter
can be stored
have
side
on both
a fire
rating
of the aircraft
No.
1 engine
to a station
in each
temperature. of the
of Class
at the
and leading
sides
edge
D.
aft end of the
of the wing
are
visible. The This
galley
system
permits
at the cabin
stations.
of 10 stations, separate
are
temperature
control is lighted
accessible The
This
service
door
parked
incorporates
and are
and call galley
ceiling spaced
beneath
the
and secured
while
galley
The
with flush
carts
to service L-1011
communication signal
of the
in the any other
is provided
galley
cabin-level area
station. with
service
and provides
A cabin
500 CFM
units. handsets
interphone,
of fresh
one
air
and is a
These
lights
zone.
48 in. long
are
may
in the galley.
The galley
The carts
connects
area-type
Any station
is located
and beverage
galley.
system
unattended
approximately
food
are
intercom
utilizing
on 20 in. equipment
in a transverse
cold-cathode
centers.
lamps.
Parking
and storage position
space
cabinets with
is provided
on both
respect
sides
for the of the
to the aircraft
and
parked.
is serviced
a window
lights
through
through which
a door the No.
located 3 engine
midway
in the
and leading
right edge
side
of the
galley.
of the wing
can be 199
seen. Foodservicecarts are loadedsinglyinto thegalleyfrom thecommissaryvanthroughthis 32-in.-widedoor. Thedooropensinwardandupwardintothegalley. Theattendants will notoccupythegalleyduringtakeoffandlanding. Theywill beprovidedwith roughair seatsoutboardon either sideof theelevatorenclosureandmountedontheaft galleybulkhead.In-flight accessto theelectric loadcenterwill beprovidedthroughtheaft galleybulkhead. Twoenclosedelevatorsareusedto transporteitherpersonnelor foodservicecartsbetweentheunderfloorgalleyandthe cabinlevel. Theelevatorsarepoweredindirectlyby thefour aircraft hydraulicsystems. Twosystemsare normallyallocatedto eachelevatortoprovidepower sourceredundancy.Crossmanifoldingof theelevatorhydraulicsystemspermitsoperationof eachelevatorfrom anyoneof thefour systems. Theelevatorscanbecontrolledfromboththe galleyandcabinlevelsaswell as fromwithinthe car. Safetyfeaturesprecludeoperationwhenthe enclosuredoorsare openor whenotherpotentiallyhazardous conditionsexist. Emergency egress hatchesare providedin thetop of theelevatorcars. A ladderis providedin eachcar for access to thehatch. Lightsare providedwithintheelevatorcar as well as in the shaft. Foodcart tiedown fittings are providedwithin thecar andonthecar top. Whentheelevatorcarsare in thedownposition, foodservicecarts maybestoredontopof thecar andaccessibleto thecabinlevel. Theelevator will travel from thegalleyto cabinlevel in approximately8 to 10sec. Themidcabinservicecenteris atthe crossaisle immediatelyforwardofthewing. This unit enclosestheelevatorshaftonthecabinlevel. Theunitis approximately42by 90in. andis situatedtransversein the aircraft symetricallyabouttheaircraft centerline. Four32-ozcoffeemakersare installedin this unit, twooneachsideof theelevatorenclosure.A smallwork counter is providedundereachcoffeemaker installationandonewashbasin. Storagespaceis provided aboveeachcoffeemaker.Storagespaceduringtakeoffandlandingfor twofoodservicecartsis provided,oneoneachoutboardfaceof the servicecenter. Theentireservicecenteris trimmed to becompatiblewith the cabindecor. A forwardservicecenteris installedimmediatelyaft of theflight stationwiththe operatingfaceforward. This unit containsa 32-ozcoffeemaker andanextrahotplate. Spaceis provided for a hotcupanda waterstationis installedin the right-handoutboardsideof theunit. Miscellaneousstoragespaceis providedto supportthebeverageservice. Space is providedto storeone beveragecart within theunit transversewithrespectto theaircraft centerline. Thetopof the unit opensupwardto 90° exposingshelfspaceshieldedfrom thepassengers'viewandprovidinga partial storagespacefor twofoodcartswithin theunit andsecuredin a longitudinalposition. The singlecart is storedfor takeoffor landing. A galleyintercomhandsetis installedin theservice center. Anaft coffeebar is installedforwardof theaft servicedoorontheright-handsideof the aircraft. This unitis a configurationsimilar to theoverhead coat-storagecompartments and lowerstorageunit. Thisunit incorporatesone32-ozcoffeemaker andtwoextrahotplates. Space is providedfor a hot cup. Storagespaceis providedin boththeoverheadunitadjacentto the coffeemakerandin thelowerfloor-mountedenclosure. A galleyintercomhandsetis installedin the coffeebar. 200
i
A total of 18foodandbeveragecarts are providedwith the galleysystem. This cart complementincludes6 beveragecarts, 8 coach-classcarts, and4 first-class servicecarts. These carts are to beutilizedfor 56first-class and200coachpassengers.Thecartsare 16.5in. wide, 36in. long,and36in. high. Theservicecarts carry insulatedcontainersontop of thebasiccart. Thesecontainersareusedto carry entrees,salads,or desserts. Thecart incorporates6 swiveling casters,arrangedin pairs at the sidesof the cart, oneachendandin the middle. Thecenter castersarelowered1/8 in. to enhance cart maneuverability.Thecartsincorporatea retention systemthatwill engagea flat-headed bolt or mushroommountedin thefloor for unattended storage positions. A jack-padtypeofbrakeis providedfor attendedpositioninganda tethersystemfor in-aisle service. This tetherattachesto thepassengerseatarms, whichare stressedtoaccept in-flight loadsimposedby a tetheredcart. Thecart's structureanddoorsare symetricallyarrangedwith respectto the endsof thecart. Thebeveragecart supportsthe foodservicewith softdrinks, liquor, wine,beer, ice, garnishes,etc. This cart hasthecapacityto serve50passengers.Thecart incorporatesa pressurizedcobra-headdispensersystemthatprovidescarbonated water, sweetwater, drink mix, and four colasyrups. A liquor modulecarries 105liquor miniaturesin dispensertubes. This liquor moduleis removableandIockable. Spaceis providedfor glasses,10poundsof ice, drinkgarnishes,quartbottles, beer, miscellaneous softdrinks, napkins,anda cashdrawer. A stowable topprovidesa sanitarydustcoverwhenthecart is notin use. Thefirst-class foodcart incorporatedfeaturesnecessaryto accepta varietyof modules necessaryto supportcoldfood,entree,anddessertcourses. Whenthe cart is setupfor cold food, it containsthetablesuppliessuchas tablecloth,napkin,silverware, salt andpepper,wine glasses,coffeecups,coldanddry food, bread,butter, china,andwines. Thelowerportionof the cart is allocatedtowastepickupfrom thebeverageservice. Whenthis cart is arrangedfor theentreecourse,it will containthehot food,china,coffeecups, andwineandprovidewastepickupspacein thebottomportionof thecart. After completionof service, this cart will beusedfor this course-waste pickupandreceptaclesandcontainersare providedfor this purpose. After the initial coldfoodservice, this coldfoodcartwill bereturnedto the galleyandreconfiguredto a dessertcart. In this configuration,thecart will carry the desserts,coffeecups,extra silverware, liquer glasses,liquers, wines,andmiscellaneous afterdinneritems. Thelowerportionof the cart is availablefor waste. Thecoachfoodcart containsbothpresettrayswith coldanddry foodsandthe hot-entree portionof thepassengers'meals. Thecart hasa top-mounted containeror holdingoventhatis insulatedandelectricly heatedwhenconnected to the ship'spower. Thisholdingoven'sinsulation helpsmaintainthetemperatureof theentreeportionsduringtheperiodof trar,_itfrom the galley to thepassengers.This configurationof cart permitsthecabincrewto servethe passenger his completemealin oneoperation,therebyreducingin-aisle traffic anddelaysin passengerservice. Eachcart serves27coach-classpassengers.This cart will beutilizedto servefirst-class passengers onshort flightswith a cruise timeof lessthan1 hour. 201
The L-1011galleysystemhasbeendeveloped toprovidetheair carrier with a moreefficientandcost-effectivefoodsystem,maximumserviceflexibility, andthesimplestinterfacewith groundequipment andthecommissary. Efficiencyis inherentwith theutilizationof theadvanced foodpreparationfacilities andof foodservicecartsto localizepassenger foodserviceandwaste pickup. Costeffectiveness is derivedfromthe relocationof thegalleyfrom thehigh-pricedseatingareaof the cabinto the relativelylessexpensivecargoarea. Costsare alsoreducedby the utilizationof advanced cookingandcoldstorageequipment in thegalley, permittingmaintenance of frozenentreeinventories,andcookingonlyactualfoodservicerequirements. Maximumservice flexibility is offered the carrier through the variety of entrees that may be offered to the passenger
and through
of single-cart equipment special
the integrated
loading operation
handling Galley
through simplify
equipment system
functional
galley
system
all areas
to refine
the
202
use
the
ground
and storage
developments elements system
of the
a separate
carts
galley
and cabin-level service
equipment
door
galley
combined
and facility
units.
Finally,
with latitudes
requirements
the features
in on-board
by reducing
needs
for
facilities. have
and from
to the optimum
resulted actual point
from food
analysis, service
by the time
design, testing. the L-lOll
and construction Efforts enters
are
of
continuing
service
in
in 1971.
CLOSING
REMARKS NASA Office of Advanced WALTON L. dONES and Technology
I
The prime believed
reason
that certain
quired
further
the persons
aspects
research.
working I should
really
industry.
like
contribute
when he was search
is,
that the
to produce
from
found their
items
We expect
delivery
gaged point. know,
utilizing have
use.
into the
been
programs
The seats
of a prototype
to get the
would 5 liters
project
for one man for a 10-hr
in the
techniques
military
investigating
may
have
in midsummer.
The Ames
drawing
supplies
oxygen
primarily oxygen
we shall
a more
for some
time
to
be able
food-handling Center
useful
but have
of incorporating
on future
Research
The
mission.
the possibility
an impact
filled.
of liquid
to provide
services
Webb,
we saw that re-
benefit,
is successful
involved;
Mr.
example,
which
carriers
If our
become
needs
For
it now takes
energy-absorption
We are also
seat.
and civilian
For example,
in which
process
we
by the airline
contribution.
now underway.
an electrolysis
at the moment,
we should
in areas
area ?
used
to invite
not
certain techniques.
is monitoring
both
projects. I would
lems
techniques
way into civilian
convenience
cussed
involves
was
re-
I am responsible
pioneered
a beneficial
in this
oxygen
area
and,
to which
of research
man.
that NASA
spaceflights
aeronautics.
fine work
the extent
means,
per
in this
for NASA,
various
oxygen
sufficient
done
through
Both military
was
to long-term
for
us to act as catalysts
problems.
gaseous
stands
we can make
in several
informed,
conference.
upon the
about
we are developing
water.
logistics
project
These
lies
knowledge
1 pint of water
Another seat.
urged
and to try,
answer
of converted
improve
provided
can NASA do in support
in their
1 liter
of these
lacking
by electrolyzing
a cutback
airline
was
technology
to airplanes
that would
of NASA,
work
is a new field
we are uncertain
Administrator
space
provide
anything
A in NASA
This
been
food technology
to a common
studies.
to participate
We hope on our
factor
already
way to review
disciplines
willing
what
and applying
out that the first
of fact,
or technology
question
from
to point
human
we are
of planning
as you have
We felt that the best
As a matter
however,
conference,
in the various
for the aeronautics cannot
for this
Research
here. of trying
like
to call
One of them to squeeze
in the human factors
your
attention
is posed objects area
he and I work
the effort very
by previously
and consequently them
for the Apollo
closely
that two different
designed
into predetermined
Any help that you can give heads
to the fact
would
spaces the
reason
certainly
human factors
systems.
You heard
that they have
His area
Dr.
have
some
; that is the worry
be appreciated.
program.
requirements
been
of the prob-
of the people
been
belaboring
Humphrey,
is space
dis-
medicine,
enthe
as you and
together.
203
Theotherrequirementis volumes. for
Hence,
I urge
the future.
I feel
a "subsystem" for a man be doing us.
whose
work
This
that
will
have
ing the
value
to formalize from
paid
many
any here of you.
ideas
so we must
on heading
We will
review
here;
this
greater
Federal
dividends
and volumes
to consider many
as
He will
and working
to be constraints We feel
man
requirements
different.
happy,
and
we should
on this
for man;
be consider-
morale. conference.
material
Apollo
traditional
We did not expect
presented
Applications
agencies
in the
to have
not be very
going
in this the
is NASA's
of weights
him efficient,
his
discussed
a good
will
are
by weights
enumerated
conditions.
been
one of the first even
There
going
heard
keep
in maintaining have
to put together
disciplines
we are
who is an astronaut
afternoon.
We want
not constrained to constraints
You have
and his living
management
last
and we expect
be met.
to perform,
good
had many
himself off,
this
spaceflights
a man
movement
systems
thoughts
job on a long mission.
of food and food
some
Webb prided
him
on his
that
must Well,
not be an easy
your
for long-term
requirements
limitations
We have
204
that
we want
I believe
it has
sure
by future
of you not to limit
who is a consumer.
he will
hear
all
that posed
expect
to
Program.
approach
to utilize
and will
this
to research. technique.
Mr. I think
future.
NASA-Langley,
1970
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