Accident Incident Prevention Techniques

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Reese

ENVIRONMENTAL AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

Second Edition

Written by safety expert Charles D. Reese, the book details the tried and true techniques used by the occupational safety and health community for many years. It also presents the best theoretical methods to help those responsible for occupational safety to develop the best prevention initiative for them and their workforce. Based on the premise that all businesses and industries must face the reality that occupational accidents and illnesses will transpire and the results of these events will have a negative impact on the company’s bottom line, the book provides practical examples, easy-to-implement processes, numerous illustrations, and usable forms throughout. See What’s New in the Second Edition • • • • •

Topics such as safety culture and behavior-based safety Expanded coverage of some topics such as analysis tools and accident investigation Updated statistical data, sources, and contacts Updated changes in regulations and compliance Relevance with current trends and issues in accident prevention

By investigating the various methods and equipment used in system safety applications, the book covers myriad accident/incident prevention techniques, and supplies the illustrations and tools that allow readers to begin to develop and build a safety and health program in their workplace. The author draws on his more than 30 years of experience to supply a template for the development of an effective safety and health program.

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

Published more than ten years ago, the first edition of Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques provided clear, comprehensive guidance on how to mitigate the cost, in personnel and to the bottom line, of accidents/incidents in the workplace. Significantly revised and updated, this Second Edition takes its place as the A to Z hands-on guide to the responsibilities, principles, tools, and techniques involved in accident investigative planning and preparation.

Second Edition

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Second Edition

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

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Second Edition

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques Charles D. Reese

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 2011913 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-5523-2 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

This book is dedicated to the working men and women of this country who every day risk their health and well-being in the workplace to provide the goods and services needed by the people of the United States and other countries.

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Contents Preface....................................................................................................................xxv Acknowledgments.................................................................................................xxvii About.the.Author...................................................................................................xxix Chapter 1

Introduction........................................................................................... 1 Why.Injury.Prevention?........................................................................ 2 Accidents.or.Incidents...........................................................................3 Accident/Incident.Prevention.Process................................................... 3 Comprehensive.Accident.Prevention..................................................... 4 Accident.Prevention.............................................................................. 5 Accident.Prevention.Benefits................................................................ 5 Preventing.Occupational.Accidents/Incidents...................................... 6 Nothing.New.in.Prevention................................................................... 6 How.Much.Prevention?......................................................................... 6 Risk.Control..........................................................................................8 Engineering.Controls........................................................................9 Awareness.Devices...........................................................................9 Work.Practices................................................................................ 10 Administrative.Controls................................................................. 10 Personal.Protective.Equipment...................................................... 11 Ranking.Hazard.Controls............................................................... 11 Structuring.Accident/Incident.Prevention........................................... 11 Know.with.Whom.You.Are.Dealing................................................... 14 Determining.the.Cause.of.Accidents.................................................. 14 Accident.Prevention.Techniques......................................................... 14 References........................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2

Safety.and.Health.Programs................................................................ 17 Introduction......................................................................................... 17 Reasons.for.a.Comprehensive.Safety.Program................................... 18 Safety.and.Health.Management.Process............................................. 19 Building.a.Safety.and.Health.Program...............................................20 Management.Commitment.and.Employee.Involvement................ 21 Hazard.Identification.and.Assessment........................................... 23 Hazard.Prevention.and.Control......................................................24 Information.and.Training............................................................... 25 Evaluation.of.Program.Effectiveness............................................. 26 Multi-Employer.Workplaces...........................................................26

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Characteristics.of.an.Occupational Safety.and.Health.Program......... 27 Factors.Affecting.Safety.and.Health.............................................. 27 Components.of.a.Safety.and.Health.Program................................ 28 Evaluative.Questions.Regarding.a.Safety.and.Health.Program..... 28 Tools.for.a.Safety.and.Health.Program.Assessment........................... 31 Documentation............................................................................... 31 Employee.Interviews...................................................................... 31 Site.Conditions.and.Root.Causes.of.Hazards................................. 32 Assessing.the.Key.Components.of.Leadership,.Participation,. and.Line.Accountability...................................................................... 32 Goal.and.Objectives.for.Worker.Safety.and.Health....................... 32 Visibility.of.Top.Management.Leadership..................................... 33 Employee.Participation................................................................... 33 Assignment.of.Responsibility......................................................... 33 Adequate.Authority.and.Resources................................................34 Budgeting.for.Safety.and.Health....................................................34 Budget.Items..............................................................................34 Budget.Approach....................................................................... 36 The.Compliance.Factor............................................................. 36 The.Written.Budget................................................................... 37 Accountability.of.Managers,.Supervisors,.and.Hourly. Employees....................................................................................... 37 Evaluation.of.Contractor.Programs................................................ 38 Assessing.the.Key.Components.of.Worksite.Analysis........................ 38 Comprehensive.Surveys,.Change.Analyses,.and.Routine. Hazard.Analyses............................................................................. 38 Regular.Site.Safety.and.Health.Inspections................................... 39 Employee.Reports.of.Hazards........................................................ 39 Accident.and.Near-Miss.Investigations.......................................... 39 Injury.and.Illness.Pattern.Analysis................................................40 Assessing.the.Key.Components.of.Hazard.Prevention.and.Control....40 Appropriate.Use.of.Engineering.Controls,.Work.Practices,. Personal.Protective.Equipment,.and.Administrative.Controls.......40 Facility.and.Equipment.Preventive.Maintenance........................... 41 Establishing.a.Medical.Program.................................................... 41 Emergency.Planning.and.Preparation............................................ 41 Assessing.the.Key.Components.of.Safety.and.Health.Training......... 42 Ensuring.That.All.Employees.Understand.Hazards...................... 42 Ensuring.That.Supervisors.Understand.Their.Responsibilities..... 42 Ensuring.That.Managers.Understand.Their Safety.and. Health Responsibilities................................................................... 42 Summary............................................................................................. 43 References........................................................................................... 43

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Chapter 3

Accident/Incident.Investigation.......................................................... 45 Introduction......................................................................................... 45 Purpose.of.Accident.Investigations..................................................... 45 Accident.Prevention............................................................................46 Reporting.Accidents............................................................................ 47 Organizing.and.Assigning.Responsibilities........................................ 49 Supervisors.and.Accident.Investigation.............................................. 49 Investigations.Benefit.the.Supervisor.................................................. 50 Preplanning.an.Accident.Investigation............................................... 51 Investigation.Process........................................................................... 51 Conducting.the.Investigation.......................................................... 54 Visit.the.Site................................................................................... 54 Interviewing.................................................................................... 57 Interviewer................................................................................. 57 Accurate.Interviews................................................................... 59 Expanding.the.Interview.for.Details......................................... 59 Evaluating.the.Witness’.State....................................................60 Summarizing.the.Interviewing.Process....................................60 Handling.the.Evidence........................................................................ 61 Developing.Accident.Investigation.Forms.......................................... 62 Final.Report.of.Investigation............................................................... 62 Follow-Up............................................................................................64 Summary.............................................................................................64 References...........................................................................................64

Chapter 4

Hazard.Recognition.and.Avoidance.................................................... 65 Hazard.Identification........................................................................... 65 Emphasis.on.Hazards.......................................................................... 65 Accident.Causes.................................................................................. 65 Direct.Causes..................................................................................66 Hazard.Analysis.................................................................................. 67 Worksite.Hazard.Analysis................................................................... 70 Training.on.Hazard.Identification....................................................... 71 Worksite.Hazard.Identification............................................................ 72 Ranking.Hazards................................................................................. 73 Hazard.and.Cost.Avoidance................................................................ 74 Hazard.Control.................................................................................... 76 Techniques.of.Hazard.Control............................................................ 76 Job.Safety.Assessment.................................................................... 76 Controls.......................................................................................... 76 Accident.Reporting......................................................................... 77 Incident.Reporting.Procedures....................................................... 78 Training.......................................................................................... 78 Program.Audits.............................................................................. 79

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Summary............................................................................................. 79 References........................................................................................... 79 Chapter 5

Accountability.and.Responsibility...................................................... 81 Introduction......................................................................................... 81 The.Safety.and.Health.Professional.................................................... 81 The.Line.Supervisor............................................................................ 82 Using.the.Supervisor.Evaluation.Form...............................................84 The.Worker..........................................................................................84 References........................................................................................... 86

Chapter 6

Motivating.Safety.and.Health............................................................. 87 Introduction......................................................................................... 87 Planning.the.Motivational.Approach.................................................. 87 Supervisors.......................................................................................... 89 Self-Motivated.Workers......................................................................90 Changing.Behavior.............................................................................. 91 Behavior-Based.Safety........................................................................92 Identifying.Critical.Behaviors........................................................ 93 Gathering.Data...............................................................................94 Two-Way.Feedback.........................................................................94 Continuous.Improvement............................................................... 94 Factors.Affecting.Motivation..............................................................96 Safety.Culture.....................................................................................99 Defining.Safety.Culture..................................................................99 Developing.or.Changing.a.Safety.Culture......................................99 Describing.a.Safety.Culture...........................................................99 Positive.Safety.Culture................................................................. 101 Trying.to.Improve.Safety.on.a.Continuous.Basis......................... 102 Assessing.Safety.Culture.............................................................. 102 Summary...................................................................................... 103 Visual.Motivators.............................................................................. 103 Nonfinancial.Incentives..................................................................... 103 Summary........................................................................................... 104 References......................................................................................... 106

Chapter 7

Accident/Incident.Analysis............................................................... 109 Introduction....................................................................................... 109 Breakdown.of.Causes........................................................................ 109 Direct.Cause................................................................................. 110 Indirect.Causes............................................................................. 111 Basic.Causes................................................................................. 111 Cause.Breakdown.Review............................................................ 113

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Mishap.Probability............................................................................ 113 Summary........................................................................................... 113 References......................................................................................... 117 Chapter 8

Root.Cause.Analysis......................................................................... 119 Introduction....................................................................................... 119 Phase.I:.Data.Collection.................................................................... 121 Phase.II:.Assessment......................................................................... 122 Root.Cause.Analysis.Methods...................................................... 123 Phase.III:.Corrective.Actions............................................................ 126 Phase.IV:.Inform............................................................................... 127 Phase.V:.Follow-Up........................................................................... 130 Summary........................................................................................... 130 References......................................................................................... 131

Chapter 9

Causal.Factor.Analysis...................................................................... 133 Introduction....................................................................................... 133 Definition........................................................................................... 133 Determining.Causal.Factors.............................................................. 134 Direct.Causes................................................................................ 134 Contributing.Causes..................................................................... 135 Root.(Basic).Causes...................................................................... 135 Event.Factor.Chains.(Charting).and.Explanation............................. 135 Events........................................................................................... 135 Conditions..................................................................................... 136 Contributing.Factors..................................................................... 136 Secondary.Event........................................................................... 136 Benefits.of.Events.and.Causal.Factors.Charting............................... 137 Using.Causal.Factor.Analysis.(Event Factor.Chains.or.Charting).....137 Constructing.the.Chart................................................................. 137 Charting.Symbols......................................................................... 138 Causal.Factor.Worksheets................................................................. 142 Summary........................................................................................... 143 References......................................................................................... 143

Chapter 10 Change.Analysis................................................................................ 145 Introduction....................................................................................... 145 When.to.Use.Change.Analysis.......................................................... 145 How.to.Use.Change.Analysis............................................................ 145 Structuring.the.Analysis.................................................................... 147 Summary........................................................................................... 150 References......................................................................................... 151

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Chapter 11 Barrier.Analysis................................................................................ 153 Introduction....................................................................................... 153 Physical.Barrier.Analysis.................................................................. 156 Explanation.of.PBA...................................................................... 158 Human.Barrier.Analysis................................................................... 158 Information................................................................................... 160 Tools.or.Equipment...................................................................... 162 Knowledge.................................................................................... 162 Capacity........................................................................................ 162 Incentive....................................................................................... 163 Summary...................................................................................... 164 Performing.the.Human.Barrier.Analysis..................................... 164 Wrap-Up.of.Preliminary.Data.Analysis............................................ 165 Interpretation.of.PBA.and.HBA........................................................ 171 References......................................................................................... 172 Chapter 12 Job.Safety/Hazard.Analysis.............................................................. 173 Introduction....................................................................................... 173 Performing.a.JSA/JHA..................................................................... 174 Four.Basic.Steps.of.a.JSA/JHA......................................................... 174 Selecting.a.Job.to.Analyze................................................................ 175 Accident.Frequency...................................................................... 175 Accident.Severity.......................................................................... 175 Judgment.and.Experience............................................................. 175 New.Jobs,.Nonroutine.Jobs,.or.Job.Changes................................ 175 Routine.Jobs................................................................................. 175 The.Job.Safety/Hazard.Analysis.Worksheet..................................... 176 Separating.the.Job.into.Its.Basic.Steps.............................................. 176 Sequence.of.Basic.Job.Steps............................................................. 176 Identifying.the.Hazards.Associated.with.Each.Job.Step.................. 178 Struck-Against.Type.of.Accidents................................................ 178 Struck-By.Type.of.Accidents........................................................ 179 Contact-With.and.Contact-By.Types.of.Accidents....................... 179 Caught-In,.Caught-On,.and.Caught-Between.Types.of. Accidents...................................................................................... 179 Fall-to-Same-Level.and.Fall-to-Below.Types.of.Accidents......... 180 Overexertion.and.Exposure.Types.of.Accidents.......................... 180 Consider.Human.Problems.in.the.JSA/JHA.Process........................ 180 Eliminating.or.Controlling.the.Hazards........................................... 180 Change.Job.Procedures..................................................................... 181 Change.the.Frequency.of.Performing.the.Job................................... 181 Personal.Protective.Equipment......................................................... 182 Summary........................................................................................... 182 References......................................................................................... 186

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Chapter 13 Safe.Operating.Procedures.(SOPs).................................................... 187 Introduction....................................................................................... 187 Components.of.an.SOP..................................................................... 188 Guidelines.for.Writing.an.SOP......................................................... 190 How.SOPs.Work................................................................................ 196 Summary........................................................................................... 197 References......................................................................................... 198 Chapter 14 Job.Safety.Observation...................................................................... 199 Introduction....................................................................................... 199 Purpose.of.Job.Safety.Observation...................................................200 Types.of.Job.Safety.Observations.....................................................200 Incidental.Safety.Observations.....................................................200 Planned.Safety.Observations........................................................200 Selecting.a.Job.or.Task.for.a.Planned.Job.Safety.Observation.........200 Selection.Based.on.Jobs................................................................ 201 Selection.Based.on.Individual.Needs...........................................202 Experienced.Employees...............................................................202 Inexperienced.Employees.............................................................202 Preparing.for.a.Planned.Safety.Observation.....................................202 Checklist.of.Activities.to.Observe....................................................204 Unsafe.Procedures.............................................................................206 The.Observation................................................................................207 After.the.Observation........................................................................208 Dealing.with.Unsafe.Behaviors.or.Poor.Performance......................208 Summary........................................................................................... 210 References......................................................................................... 211 Chapter 15 Safety.and.Health.Audits.................................................................. 213 Introduction....................................................................................... 213 The.Need.for.an.Audit....................................................................... 213 When.to.Audit................................................................................... 214 What.to.Audit.................................................................................... 215 Types.of.Audit.Instruments............................................................... 215 Develop.and.Evaluate.Audit.Scores.................................................. 218 Qualifications.of.Auditors................................................................. 221 Summary........................................................................................... 221 References.........................................................................................224 Chapter 16 Fleet.Safety.Program......................................................................... 225 Introduction....................................................................................... 225 Written.Fleet.Safety.Program........................................................... 225 Vehicle/Equipment.Maintenance...................................................... 226

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Regulations.and.Motor.Vehicles....................................................... 226 Other.Agency.Overview............................................................... 226 Federal.Highway.Administration.(FHWA).................................. 227 Federal.Motor.Carrier.Safety.Administration.(FMSCA)............. 227 Drivers............................................................................................... 227 Driver.Illnesses.and.Injuries......................................................... 228 Common.Driver.Injuries.............................................................. 228 Events.or.Exposures.Leading.to.Trucker.Injury.......................... 228 Operator.Recruitment.and.Selection................................................. 228 Records.to.Maintain.......................................................................... 230 Operator.Training.............................................................................. 232 Company.Operator’s.Manual............................................................ 233 Pre-Operation.Inspection.................................................................. 234 Driving.Tasks.................................................................................... 235 Safe.Driving.Recognition.................................................................. 236 Planning.Schedules,.Loads,.and.Routes............................................ 236 Preventing.Accidents......................................................................... 236 References......................................................................................... 237 Chapter 17 Preventive.Maintenance.Programs.................................................... 239 Introduction....................................................................................... 239 Components.of.a.PMP.......................................................................240 Preventive.Maintenance....................................................................240 Management’s.Role...........................................................................240 The.Preventive.Maintenance.Program.(PMP).................................. 243 Operators’.Inspections...................................................................... 243 Brake.Safety.................................................................................244 Tire.Safety....................................................................................244 Wheel.Assembly.Safety...............................................................244 Steering.System.Safety.................................................................244 Trailer.Hitch.Safety...................................................................... 245 Hitch.and.Axle.Safety.................................................................. 245 Driving.Light.Safety..................................................................... 245 Load.Safety................................................................................... 245 Load.Securing.Safety...................................................................246 Maintenance......................................................................................246 Management.Responsibility..............................................................246 Summary........................................................................................... 247 References......................................................................................... 247 Chapter 18 Special.Emphasis.Programs.............................................................. 249 Introduction....................................................................................... 249 Ladder.Safety.Program..................................................................... 249 Management’s.Commitment........................................................ 249

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Hazard.Identification.................................................................... 249 Control.and.Prevention................................................................. 250 Training........................................................................................ 252 Incentives........................................................................................... 253 Summary........................................................................................... 254 References......................................................................................... 254 Chapter 19 Using.Safety.and.Health.Consultants................................................ 255 Introduction....................................................................................... 255 Need.for.a.Consultant........................................................................ 255 Conducting.the.Interview.................................................................. 256 Scope.of.Work................................................................................... 258 Final.Hiring.Steps............................................................................. 259 Summary...........................................................................................260 References.........................................................................................260 Chapter 20 Safety.and.Health.Training............................................................... 261 Introduction....................................................................................... 261 When.to.Train................................................................................... 262 Training.New.Hires........................................................................... 262 Training.Supervisors......................................................................... 263 Training.Employees..........................................................................264 Documenting.Safety.and.Health.Training........................................ 265 After.the.Training............................................................................. 265 Safety.Talks....................................................................................... 265 Safety.Talks.and.Meetings................................................................266 OSHA.Training.Requirements.......................................................... 267 OSHA.Training.Guidelines............................................................... 268 Legal.Aspect.of.Training.................................................................. 269 OSHA.Training.Model...................................................................... 269 Determining.if.Training.Is.Needed.............................................. 269 Identifying.Training.Needs.......................................................... 270 Identifying.Goals.and.Objectives................................................. 272 Developing.Learning.Activities................................................... 272 Conducting.the.Training............................................................... 273 Evaluating.Program.Effectiveness............................................... 274 Improving.the.Program................................................................ 275 Matching.Training.to.Employees...................................................... 276 Identifying.Employees.at.Risk.......................................................... 276 Training.Employees.at.Risk.............................................................. 277 Summary........................................................................................... 277 References......................................................................................... 278

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Chapter 21 Analyzing.Accident.Data.................................................................. 279 Introduction....................................................................................... 279 OSHA.Recordkeeping....................................................................... 279 Company.Records.............................................................................280 Important.Ancillary.Data.Needed.for.More.Complete.Analysis......280 Health.and.Safety.Statistics.Data................................................. 281 Statistical.Analysis.for.Comparisons................................................ 283 Workers’.Compensation....................................................................284 Cost.of.Accidents.............................................................................. 285 Summary........................................................................................... 287 References......................................................................................... 287 Chapter 22 Prevention.and.OSHA.Regulations................................................... 289 Introduction....................................................................................... 289 Federal.Laws..................................................................................... 289 OSHAct........................................................................................ 289 Content.of.the.OSHAct............................................................ 290 Regulation.Process............................................................................ 290 Federal.Register................................................................................. 292 Purpose.of.OSHA............................................................................. 292 Code.of.Federal.Regulations............................................................. 292 CFR.Numbering.System................................................................... 295 29 CFR 1910.110 (b)(13)(ii)(b)(7)(iii)......................................... 295 29 CFR 1910.110 (b)(13)(ii)(b)(7)(iii)......................................... 296 29 CFR 1910.110 (b)(13)(ii)(b)(7)(iii)......................................... 296 29 CFR 1910.110 (b)(13)(ii)(b)(7)(iii)......................................... 296 OSHA.Standards.Covered................................................................. 296 Copies.of.the.OSHA.Standards......................................................... 297 Relief.(Variance).from.an.OSHA.Standard...................................... 297 OSHAct.Protects............................................................................... 298 Role.of.the.National.Institute.for.Occupational.Safety.and. Health.(NIOSH)................................................................................ 298 Role.of.the.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Review. Commission.(OSHRC)...................................................................... 298 Employers.Are.Responsible.for.Workers’.Safety.and.Health........... 298 Workers’.Rights................................................................................. 301 Workers’.Responsibilities.under.the.Law.......................................... 303 The.Right.Not.to.Be.Discriminated.against...................................... 303 The.Right.to.Know............................................................................ 303 Environmental.Monitoring.Results...................................................304 Personal.Protective.Clothing.............................................................304 OSHA.Inspections.............................................................................304 OSHA.Receives.a.Complaint............................................................ 305 Citations............................................................................................. 305

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Types.of.Violations............................................................................306 Challenging.Citations,.Penalties,.and.Other.Enforcement. Measures...........................................................................................306 Workers.Get.the.Results.of.an.Inspection.........................................306 Determining.Penalties.......................................................................307 State.Programs..................................................................................307 Workers’.Training.............................................................................307 Occupational.Injuries.and.Illnesses..................................................308 Medical.and.Exposure.Records.........................................................308 Posting...............................................................................................309 What.to.Do.When.OSHA.Comes.Knocking.................................... 311 Inspection.Process........................................................................ 311 Mitigating.the.Damage................................................................. 312 Closing.Conference...................................................................... 312 After.the.Inspector.Leaves........................................................... 313 Make.the.Inspection.a.Positive.Experience.................................. 313 Summary........................................................................................... 314 References......................................................................................... 314 Chapter 23 Health.Hazard.Prevention................................................................. 315 Introduction....................................................................................... 315 Asbestos............................................................................................ 316 Back.Injuries..................................................................................... 319 Bloodborne.Pathogens....................................................................... 322 Carcinogens....................................................................................... 325 Cold.Stress......................................................................................... 331 Ergonomics........................................................................................ 335 Hazardous.Chemicals........................................................................ 337 Hazardous.Waste............................................................................... 339 Heat.Stress......................................................................................... 341 Ionizing.Radiation............................................................................. 347 Lasers................................................................................................348 Lead................................................................................................... 353 Noise-Induced.Hearing.Loss............................................................. 354 Nonionizing.Radiation......................................................................360 Vibration............................................................................................ 362 Workplace.Stress............................................................................... 362 References.........................................................................................364 Chapter 24 Controls.and.Personal.Protective.Equipment.................................... 365 Introduction....................................................................................... 365 Controlling.Hazards.......................................................................... 366 Engineering.Controls.................................................................... 366 Awareness.Devices....................................................................... 366

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Work.Practices.............................................................................. 367 Administrative.Controls............................................................... 367 Management.Controls................................................................... 368 Personal.Protective.Equipment......................................................... 368 Establishing.a.PPE.Program............................................................. 370 Hazard.Assessment........................................................................... 371 Eye.and.Face.Protection.................................................................... 371 Head.Protection................................................................................. 378 Foot.and.Leg.Protection.................................................................... 380 Hand.and.Arm.Protection................................................................. 382 Metal.Mesh,.Leather,.or.Canvas.Gloves...................................... 382 Fabric.and.Coated.Fabric.Gloves................................................. 383 Chemical-.and.Liquid-Resistant.Gloves....................................... 383 Body.Protection................................................................................. 385 Protective.Clothing.Applications................................................. 386 Selection.of.Protective.Clothing................................................... 386 Ensemble.Selection.Factors.......................................................... 388 Classification.of.Protective.Clothing............................................ 388 Hearing.Protection............................................................................ 388 Respiratory.Protection....................................................................... 392 Basic.Respiratory.Protection.Safety.Procedures.......................... 394 Respirator.User.Policies............................................................... 395 Selection.of.Respirators................................................................ 395 Identification.of.Filters.and.Cartridges........................................ 397 Respirator.Filter.and.Canister.Replacement................................. 398 Filter.and.Cartridge.Change.Schedule......................................... 398 Respiratory.Protection.Schedule.by.Job.and.Working. Condition...................................................................................... 399 Physical.and.Medical.Qualifications............................................ 399 Additional.Medical.Evaluations...................................................400 Respirator.Fit.Testing................................................................... 401 Types.of.Fit.Tests.......................................................................... 401 Respirator.Operation.and.Use......................................................402 Continuing.Effectiveness.of.Respirators......................................402 Procedures.for.IDLH.Atmospheres..............................................403 Cleaning.and.Disinfecting............................................................403 Respirator.Inspection....................................................................404 Respirator.Storage........................................................................404 Respirator.Repairs........................................................................405 Summary...........................................................................................405 References.........................................................................................406 Chapter 25 Safety.Hazards..................................................................................407 Introduction.......................................................................................407 Abrasive.Blasting.(29.CFR.1910.94.and.1910.244)...........................407

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Abrasive.Wheel.Equipment/Grinders.(29 CFR 1910.212,. 1910.215,.and.1910.243).....................................................................407 Air.Receivers.(29.CFR.1910.169)......................................................408 Aisles.and.Passageways.(29.CFR.1910.17,.1910.22,.and.1910.176)....409 Belt.Sanding.Machines.(29.CFR.1910.213)......................................409 Chains,.Cables,.Ropes,.and.Hooks.(29.CFR.1910.179.and. 1910.180)............................................................................................409 Compressors.and.Compressed.Air.(29.CFR.1910.242).....................409 Compressed.Gas.Cylinders.(29.CFR.1910.101.and.1910.253).......... 411 Compressed.Gases.(29.CFR.1910.101,.1910.102,.1910.103,. 1910.104,.1910.106,.and.1910.253)..................................................... 411 Confined.Spaces.(29.CFR.1910.146)................................................. 413 Containers.and.Portable.Tank.Storage.(29.CFR.1910.106)............... 414 Control.of.Hazardous.Energy.Sources.[Lockout/Tagout]. (29 CFR.1910.147)............................................................................. 415 Crane,.Derrick,.and.Hoist.Safety.(29 CFR 1910.179,.1910.180,. and.1910.181)..................................................................................... 417 Dip.Tanks.Containing.Flammable.or.Combustible.Liquid. (29 CFR.1910.108)............................................................................. 418 Dockboards.(29.CFR.1910.30).......................................................... 419 Drinking.Water.(29.CFR.1910.141)................................................... 419 Electrical.(29.CFR.1910.303,.1910.304,.1910.305,.1910.331,. and 1910.333)..................................................................................... 419 Elevated.Surfaces.(29.CFR.1910.23)................................................. 422 Emergency.Action.Plans.(29.CFR.1910.38)...................................... 422 Exit.Doors.(29.CFR.1910.36)............................................................ 424 Exits.and.Exit.Routes.(29.CFR.1910.36)........................................... 424 Requirements.for.Exits................................................................. 425 Safety.Features.for.Exit.Routes.................................................... 426 Design.and.Construction.Requirements....................................... 426 Explosives.and.Blasting.Agents.(29.CFR.1910.109)......................... 427 Fan.Blades.(29.CFR.1910.212).......................................................... 427 Fall.Protection.(29.CFR.1910.23.and.1910.66.Appendix.I).............. 427 Personal.Fall.Arresting.System.................................................... 430 Fire.Protection.(29.CFR.1910.157).................................................... 430 Flammable.and.Combustible.Liquids.(29.CFR.1910.106)................ 433 Flammable.and.Combustible.Materials............................................ 434 Floors.[General.Conditions].(29.CFR.1910.22.and.1920.23)............ 434 Forklift.Trucks.[Powered Industrial Trucks].(29.CFR.1910.178)...... 435 Fueling.(29.CFR.1910.178,.1910.180,.and.1910.181).......................... 436 Hand.Tools.(29.CFR.1910.242)......................................................... 436 Hoist.and.Auxiliary.Equipment.(29.CFR.1910.179)......................... 437 Housekeeping.(29.CFR.1910.22)....................................................... 438 Hydraulic.Power.Tools.(29.CFR.1910.217)....................................... 438 Jacks.(29.CFR.1910.244)................................................................... 438 Ladders,.Fixed.(29.CFR.1910.27)..................................................... 439

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Ladders,.Portable.(29.CFR.1910.25.and.1910.26)............................. 441 Lunch.Rooms.(29.CFR.1910.141)......................................................444 Machine.Guarding.(29.CFR.1910.212.and.1910.219)........................444 Machinery,.Fixed.(29.CFR.1910.212)............................................... 445 Material.Handling.(29.CFR.1910.176).............................................. 445 Mechanical.Power.Presses.(29.CFR.1910.217).................................446 Motor.Vehicle.Safety......................................................................... 447 Pneumatic.Tools.(29.CFR.1910.243)................................................. 447 Portable.(Power.Operated).Tools.and.Equipment. (29 CFR 1910.243)............................................................................. 447 Powder-Actuated.Tools.(29.CFR.1910.243)...................................... 450 Powered.Platforms.for Building Maintenance.(29.CFR.1910.66).... 452 Power.Transmission.Equipment Guarding.(29.CFR.1910.219)......... 452 Pressure.Vessels.(29.CFR.1910.106,.1910.216,.and.1910.217).......... 453 Railings.(29.CFR.1910.23)................................................................ 455 Saws,.Portable.Circular.(29.CFR.1910.243)...................................... 456 Scaffolds.(29.CFR.1910.28).............................................................. 456 Skylights.(29.CFR.1910.23).............................................................. 457 Spray-Finishing.Operations.(29.CFR.1910.107)............................... 457 Stairs,.Fixed.Industrial.(29.CFR.1910.23.and.1910.24).................... 458 Storage.(29.CFR.1910.176)................................................................ 459 Tanks,.Open-Surface.(29.CFR.1910.94)........................................... 459 Tire.Inflation......................................................................................460 Toeboards.(29.CFR.1910.23).............................................................460 Toilets.(29.CFR.1910.141)..................................................................460 Transporting.Employees.and.Materials............................................ 461 Walking/Working.Surfaces.(29.CFR.1910.21.and.1910.22)............. 462 Welding,.Cutting,.and.Brazing.(29.CFR.1910.251,.1910.252,. 1910.253,.1910.254,.and.1910.255).................................................... 462 Woodworking.Machinery.(29.CFR.1910.213).................................. 463 Workplace.Violence..........................................................................465 Summary...........................................................................................468 References.........................................................................................468 Chapter 26 Conclusion......................................................................................... 469 Overview...........................................................................................469 Appendix A: Written Safety and Health Program............................................ 475 Management’s.Commitment............................................................. 475 Assigning.Responsibility................................................................... 475 Safety.and.Health.Policy.Statement.................................................. 475 Example.of.Statement.for.All.Employees.................................... 475 Company.Safety.Goals.and.Objectives............................................. 476 Safety.Enforcement.Policy................................................................ 476 Management.Officials.................................................................. 477

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Supervisors................................................................................... 477 Employees..................................................................................... 478 Competent/Qualified.Persons............................................................ 478 Jobsite.Safety.Inspections................................................................. 479 Accident.Investigation....................................................................... 479 Safety.and.Health.Committee...........................................................480 Objectives.of.Labor/Management.Safety.and.Health. Committee.................................................................................... 481 Functions.of.Labor/Management.Safety.and.Health.Committee.... 481 Monthly.Project.or.Production.Safety.Meeting................................ 481 New-Hire.Safety.Orientation............................................................ 482 Supervisor.Training........................................................................... 482 Safety.Bulletin.Board........................................................................ 483 Safety.Talks....................................................................................... 483 OSHA.Records..................................................................................484 Medical/Exposure.Records...............................................................484 Training.Records...............................................................................484 First.Aid.Supplies.............................................................................. 485 Medical.Services............................................................................... 485 Jobsite.First.Aid.Log......................................................................... 485 Emergency.Procedures...................................................................... 486 Fire................................................................................................ 486 Evacuation.................................................................................... 486 Summary........................................................................................... 486 Appendix B: Accident Investigation Forms (Revised)....................................... 487 Appendix C: Causal Analysis Worksheets......................................................... 525 Appendix D: OSHA Safety and Health Training Requirements..................... 535 General.Industry.Training Requirements.(29.CFR.Part.1910)......... 535 Subpart.E. —.Means.of.Egress..................................................... 535 Subpart.F. —.Powered.Platforms,.Manlifts,.and. Vehicle-Mounted.Work.Platforms................................................ 535 Subpart.G.—.Occupational.Health.and.Environmental.Controls.... 535 Subpart.H.—.Hazardous.Materials.............................................. 535 Subpart.I. —.Personal.Protective.Equipment.............................. 536 Subpart.J. —.General.Environmental.Controls........................... 536 Subpart.K.—.Medical.Services.and.First.Aid............................. 536 Subpart.L. —.Fire.Protection....................................................... 536 Subpart.N.—.Materials.Handling.and.Storage............................ 536 Subpart.O.—.Machinery.and.Machine.Guarding....................... 536 Subpart.Q.—.Welding,.Cutting,.and.Brazing.............................. 537 Subpart.R.—.Special.Industries.................................................. 537 Subpart.S. —.Electrical.Safety-Related.Work.Practices.............. 537 Subpart.T. —.Commercial.Diving.Operations............................. 537 Subpart.Z. —.Toxic.Substance..................................................... 537

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Shipyard.Employment.Training Requirements.(29.CFR.Part.1915).... 538 Subpart.A.—.General.Provisions................................................. 538 Subpart.B.—.Explosive.and.Other.Dangerous.Atmospheres...... 538 Subpart.C.—.Surface.Preparation.and.Preservation................... 539 Subpart.D.—.Welding,.Cutting,.and.Heating.............................. 539 Subpart.E. —.Scaffolds,.Ladders,.and.Other.Working.Surfaces.... 539 Subpart.F. —.General.Working.Conditions................................. 539 Subpart.G.—.Gear.and.Equipment.for.Rigging.and. Materials Handling....................................................................... 539 Subpart.H.—.Tools.and.Related.Equipment................................ 539 Subpart.I. —.Personal.Protective.Equipment.............................. 539 Subpart.K.—.Portable,.Unfired.Pressure.Vessels,. Drums, and.Containers,.Other.than.Ships’.Equipment................ 539 Subpart.Z. —.Toxic.and.Hazardous.Substances..........................540 Marine.Terminal.Training.Requirements.(29.CFR.Part.1917).........540 Subpart.A.—.Scope.and.Definitions............................................540 Subpart.B.—.Marine.Terminal.Operations.................................540 Subpart.C.—.Cargo.Handling.Gear.and.Equipment...................540 Subpart.D.—.Specialized.Terminals........................................... 541 Longshoring.Training.Requirements.(29.CFR.Part.1918)................ 541 Subpart.A.—.Scope.and.Definitions............................................ 541 Subpart.H.—.Handling.Cargo..................................................... 541 Subpart.I. —.General.Working.Conditions................................. 541 Construction.Industry.Training Requirements.(29.CFR.Part.1926).... 541 Subpart.C.—.General.Safety.and.Health.Provisions................... 541 Subpart.D.—.Occupational.Health.and.Environmental.Controls.... 541 Subpart.E. —.Personal.Protective.and.Life.Saving.Equipment.... 542 Subpart.I. —.Tools—Hand.and.Power........................................ 542 Subpart.J. —.Welding.and.Cutting.............................................. 542 Subpart.K.—.Electrical................................................................ 542 Subpart.L. —.Scaffolding............................................................. 542 Subpart.M.—.Fall.Protection....................................................... 542 Subpart.N.—.Cranes,.Derricks,.Hoists,.Elevators,. and.Conveyors.............................................................................. 542 Subpart.O.—.Motor.Vehicles,.Mechanized Equipment,.and. Marine.Operations........................................................................ 542 Subpart.P. —.Excavations............................................................ 543 Subpart.Q.—.Concrete.and.Masonry.Construction..................... 543 Subpart.R.—.Steel.Erection......................................................... 543 Subpart.S. —.Underground.Construction,.Caissons,. Cofferdams,.and.Compressed.Air................................................ 543 Subpart.T. —.Demolition............................................................. 543 Subpart.U.—.Blasting.and.Use.of.Explosives.............................. 543 Subpart.V.—.Power.Transmission.and.Distribution.................... 543 Subpart.X.—.Stairways.and.Ladders........................................... 543

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Subpart.Y.—.Diving....................................................................544 Subpart.Z. —.Toxic.and.Hazardous.Substances—1926.1076......544 Agriculture.Training.Requirements.(29.CFR.1938).........................544 Subpart.B.—.Applicability.of.Standards.....................................544 Subpart.C.—.Roll-Over.Protective.Structures............................544 Subpart.D.—.Safety.for.Agricultural.Equipment........................544 Subpart.M.—.Occupational.Health..............................................544 Federal.Employee.Training Requirements.(29.CFR.Part.1960).......544 Subpart.B.—.Financial.Management..........................................544 Subpart.D.—.Inspection.and.Abatement..................................... 545 Subpart.E. —.General.Services.Administration.and. Other Federal.Agencies................................................................ 545 Subpart.F. —.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Committees....... 545 Subpart.H.—.Training................................................................. 545 Subpart.K.—.Federal.Safety.and.Health.Councils...................... 545 Appendix E: OSHA Regional Offices and State Plan Offices.......................... 547 OSHA.Regional.Offices.................................................................... 547 State.Plan.Offices.............................................................................. 548 Appendix F: Sample Glove Selection Charts..................................................... 555 Appendix G: Occupational Safety and Health Resources and Information Sources............................................................................................. 561 Books.and.Documents....................................................................... 561 Accident.Hazard.Analysis............................................................ 561 Accident.Investigation.................................................................. 561 Accident.Prevention...................................................................... 561 Construction.Safety.and.Health.................................................... 561 Consultants................................................................................... 562 Environmental.............................................................................. 562 Ergonomics................................................................................... 562 Fleet.Safety................................................................................... 563 Hazard.Identification.................................................................... 563 Health.Hazards............................................................................. 563 Industrial.Hygiene........................................................................ 563 Job.Hazard.Analysis..................................................................... 563 Job.Safety.Observation.................................................................564 Office.Safety.and.Health..............................................................564 OSHA.Compliance.......................................................................564 Psychology.of.Safety....................................................................564 Regulations................................................................................... 565 Safety.Hazards.............................................................................. 565 Safety.and.Health.Hazards........................................................... 565 Safety.and.Health.Management................................................... 565 Service.Industry.Safety.and.Health.............................................. 566 System.Safety............................................................................... 566

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Training........................................................................................ 566 Workplace.Violence...................................................................... 567 Professional.Organizations.and.Agencies......................................... 567 Health.and.Environmental.Assistance......................................... 567 Safety.and.Engineering.Consensus.Standards............................. 567 Professional.Safety.Organizations................................................ 568 Specialty.Associations.(with.Specific.Expertise)......................... 568 Federal.Government.Sources............................................................ 570 Electronic.Sources.(Internet)............................................................ 572 Government.................................................................................. 573 Associations.and.Societies........................................................... 574 Index....................................................................................................................... 577

Preface Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques,.Second.Edition.is.based.on.the.premise. that.all.types.of.businesses.and.industries.must.face.the.reality.that.accidents.and. incidents.that.result.in.occupational.injuries.and.illnesses.will.in.most.cases.transpire.at.their.business.or.facility..The.results.of.these.events.have.economic,.legal,. and.human.impact.on.the.company’s.bottom.line..In.most.situations,.the.impact.is. usually.negative. With.this.said,.anything.that.a.corporation.or.company.can.do.to.prevent.these. events.will.in.most.instances.result.in.positive.outcomes.for.that.company. The. causes. of. occupationally. related. accidents. or. incidents. are. most. often. the. result.of.some.form.of.energy.or.agent.being.released..Seldom.is.there.one.single. cause.for.accidents.and.incidents..There.are.many.contributing.factors.that.combine. to.become.the.root.causes.of.occupational.accidents.and.incidents. Because.employers.and.safety.and.health.professionals.are.faced.with.multiple.causal. factors.for.these.occupational.happenings,.they.must.utilize.multiple.approaches.to. prevent.the.occurrence.of.accidents.and.incidents..These.range.from.prevention.program.development,.to.behavioral.approaches,.acceptable.best.prevention.techniques,. sophisticated.analysis.methods,.engineering.controls,.and.personal.protection.for.the. workers..The.approach.taken.by.employers.and.safety.and.health.professionals.will. include.a.combination.of.prevention.approaches.that.best.meets.the.needs.of.their. unique.industry.or.business..The.approach.used.will.be.tailored.to.meet.their.needs. Thus,. Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques provides. the. plethora. of. techniques.and.tools.needed.to.structure.a.prevention.approach.to.meet.the.needs.of.corporations.and.companies..These.techniques.are.those.that.have.been.found.to.work.in. the.past,.as.well.as.an.intermingling.of.the.best.theoretical.methods..It.is.laced.with. practical. examples. and. tools. to. help. those. responsible. for. occupational. safety. and. health.develop.the.best.prevention.initiative.for.them.and.their.workforce. This.book.is.a.single-source.guide.of.techniques.and.approaches.to.prevent.the. occurrence.of.occupational.injuries.and.illnesses.

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Acknowledgments I.appreciate.the.courtesy.extended.to.me.by.the.following.organizations.and.individuals: National.Aeronautical.and.Space.Administration National.Institute.for.Occupational.Safety.and.Health Occupational.Health.and.Safety.Administration United.States.Department.of.Energy Mine.Safety.and.Health.Administration Robert.Franko David.Kline Steve.Austin

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About the Author For.30.years.Dr..Charles.D..Reese.has.been.involved.with.occupational.safety.and. health. as. an. educator,. manager,. or. consultant.. In. Dr.. Reese’s. early. beginnings. in. occupational. safety. and. health,. he. held. the. position. of. industrial. hygienist. at. the. National. Mine. Health. and. Safety. Academy.. He. later. assumed. the. responsibility. of.manager.for.the.nation’s.occupational.trauma.research.initiative.at.the.National. Institute.for.Occupational.Safety.and.Health’s.(NIOSH).Division.of.Safety.Research.. Dr..Reese.has.played.an.integral.part.in.trying.to.ensure.that.workplace.safety.and. health.are.provided.for.all.those.within.the.workplace..As.the.managing.director.for. the.Laborers’.Health.and.Safety.Fund.of.North.America,.his.responsibilities.were. aimed.at.protecting.the.650,000.members.of.the.laborers’.union.in.the.United.States. and.Canada. Dr.. Reese. has. developed. many. occupational. safety. and. health. training. programs,.which.run.the.gamut.from.radioactive.waste.remediation.to.confined.space. entry..He.has.written.numerous.articles,.pamphlets,.and.books.on.related.safety.and. health.issues. Dr.. Reese,. professor. emeritus,. was. a. member. of. the. graduate. and. undergraduate. faculty. at. the. University. of. Connecticut,. where. he. taught. courses. on. OSHA. regulations,.safety.and.health.management,.accident.prevention.techniques,.industrial. hygiene,. ergonomics,. and. environmental. trends. and. issues.. As. professor. of. environmental/occupational.safety.and.health,.he.coordinated.the.bulk.of.the.environmental,.safety,.and.health.efforts.at.the.University.of.Connecticut..He.is.called. upon. to. consult. with. industry. on. safety. and. health. issues,. and. is. often. asked. for. expert.consultation.in.legal.cases. Dr..Reese.also.is.the.principal.author.of.the.following: Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health (Second Edition) Material Handling Systems: Designing for Safety and Health Annotated Dictionary of Construction Safety and Health Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical Approach (Second Edition) Office Building Safety and Health Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques (Second Edition) The.Four-Volume.Set.Entitled:.Handbook of Safety and Health for the Service Industry: Volume.1: Industrial Safety and Health for Goods and Materials Services Volume.2:.Industrial Safety and Health for Infrastructure Services Volume.3: Industrial Safety and Health for Administrative Services Volume.4:.Industrial Safety and Health for People-Oriented Services

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1

Introduction

The.objectives.of.Healthy.People.2020.have.not.changed.but.will.experience.some. modifications..The.2020.objectives.for.work-related.injuries.will.be.to •. •. •. •. •.

Reduce.death.from.work-related.injuries Reduce.nonfatal.work-related.injuries Reduce.work-related.assaults Reduce.work-related.homicides Reduce. occupational. needle-stick. injuries. among. hospital-based. healthcare.workers

Although.progress.was.made.regarding.occupation.injuries.and.trauma.deaths,. new.data.and.goal.projections.are.not.available.for.2020.at.this.time..The.2010.goals. for.injuries,.trauma.deaths,.and.needle-stick.injuries.achieved.approximately.50%.of. the.goals.while.assaults.goals.did.not.make.progress..The.following.paragraphs.set. out.the.baselines.for.2010. Healthy.People.2010.Objectives.from.the.U.S..Department.of.Health.and.Human. Services.(DHHS).has.made.the.facts.available.relevant.to.occupational.injuries.and. .illnesses.. Every. five. seconds. a. worker. is. injured.. Every. ten. seconds. a. worker. is. temporarily.or.permanently.disabled..Each.day,.an.average.of.137.persons.die.from. work-related. diseases,. and. an. additional. 17. die. from. workplace. injuries. on. the. job.. Each.year,.about.70.youths.under.18.years.of.age.die.from.injuries.at.work.and.70,000. require.treatment.in.a.hospital.emergency.room..In.1996,.an.estimated.11,000.workers.. were. disabled. each. day. due. to. work-related. injuries.. That. same. year,. the. National. Safety.Council.estimated.that.on-the-job.injuries.cost.society.$121.billion,.including. lost. wages,. lost. productivity,. administrative. expenses,. health. care,. and. other. costs. (National.Safety.Council.Injury.Facts,.2010)..A study.published.in.July.1997.reports.that. the.1992.combined.U.S..economic..burden.for.occupational.illnesses.and.injuries.was. an.estimated.$171.billion.(U.S..Department.of.Commerce,.www.commerce.gov,.2001). A.number.of.data.systems.and.estimates.exist.to.describe.the.nature.and.magnitude.of.occupational.injuries.and.illnesses,.all.of.which.have.advantages.as.well.as. limitations..In.1996,.information.from.death.certificates.and.other.administrative. records.indicated.that.at.least.6,112.workers.died.from.work-related.injuries.(Bureau. of. Labor. Statistics,. www.bls.gov,. 2000).. No. reporting. system. for. national. occupational.chronic.disease.and.mortality.currently.exists.in.this.country..Therefore,. scientists.and.policymakers.must.rely.on.estimates.to.understand.the.magnitude.of. occupational.disease.generated.from.a.number.of.data.sources.and.published.epidemiologic.(or.population-based).studies..Estimates.generated.from.these.sources.are. generally.thought.to.underestimate.the.true.extent.of.occupational.disease,.but.the. scientific.community.recognizes.these.estimates.as.the.best.available.information.. Such. compilations. indicate. that. an. estimated. 50,000. to. 70,000. workers. die. each. 1

2

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

year. from. work-related. diseases.. A. further. discussion. on. occupational. disease. is. found.in.Chapter.23. Current.data.collection.systems.are.not.sufficient.to.monitor.disparities.in.healthrelated. occupational. injuries. and. illnesses.. Efforts. will. be. made. over. the. coming. decade.to.improve.surveillance.systems.and.data.points.that.may.allow.evaluation. of.health.disparities.for.work-related.illnesses,.injuries,.and.deaths..Data.from.the. National.Institute.for.Occupational.Safety.and.Health’s.(NIOSH).National.Traumatic. Occupational. Fatalities. Surveillance. System. (NTOF),. based. on. death. certificates. from.across.the.United.States,.demonstrate.a.general.decrease.in.occupational.mortality.over.the.15-year.period.from.1980.to.1994..However,.the.number.and.rates.of. fatal.injuries.from.1990.through.1994.remained.relatively.stable.(at.over.5,000 deaths. per. year. and. about. 4.4. deaths. per. 100,000. workers).. Motor. vehicle-related. fatalities.at.work,.the.leading.cause.of.death.for.U.S..workers.since.1980,.accounted.for. 23 percent.of.deaths.during.the.15-year.period..Workplace.homicides.became.the. second. leading. cause. of. death. in. 1990,. surpassing. machine-related. deaths.. While. the.rankings.of.individual.industry.divisions.have.varied.over.the.years,.the.largest.. number. of. deaths. is. consistently. found. in. construction,. transportation,. public. .utilities,. and. .manufacturing,. while. those. industries. with. the. highest. fatality. rates. per.100,000 workers.are.mining,.agriculture/forestry/fishing,.and.construction..Data. from.the.Bureau.of.Labor.Statistics.(BLS),.Department.of.Labor,.indicate.that,.for. nonfatal.injuries.and.illnesses,.incidence.rates.have.been.relatively.stable.since.1980.. The.rate.in.1980.was.8.7.per.100,000.workers.and.8.4.per.100,000.workers.in.1994.. Incidence. varied. between. a. low. of. 7.7. per. 100,000. workers. (1982). and. a. high. of. 8.9 per.100,000.workers.(1992).over.the.15-year.period.of.1980.to.1994. The.toll.of.workplace.injuries.and.illnesses.continues.to.harm.our.country..Six. million.workers.in.the.United.States.are.exposed.to.workplace.hazards.ranging.from. falls.from.elevations.to.exposures.to.lead..The.hazards.vary.depending.upon.the.type. of.industry.(e.g.,.manufacturing).and.the.types.of.work.being.performed.by.workers. (e.g.,.welding). The. consequences. of. occupational. accidents. or. incidents. have. resulted. in. pain. and.suffering,.equipment.damage,.exposure.of.the.public.to.hazards,.lost.production. capacity,.and.liability..Needless.to.say,.these.occupationally.related.accidents.or.incidents.have.a.direct.impact.on.profit,.which.is.commonly.called.the.“bottom.line.”

Why Injury PreventIon? There.are.very.real.advantages.for.those.trying.to.address.injury.prevention,.advantages.that.do.not.exist.when.trying.to.address.illnesses.prevention;.these.include •. Injuries.occur.in.real-time.with.no.latency.period.(an.immediate.sequence. of.events). •. Accident.or.incident.outcomes.are.readily.observable.(must.only.reconstruct. a.few.minutes.or.hours). •. Root.or.basic.causes.are.more.clearly.identified. •. It.is.easy.to.detect.cause-and-effect.relationships. •. Injuries.are.not.difficult.to.diagnose. •. Injuries.are.highly.preventable.

3

Introduction

Incidents

Accidents

FIgure 1.1

Incidents.

AccIdents or IncIdents Debate.over.use.of.the.term.“accidents”.versus.“incidents”.has.been.a.long.and.continuing.one..Although.these.terms.are.used.as.virtually.interchangeable.in.the.context.of.this.book,.you.should.be.aware.of.the.distinction.between.the.two..Accidents. are.usually.defined.as.unexpected,.unplanned,.and.uncontrollable.events.or.mishaps.. These.undesired.events.result.in.personal.injury,.or.property.damage,.or.equipment. failure,. or. some. combination. thereof.. An. incident. is. all. of. the. previous. as. well. as. adverse.production.effects..Accidents.are.a.subset.of.incidents.(see.Figure 1.1). This.definition.of.an.accident.undermines.the.basic.philosophy.of.this.book,.that. we.can.control.these.types.of.events.or.mishaps..This.is.why.we.spend.time.identifying.hazards.and.determining.risks.with.the.probability.that.a.hazard.will.result.in. an.accident.with.definable.consequences..Thus,.striving.for.a.safe.workplace,.where. the.associated.risks.are.judged.to.be.acceptable,.is.a.goal.of.safety..This.will.result.in. freedom.from.circumstances.that.can.cause.injury.or.death.to.workers,.and.damage. to.or.loss.of.equipment.or.property..This.is.essentially.a.definition.of.safety. The.approach.to.this.is.that.we.can.control.factors.that.are.the.causative.agents.of. accidents..We.can.prevent.accidents.by.using.the.tools.provided.within.these.pages.

AccIdent/IncIdent PreventIon Process An. accident/incident. prevention. process. is. as. simplistic. as. it. sounds.. Within. the. text.of.this.book.the.elements.are.provided.for.such.a.process..On.the.people.side. of.this.process,.employers.must.commit.themselves.and.all.facets.of.management.. The.leadership.for.this.process.comes.from.management..This.does.not.mean.that. the workforce.should.not.be.part.of.the.process..The.involvement.of.employees.must. be.incorporated.into.the.process.in.order.to.elicit.a.commitment.and.buy-in.to.the. prevention.effort..This.is.an.important.motivational.factor.for.employees. Another.major.area.is.the.identification,.ranking,.and.controlling.of.risk..This.part. of.the.process.is.paramount.when.faced.with.serious.hazards.that.can.be.catastrophic.

4

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

events..Analysis.of.events.and.hazards.using.such.tools.as.root.cause.analysis.helps. provide.the.solution.part.of.the.process..From.these.efforts,.standard.or.safe.operating.procedures.as.well.as.safe.performance.standards.can.be.developed.to.standardize.safe.production. Constant.evaluation.and.measurement.are.utilized.to.oversee.progress.regarding. prevention.so.that.improvement.and.updating.of.the.process.can.occur. Communication. is. critical. in. providing. feedback. to. all. involved. on. areas. that. have.improved.and.those.that.need.further.attention..Reinforcement.should.be.used. to.convey.what.has.been.working.effectively.to.prevent.incidents.and.implement.any. corrective. action. while. continuing. to. evaluate.. Update. and. improve. the. accident/ incident.prevention.process.

comPrehensIve AccIdent PreventIon Accident. prevention. is. very. complex. due. to. interactions. that. transpire. within. the. workplace.(see.Figure 1.2)..These.interactions.are.between . . . .

1.. Workers 2..Management 3..Equipment.and.machines 4..Environment

Workers

Management

Equipment/ Machines

Workplace

Accident/Incident (Worker Injury/Illness) (Equipment Damage)

Mishap

Work to be Completed

FIgure 1.2

Interactive.factors.in.accident.prevention.

Environment

Introduction

5

The.interaction.between.workers,.management,.equipment.and.machinery,.and. the. workplace. environment. separately. are. complex. enough. by. themselves.. More. complexity.transpires.when.they.are.blended.together.to.become.a.workplace..But. physical.environment.is.not.the.only.environment.impinging.on.the.accident.prevention.efforts.within.companies..The.social.environment.is.also.an.interactive.factor,. and.one.that.encompasses.our.lives.at.work.and.beyond..Government.entities.establish.rules.and.regulations.and.leave.their.mark.on.the.workplace..Other.entities.in. the. social. arena. provide. pressures. in. the. workplace,. such. as. unions,. family,. peer. pressure,.friends,.associates,.etc..This.extends.the.interactions.that.must.be.attended. to.in.order.to.successfully.prevent.accidents.

AccIdent PreventIon Prevention.of.occupationally.related.accidents/incidents.is.the.law..The.Occupational. Safety.and.Health.Act.of.1970.(OSHAct).requires.employers.to.provide.a.workplace. free.from.hazards.that.could.cause.serious.harm.or.death..Beyond.that,.it.makes.good. business.sense.to.prevent.accident/incidents..More.and.more.companies.have.come.to. realize.that.the.OSHAct.is.a.helpmate,.not.a.hindrance,.to.their.accident/incident.prevention.initiative..The.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration.(OSHA).sets.the. foundation.and.assumes.the.role.of.law.enforcer,.allowing.the.employer.to.not.be.viewed. as.the.bad.guy.to.his.or.her.employees..Employers.can.deflect.responsibility.to.OSHA. As.business.competition.has.increased,.loss.control.has.been.seen.as.a.logical.place. to.curtail.costs,.especially.direct.losses.from.equipment.damage,.medical.costs,.and. workers’.compensation.premiums..Prevention.of.accidents.results.in.real,.observable. savings..Safety.experts.approximate.the.hidden.cost.of.accidents.as.being.conservatively.five.to.ten.times.the.direct.cost.incurred..Hidden.costs.include.lost.production,. retraining,.and.supervisor’s.time.lost,.just.to.name.a.few.

AccIdent PreventIon BeneFIts You. can. expect. many. benefits. from. preventing. occupational. accidents/incidents.. Some.of.the.benefits.you.might.expect.are •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •.

Reduced.industrial.insurance.premium.costs Reduced.indirect.costs.of.accidents Fewer.compliance.inspections.and.penalties Avoidance.of.adverse.publicity.from.deaths.or.major.accidents Reduced.litigation.and.legal.settlements Lower.employee.payroll.deductions.for.industrial.insurance Reduced.pain.and.suffering.by.injured.workers Reduced.long-term.or.permanent.disability.cases Increased.potential.for.retrospective.rating.refunds Increased.acceptance.of.bids.(more.jobs) Improved.morale.and.loyalty.from.individual.workers Increased.productivity.from.workers Increased.pride.in.company.personnel

6

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

Although.this.not.an.all-inclusive.list,.it.certainly.provides.a.snapshot.of.why.you. should.undertake.a.loss.control.effort.for.occupationally.related.incidents.

PreventIng occuPAtIonAl AccIdents/IncIdents Throughout.the.years.since.the.advent.of.OSHA’s.regulatory.controls,.some.companies. have.been.more.successful.than.others.at.preventing.worker-related.accidents/incidents.. These.companies.have.placed.occupational.safety.and.health.on.an.equal.footing.with. production..They.have.developed.programs,.used.accident-prevention.techniques,.and. applied.the.principles.of.motivation.to.safety..In.doing.so,.they.often.have.devised. their.own.unique.approach,.specific.to.their.industry..One.example.of.this.is.Dupont’s. SAFE.program..The.successes.these.companies.have.experienced.have.made.them. the.shining.examples.of.how.safety.can.become.a.part.of.the.cultural.and.philosophical.approach.of.businesses. Each.industry.is.somewhat.different..What.works.well.for.one.company.may.not. duplicate.or.replicate.at.other.companies.without.tailoring.to.fit.the.unique.needs.of. the.latter..Uniqueness.is.often.used.as.an.excuse.to.not.take.action..Excuses.include,. “Our.industry.is.different,”.or.“It.won’t.work.in.our.industry.”.Generally,.these.are. seen.as.lame.excuses.and.a.way.of.saying.that.they.just.don’t.want.to.try.to.make. safety.a.priority..The.principles.of.preventing.accidents.are.applicable.to.any.industry. setting.if.one.desires.to.make.accident.prevention.an.integral.part.of.doing.business.

nothIng neW In PreventIon There.is.nothing.earthshakingly.new.in.the.accident/incident.prevention.arena..Basic. accident/incident. prevention. techniques. espoused. in. this. book. have. been. used. and. modified.over.decades..Few,.if.any,.dramatically.new.approaches.have.been.devised. using.more.modern.techniques..Thus,.accident.investigation.has.always.been.accident. investigation,.no.matter.the.words.used..However,.the.tools.and.processes.utilized.for. accident.prevention.have.experienced.modification.and.evolution.as.accident.prevention.has.become.an.integral.part.of.the.loss.control.initiatives.of.companies.

hoW much PreventIon? Workplaces.have.hazards.that.present.a.risk.of.injury.or.illness.from.the.dangers. that.exist..At.times,.the.hazards.cannot.be.removed.and.the.dangers.exist.and.can. result.in.an.accident..Risk.is.the.probability.of.an.accident.occurring..The.amount. of.risk.that.you.deem.acceptable.will.do.much.to.define.the.extent.of.your.injury. prevention. effort.. Risk. related. to. safety. and. health. is. often. a. judgment. call.. But,. even.a.judgment.call.can.be.quantified.if.you.develop.criteria.and.place.value.upon. them..Fine.(1973).has.provided.a.mathematical.model.for.conducting.a.risk.assessment.that.results.in.a.numerical.value.that.can.be.used.to.compare.potential.risks. from.accidents. Fine’s.first.component.is.a.risk.score.that.compiles.numerical.values.related.to. consequences,.exposure,.and.probabilities..To.calculate.a.risk.score,.extract.the..rating. values. from. the. Justification. Formula. Rating. Summary. Sheet. found. in. Table  1.1..

7

Introduction

tABle 1.1 justification Formula rating summary sheet Factor Consequences Most.probable.result.of. the.potential.accident:

classification Catastrophe;.numerous.fatalities;.damage.over.$1,000,000;. major disruption.of.activities Multiple.fatalities;.damage.$500,000.to.$1,000,000 Fatality,.damage.$100,000.to.$500,000 Extremely.serious.injury.(amputation,.permanent.disability);. damage.$1000.to.$100,000 Disabling.injury;.damage.up.to.$1000 Minor.cuts,.bruises,.bumps;.minor.damage

Exposure The.frequency.of. occurrence.of.the. hazard.event:

Hazard-event occurs: Continuously.(or.many.times.daily) Frequently.(approximately.once.daily) Occasionally.(from.once.per.week.to.once.per.month) Usually.(from.once.per.month.to.once.per.year) Rarely.(it.has.been.known.to.occur) Remotely.possible.(not.known.to.have.occurred)

Probability Likelihood.that. accident.sequence.will. follow.to.completion:

Complete accident sequence: Is.the.most.likely.and.expected.result.if.the.hazard-event.takes.place Is.quite.possible,.not.unusual,.has.an.even.50/50.chance Would.be.an.unusual.sequence.or.coincidence Would.be.a.remotely.possible.coincidence Has.never.happened.after.many.years.of.exposure,.but.is. conceivably.possible Practically.impossible.sequence.(has.never.happened)

Cost.Factor Estimated.dollar.cost.of. proposed.corrective. action:

Over.$50,000 $25,000.to.$50,000 $10,000.to.$25,000 $1,000.to.$10,000 $100.to.$1,000 $25.to.$100 Under.$25

Degree.of.Correction Degree.to.which.hazard. will.be.reduced:

Hazard.positively.eliminated,.100% Hazard.reduced.at.least.75% Hazard.reduced.50%.to.75% Hazard.reduced.by.25%.to.50% Slight.effect.on.hazard.(less.than.25%)

rating 100 50 25 15 5 1

10 6 3 2 1 0.5

10 6 3 1 0.5 0.1 10 6 4 3 2 1 0.5 1 2 3 4 6

8

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

The values.derived.are.placed.in.the.Risk.Score.Formula..Then.you.would.calculate. a.risk.score. .

Risk Score Formula = Consequences × Exposure × Probability

Once. you. have. a. risk. score,. you. should. compare. it. to. the. following. criteria. to. determine.the.need.for.action..If.the.score.is.between •. 18.and.85,.the.hazard.should.be.eliminated.without.delay,.but.the.situation. is.not.an.emergency. •. 90.and.200,.this.is.urgent.and.requires.attention.as.soon.as.possible. •. 270.and.1,500,.this.score.requires.immediate.corrective.action..All.activity. should.be.discontinued.until.the.hazard.is.removed.or.reduced. A.risk.score.will.not.necessarily.garner.support.for.the.removal.or.reduction.of.a. potential.hazard..The.questions.asked.are,.“How.much.will.it.cost?”.and.“How.much. hazard.reduction.will.be.derived.from.fixing.the.dangerous.situation?”.Fine.(1973). went. beyond. the. risk. score. and. developed. a. Justification. Formula.. The. formula. includes. factors. for. cost. and. the. degree. of. correction.. The. resulting. rating. .values. for. the. cost. and. degree. of. correction. factor. can. be. extracted. from. Table  1.1.. The. Justification.Formula.is.as.follows:

Justification Formula = .

Consequences × Exposure × Probability (Risk Score) Cost Factor × Degree of Correction

For.a.Critical.Justification.Rating.greater.than.10,.fixing.the.hazard.is.justified..For.a. score.of.less.than.10,.fixing.the.hazard.is.not.justified. Any.time.you.can.quantify.something,.you.have.a.better.chance.of.proving.your. point.or.gaining.acceptance.for.it..Most.managers.and.others.pay.more.attention.to. numbers.that.support.a.case.for.risk.reduction.than.to.rhetoric. Thus,.when.discussing.risks.related.to.occupational.safety.and.health,.being.able. to.determine.a.value.that.equates.to.the.degree.of.risk.gives.each.company.a.measure. for.deciding.how.much.risk.it.is.willing.to.assume..This.is.best.accomplished.using. a.quantitative.approach.as.discussed.previously.

rIsk control The.key.to.risk.control.is.to.prevent.exposure.of.those.who.could.be.at.risk..In.the. workplace. it. is. not. possible. to. have. no. exposure. if. anything. is. going. to. get. done.. It. is. important. to. limit. the. potential. exposure. or. amount. of. exposure.. The. basic. principles. of. protection. from. radiation. exposure. provide. the. foundation. for. risk. control.. The. three. elements. of. exposure. control. are. distance,. time,. and. shielding.. Distance.provides.the.best.mechanism.to.prevent.exposure..Distance.can.be.physical. distance.or.remote.distance.where.robotics.can.provide.the.distance.and.limit.the.

Introduction

9

exposure.. Time. is. an. exposure. limiter. and. a. mechanism. that. allows. employers. to. spread.exposure.over.several.workers..The.time.part.of.the.work.cycle.that.allows. for.minimal.risk.exposure.to.transpire.is.during.a.shift.when.fewer.employees.are. present.to.be.exposed..Often,.second.and.third.shifts.are.times.when.fewer..workers. are.present..Shielding.is.frequently.considered.the.least.acceptable.approach.to.risk. control..Barriers.or.personal.protective.equipment.should.be.the.risk.control.of.last. resort.. With. occupational. safety. and. health,. other. approaches. to. risk. control. are. often.employed. Many.ways.to.control.hazards.have.been.used.over.the.years.but.usually.these. can. be. broken. down. into. five. primary. approaches.. The. preferred. ways. to. do. this. are.through.engineering.controls,.awareness.devices,.predetermined.safe.work.practices,. and. administrative. controls.. When. these. controls. are. not. feasible. or. do. not. provide.sufficient.protection,.an.alternative.or.supplementary.method.of.protection. is.to.provide.workers.with.personal.protective.equipment.(PPE).and.the.know-how. to.use.it.properly.

EnginEEring Controls When.a.hazard.is.identified.in.the.workplace,.every.effort.should.be.made.to.eliminate. it.so.that.employees.are.not.harmed..Elimination.may.be.accomplished.by.designing. or.redesigning.a.piece.of.equipment.or.process..This.could.be.the.installation.of.a. guard.on.a.piece.of.machinery.that.prevents.workers.from.contacting.the.hazard..The. hazard.can.be.engineered.out.of.the.operation..Another.way.to.reduce.or.control.the. hazard.is.to.isolate.the.process,.such.as.in.the.manufacture.of.vinyl.chloride.used.to. make.such.items.as.plastic.milk.bottles,.where.the.entire.process.becomes.a.closed. circuit..This.will.result.in.no.one.being.exposed.to.vinyl.chloride.gas,.which.is.known. to.cause.cancer..Thus,.any.physical.controls.that.are.put.in.place.are.considered.the. best.approach.from.an.engineering.perspective..Keep.in.mind.that.you.are.a.consumer. of. products.. Thus,. at. times. you. can. leverage. the. manufacturer. to. implement. safeguards.or.safety.devices.on.products.that.you.are.looking.to.purchase..Let.your.vendor. do.the.engineering.for.you.or.do.not.purchase.their.product..This.may.not.always.be.a. viable.option..To.summarize.the.engineering.controls.that.can.be.used,.the.following. may.be.considered: •. •. •. •. •.

Substitution Elimination Ventilation Isolation Process.or.design.change

AwArEnEss DEviCEs Awareness.devices.are.linked.to.the.senses..They.are.warning.devices.that.can.be.heard. and.seen..They.act.as.alerts.to.workers.but.create.no.type.of.physical..barrier..They.are.

10

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

found.in.most.workplaces.and.carry.with.them.a.moderate.degree.of..effectiveness.. Such.devices.include •. Backup.alarms •. Warning.signals.both.audible.and.visual •. Warning.signs

work PrACtiCEs Work.practices.concern.the.ways.in.which.a.job.task.or.activity.is.done..This.may. mean.that.you.create.a.specific.procedure.for.completing.the.task.or.job..It.may.also. mean.that.you.implement.special.training.for.a.job.or.task..It.also.presupposes.that. you.might.require.inspection.of.the.equipment.or.machinery.prior.to.beginning.work. or.when.a.failure.has.occurred..An.inspection.should.be.done.prior.to.restarting.the. process.or.task..It.may.also.require.that.you.require.a.lockout/tagout.procedure.be. used.to.create.a.zero.potential.energy.release.

ADministrAtivE Controls A.second.approach.is.to.control.the.hazard.through.administrative.directives..This. may.be.accomplished.by.rotating.workers,.which.allows.you.to.limit.their.exposure,.or. .having.workers.only.work.in.areas.when.no.hazards.exist.during.that.part.of.their.shift.. This. applies. particularly. to. chemical. exposures. and. repetitive. activities. that. could. result.in.ergonomically.related.incidents..Examples.of.administrative.controls.are •. Requiring.specific.training.and.education •. Scheduling.off-shift.work •. Worker.rotation Management. controls. are. needed. to. express. the. company’s. view. of. hazards. and.their.response.to.hazards.that.have.been.detected..The.entire.program.must.be. directed.and.supported.through.the.management.controls..If.management.does.not. have.a.systematic.and.set.procedure.for.addressing.the.control.of.hazards.in.place,. the.reporting/identifying.of.hazards.is.a.waste.of.time.and.dollars..This.goes.back. to.the.policies.and.directives.and.the.holding.of.those.responsible.accountable.by. providing.them.with.the.resources.(budget).for.correcting.and.controlling.hazards.. Some.aspects.of.management.controls.include •. •. •. •. •. •.

Policies Directives Responsibilities.(line.and.staff) Vigor.and.example Accountability Budget

The.attempt.to.identify.worksite.hazards.and.address.them.should.be.an.integral. part. of. your. management. approach.. If. the. hazards. are. not. addressed. in. a. timely.

Introduction

11

fashion,.they.will.not.be.identified.or.reported..If.dollars.become.the.main.reason.for. not.fixing.or.controlling.hazards,.you.will.lose.the.motivation.of.your.workforce.to. identify.or.report.them.

PErsonAl ProtECtivE EquiPmEnt Personal.Protective.Equipment.(PPE).includes.a.variety.of.devices.and.garments.to. protect.workers.from.injuries..You.can.find.PPE.designed.to.protect.the.eyes,.face,. head,.ears,.feet,.hands.and.arms,.and.the.whole.body..PPE.includes.such.items.as. goggles,.face.shields,.safety.glasses,.hard.hats,.safety.shoes,.gloves,.vests,.earplugs,. earmuffs,.and.suits.for.full-body.protection. When.employees.must.be.present.and.engineering.or.administrative.controls.are. not.feasible,.it.will.be.essential.to.use.PPE.as.an.interim.control.and.not.a.final.solution..For.example,.safety.glasses.may.be.required.in.the.work.area..Too.often,.PPE. usage.is.considered.the.last.thing.to.do.in.the.scheme.of.hazard.control..PPE.can. provide.added.protection.to.the.employee.even.when.the.hazard.is.being.controlled. by.other.means..However,.there.are.drawbacks.to.the.use.of.PPE,.including •. •. •. •. •.

Hazard.still.looms Protection.dependent.on.worker.using.PPE PPE.may.interfere.with.performing.task.and.productivity Requires.supervision Is.an.ongoing.expense

Personal.protective.equipment.includes.the.following: •. •. •. •. •. •. •.

Eye.and.face.protection.(29.CFR.1910.133) Respiratory.protection.(29.CFR.1910.134) Head.protection.(29.CFR.1910.135) Foot.and.leg.protection.(29.CFR.1910.136) Electrical.protective.equipment.(29.CFR.1910.137) Hand.protection.(29.CFR.1910.138) Respiratory.protection.from.tuberculosis.(29.CFR.1910.139)

rAnking HAzArD Controls In.determining.which.hazard.control.procedures.have.the.best.chance.of.being.effective,.it.is.useful.to.have.some.sort.of.a.ranking.of.them.along.a.continuum..The.five. hazard.controls.that.were.espoused.in.the.earlier.part.of.this.chapter.are.ranked.in. Figure 1.3..This.should.assist.you.in.determining.which.control,.if.you.have.a.choice. of.more.than.one,.would.be.most.effective.for.your.purposes..The.ranking.goes.from. most.effective.to.least.effective.

structurIng AccIdent/IncIdent PreventIon Structuring.should.begin.with.a.written.safety.and.health.program..There.is.a.need. to. assess. your. accident/incident. history. and. develop. a. good. accident. and. injury.

12

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques MOST      

 

 

Elimination  or  Substitution  

EFFECTIVE  

·∙Change  the  process  to  eliminate  

 

           human  interaction  

 

·∙Elimination  of  pinch  points  

 

         (increase  clearance)  

 

·∙Automated  material  handling  

 

Engineering  Controls  (Safeguarding  

 

   Technology)  

 

·∙Mechanical  hard  stops  

 

·∙Barriers  

 

·∙Interlocks  

 

·∙Presence  sensing  devices  

MORE  

·∙Two-­‐hand  controls  

EFFECTIVE  

Awareness  Means  

 

·∙Lights,  beacons,  and  strobes  

 

·∙Computer  warnings  

 

·∙Signs  

 

·∙Painted  markings  on  floors,  etc.  

 

     for  restrictive  areas  or  envelopes  

 

·∙Beepers  

 

·∙Alarms  

 

·∙Horns  

 

·∙Public  address  systems  

 

·∙Labels  

FIgure 1.3

Ranking.the.effectiveness.of.hazard.controls.

13

Introduction   LESSER   EFFECTIVE  

Training  and  Procedures    

(Administrative  Controls)  

 

·∙Training  

 

·∙Job  rotation  

 

·∙Off-­‐shift  scheduling  of  work  

 

·∙Safe  job  procedures  

 

·∙Safety  equipment  inspections/audits  

 

·∙Lockout/tagout  

  LEAST  

Personal  Protective  Equipment  

EFFECTIVE  

·∙Safety  eyewear  (face  shield,  etc)  

 

·∙Hearing  protection  (ear  plugs  or  muffs)  

 

·∙Fireproof  clothing  

 

·∙Gloves  

 

·∙Safety  shoes  

 

·∙Respirators  

 

·∙Whole  body  protection  (Tyveks,  etc.)  

FIgure 1.3 (continued)

14

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

reporting.and.investigation.procedure..Once.you.have.sufficient.data.to.identify.your. hazards,. determine. the. potential. interventions. that. will. prevent. the. occurrence. of. injuries..The.interventions,.chosen.for.implementation,.are.the.accident.prevention. processes. and. techniques. you. feel. will. help. prevent. mishaps.. These. interventions. become.a.part.of.your.accident.prevention.program..They.may.be.processes.or.applications.of.accident.prevention.techniques.such.as.job.safety.observations.or.actual. physical. changes. (engineering). to. equipment. or. facilities.. Your. safety. and. health. program. should. culminate. with. follow-up. evaluation. procedures. to. determine. the. effectiveness.of.your.loss.control.program.

knoW WIth Whom you Are deAlIng You. must. understand. the. culture. of. the. work. environment. before. you. can. intelligently.implement.any.type.of.program.aimed.at.the.workforce..You.need.to.know.and. understand.the.values,.attitudes,.and.perceptions.held.by.the.workforce.relevant.to. job.safety.and.health..This.will.afford.the.opportunity.to.place.into.action.a.motivational.plan.relevant.to.preventing.accidents.and.incidents.in.your.unique.workplace.

determInIng the cAuse oF AccIdents The. causes. of. the. specific. types. of. accidents/incidents. that. have. occurred. within. your.workplace.must.be.assessed..The.approach.you.wish.to.use.in.the.assessment. and.analysis.process.depends.greatly.on.your.familiarity.with.and.the.types.of.occurrences.that.have.transpired.in.your.workplace..Analyses.covered.in.this.book.are.root. cause,.causal.factor,.change,.and.barrier.analysis. This.is.not.a.finite.listing,.as.other,.more.complex.approaches.such.as.Management. Oversight.and.Risk.Tree.Analysis.(MORT),.failure.mode.and.effect.analysis,.and.the. aspects.of.system.safety.engineering.are.not.covered.within.the.scope.of.this.book.. These.approaches.can.be.found.in.many.other.books.and.articles.

AccIdent PreventIon technIques Accident. prevention. techniques,. such. as. job. hazard. analysis,. safe. operating. procedures,.and.job.safety.observations,.have.their.application.to.specific.jobs.within. the. workplace.. In. general,. they. aim. to. address. and. identify. existing. or. potential. work-related. hazards.. These. types. of. accident. prevention. techniques. are. emphasized.in.this.book..Most.books.addressing.accident.prevention.techniques.usually. emphasize.specific.job.hazards.and.their.prevention,.such.as.fire.safety.and.machine. .guarding..This.particular.book.places.only.minor.emphasis.on.specific.job.hazards.

reFerences Fine,. W.. Mathematical. evaluations. for. controlling. hazards,. in. J.. Widner,. (Ed.).. Selected Readings in safety..Macon,.GA:.Academy.Press,.1973. Petersen,.D..Techniques of safety management: A systems approach (3rd.ed.)..Goshen,.NY:. Aloray.Inc.,.1989.

Introduction

15

Reese,.C..D..and.J..V..Eidson..Handbook of OSHA construction safety & health..Boca.Raton,. FL:.CRC.Press/Lewis.Publishers,.1999. United.States.Department.of.Labor,.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration,.Office.of. Training.and.Education..OSHA.Voluntary.Compliance.Outreach.Program:.Instructors. Reference.Manual..Des.Plaines,.IL:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.1993. United. States. Department. of. Labor,. National. Mine. Health. and. Safety.Academy..Accident. Prevention.Techniques..Beckley,.WV:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.1984. United. States. Department. of. Labor,. Mine. Safety. and. Health. Administration.. Accident. Prevention,.Safety.Manual.No..4,.Beckley,.WV:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.revised.1990.

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2

Safety and Health Programs

IntroductIon The.need.for.safety.and.health.programs.in.the.workplace.has.been.an.area.of.controversy.for.some.time..Many.companies.feel.that.written.safety.and.health.programs. are.just.more.paperwork,.a.deterrent.to.productivity,.and.nothing.more.than.another. bureaucratic.way.of.mandating.safety.and.health.on.the.job..But.over.a.period.of. years,.data.and.information.have.been.mounting.in.support.of.the.need.to.develop. and.implement.written.safety.and.health.programs. To.effectively.manage.safety.and.health,.a.company.must.pay.attention.to.some. critical. factors.. These. factors. are. the. essence. in. managing. safety. and. health. on. worksites..The.questions.that.need.to.be.answered.regarding.managing.safety.and. health.are •. What.is.the.policy.of.management.regarding.safety.and.health.at.the.company’s.workplace? •. What.are.the.safety.and.health.goals.for.the.company? •. Who.is.responsible.for.occupational.safety.and.health? •. How. are. supervisors. and. employees. held. accountable. for. job. safety. and. health? •. What.are.the.safety.and.health.rules.for.this.type.of.industry? •. What.are.the.consequences.of.not.following.the.safety.rules? •. Are.there.set.procedures.for.addressing.safety.and.health.at.the.worksite? A.written.safety.and.health.program.is.of.primary.importance.in.addressing.these. items..Have.you.ever.wondered.how.your.company.is.doing.in.comparison.with.a. company. without. a. safety. and. health. professional. and. a. viable. safety. and. health. program?.Well,.wonder.no.more…. In. research. conducted. by. the. Lincoln. Nebraska. Safety. Council. in. 1981,. the. .following.conclusions.were.based.on.a.comparison.of.responses.from.a.survey.of. 143.national.companies.(see.Table.2.1)..All.conclusions.have.a.95.percent.confidence. level.or.more..Table 2.1.is.an.abstraction.of.conclusions.from.this.study. It.seems.apparent.from.the.previous.research.that.in.order.to.have.an.effective. safety.program,.at.a.minimum,.an.employer.must •. Have.a.demonstrated.commitment.to.job.safety.and.health •. Commit.budgetary.resources 17

18

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 2.1 effectiveness of safety and health Programs Findings Fact 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

•. •. •. •. •. •.

statement

Findings

Do.not.have.separate.budget.for.safety. No.training.for.new.hires. No.outside.sources.for.safety.training. No.specific.training.for.supervisors. Do.not.conduct.safety.inspections. No.written.safety.program.compared.with.companies.that.have.written. programs. Those.using.canned.programs.not.self-generated. No.written.safety.program. No.employee.safety.committees. No.membership.in.professional.safety.organizations. No.established.system.to.recognize.safety.accomplishments. Did.not.document/review.accident.reports,.and.reviewers.did.not.have. safety.as.part.of.their.job.responsibility. Did.not.hold.supervisor.accountable.for.safety.through.merit.salary. reviews. Top.management.did.not.actively.promote.safety.awareness.

43%.more.accidents 52%.more.accidents 59%.more.accidents 62%.more.accidents 40%.more.accidents 106%.more.accidents 43%.more.accidents 130%.more.accidents 74%.more.accidents 64%.more.accidents 81%.more.accidents 122%.more.accidents 39%.more.accidents 470%.more.accidents

Train.new.personnel Ensure.that.supervisors.are.trained Have.a.written.safety.and.health.program Hold.supervisors.accountable.for.safety.and.health Respond.to.safety.complaints.and.investigate.accidents Conduct.safety.audits

Other.refinements.can.always.be.part.of.the.safety.and.health.program,.which.will. help.in.reducing.workplace.injuries.and.illnesses..They.include.more.worker.involvement.(e.g.,.joint.labor/management.committees),.incentive.or.recognition.programs,. getting.outside.help.from.a.consultant.or.safety.association,.and.setting.safety.and. health.goals. A.decrease.in.occupational.incidents.that.result.in.injury,.illness,.or.damage.to.property.is.enough.reason.to.develop.and.implement.a.written.safety.and.health.program.

reAsons For A comPrehensIve sAFety ProgrAm The.three.major.considerations.involved.in.the.development.of.a.safety.program.are .

1.. Humanitarian: •. Safe.operation.of.workplaces.is.a.moral.obligation.imposed.by.modern. society..This.obligation.includes.consideration.for.loss.of.life,.human. pain.and.suffering,.family.suffering.and.hardships,.etc.

Safety and Health Programs

.

.

19

2..Legal.obligation: •. Federal.and.state.governments.have.laws.charging.the.employer.with. the. responsibility. for. safe. working. conditions. and. adequate. supervision. of. work. practices.. Employers. are. also. responsible. for. paying. the.costs.incurred.for.injuries.suffered.by.their.employees.during.their. work.activities. 3..Economic: •. Prevention. costs. less. than. accidents.. This. fact. has. been. proven. consistently.by.the.experience.of.thousands.of.industrial.operations..The. direct.cost.is.represented.by.medical.care,.compensation,.etc..The.indirect.cost.of.four.to.ten.times.the.direct.cost.must.be.calculated,.as.well. as.the.loss.of.wages.to.employees.and.the.reflection.of.these.losses.on. the.entire.community.

All.three.of.these.are.good.reasons.to.have.a.health.and.safety.program..It.is.also. important.that.these.programs.be.formalized.in.writing,.as.a.written.program.sets. the.foundation.and.provides.a.consistent.approach.to.occupational.health.and.safety. for.the.company..There.are.other.logical.reasons.for.a.written.safety.and.health.program..Some.of.them.are •. It. provides. standard. directions,. policies,. and. procedures. for. all. company.personnel. •. It.states.specifics.regarding.safety.and.health.and.clarifies.misconceptions. •. It.delineates.the.goals.and.objectives.regarding.workplace.safety.and.health. •. It.forces.the.company.to.actually.define.its.view.of.safety.and.health. •. It.sets.out.in.black.and.white.the.rules.and.procedures.for.safety.and.health. that.everyone.in.the.company.must.follow. •. It.is.a.plan.that.shows.how.all.aspects.of.the.company’s.safety.and.health. initiative.work.together. •. It.is.a.primary.tool.of.communications.of.the.standards.set.by.the.company. regarding.safety.and.health.

sAFety And heAlth mAnAgement Process The.old.adage.that.says.that.failure.to.plan.is.planning.to.fail.is.very.appropriate. when.discussing.the.need.to.have.a.safety.and.health.management.process.in.place. for. each. workplace.. The. term. “process”. infers. action,. meaning. to. implement. and. organize.an.approach..Such.an.approach.must.set.forth.a.roadmap.to.follow,.as.well. as.the.rules.of.the.road.that.must.be.followed.in.order.to.attain.a.safe.and.healthy. work.environment..This.organized.approach.to.occupational.safety.and.health.must. contain. all. the. components. to. accomplish. a. process. that. will. facilitate. safety. and. health.at.the.workplace..The.process.will.include •. The.management.component •. A.commitment.of.a.personal.nature.as.well.as.resources •. The.policies.and.procedures.to.be.implemented

20

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

•. The.technical.issues.that.relate.to.prevention.of.accidents/incidents,.commonly.called.hazard.recognition.and.control •. Communication. of. the. features. of. the. process. so. all. will. be. aware. of. expectations •. Assuring.the.development.of.a.workforce.that.buys.in.to.the.process,.partially.accomplished.by.effective.training •. Actually.evaluating.the.process.to.determine.effectiveness •. Provide.feedback.to.allow.for.change.and.reinforcement.for.what.is.working •. The. beginning. and. revision. of. the. components. of. process. must. start. the. process.again.with.a.rebirth.of.the.process The.need.to.have.such.an.organized.approach.to.occupational.safety.and.health.as.an. integral.element.in.the.development.of.a.safety.and.health.initiative.and.program.is. paramount.to.a.working.safety.and.health.management.approach.for.each.company. and.workplace.

BuIldIng A sAFety And heAlth ProgrAm The. length. of. such. a. written. plan. is. not. as. important. as. the. content.. It. should. be. .tailored.to.the.company’s.needs.and.the.health.and.safety.of.its.workforce..It.could.be. a.few.pages.or.a.multiple.page.document..However,.it.is.suggested.that.you.adhere.as. much.as.possible.to.the.KISS.principle.(Keep.It.Simple.Stupid)..To.ensure.a.successful.safety.program,.three.conditions.must.exist:.(1).management.leadership,.(2).safe. working.conditions,.and.(3).safe.work.habits.by.all.employees..The.employers.must •. Let.the.employees.know.that.the.employer.is.interested.in.safety.on.the.job. by.consistently.enforcing.and.reinforcing.safety.regulations. •. Provide.a.safe.working.place.for.all.employees;.it.pays.dividends. •. Be.familiar.with.federal.and.state.laws.applying.to.your.operation. •. Investigate. and. report. all. OSHA. recordable. accidents. and. injuries.. This. information.may.be.useful.in.determining.areas.where.more.work.is.needed. to.prevent.such.accidents.in.the.future. •. Make. training. and. information. available. to. the. employees,. especially. in. such.areas.as.first.aid,.equipment.operation,.and.common.safety.policies. •. Develop.a.prescribed.set.of.safety.rules.to.follow,.and.see.that.all.employees. are.aware.of.the.rules. The.basic.premise.of.this.book.is.that.all.employers.should.establish.a.workplace. safety.and.health.program.to.assist.them.in.compliance.with.OSHA.standards.and.the. General.Duty.Clause.of.the.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Act.of.1970.(OSHAct). (Section.5(a)(1))..Each.employer.should.set.up.a.safety.and.health.program.to.manage.workplace.safety.and.health.to.reduce.injuries,.illnesses,.and.fatalities.through. a.systematic.approach.to.safety.and.health..The.program.should.be.appropriate.to. conditions.in.the.workplace,.such.as.the.hazards.to.which.employees.are.exposed.and. the.number.of.employees.there..The.primary.guidelines.for.employers.to.develop.an. organized.safety.and.health.program.are

Safety and Health Programs

21

•. Employers. are. advised. and. encouraged. to. institute. and. maintain. in. their. establishments. a. program. that. provides. systematic. policies,. procedures,. and. practices. that. are. adequate. to. recognize. and. protect. their. employees. from.occupational.safety.and.health.hazards. •. An. effective. program. includes. provisions. for. the. systematic. identification,.evaluation,.and.prevention.or.control.of.general.workplace.hazards,. specific.job.hazards,.and.potential.hazards.that.may.arise.from.foreseeable.conditions. •. Although. compliance. with. the. law,. including. specific. OSHA. standards,. is.an.important.objective,.an.effective.program.looks.beyond.the.specific. requirements. of. law. to. address. all. hazards.. This. effectively. will. seek. to. prevent.injuries.and.illnesses,.whether.or.not.compliance.is.at.issue. •. The.extent.to.which.the.program.is.described.in.writing.is.less.important. than.how.effective.it.is.in.practice..As.the.size.of.a.worksite.or.the.complexity.of.a.hazardous.operation.increases,.however,.the.need.for.written.guidance. increases. to. ensure. clear. communications. of. policies. and. priorities. and.consistent.and.fair.application.of.rules. The.primary.elements.that.should.be.addressed.within.this.program.are.management.leadership.and.employee.participation,.hazard.identification.and.assessment,.hazard.prevention.and.control,.information.and.training,.and.evaluation.of. program.effectiveness.

mAnAgEmEnt CommitmEnt AnD EmPloyEE involvEmEnt Management.commitment.and.employee.involvement.are.complementary..Management. commitment. provides. the. motivating. force. and. the. resources. for. organizing. and.controlling.activities.within.an.organization..In.an.effective.program,.management.regards.workers’.safety.and.health.as.a.fundamental.value.of.the.organization. and.applies.its.commitment.to.safety.and.health.protection.with.as.much.vigor.as.to. other.organizational.purposes..Employee.involvement.provides.the.means.through. which. workers. develop. and. express. their. own. commitment. to. safety. and. health. .protection,.for.themselves.and.for.their.fellow.workers. Management.must.state.clearly.a.worksite.policy.on.safe.and.healthful.work.and. working.conditions,.so.that.all.personnel.with.responsibility.at.the.site,.and.personnel.at.other.locations.with.responsibility.for.the.site,.understand.the.priority.of.safety. and.health.protection.in.relation.to.other.organizational.values. Management.must.establish.and.communicate.a.clear.goal.for.the.safety.and.health. program.and.objectives.for.meeting.that.goal,.so.that.all.members.of.the.organization. understand.the.results.desired.and.the.measures.planned.for.achieving.them. There.must.be.visible.top.management.involvement.in.implementing.the.program,. in.order.to.make.it.known.that.management’s.commitment.is.serious..In.turn,.employees.must.be.encouraged.to.be.involved.in.the.structure.and.operation.of.the.program. and.in.decisions.that.affect.their.safety.and.health;.their.commitment,.insight,.and. energy.will.help.achieve.the.safety.and.health.program’s.goal.and.objectives.

22

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

Management. should. assign. and. communicate. responsibility. for. all. aspects. of. the. program..Managers,.supervisors,.and.employees.in.all.parts.of.the.organization.must. know.what.performance.is.expected.of.them..Adequate.authority.and.resources.must.be. provided.to.responsible.parties.so.that.assigned.responsibilities.can.be.met..Managers,. supervisors,.and.employees.must.be.held.accountable.for.meeting.their.responsibilities. to.assure.that.essential.tasks.are.performed..It.is.essential.that.managers.understand.their. safety.and.health.responsibilities,.as.described..Having.a.clear.understanding.will.provide.managers.with.vision.and.direction.to.effectively.carry.out.those.responsibilities. By. reviewing. program. operations. at. least. annually,. management. can. evaluate.their.success.in.meeting.the.goal.and.objectives..Deficiencies.can.be.identified. within.the.program.and.objectives.can.be.revised,.once.again.targeting.the.goal.of. effective.safety.and.health.protection. Management.commitment.and.leadership.design.and.develop.the.policy.statement.. It.should.be.signed.by.the.top.person.in.your.company..Safety.and.health.goals.and. objectives.are.also.included.to.assist.you.with.establishing.workplace.goals.and.objectives.that.demonstrate.your.company’s.commitment.to.safety..An.enforcement.policy. is.provided.to.outline.disciplinary.procedures.for.violations.of.your.company’s.safety. and.health.program..This.enforcement.policy.should.be.communicated.to.everyone. in.the.company. Establish.the.program.responsibilities.of.managers,.supervisors,.and.employees.for. safety.and.health.in.the.workplace.and.hold.them.accountable.for.carrying.out.those. responsibilities.. Provide. managers,. supervisors,. and. employees. with. the. authority,. access. to. relevant. information,. training,. and. resources. they. need. to. carry. out. their. safety.and.health.responsibilities..Identify.at.least.one.manager,..supervisor,.or.employee. to.receive.and.respond.to.reports.about.workplace.safety.and.health..conditions..Where. appropriate,.he.or.she.should.initiate.corrective.action. The.safety.and.health.program.should.contain.the.following.to.demonstrate.management.commitment.and.leadership: •. Policy.statement.with.written.goals.is.established,.issued,.and.communicated.to.employees. •. Program.is.revised.annually. •. Participation.in.safety.meetings,.inspections;.agenda.item.in.meetings. •. Commitment.of.resources.is.adequate. •. Safety.rules.and.procedures.are.incorporated.into.jobsite.operations. •. Management.observes.safety.rules. Assignment.of.responsibility.identifies.the.responsibilities.of.management.officials,.supervisors,.and.employees..Emphasis.on.responsibility.to.safety.and.health.is. more.credible.if.everyone.is.held.accountable.for.their.safety.and.health.performance. as.related.to.established.safety.and.health.goals..The.assignment.of.responsibility. should.include.the.following.aspects: •. Safety.designee.is.on-site,.knowledgeable,.and.accountable. •. Supervisors’. (including. foremen). safety. and. health. responsibilities. are. understood. •. Employees.are.aware.of.and.adhere.to.safety.rules.

Safety and Health Programs

23

The. employer. must. provide. employees. with. opportunities. for. participation. in. establishing,.implementing,.and.evaluating.the.program..The.employer.must.regularly.communicate.with.employees.about.workplace.safety.and.health.matters..She. or.he.should.provide.employees.with.access.to.information.relevant.to.the.program.. In. turn,. there. should. be. established. processes. for. employees. to. become. involved. in. hazard. identification. and. assessment,. prioritizing. hazards,. training,. and. program. evaluation.. Ways. should. be. established. for. employees. to. promptly. report. job-related.fatalities,.injuries,.illnesses,.incidents,.and.hazards..There.should.also.be. an.easy-to-use.system.to.make.recommendations.about.appropriate.means.to.control. these.hazards—then.promptly.respond.to.such.reports.and.recommendations. Do.not.discourage.employees.from.making.reports.and.recommendations.about. fatalities,.injuries,.illnesses,.incidents,.or.hazards.in.the.workplace,.or.from.otherwise.participating.in.the.workplace.safety.and.health.program.

HAzArD iDEntifiCAtion AnD AssEssmEnt The.employer.must.systematically.identify.and.assess.hazards.to.which.employees. are.exposed.and.assess.compliance.with.the.General.Duty.Clause.and.OSHA.standards..The.employer.must.conduct.inspections.of.the.workplace;.review.safety.and. health.information;.evaluate.new.equipment,.materials,.and.processes.for.hazards. before.they.are.introduced.into.the.workplace;.and.assess.the.severity.of.identified. hazards.and.rank.those.hazards.that.cannot.be.corrected.immediately.according.to. their.severity. Identification.of.hazards.includes.those.items.that.can.assist.you.in.identifying. workplace.hazards.and.determining.what.corrective.action.is.necessary.to.control. them..Actions.include.worksite.safety.inspections,.accident.investigations,.meetings. of. safety. and. health. committees,. and. project. safety. meetings.. To. accomplish. the. identification.of.hazards,.the.following.should.be.reviewed: •. Periodic.site.safety.inspections.involve.supervisors •. Preventive.controls.in.place.(personal.protective.equipment.(PPE),.maintenance,.engineering.controls) •. Action.taken.to.address.hazards •. Establish.safety.committee,.where.appropriate •. Document.technical.references.available •. Enforcement.procedures.implemented.by.management The. employer. must. carry. out. an. initial. assessment. and. then. reassess. as. often. thereafter.as.necessary.to.ensure.compliance..Reassessment.should.be.done.at.least. every.two.years..When.safety.and.health.information.or.a.change.in.workplace.conditions.indicates.that.a.new.or.increased.hazard.may.be.present,.the.employer.should. also. conduct. a. reassessment.. The. employer. should. investigate. each. work-related. death,.serious.injury.or.illness,.or.incident.(near-miss).having.the.potential.to.cause. death.or.serious.physical.harm..The.employer.should.keep.records.of.the.hazards. identified,.their.assessment,.and.the.actions.the.employer.has.taken,.or.plans.to.take,.

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

to.control.those.hazards..These.will.be.positives.if.OSHA.ever.has.to.inspect.the. workplace..It shows.a.good-faith.effort.and.commitment.to.safety.and.health. Worksite.analysis.involves.a.variety.of.worksite.examinations.to.identify.not.only. existing.hazards,.but.also.conditions.and.operations.where.changes.might.occur.and. create.hazards..Being.unaware.of.a.hazard,.which.stems.from.failure.to.examine.the. worksite,.is.a.sure.sign.that.safety.and.health.policies.or.practices.are.inadequate.. Effective.management.actively.analyzes.the.work.and.worksite.to.anticipate.and.prevent.harmful.occurrences..Worksite.analysis.is.intended.to.ensure.that.all.hazards. are.identified..This.can.be.accomplished.by •. Conducting.comprehensive.baseline.worksite.surveys.for.safety.and.health. and.periodically.doing.a.comprehensive.updated.survey •. Analyzing.planned.and.new.facilities,.processes,.materials,.and.equipment •. Performing.routine.job.hazard.analyses Providing.for.regular.site.safety.and.health.inspection,.so.that.new.or.previously. missed.hazards.and.failures.in.hazard.controls.are.identified,.is.critical.to.worksite. analysis.. Employee. insight. and. experience. in. safety. and. health. protection. should. also.be.utilized,.where.employee.concerns.may.be.addressed..A.reliable.system.for. employees.is.to.be.provided.and.encouraged,.without.fear.of.reprisal,.to.notify.management.personnel.about.conditions.that.appear.hazardous.and.to.receive.timely.and. appropriate.responses. All. accidents. and. “near-miss”. incidents. should. be. investigated. to. determine. causes,. and. means. for. their. prevention. identified.. Analysis. of. injury. and. illness. trends.over.time.should.be.undertaken.so.that.patterns.with.common.causes.can.be. identified.and.prevented.

HAzArD PrEvEntion AnD Control The.requirements.of.the.General.Duty.Clause.and.OSHA.standards.must.be.met..If it. is.not.possible.for.the.employer.to.comply.immediately,.the.employer.must.develop. a. plan. for. coming. into. compliance. as. promptly. as. possible;. this. includes. setting. priorities. and. deadlines. and. tracking. progress. in. controlling. hazards.. Note:. Any. hazard.identified.by.the.employer’s.hazard.identification.and.assessment.process.that. is.covered.by.an.OSHA.standard.or.the.General.Duty.Clause.must.be.controlled,. as.required.by.that.standard.or.that.clause,.as.appropriate..Control.means.to.reduce. exposure. to. hazards. in. accordance. with. the. General. Duty. Clause. or. OSHA. standards,.including.providing.appropriate.supplemental.or.interim.protection,.as.necessary,.to.exposed.employees..Prevention.and.elimination.are.the.best.forms.of.control. Hazard.prevention.and.controls.are.triggered.by.a.determination.that.a.hazard.or. potential.hazard.exists..Where.feasible,.hazards.are.prevented.by.effective.design.of. the.jobsite.or.job..Where.it.is.not.feasible.to.eliminate.them,.they.are.controlled.to. prevent.unsafe.and.unhealthful.exposure..Elimination.of.controls.should.be.accomplished.in.a.timely.manner.once.a.hazard.or.potential.hazard.is.recognized.

Safety and Health Programs

25

So. that. all. current. and. potential. hazards,. however. detected,. are. corrected. or. controlled.in.a.timely.manner,.procedures.must.be.established.using.the.following. measures: •. Engineering.techniques.where.feasible.and.appropriate •. Procedures.for.safe.work.that.are.understood.and.followed.by.all.affected. parties,.as.a.result.of.training,.positive.reinforcement,.correction.of.unsafe. performance,.and,.if.necessary,.enforcement.through.a.clearly.communicated.disciplinary.system •. Provision.of.personal.protective.equipment •. Administrative.controls,.such.as.reducing.the.duration.of.exposure Facility.and.equipment.maintenance.should.be.provided.so.that.hazardous.breakdown.is.prevented..Plan.and.prepare.for.emergencies.and.conduct.training.and.drills. as.needed.so.that.the.response.of.all.parties.to.emergencies.becomes.“.second nature.”. Establish. a. medical. program. that. includes. first. aid. available. on-site,. with. physician.and.emergency.medical.care.nearby,.to.minimize.harm.if.any.injury.or.illness. does occur.

informAtion AnD trAining The.employer.must.ensure.that.each.employee.is.provided.information.and.training. in.the.safety.and.health.program..Each.employee.exposed.to.a.hazard.must.be.provided.information.and.training.in.that.hazard..Note:.Some.OSHA.standards.impose. additional,.more.specific.requirements.for.information.and.training..This.rule.does. not.displace.those.requirements. Safety.and.health.information.means.the.establishment’s.fatality,.injury,.and.illness.history;.OSHA.200.logs;.workers’.compensation.claims;.nurses’.logs;.the.results. of. any. medical. screening. or. surveillance;. employee. safety. and. health. complaints. and. reports;. environmental. and. biological. exposure. data;. information. from. prior. workplace.safety.and.health.inspections;.materials.safety.data.sheets.(MSDSs);.the. results.of.employee.symptom.surveys;.safety.manuals.and.health.and.safety.warnings.provided.to.the.employer.by.equipment.manufacturers.and.chemical.suppliers;. information.about.occupational.safety.and.health.provided.to.the.employer.by.trade. associations.or.professional.safety.or.health.organizations;.and.the.results.of.prior. accident.and.incident.investigations.at.the.workplace. The. employer. must. provide. general. information. and. training. on. the. following. subjects: . . . .

1.. The. nature. of. the. hazards. to. which. the. employee. is. exposed. and. how. to. recognize.them. 2..What.is.being.done.to.control.these.hazards? 3..What.protective.measures.the.employee.must.follow.to.prevent.or.minimize. exposure.to.these.hazards. 4..The.provisions.of.applicable.standards.

26

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

The.employer.must.provide.specific.information.and.training: . . .

1.. New.employees.must.be.informed.and.properly.trained.prior.to.their.initial. assignment.to.a.job.involving.exposure.to.a.hazard. 2..The.employer.is.not.required.to.provide.initial.information.and.training.for. which.the.employer.can.demonstrate. that.the.employee. has.already.been. adequately.trained. 3..The. employer. must. provide. periodic. information. and. training. as. often. as. necessary.to.ensure.that.employees.are.adequately.informed.and.trained;.and. to.ensure.that.safety.and.health.information.and.changes.in.workplace.conditions,.such.as.when.a.new.or.increased.hazard.exists,.are.communicated.

Safety.and.health.training.addresses.the.safety.and.health.responsibilities.of.all. personnel.concerned.with.the.site,.whether.salaried.or.hourly..It.is.often.most.effective.when.incorporated.into.other.training.about.performance.requirements.and.job. practices..The.complexity.of.the.training.depends.on.the.size.and.complexity.of.the. worksite,.and.on.the.nature.of.the.hazards.and.potential.hazards.at.the.site..It.is.essential.that.all.employees.understand.the.hazards.to.which.they.may.be.exposed.and.how. to.prevent.harm.to.themselves.and.others.from.exposure.to.such.hazards..Employees. should.be.convinced.to.accept.and.follow.established.safety.and.health.procedures. Supervisors. will. more. likely. carry. out. their. safety. and. health. responsibilities. effectively. when. they. understand. the. responsibilities. and. the. reasons. for. them.. Responsibilities.include: . . .

1.. Analyzing.the.work.under.their.supervision.to.identify.unrecognized.potential.hazards 2..Maintaining.physical.protections.in.their.work.areas 3..Reinforcing.employee.training.on.the.nature.of.potential.hazards.in.their. work.and.on.needed.protective.measures,.through.continual.performance. feedback.and,.if.necessary,.through.enforcement.of.safe.work.practices

The.employer.must.provide.all.employees.who.have.program.responsibilities.with.the. information.and.training.necessary.to.carry.out.their.safety.and.health.responsibilities.

EvAluAtion of ProgrAm EffECtivEnEss The. employer’s. basic. obligation. is. to. evaluate. the. safety. and. health. program. to. ensure. that. it. is. effective. and. appropriate. to. workplace. conditions.. The. employer. must.evaluate.the.program.as.often.as.necessary.to.guarantee.its.effectiveness..The. employer.must.also.revise.the.program. in.a.timely.manner.to.correct.deficiencies. identified.by.the.program.evaluation.

multi-EmPloyEr workPlACEs Multi-employer. workplace. means. one. where. there. is. a. host. employer. and. at. least. one.contract.employer..A.host.employer.is.an.employer.who.controls.conditions.at.a. multi-employer.worksite..The.host.employer’s.responsibilities.are.to

Safety and Health Programs

. .

27

1.. Provide.information.about.hazards,.controls,.rules.on.safety.and.health,.and. emergency.procedures.to.all.employers.at.the.workplace. 2..Make.certain.that.safety.and.health.responsibilities.are.assigned.as.appropriate.to.other.employers.at.the.workplace.

In.turn,.the.responsibilities.of.a.contract.employer.are.to .

.

1.. Ensure. that. the. host. employer. is. aware. of. the. hazards. associated. with. the. contract. employer’s. work. and. what. the. contract. employer. is. doing. to. address them. 2..Advise.the.host.employer.of.any.previously.unidentified.hazards.that.the. contract.employer.identifies.at.the.workplace.

A.contract.employer.is.an.employer.who.performs.work.for.a.host.employer.at. the.host.employer’s.workplace..A.contract.employer.does.not.include.an.employer. who. provides. incidental. services. that. do. not. influence. the. workplace. safety. and. health.program,.or.whose.employees.are.only.incidentally.exposed.to.hazards.at.the. host.employer’s.workplace.(e.g.,.food.and.drink.services,.delivery.services,.or.other. supply.services).

chArActerIstIcs oF An occuPAtIonAl sAFety And heAlth ProgrAm A.review.of.research.on.successful.safety.and.health.programs.reveals.that.a.number. of.factors.comprise.these.programs..Strong.management.commitment.to.health.and. safety.and.frequent,.close.contacts.between.workers,.supervisors,.and.management. on.health.and.safety.are.the.two.most.dominant.factors.in.good.health.and.safety. programs.. Other. relevant. factors. include. workforce. stability,. stringent. housekeeping,.training.emphasizing.early.indoctrination.and.follow-up.instruction,.and.special. adaptation.of.conventional.health.and.safety.practices.to.enhance.their.suitability.to. the.workplace.

fACtors AffECting sAfEty AnD HEAltH . .

.

.

1.. Management.factors: a.. Management.commitment,.as.reflected.by.management.involvement.in. aspects.of.the.health.and.safety.program.in.a.formal.way,.and.as.reflected. in.the.amount.of.employer.resources.committed.to.the.company’s.health. and.safety.program b.. Management.adherence.to.principles.of.good.management.in.the.utilization.of.resources.(i.e.,.people,.machinery,.and.materials),.supervision. of.employees.and.production.planning,.and.monitoring c.. Designated. health. and. safety. personnel. reporting. directly. to. top. management

28

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

2..Motivational.factors: a.. Humanistic.approach.to.interacting.with.employees b.. High.levels.of.employee/supervisor.contact c.. Efficient.production.planning 3..Hazard.control.factors: a.. Effort.to.improve.the.workplace b.. Continuing.development.of.the.employees c.. Clean.working.environment d.. Regular,.frequent.inspections 4..Illness.and.injury.investigations.and.recordkeeping.factors: a.. Investigation.of.all.incidents.of.illness.and.injury.as.well.as.non-lost-time. accidents b.. Recording.of.all.first.aid.cases

ComPonEnts of A sAfEty AnD HEAltH ProgrAm A.listing.of.the.components.that.comprise.a.successful.health.and.safety.program. are.as.follows: •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •.

Health.and.safety.program.management Inspections.and.job.observations Illness.and.injury.investigations Task.analysis Training Personal.protection Communication.and.promotion.of.health.and.safety Personal.perception Off-the-job.health.and.safety

This.is.only.a.representative.list;.it.could.be.either.expanded.or.consolidated,.depending.on.the.unique.needs.of.the.company.or.contractor..Health.and.safety.programs. should.be.tailored.to.meet.individual.requirements.

EvAluAtivE quEstions rEgArDing A sAfEty AnD HEAltH ProgrAm This. section. breaks. down. these. components. into. subparts. or. subelements. using. a. questioning.approach.as.the.mechanism.to.draw.attention.to.the.intricacies.of.a.health. and.safety.program..These.breakouts.and.questions,.which.should.guide.your.evaluation.and.development.of.a.successful.health.and.safety.program,.are.as.follows: . . . . .

1.. Health.and.safety.program.management: a.. Is.there.a.safety.policy.signed.and.dated.by.top.management? b.. Is.there.someone.responsible.for.health.and.safety? c.. Does.a.health.and.safety.manual.or.handbook.exist? d.. Is. there. a. set. time. devoted. to. health. and. safety. during. management. meetings?

Safety and Health Programs

. . . . . . . .

.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

e.. Are.employees.encouraged.to.participate.in.the.safety.and.health.program? f.. Are. there. health. and. safety. rules. and. regulations. for. employees. and. specific.jobs? g.. Is.there.a.discipline.policy.for.disobeying.safety.and.health.rules? h.. Are.health.and.safety.rules.enforced.and.violators.disciplined? i.. Who.is.held.accountable.for.health.and.safety? j.. Are.there.special.goals.for.health.and.safety? 2..Inspections/job.observations: a.. Inspections: −. Are.health.and.safety.inspections.conducted? −. How.often.are.inspections.conducted? −. Are.unsafe.conditions.or.hazards.found.and.corrected.immediately? −. Is.equipment.inspected? −. Is.equipment.maintained? −. Is.there.a.preventive.maintenance.program? −. Are.housekeeping.inspections.conducted? −. Is.housekeeping.maintained? −. Does.monitoring.occur.for.health.hazards? −. Are.written.inspection.reports.completed? −. Are.inspection.reports.disseminated? b.. Job.observations: −. Are.job.observations.done? −. Who.does.job.observations? −. Do.job.observations.result.in.new.work.practices,.workplace.design,. training,.retraining,.and.task.analysis.including.Job.Safety.Analysis. (JSA).or.Safe.Operating.Procedure.(SOP)? −. Are.job.observations.done.for.punitive.reasons? 3..Illness.and.injury.investigations: a.. Are.employees.encouraged.to.report.hazards.and.accidents? b.. Are.all.incidents.involving.illness.or.injury.investigated? c.. Have.written.reports.been.generated.for.all.incidents? d.. Are.preventative.recommendations.being.implemented? e.. Do.employees.review.incident.reports? f.. Are. incident. data. analyzed. to. determine. illness. or. injury. trends. and. damage.experience? 4..Task.analysis: a.. Do.inspections,.job.observations,.and.incident.investigations.result.in.a. task.analysis? b.. Do.task.analyses.result.in.changes.in.work.practices.or.workplace.design? c.. Does.task.analysis.facilitate.the.development.of.JSAs.or.SOPs? d.. Does.task.analysis.result.in.new.training.or.retraining? 5..Training: a.. Do.all.employees.receive.health.and.safety.training? b.. Do.employees.receive.site-specific.training? c.. Are.employees.given.job-specific.or.task-specific.training? d.. Is.training.well.planned.and.organized?

30

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

. . . . . . . . .

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

e.. Does.both.classroom.and.On-the-Job.Training.(OJT).or.Job.Instructional. Training.(JIT).occur? f.. Is.refresher.training.conducted? g.. Do.management.and.supervisors.receive.health.and.safety.training? h.. Are.training.records.maintained? 6..Personal.protection: a.. Does.the.work.require.personal.protective.equipment.(PPE)? b.. Is.the.proper.PPE.available? c.. Have.employees.been.trained.in.the.use.of.PPE? d.. Do.you.need.a.respirator.program.(29.CFR.1910.134)? e.. Should. you. follow. the. requirements. for. handling. hazardous. waste. (29 CFR.1910.120)? f.. Are.the.rules.and.use.of.PPE.enforced? 7..Communication.and.promotion.of.health.and.safety: a.. Communication: −. Is.health.and.safety.visible? −. Are.company.and.contractors’.health.and.safety.goals.communicated? −. Are.health.and.safety.meetings.held.(i.e.,.tool.box)? −. Do.health.and.safety.talks.convey.relevant.information? −. Are.personal.health.and.safety.contacts.made? −. Are.bulletin.boards.used.to.communicate.health.and.safety.issues? −. Do.those.responsible.for.health.and.safety.request.feedback? −. Are.health.and.safety.suggestions.given.consideration.or.used? −. Are.supervisors.interested.in.health.and.safety? b.. Promotion: −. Is.there.an.award/incentive.program.tied.to.safety.and.health? −. Are.health.and.safety.exhibits.or.posters.used? −. Are.paycheck.stuffers.used? 8..Personal.perception: a.. Do. company. and. contractors. extend. considerable. effort. to. ensure. an. effective.health.and.safety.program? b.. Do.supervisors.support.and.enforce.all.aspects.of.the.health.and.safety. program? c.. Do. most. employees. insist. on. doing. all. tasks. in. a. safe. and. healthy. manner? 9..Off-the-job.health.and.safety: a.. Is.off-the-job.health.and.safety.promoted.as.part.of.the.total.health. and.safety.program? b.. Do.the.company.and.contractors.provide.a.wellness/fitness.program? c.. Do.the.company.and.contractors.foster.and.encourage.healthier.lifestyles? d.. Do.the.company.and.contractors.support.an.employee.assistance.program?

A.sample.of.a.written.occupational.safety.and.health.program,.which.includes. examples.of.the.major.program.elements.and.components,.is.found.in.Appendix.A.

Safety and Health Programs

31

tools For A sAFety And heAlth ProgrAm Assessment There.are.three.basic.methods.for.assessing.safety.and.health.program.effectiveness.. This.discussion.explains.each.of.them..It.also.provides.more.detailed.information. on.how.to.use.these.tools.to.evaluate.each.element.and.subsidiary.component.of.a. safety.and.health.program..The.three.basic.methods.for.assessing.safety.and.health. program.effectiveness.are . . .

1.. Checking.documentation.of.activity 2.. Interviewing. employees. at. all. levels. for. knowledge,. awareness,. and. perceptions 3.. Reviewing.site.conditions.and,.where.hazards.are.found,.finding.the.weaknesses. in.management.systems.that.allowed.the.hazards.to.occur.or.to.be.“uncontrolled”

Some.elements.of.the.safety.and.health.program.are.best.assessed.using.one.of. these.methods..Others.lend.themselves.to.assessment.by.two.or.all.three.methods.

DoCumEntAtion Checking.documentation.is.a.standard.audit.technique..It.is.particularly.useful.for. understanding.whether.the.tracking.of.hazards.to.correction.is.effective..It.can.also. be. used. to. determine. the. quality. of. certain. activities,. such. as. self-inspections. or. routine.hazard.analysis. Inspection. records. can. tell. the. evaluator. whether. serious. hazards. are. being. found,.or.whether.the.same.hazards.are.being.found.repeatedly..If.serious.hazards. are. not. being. found. and. accidents. keep. occurring,. there. may. be. a. need. to. train. inspectors.to.look.for.different.hazards..If.the.same.hazards.are.being.found.repeatedly,. the. problem. may. be. more. complicated.. Perhaps. the. hazards. are. not. being. corrected... If  so,. this. would. suggest. a. tracking. problem. or. a. problem. in. accountability.for.hazard correction. If.certain.hazards.recur.repeatedly.after.being.corrected,.someone.is.not.taking. responsibility.for.keeping.those.hazards.under.control..Either.the.responsibility.is. not.clear,.or.those.who.are.responsible.are.not.being.held.accountable.

EmPloyEE intErviEws Talking.to.randomly.selected.employees.at.all.levels.will.provide.a.good.indication. of. the. quality. of. employee. training. and. of. employee. perceptions. of. the. program.. If safety.and.health.training.is.effective,.employees.will.be.able.to.tell.you.about.the. hazards.they.work.with.and.how.they.protect.themselves.and.others.by.keeping.those. hazards.controlled..Every.employee.should.also.be.able.to.say.precisely.what.he.or. she.is.expected.to.do.as.part.of.the.program..And.all.employees.should.know.where. to.go.and.the.route.to.follow.in.an.emergency. Employee.perceptions.can.provide.other.useful.information..An.employee’s.opinion.of.how.easy.it.is.to.report.a.hazard.and.get.a.response.will.tell.you.a.lot.about.how. well.the.hazard.reporting.system.is.working..If.employees.indicate.that.the.system.

32

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

for.enforcing.safety.and.health.rules.and.safe.work.practices.is.inconsistent.or.confusing,.you.will.know.that.the.system.needs.improvement. Interviews.should.not.be.limited.to.hourly.employees..Much.can.be.learned.from. talking.with.first-line.supervisors..It.is.also.helpful.to.query.line.managers.about.their. understanding.of.the.safety.and.health.responsibilities.for.which.they.are.responsible.

sitE ConDitions AnD root CAusEs of HAzArDs Examining.the.conditions.of.the.workplace.can.reveal.existing.hazards;.it.can.also. provide.information.about.the.breakdown.of.management.systems.meant.to.prevent. or.control.hazards. Looking.at.conditions.and.practices.is.a.well-established.technique.for.assessing. the.effectiveness.or.implementation.of.safety.and.health.programs..For.example,.let. us.say.that.in.areas.where.PPE.is.required,.you.see.large.and.understandable.signs. communicating.this.requirement.and.all.employees,.with.no.exceptions,.must.wear. equipment.properly..You.have.obtained.valuable.visual.evidence.that.the.PPE.program.is.working. Another.way.to.obtain.information.about.safety.and.health.program.management. is.through.root.analysis.of.observed.hazards..This.approach.is.much.like.the.most. sophisticated.accident.investigation.techniques,.in.which.many.contributing.factors. are.located.and.corrected.or.controlled. When.evaluating.each.part.of.a.worksite’s.safety.and.health.program,.use.one.or. more.of.the.above.methods.as.appropriate..The.remainder.of.this.discussion.identifies.the.components.found.in.each.element.of.a.quality.safety.and.health.program. and.describes.useful.ways.to.assess.these.components.

AssessIng the key comPonents oF leAdershIP, PArtIcIPAtIon, And lIne AccountABIlIty Is. there. a. worksite. policy. on. safe. and. healthful. working. conditions?. If. there. is. a. written.. policy,.does.it.clearly.declare.the.priority.of.worker.safety.and.health.over. other. organizational. values,. such. as. production?. When. asked,. can. employees. at. all.levels.express.the.worksite.policy.on.worker.safety.and.health?.If.the.policy.is. written.,.can.hourly.employees.tell.you.where.they.have.seen.it?.Can.employees.at. all.levels.explain.the.priority.of.worker.safety.and.health.over.other.organizational. values,.as.the.policy.intends? Have.injuries.occurred.because.employees.at.any.level.did.not.understand.the. importance.of.safety.precautions.in.relation.to.other.organizational.values,.such. as.production?

goAl AnD objECtivEs for workEr sAfEty AnD HEAltH If.there.is.a.written.goal.for.the.safety.and.health.program,.is.it.updated..annually?. If there.are.written.objectives,.such.as.an.annual.plan.to.reach.that.goal,.are.they.

Safety and Health Programs

33

clearly.stated?.If.managers.and.supervisors.have.written.objectives,.do.these.documents.include.objectives.for.the.safety.and.health.program? Do. managers. and. supervisors. have. a. clear. idea. of. their. objectives. for. worker. safety. and. health?. Do. hourly. employees. understand. the. current. objectives. of. the. safety.and.health.program?

visibility of toP mAnAgEmEnt lEADErsHiP Are.there.one.or.more.written.programs.involving.top-level.management.in.safety. and. health. activities?. For. example,. top. management. can. receive. and. sign. off. on. inspection. reports. either. after. each. inspection. or. in. a. quarterly. summary.. These. reports. can. then. be. posted. for. employees. to. see.. Top. management. can. provide. “open-door”.times.each.week.or.each.month.for.employees.to.come.in.to.discuss. safety.and.health.concerns..Top.management.can.reward.the.best.safety.suggestions. each.month.or.at.other.specified.intervals. Can.hourly.employees.describe.how.management.officials.are.involved.in.safety. and.health.activities?.Do.hourly.employees.perceive.that.managers.and.supervisors. follow. safety. and. health. rules. and. work. practices,. such. as. wearing. appropriate. personal..protective.equipment? When.employees.are.found.not.wearing.required.personal.protective.equipment. or.not.following.safe.work.practices,.have.any.of.them.said.that.managers.or.supervisors.also.did.not.follow.these.rules?

EmPloyEE PArtiCiPAtion Are.there.one.or.more.written.programs.that.provide.for.employee.participation.in. .decisions.affecting.their.safety.and.health?.Is.there.documentation.of.these.activities,. for.example,.employee.inspection.reports,.and.minutes.of.joint.employee–management. or.employee–committee.meetings?.Is.there.written.documentation.of.any.management. response. to. employee. safety. and. health. program. activities?. Does. the. documentation. indicate. that. employee. safety. and. health. activities. are. meaningful. and. substantive?.Are.there.written.guarantees.of.employee.protection.from.harassment. resulting.from.safety.and.health.program.involvement? Are. employees. aware. of. ways. they. can. participate. in. decisions. affecting. their. safety. and. health?. Do. employees. appear. to. take. pride. in. the. achievements. of. the. worksite.safety.and.health.program?.Are.employees.comfortable.answering.questions. about.safety.and.health.programs.and.conditions.at.the.workplace?.Do..employees. feel.they.have.the.support.of.management.for.their.safety.and.health.activities?

AssignmEnt of rEsPonsibility Are.responsibilities.written.out.so.that.they.can.be.clearly.understood?.Do.employees.understand.their.own.responsibilities.and.those.of.others?.Are.hazards.caused. in.part.because.no.one.was.assigned.the.responsibility.to.control.or.prevent.them?. Are.hazards.allowed.to.exist.in.part.because.someone.in.management.did.not.have.

34

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

the.clear.responsibility.to.hold.a.lower-level.manager.or.supervisor.accountable.for. carrying.out.assigned.responsibilities?

ADEquAtE AutHority AnD rEsourCEs Do.safety.staff.members,.or.any.other.personnel.with.responsibilities.for.ensuring. safe.operation.of.production.equipment,.have.the.authority.to.shut.down.that.equipment.or.to.order.maintenance.or.parts?.Do.employees.talk.about.not.being.able.to. get.safety.or.health.improvements.because.of.cost?.Do.employees.mention.the.need. for.more.safety.or.health.personnel.or.expert.consultants?.Do.recognized.hazards. go.uncorrected.because.of.a.lack.of.authority.or.resources?.Do.hazards.go.unrecognized.because.greater.expertise.is.needed.to.diagnose.them?

buDgEting for sAfEty AnD HEAltH Safety.and.health.must.have.a.separate.and.distinct.budget.with.dollars.allocated.for. the.various.responsibilities,.mandates,.and.requirements.placed.upon.the.occupational. safety.and.health.initiative.in.order.to.be.considered.an.important.management.function. Without. an. extensive. history. of. cost. related. to. occupational. safety. and. health,. the. development. of. a. budget. for. safety. and. health. can. be. a. rather. inexact. undertaking..Without.such.a.history.of.past.budgets.or.spending.on.occupational.safety. and.health,.budgeting.becomes.somewhat.of.a.guesstimate..This.is.not.to.suggest. that.a.reasonable.and.logical.budget.cannot.be.formulated..However,.the.budget.will. require.much.more.effort,.research,.and.justification. Few.seminars.or.classes.exist.regarding.budgeting.for.occupational.safety.and. health;.the.only.book.that.gives.the.topic.a.better.than.adequate.coverage.is.Safety and Health Management Planning by. James. P.. Kohn. and. Theodore. S.. Ferry.. It seems.safe.to.say.that.most.safety.and.health.professional.have.had.little.or.no. training. or. experience. related. to. budgeting. for. occupational. safety. and. health. unless. they. have. had. hands-on. experience. from. having. to. develop. budgets.. This. is.a.function.of.doing.while.you.learn.and.probably.resulted.in.some.painful.and. time-consuming.lessons. One.section.in.a.book.cannot.provide.comprehensive.coverage.of.this.topic..This. is.especially.true.because.a.budget.must.be.specific.for.the.function.of.the.company. and.the.resources.available..Budgets.are.usually.considered.a.roadmap.or.planning. document.for.the.completion.of.the.assigned.tasks.and.responsibilities.based.on.the. resources.allocated.by.the.company.and.is.never.all.that.it.should.be.or.a.safety.ad. professional.would.want.it.to.be. Budget Items There.are.a.whole.host.of.budget.items.that.may.need.to.be.budgeted.for.regarding. occupational.safety.and.health..Table 2.2.is.not.comprehensive.but.is.a.representation. of.potential.budget.items.

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Safety and Health Programs

tABle 2.2 listing of Potential osh Budget Items •. Personnel.cost: •. Salaries •. Fringe.benefits •. Social.security •. Health.insurance •. Workers’.compensation •. Retirement •. Disability.insurance •. Unemployment.benefits •. Skill.levels •. Training •. Profession.meeting •. Travel •. Equipment.–.expendable •. Equipment.–.nonexpendable: •. Purchase •. Rental •. Repair.agreements •. Calibration.or.certification.cost •. Travel •. Administrative.cost: •. Office.supplies •. Computers •. Computer.software •. Computer.hardware •. Office.equipment •. Repair.of.office.equipment •. Ergonomic.furniture •. Storage.cabinets •. Other.office.furniture •. Telecommunication.services.(Internet,.etc.) •. Cell.phones •. Postage •. Compliance.cost: •. Program.development •. Personal.protective.equipment •. Medical.examinations •. Supplies.(first.aid,.etc.) •. Professional.services.(e.g.,.industrial.hygienist) •. Consultants.(e.g.,.engineers.for.redesign.of.safeguards) •. Contracts.(e.g.,.hazardous.waste.disposal) •. Facilities: •. Utilities •. Repairs.and.upgrades continued

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 2.2 (continued) listing of Potential osh Budget Items •. •. •. •. •. •.

Maintenance Liability.insurance Budgeting.for.hiring.new.personnel Budgeting.for.long-term.or.multiyear.projects Allowance.for.unforeseen.emergencies Cost.for.OSHA.citations.and.violations

Budget Approach While.it.would.be.great.to.be.able.to.predict.the.future.and.plan.for.events.and.items. as.though.they.would.certainly.happen,.it.is.unlikely.that.the.use.of.the.budget.as.a. precise.document.to.follow.will.occur..There.are.many.factors.that.are.not.under.the. control.of.the.person.responsible.for.occupational.safety.and.health. Thus,. developers. of. an. occupational. safety. and. health. budget. must. hitch. their. proverbial.wagon.to.as.many.real.to.life.safety.and.health.issues.as.possible..This. means. that. the. best. approach. is. to. tie. as. much. of. the. expenditures. to. compliance. with.regulatory.requirements.as.humanly.possible..Another.approach.is.to.show.how. the.use.of.dollars.for.intervention.and.prevention.of.potential.cost.(a.cost-avoidance. strategy).can.demonstrate.savings. Developing.a.budget.that.identifies.specific.items.to.be.completed.for.a.specific. cost. with. proper. justification. provides. the. resources. to. complete. the. agreed-upon. safety. and. health. task.. A. budget. should. be. broken. down. into. several. identifiable. categories,.such.as •. •. •. •. •.

Workplace.health.issues Workplace.safety.issues Safety.and.health.management.issues Environmental.safety.issues Product.safety.issues

the compliance Factor The.OSHA.database.regarding.the.average.cost.of.having.citations.can.be.used.as. a.lever.to.get.management’s.attention.related.to.the.investment.in.safety.and.health. being.requested.in.the.budget..It.is.a.real.eye-opener.for.management.when.safety. and.health.professionals.can.say.that.the.cost.of.compliance.is.$500.for.bloodborne. pathogens. and. the. average. violation. produces. a. fine. of. $1,000. per. citation.. Also,. Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration.(OSHA).professionals.can.research. the.most.frequent.violation.for.their.particular.industry.sector..In.many.cases,.the. most. frequent. violation. is. the. requirement. for. a. program. and. training. under. the. Hazard.Communication.Standard..Using.compliance.is,.by.far,.one.of.the.best.ways. to. justify. expenditures.. Some. of. the. regulations. require. programs,. some. medical. examinations,. and. some. training. for. compliance.. An. OSHA. violation. or. citation.

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37

strikes. fear. in. most. employers. and. is. an. excellent. lever. to. use. to. justify. a. budget. request..Other.such.levers.include •. •. •. •. •.

Cost.of.accidents.and.incidents Medical.cost Workers’.compensation.cost Real.dollar.savings Loss.potential.from.not.performing.the.action.item

the Written Budget When. it. is. time. to. develop. a. written. budget,. it. is. important. to. identify. operating. cost,.potential.benefits.such.as.direct.benefits.(e.g.,.reduced.labor.cost,.lower.accidents,.reduced.insurance.cost,.or.productivity.gains)..Indirect.benefits.should.also.be. considered.in.light.of.quality.improvements—reduced.scrap;.less.rework;.reduced. product.liability,.exposure,.or.product.recall.expenses;.improved.corporate.image;.or. increased.market.share..At.times,.indirect.benefits.are.improved.employee.morale,. which. reduces. absenteeism. and. turnover. or. increases. teamwork. and. ownership.. The potential.reduction.in.the.numbers.of.compliance.penalties.can.be.a.benefit. The.safety.and.health.professional.who.develops.a.responsible.budget.that.looks. for.ways.to.control.cost.and.maintain.or.improve.the.company’s.bottom.line.will.be. view.as.a.part.of.the.team.and.not.just.a.necessary.evil. The.safety.and.health.professional.can.look.for.ways.to.control.cost.by.sharing. resources,.using.his.or.her.available.resources.to.the.fullest,.working.on.projects. with.other.departments,.lending.expertise.when.possible,.using.mail.order.to.cut. costs,. using. a. cost-bid. service. to. obtain. more. for. dollars. spent,. using. in-house. engineering.expertise.when.possible,.volunteering.the.use.of.his.or.her.staff.expertise. when. possible.,. using. consultants. or. contractors. for. temporary. or. short-term. projects.or.when.a.cost.savings.. can.be.attained,.performing.as.much.as.possible. with.his.or.her.own.staff,.being.productive.,.and.taking.low-cost.action.by.being.a. good.shopper. There.is.always.a.degree.of.inaccuracy.in.any.budget..Prevent.cost.overruns.if. at.all.possible,.as.overruns.almost.always.have.detrimental.effects..May.sure.that. you. use. the. most. qualified. person. to. develop. the. occupational. safety. and. health. budget..Remember.that.there.will.always.be.budget.expenditures.and.issues.beyond. your.control,.as.actual.cost.may.not.be.the.same.as.planned.cost..Link.budget.elements. to. accomplishments,. milestones,. needs,. and. compliance.. Provide. as. much. substance.as.possible.to.your.budget..Quantified.justifications.have.more.substance. than.qualified.opinions..Numbers.are.more.understandable.to.upper.management. than.reducing.severity.rates..Use.all.your.experience.and.all.your.tools.to.develop.a. workable.and.reasonable.budget.

ACCountAbility of mAnAgErs, suPErvisors, AnD Hourly EmPloyEEs Do.performance.evaluations.for.all.line.managers.and.supervisors.include.specific. criteria. relating. to. safety. and. health. protection?. Is. there. documented. evidence. of.

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

employees.at.all.levels.being.held.accountable.for.safety.and.health.responsibilities,. including. safe. work. practices?. Is. accountability. accomplished. through. either. performance.evaluations.affecting.pay.or.promotions,.or.through.disciplinary.action? When.you.ask.employees.what.happens.to.people.who.violate.safety.and.health. rules.or.safe.work.practices,.do.they.indicate.that.rule.breakers.are.clearly.and.consistently.held.accountable?.Do.hourly.employees.indicate.that.supervisors.and.managers.genuinely.care.about.meeting.safety.and.health.responsibilities?.When.asked. what.happens.when.rules.are.broken,.do.hourly.employees.complain.that.supervisors. and.managers.do.not.follow.rules.and.are.never.disciplined.for.infractions? Are. hazards. occurring. because. employees,. supervisors,. or. managers. are. not. being.held.accountable.for.their.safety.and.health.responsibilities?.Are.identified. hazards. not. being. corrected. because. persons. assigned. that. responsibility. are. not. being.held.accountable?

EvAluAtion of ContrACtor ProgrAms Are.there.written.policies.for.on-site.contractors?.Are.contractors’.rates.and.safety. and.health.programs.reviewed.before.selection?.Do.contracts.require.contractors.to. follow.site.safety.and.health.rules?.Are.there.means.for.removing.a.contractor.who. violates.the.rules? Do.employees.describe.hazardous.conditions.created.by.contract.employees?.Are. employees.comfortable.with.reporting.hazards.created.by.contractors?.Do.contract. employees.feel.they.are.covered.by.the.same,.or.the.same.quality,.safety.and.health. program.as.regular.site.employees? Do.areas.where.contractors.are.working.appear.to.be.in.the.same,.better,.or.worse. condition. as. areas. where. regular. site. employees. are. working?. Does. the. working. relationship.between.site.and.contract.employees.appear.cordial?

AssessIng the key comPonents oF WorksIte AnAlysIs ComPrEHEnsivE survEys, CHAngE AnAlysEs, AnD routinE HAzArD AnAlysEs Are.there.documents.that.provide.comprehensive.analysis.of.all.potential.safety.and. health.hazards.of.the.worksite?.Are.there.documents.that.provide.both.the.analysis. of.potential.safety.and.health.hazards.for.each.new.facility,.equipment,.material,.or. process.and.the.means.for.eliminating.or.controlling.such.hazards?.Does.documentation.exist.outlining.the.step-by-step.analysis.of.hazards.in.each.part.of.each.job,. so.that.you.can.clearly.discern.the.evolution.of.decisions.on.safe.work.procedures?. If complicated.processes.exist,.with.a.potential.for.catastrophic.impact.from.an.accident.but.low.probability.of.such.accident.(as.in.nuclear.power.or.chemical.production),.are.there.documents.analyzing.the.potential.hazards.in.each.part.of.the.process. and.the.means.to.prevent.or.control.them?.If.there.are.processes.with.a.potential.for. catastrophic.impact.from.an.accident.but.low.probability.of.an.accident,.have.analyses.such.as.“fault.tree”.or.“what.if?”.been.documented.to.ensure.sufficient.backup. systems.for.worker.protection.in.the.event.of.multiple.control.failures?

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39

Do. employees. complain. that. new. facilities,. equipment,. materials,. or. processes. are.hazardous?.Do.any.employees.say.they.have.been.involved.in.job.safety.analysis. or.process.review.and.are.satisfied.with.the.results?.Does.the.safety.and.health.staff. indicate.ignorance.of.existing.or.potential.hazards.at.the.worksite?.Does.the.occupational.nurse,.doctor,.or.other.healthcare.provider.understand.the.potential.occupational.diseases.and.health.effects.in.this.worksite? Have.hazards.appeared.in.areas.where.management.did.not.realize.there.was.the. potential?. Where. workers. have. faithfully. followed. job. procedures,. have. accidents. or.near-misses.occurred.because.of.hidden.hazards?.Have.hazards.been.discovered. in. the. design. of. new. facilities,. equipment,. materials,. and. processes. after. use. had. begun?. Have. accidents. or. near-misses. occurred. when. two. or. more. failures. in. the. hazard.control.system.occurred.at.the.same.time,.surprising.everyone?

rEgulAr sitE sAfEty AnD HEAltH insPECtions If.inspection.reports.are.written,.do.they.show.that.inspections.are.done.on.a.regular. basis?.Do.the.hazards.found.indicate.a.good.ability.to.recognize.hazards.typical.of. this.industry?.Are.hazards.found.during.inspections.tracked.to.complete.correction?. What.is.the.relationship.between.hazards.uncovered.during.inspections.and.those. implicated.in.injuries.or.illness? Do.employees.indicate.that.they.see.inspections.being.conducted,.and.that.these. inspections.appear.thorough?.Are.the.hazards.discovered.during.accident.investigations.ones.that.should.have.been.recognized.and.corrected.by.the.regular.inspection.process?

EmPloyEE rEPorts of HAzArDs Is.the.system.for.written.reports.being.used.frequently?.Are.valid.hazards.that.have. been. reported. by. employees. tracked. to. complete. correction?. Are. the. responses. timely.and.adequate? Do.employees.know.who.to.contact.and.what.to.do.if.they.see.something.they. believe. to. be. hazardous. to. themselves. or. co-workers?. Do. employees. think. that. responses.to.their.reports.of.hazards.are.timely.and.adequate?.Do.employees.say.that. sometimes.when.they.report.a.hazard,.they.hear.nothing.further.about.it?.Do.any. employees.say.that.they.or.other.workers.are.being.harassed,.officially.or.otherwise,. for.reporting.hazards? Are.hazards.ever.found.where.employees.could.have.reasonably.been.expected.to. have.recognized.and.reported.them?.When.hazards.are.found,.is.there.evidence.that. employees.complained.repeatedly.but.to.no.avail?

ACCiDEnt AnD nEAr-miss invEstigAtions Do.accident.investigation.reports.show.a.thorough.analysis.of.causes,.rather.than.a.tendency.to.automatically.blame.the.injured.employee?.Are.near-misses.(.property.damage. or.close.calls).investigated.using.the.same.techniques.as.accident..investigations?.Are. hazards.identified.as.contributing.to.accidents.or.near-misses.tracked.to.correction?

40

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

Do. employees. understand. and. accept. the. results. of. accident. and. near-miss. investi.gations?.Do.employees.mention.a.tendency.on.management’s.part.to.blame. the.injured.employee?.Do.employees.believe.that.all.hazards.contributing.to.accidents.are.corrected.or.controlled? Are.accidents.sometimes.caused,.at.least.in.part,.by.factors.that.might.also.have. contributed.to.previous.near-misses.that.were.not.investigated.or.accidents.that.were. too.superficially.investigated?

injury AnD illnEss PAttErn AnAlysis In.addition.to.the.required.OSHA.log,.are.careful.records.kept.of.first.aid.injuries. and.illnesses.that.might.not.immediately.appear.to.be.work.related?.Is.there.any. periodic,.written.analysis.of.the.patterns.of.near-misses,.injuries,.and.illnesses.that. may.show,.over.time,.previously.unrecognized.connections.between.incidents.that. indicate.unrecognized.hazards.need.correction.or.control? Looking.at.the.OSHA.200.log.and,.where.applicable,.first.aid.logs,.are.there.patterns.of.illness.or.injury.that.should.have.been.analyzed.for.previously.undetected. hazards?.Is.there.an.occupational.nurse.or.doctor.on.the.worksite?.Are.employees. suffering.from.ordinary.illnesses.encouraged.to.see.a.nearby.healthcare.provider?. Are.the.records.of.those.visits.analyzed.for.clusters.of.illness.that.might.be.work. related? Do.employees.mention.illnesses.or.injuries.that.seem.work.related.to.them,.but. that.have.not.been.analyzed.for.previously.undetected.hazards?

AssessIng the key comPonents oF hAzArd PreventIon And control APProPriAtE usE of EnginEEring Controls, work PrACtiCEs, PErsonAl ProtECtivE EquiPmEnt, AnD ADministrAtivE Controls If.there.are.documented.comprehensive.surveys,.are.they.accompanied.by.a.plan.for. systematic.prevention.or.control.of.hazards.found?.If.there.is.a.written.plan,.does.it. show.that.the.best.method.of.hazard.protection.was.chosen?.Are.there.written.safe. work.procedures?.If.respirators.are.used,.is.there.a.written.respirator.program? Do.employees.say.they.have.been.trained.in.and.have.ready.access.to.reliable,. safe.work.procedures?.Do.employees.say.they.have.difficulty.accomplishing.their. work.because.of.unwieldy.controls.meant.to.protect.them?.Do.employees.ever.mention. personal. protective. equipment,. work. procedures,. or. engineering. controls. as. interfering.with.their.ability.to.work.safely?.Do.employees.who.use.PPE.understand. why.they.use.it.and.how.to.maintain.it?.Do.employees.who.use.PPE.indicate.that.the. rules.for.PPE.use.are.consistently.and.fairly.enforced?.Do.employees.indicate.that. safe.work.procedures.are.fairly.and.consistently.enforced? Are.controls.meant.to.protect.workers.actually.putting.them.at.risk.or.not.providing.enough.protection?.Are.employees.engaging.in.unsafe.practices.or.creating.

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41

unsafe.conditions.because.rules.and.work.practices.are.not.fairly.and.consistently. enforced?.Are.employees.in.areas.designated.for.PPE.wearing.it.properly,.with.no. exceptions?.Are.hazards.that.could.feasibly.be.controlled.through.improved.design. inadequately.controlled.by.other.means?

fACility AnD EquiPmEnt PrEvEntivE mAintEnAnCE Is.there.a.preventive.maintenance.schedule.that.provides.for.timely.maintenance.of. the.facilities.and.equipment?.Is.there.a.written.or.computerized.record.of.performed. maintenance.that.shows.the.schedule.has.been.followed?.Do.maintenance.request. records.show.a.pattern.of.certain.facilities.or.equipment.needing.repair.or.breaking. down.before.maintenance.was.a.major.cause? Do. employees. mention. difficulty. with. improperly. functioning. equipment?. Is. safety. maintenance. scheduled. or. actually. performed?. Do. any. accident/incident. investigations.list.facility.or.equipment.breakdowns.and.equipment.or.facilities.in. poor. repair?. Do. maintenance. employees. believe. that. the. preventive. maintenance. system.is.working.well?.Do.employees.believe.that.hazard.controls.needing.maintenance.are.properly.cared.for?.Is.poor.maintenance.a.frequent.source.of.hazards?. Are.hazard.controls.in.good.working.order?.Does.equipment.appear.to.be.in.good. working.order?

EstAblisHing A mEDiCAl ProgrAm Are.good,.clear.records.kept.of.medical.testing.and.assistance?.Do.employees.say. that.test.results.were.explained.to.them?.Do.employees.feel.that.more.first.aid.or. cardiopulmonary.resuscitation-.(CPR-).trained.personnel.should.be.available?.Are. employees.satisfied.with.the.medical.arrangements.provided.at.the.site.or.elsewhere?. Does.the.occupational.healthcare.provider.understand.the.potential.hazards.of.the. worksite,.so.that.occupational.illness.symptoms.can.be.recognized? Have.further.injuries,.or.worsening.of.injuries,.occurred.because.proper.medical. assistance. (including. trained. first. aid. and. CPR. providers). was. not. readily. available?.Have.occupational.illnesses.possibly.gone.undetected.because.no.one.with. occupational.health.specialty.training.reviewed.employee.symptoms.as.part.of.the. medical.program?

EmErgEnCy PlAnning AnD PrEPArAtion Are.there.clearly.written.procedures.for.every.likely.emergency,.with.clear.evacuation.routes,.assembly.points,.and.emergency.telephone.numbers?.When.asked.about. any.kind.of.likely.emergency,.can.employees.tell.you.exactly.what.they.are.supposed. to.do.and.where.they.are.supposed.to.go? Have.hazards.occurred.during.actual.or.simulated.emergencies.due.to.confusion. about.what.to.do?.In.larger.worksites,.are.emergency.evacuation.routes.clearly.marked?. Are.emergency.telephone.numbers.and.fire.alarms.in.prominent,.easy-to-find.locations?

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

AssessIng the key comPonents oF sAFety And heAlth trAInIng Ensuring tHAt All EmPloyEEs unDErstAnD HAzArDs Does. the. written. training. program. include. complete. training. for. every. employee. in.emergency.procedures.and.in.all.potential.hazards.to.which.employees.may.be. exposed?.Do.training.records.show.that.every.employee.received.the.planned.training?.Do.the.written.evaluations.of.training.indicate.that.the.training.was.successful,. and.that.the.employees.learned.what.was.intended? Can. employees. tell. you. what. hazards. they. are. exposed. to,. why. those. hazards. are.a.threat,.and.how.they.can.help.protect.themselves.and.others?.If.PPE.is.used,. can. employees. explain. why. they. use. it. and. how. to. use. and. maintain. it. properly?. Do employees.feel.that.health.and.safety.training.is.adequate? Have.employees.been.hurt.or.made.ill.by.hazards.of.which.they.were.completely. unaware,.or.whose.dangers.they.did.not.understand,.or.from.which.they.did.not.know. how.to.protect.themselves?.Have.employees.or.rescue.workers.ever.been.endangered. by.employees.not.knowing.what.to.do.or.where.to.go.in.a.given.emergency.situation?.Are.there.hazards.in.the.workplace.that.exist,.at.least.in.part,.because.one.or. more.employees.have.not.received.adequate.hazard.control.training?.Are.there.any. instances. of.employees. not.wearing.required.PPE.properly.because.they.have.not. received.proper.training,.or.because.they.simply.do.not.want.to.and.the.requirement. is.not.enforced?

Ensuring tHAt suPErvisors unDErstAnD tHEir rEsPonsibilitiEs Do.training.records.indicate.that.all.supervisors.have.been.trained.in.their.responsibilities.to.analyze.work.under.their.supervision.for.unrecognized.hazards?.Do.they. apply. practices. to. maintain. physical. protections,. to. reinforce. employee. training. through.performance.feedback,.and,.where.necessary,.enforce.safe.work.procedures. and.safety.and.health.rules? Are.supervisors.aware.of.their.responsibilities?.Do.employees.confirm.that.supervisors.are.carrying.out.these.duties?.Has.a.supervisor’s.lack.of.understanding.of.safety. and.health.responsibilities.played.a.part.in.creating.hazardous.activities.or.conditions?

Ensuring tHAt mAnAgErs unDErstAnD tHEir sAfEty AnD HEAltH rEsPonsibilitiEs Do.training.plans.for.managers.include.training.in.safety.and.health.responsibilities?. Do. records. indicate. that. all. line. managers. have. received. this. training?. Do. employees. indicate. that. managers. know. and. carry. out. their. safety. and. health. responsibilities?. Has. an. incomplete. or. inaccurate. understanding. by. management. of.its.safety.and.health.responsibilities.played.a.part.in.the.creation.of.hazardous. activities.or.conditions?

Safety and Health Programs

43

summAry The.key.to.a.successful.and.efficient.evaluation.is.to.combine.elements.when.using. each.technique..First,.review.the.documentation.available.relating.to.each.element.. Then.walk.through.the.worksite.to.observe.how.effectively.what.is.on.paper.appears. to.be.implemented..While.walking.around,.interview.employees.to.verify.that.what. you.read.and.what.you.saw.reflect.the.state.of.the.safety.and.health.program. Effective.safety.and.health.program.evaluation.is.a.dynamic.process..If.you.see. or.hear.about.aspects.of.the.program.not.covered.in.your.document.review,.ask.to. receive.the.documents,.if.any,.relating.to.these.aspects..If.the.documents.included. program. elements. not. visible. during. your. walk. around. the. site. or. not. known. to. employees,.probe.further..Utilizing.this.cross-checking.technique.should.result.in. an.effective,.comprehensive.evaluation.of.the.worksite’s.safety.and.health.program.

reFerences Allison,.W..W..Profitable risk control. Des.Plaines,.IL:.American.Society.of.Safety.Engineers,. 1986. Kohn,.J..P..and.Ferry,.T..S..Safety and health management planning..Rockville,.MD:.Government.Institutes,.1999. Reese,.C..D..Mine safety and health for small surface sand/gravel/stone operations: A guide for operators and miners..Storrs,.CT:.University.of.Connecticut.Press,.1997. Reese,.C..D..and.J..V..Eidson..Handbook of OSHA construction safety & health. Boca.Raton,. FL:.CRC.Press/Lewis.Publishers,.1999. United. States. Department. of. Labor,. Occupational. Safety. and. Health.Administration.. Field. Inspection. Reference. Manual. (FIRM). (OSHA. Instruction. CPL. 2.103).. Washington,. D.C.:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.September.26,.1994. United.States.Department.of.Labor,.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration..Citation. Policy.for.Paperwork.and.Written.Program.Requirement.Violations.(OSHA.Instruction. CPL.2.111)..Washington,.D.C.:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.November.27,.1995. United.States.Department.of.Labor,.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration..Federal Register: Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines (Vol.. 54,. No.. 16).. pp. 3904–3916..Washington,.D.C.:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.January.26,.1989. United.States.Department.of.Labor,.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration..Office. of.Construction.and.Maritime.Compliance.Assistance.(OSHA.Instruction.STD.3-1.1).. Washington,.D.C.:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.June.22,.1987.

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3

Accident/Incident Investigation

IntroductIon The.material.in.this.chapter.is.a.combination.of.information.obtained.and.developed. by.the.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration.(OSHA).and.the.Mine.Health. and.Safety.Administration.based.on.their.experience.in.conducting.accident.investigations.over.a.period.of.many.years. Millions.of.accidents/incidents.occur.throughout.the.United.States.every.year..The. inability.of.people,.equipment,.supplies,.or.surroundings.to.behave.or.react.as.expected. causes.most.of.these.accidents/incidents..Accident/incident.investigations.determine. how.and.why.each.incident.has.occurred..By.using.the.information.gained,.a.similar. or.perhaps.more.disastrous.accident.may.be.prevented..Accident/incident.investigations.should.be.conducted.with.accident.prevention.in.mind..The.mission.is.one.of. fact.finding..Investigations.are.not.to.find.fault. An.accident,.by.definition,.is.any.unplanned.event.that.results.in.personal.injury. or. in. property. damage.. When. the. personal. injury. requires. little. or. no. treatment,. or.is.minor,.it.is.often.called.a.first.aid.case..If.it.results.in.a.fatality.or.in.a.permanent.total,.permanent.partial,.or.temporary.total.(lost-time).disability,.it.is.serious.. Likewise,.if property.damage.results,.the.event.may.be.minor.or.serious..All.accidents.should.be.investigated.regardless.of.the.extent.of.injury.or.damage. Accidents.are.part.of.a.broad.group.of.events.that.adversely.affect.the.completion. of.a.task..These.events.are.defined.as.incidents..With.this.said,.the.most.commonly. used.term.for.accidents.and.incidents.is.“accident,”.which.will.be.used.to.refer.to. both.accidents.and.incidents.because.the.basic.precepts.are.applicable.to.both.

PurPose oF AccIdent InvestIgAtIons An. important. element. of. a. safety. and. health. program. is. accident. investigation.. Although.it.may.seem.to.be.too.little.too.late,.accident.investigations.serve.to.correct. the.problems.that.contribute.to.an.accident.and.will.reveal.accident.causes.that.might. otherwise.remain.uncorrected. The.main.purpose.of.conducting.an.accident.investigation.is.to.prevent.a.recurrence. of. the. same. or. a. similar. event.. It. is. important. to. investigate. all. accidents. regardless.of.the.extent.of.injury.or.damage..The.kinds.of.accidents.that.should.be. investigated.and.reported.include

45

46

. . . . .

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

1.. Disabling.injury.accidents 2..Nondisabling.injury.accidents.that.require.medical.treatment 3..Circumstances.that.have.contributed.to.acute.or.chronic.occupational.illness 4..Noninjury.property.damage.accidents.that.exceed.a.normally.expected.operating.cost 5..Near-accidents.with.a.potential.for.serious.injury.or.property.damage

AccIdent PreventIon When.accidents.are.not.reported,.their.causes.usually.go.uncorrected..This.allows. the.chance.for.the.same.accident.to.happen.again..Every.accident,.if.properly.investigated,.serves.as.a.learning.experience.for.the.people.involved..However,.investigations.should.not.become.a.mechanical.routine..They.should.strive.to.establish.what. happened,. why. it. happened,. and. what. must. be. done. to. prevent. a. recurrence.. An. accident.investigation.must.be.conducted.to.learn.the.facts,.not.to.place.blame. In.any.accident.investigation,.consider.the.aspect.of.multiple.causation..The.contributing.factors.surrounding.an.accident,.as.well.as.the.unsafe.acts.and.unsafe.conditions,.should.be.considered..If.only.the.unsafe.acts.and.conditions.are.considered.when. investigating.an.accident,.little.will.be.accomplished.toward.any.accident.prevention. effort.because.the.“root.causes”.still.remain..This.leaves.the.possibility.for.an.accident. to.recur..The.“root.causes”.are.items.such.as.management.policies.and.decisions,.and. the.personal.and.environmental.factors.that.could.prevent.accidents.when.corrected. Accidents.are.usually.complex.and.are.the.result.of.multiple.causes..A.detailed. analysis.of.an.accident.will.normally.reveal.three.cause.levels:.basic,.indirect,.and. direct..At.the.lowest.level,.an.accident.results.only.when.a.person.or.object.receives. the. release. of. an. amount. of. energy. or. exposure. to. hazardous. material. that. cannot. be. absorbed. safely.. This. energy. or. hazardous. material. is. the. direct. cause. of. the. accident...The.second.causal.areas.are.usually.the.result.of.one.or.more.unsafe.acts. or.unsafe.conditions,.or.both..Unsafe.acts.and.conditions.are.the.indirect.causes.or. symptoms...In turn,.indirect.causes.are.usually.traceable.to.poor.management.policies. and.decisions.,.or.to.personal.or.environmental.factors..These.are.the.basic.causes. Despite.their.complexity,.most.accidents.are.preventable.by.eliminating.one.or. more. causes.. Accident. investigations. determine. not. only. what. happened,. but. also. how. and. why.. The. information. gained. from. these. investigations. can. prevent. the. recurrence. of. similar. or. perhaps. more. disastrous. accidents.. Accident. investigators.are.interested.in.each.event.as.well.as.in.the.sequence.of.events.that.led.to.the. accident... The. accident. type. is. also. important. to. the. investigator.. The. recurrence. of.accidents.of.a.particular.type.or.those.with.common.causes.show.areas.needing. special..accident.prevention.emphasis. It.is.important.to.have.some.mechanism.in.place.to.investigate.accidents/incidents. in.order.to.determine.the.basis.of.cause-and-effect.relationships..These.types.of.relationships.can.only.be.determined.when.you.actively.investigate.all.accidents.and.incidents.that.result.in.injuries,.illnesses,.or.damage.to.property,.equipment,.or.machinery. Accident.investigation.becomes.more.effective.when.all.levels.of.management— particularly. top. management—take. a. personal. interest. in. controlling. accidents..

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47

Management.adds.a.contribution.when.it.actively.supports.accident.investigations.. It.is.normally.the.responsibility.of.line.supervisors.to.investigate.all.accidents;.and. in.cases.where.there.is.serious.injury.or.equipment.damage,.other.personnel.such.as. department.managers,.might.also.have.an.investigation.team.become.involved. Once.the.types.of.accidents/incidents.occurring.have.been.determined,.prevention. and.intervention.activities.can.be.undertaken.to.ensure.that.no.recurrences.will.transpire..Even.if.the.company.is.not.experiencing.large.numbers.of.accidents/incidents,. it.still.needs.to.implement.activities.that.actively.search.for,.identify,.and.correct.the. risk.from.hazards.on.jobsites..Reasons.to.investigate.accidents/incidents.include •. •. •. •.

To.know.and.understand.what.happened To.gather.information.and.data.for.present.and.future.use To.deter.cause.and.effect To. provide. answers. for. the. effectiveness. of. intervention. and. prevention. approaches •. To.document.the.circumstances.for.legal.and.workers’.compensation.issues •. To.become.a.vital.component.of.your.safety.and.health.program If.only.a.few.accidents/incidents.are.occurring,.investigations.might.want.to.move. down.one.step.to.examine.near-misses.and.first.aid.related.cases..It.is.only.a.matter. of.luck.or.timing.that.separates.the.near-miss.or.first.aid.event.from.being.a.serious,. recordable,. or. reportable. event.. The. truth. is. that. the. company. probably. has. been. lucky.by.seconds.or.inches..(That.is,.a.second.later.and.it.would.have.hit.someone.or. an.inch.more.and.it.would.have.cut.off.a.finger.).Truly,.it.pays.dividends.to.take.the. time.to.investigate.accidents/incidents.occurring.in.the.workplace.

rePortIng AccIdents When.accidents.are.not.reported,.their.causes.usually.go.uncorrected,.allowing.the. chance.for.the.same.accident.to.result.again..Every.accident,.if.properly.investigated,. serves.as.a.learning.experience.to.the.people.involved..The.investigation.should.avoid. becoming.a.mechanical.routine..It.should.strive.to.establish.what.happened,.why.it. happened,.and.what.must.be.done.to.prevent.a.recurrence..An.accident.investigation. must.be.conducted.to.find.out.the.facts.and.not.to.place.blame. The.first.step.in.an.effective.investigation.is.the.prompt.reporting.of.accidents.. The.company.cannot.respond.to.accidents,.evaluate.their.potential,.and.investigate. them. if. they. are. not. reported. when. they. happen.. Prompt. reporting. is. the. key. to. effective.accident.investigations..Hiding.small.accidents.does.not.help.prevent.the. serious.accidents.that.kill.people,.put.the.company.out.of.business,.and.take.away. jobs..If workers.do.not.report.accidents.to.the.supervisor,.they.are.stealing.part.of.the. supervisor’s.authority.to.manage.his.or.her.job.(see.Table 3.1). The.results-oriented.supervisor.recognizes.that.the.real.value.of.investigation.can. only.be.achieved.when.his.or.her.workers.report.every.problem,.incident,.or.accident. that.they.know.of..To.promote.conscientious.reporting,.it.may.be.helpful.to.know.

48

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 3.1 sound reasons for reporting All Accidents . 1.. You.learn.nothing.from.unreported.accidents. . 2.. Accident.causes.go.uncorrected. . 3.. Infection.and.injury.aggravations.can.result. . 4.. Failure.to.report.injuries.tends.to.spread.and.become.accepted.practice.

some.of.the.reasons.why.workers.fail.or.avoid.reporting.accidents..There.are.usually. reasons.that.workers.espouse.for.not.reporting.accidents..They.include •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •.

Fear.of.discipline Concern.about.the.company’s.record Concern.for.the.company’s.reputation Fear.of.medical.treatment Dislike.of.medical.personnel Desire.to.keep.personal.record.clear Avoidance.of.red.tape Desire.to.prevent.work.interruptions Concern.about.the.attitudes.of.others Poor.understanding.of.the.importance.of.reporting.accidents

How.can.we.combat.these.reporting.problems? •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •. •.

React.in.a.more.positive.way. Indoctrinate.workers.on.the.importance.of.reporting.all.accidents. Make.sure.everyone.knows.what.kinds.of.accidents.should.be.reported. Give.more.attention.to.prevention.and.control. Recognize.individual.performance. Develop.the.value.of.reporting. Show.disapproval.of.injuries.neglected.and.not.reported. Demonstrate.belief.by.action. Do.not.make.mountains.out.of.molehills.

Let. the. worker. know. that. you. appreciate. him. or. her. for. reporting. accidents. promptly.. Inquire. about. his. or. her. knowledge. of. the. accident.. Do. not. interrogate. or. “grill”. the. worker.. Stress. the. value. of. knowing. about. problems. while. they. are. still. small.. Focus. on. accident. prevention. and. loss. control.. Emphasize. compliance. with. practices,. rules,. protective. equipment,. and. promptly. commend. good. performance..Pay.attention.to.the.positive.things.workers.do.and.give.sincere,.meaningful. recognition. where. and. when. it. is. deserved.. Use. compliments. as. often. as. you. use. .warnings.. Use. group. and. personal. meetings. to. point. out. and. pass. on. knowledge. gained.from.past.accidents..Give.an.accident.example.as.an.important.part.of.every. job.instruction..Show.that.the.organization.believes.in.what.it.says.by.taking.corrective.action.promptly..The.company.can.always.do.something.right.at.the.moment,.

Accident/Incident Investigation

49

even.if.permanent.correction.requires.time.to.develop.new.methods,.buy.new.equipment,.or.modify.the.building.

orgAnIzIng And AssIgnIng resPonsIBIlItIes Organizing.a.division.of.responsibility.toward.accident.investigations.should.include. a. broad. range. of. experience,. responsibility,. and. authority.. Although. more. serious. accidents.or.equipment.damage.should.be.investigated.primarily.by.a.person.with. more. authority,. upper-level. management. personnel,. department. supervisors,. and. first-line.supervisors.should.still.play.an.active.role.in.accident.investigations. Specific.accident.investigation.responsibilities.should.be.assigned.to.various.people... Accidents. involving. serious. injury. or. major. equipment. damage. should. be. investigated.by.a.committee..The.committee.should.involve.all.levels.of.management.as. well.as.a.range.of.technical.competencies..Most.accidents.that.are.potentially.serious. or. have. the. potential. for. major. equipment. damage. should. be. investigated. by. the.department’s.supervisor.in.conjunction.with.their.immediate.managers..Minor. injuries..and.minor.equipment.damage.accidents.should.normally.be.investigated.by. the.responsible.first-line.supervisor.

suPervIsors And AccIdent InvestIgAtIon Line. supervisors. should. be. involved. in. accident. investigations,. basically. because. they.are.normally.the.people.in.direct.contact.with.the.worker.and.understand.their. problems,. personalities,. and. capabilities.. Involving. supervisors. increases. their. responsibilities. toward. the. accident. prevention. effort. (see. Figure  3.1).. Supervisors. are.normally.responsible.for.training,.so.becoming.involved.in.investigations.will. make.the.supervisor.more.aware.of.what.causes.accidents.as.well.as.ways.to.prevent. a.recurrence. Let’s.take.a.look.at.the.reasons.why.the.line.supervisor.should.conduct.the.investigation..An.accident.happens.because.there.is.a.problem.somewhere,.and.the.problem. exists.because . . . .

1.. A.deficiency.is.not.known. 2..The.risk.involved.in.the.deficiency.is.thought.to.be.less.than.it.really.is. 3..Despite.the.deficiency,.someone.without.authority.decided.to.go.ahead. 4..Someone.with.authority.decides.that.the.cost.is.more.than.the.money.that.is. available,.or.that.the.cost.outweighs.the.benefit.of.correcting.the.deficiency.

When.taking.enough.time,.anyone.can.find.out.what.the.exact.problem.is..For. every.problem.there.is.an.answer—a.single.best.way.to.correct.the.problem—and.for. several.reasons.the.supervisor.is.the.best.person.to.put.this.all.together. . . . .

1.. The.supervisor.has.a.personal.interest.in.protecting.his.or.her.workforce. 2..The.supervisor.knows.the.most.about.the.workers.and.conditions. 3..The.supervisor.knows.best.how.to.get.information. 4..The.supervisor.will.take.the.action.anyway.

50

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

FIgure 3.1 Line. supervisors. make. valuable. contributions. to. accident. investigations.. (Source:.Courtesy.of.the.Mine.Safety.and.Health.Administration.)

Actions.the.supervisor.can.take.to.encourage.workers.to.report.minor.injury.accidents.include . . . .

1.. Instruct.the.employees.on.the.importance.of.reporting.such.accidents. 2..Do.not.discourage.the.employees.from.reporting.minor.injuries. 3..Periodically.discuss.failure.to.report.minor.injuries. 4..Show.disapproval.of.neglected.injuries.

InvestIgAtIons BeneFIt the suPervIsor There. are. other. benefits. a. line. supervisor. can. gain. from. performing. the. accident. investigation,.including •. •. •. •.

An.increase.in.production.time Evidence.of.the.supervisor’s.concern.for.the.workers A.reduction.in.operating.costs A.demonstration.of.the.supervisor’s.control

The.supervisor.who.gets.right.into.an.investigation.and.takes.immediate.action.to. prevent.other.accidents.shows.workers.that.he.or.she.really.cares.for.their.physical. welfare.and.their.effectiveness.in.doing.their.job..The.supervisor.who.lets.others.do. his.or.her.work.makes.a.poor.impression.on.the.workers. One.common.effect.of.an.accident.is.that.it.interrupts.work..Effective.investigations.prevent.repeated.accidents.and.control.work.interruptions.and.inefficiencies..

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51

The.cost.of.delays,.injuries,.property.damage,.and.insurance.all.add.to.the.cost.of.the. production..Control.of.costs.is.one.way.of.judging.a.supervisor’s.job.performance. Persistent.efforts.to.solve.problems.reflect.the.image.of.a.capable.supervisor.who. is.in.control.of.things..Actions.speak.louder.than.words..People.like.to.work.for.a. supervisor.who.takes.control.of.any.situation,.and.who.shows.he.or.she.is.capable.of. dealing.with.any.problem.

PrePlAnnIng An AccIdent InvestIgAtIon Before.an.accident.occurs,.you.should.contact.emergency.services—medical,.paramedical,.fire.department,.police,.utilities,.bomb.disposal,.and.poison.control—to.determine. their.procedures.for.response..Operation.and.locations.of.emergency.shutdown.switches. of.equipment.must.be.identified.unless.it.must.be.operating.to.prevent.further.damage. or.loss..Be.prepared.to.isolate.sources.of.secondary.accidents.and.injuries..As.well,.provide.for.interruption.of.business.for.sufficient.periods.to.permit.thorough.investigation. Upon.discovery.of.an.accident,.management.personnel.should.be.notified.commensurate.with.the.classification.of.the.accident.and.pertinent.regulatory.agencies. as.required.by.public.laws..Institute.security.and.implement.investigative.procedures. using.appropriate.tools.and.equipment. Upon.arrival.at.the.accident.scene.or.site,.the.first.priority.should.be.to.rescue.the. injured.or.endangered.in.such.a.manner.that.injury.is.not.inflicted.or.compounded.. Then. reduce. risk. of. further. injury. or. damage. to. control. loss.. Identify. elements. involved.in.the.accident.to.initiate.reporting.and.investigation.of.the.accident. After.the.emergency.is.under.control,.plan.interfaces.with.other.investigators.prescribed.by.public.laws;.ensure.that.the.scene.is.systematically.preserved.and.evidence. is.not.destroyed..Be.prepared.to.provide.special.briefings.for.investigators,.specialized. assistants,.and.the.press. Part.of.the.preparation.is.having.an.accident.investigation.kit.already.available.so. that.the.investigator.does.not.waste.valuable.time.in.procuring.the.items.and.tools. needed. to. conduct. an. effective. accident. investigation.. Table  3.2. contains. a. list. of. many.of.the.items.and.tools.that.would.be.appropriate.for.an.accident.investigation. kit..Of.course,.this.list.is.not.all-inclusive. When.urgent.data.collection.is.completed,.have.sources.of.technical.expertise.identified.for.examination.and.testing.of.evidence..Make.sure.that.the.company.has.communicated.and.interfaced.with.suppliers.of.equipment.and.materials.on.product.liability. When.work.at.the.accident.site.is.finished,.have.a.plan.for.temporary.storage.of. evidence.that.might.be.required.later.for.additional.examination..Determine.when. and.where.final.disposal.of.evidence,.damaged.equipment,.and.materials.should.be.. Make.plans.for.the.follow-on.phases.of.the.investigation..Conduct.a.planned.inspection.of.the.workplace.or.equipment.before.allowing.full,.normal.activity.to.resume.

InvestIgAtIon Process Accidents.should.be.investigated.as.soon.as.possible.after.they.happen..The.more. time. that. passes. before. questioning. personnel. and. witnesses. involved,. the. greater. the. risk. of. not. getting. an. accurate. story. of. what. happened. and. why.. The. injured.

52

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 3.2 Items and tools for an Accident Investigation kit Accident.report.form Adjustable.wrench Air.velocity.meter Attachable.tags.and.labels Barrier.tape Calculator Camera.(35.mm) Camera.(digital) Camera.(video) Chemical.gloves Chemical.goggles Chemical.sampling.containers CO.and.CO2.detection.meter Compass Duct.and.masking.tape Ear.protection Electrical.tester Emergency.flares Explosive.level.meter Face.shield Film.for.all.cameras First.aid.kit Flashlight Grid.(square).paper Hammer Hand-held.audio.recorder Ice.pick.or.awl Indelible.pen.or.marker Investigator’s.notebook

“Keep.Out”.placards Knife Large.envelopes.(9.×.12.inches) Magnifying.glass Metric.conversion.chart Nail.and.screws.(assorted) Note.pads.(lined) Orange.reflective.vest Pens.and.pencils Pliers Protractor Rain.suit Respirator.(assorted.cartridges) Rope.(nylon) Ruler Rubber.boots Safety.glasses Scissors Scotch.tape Screwdrivers Small.collapsible.shovel Small.paint.brush Socket.set String/twine Synthetic.smoke Tape.measure Thermometer Tyvek.suit Zip-lock.bags

person’s.version.of.an.accident.should.be.obtained.as.soon.as.practical.before.his.or. her.memory.distorts.what.really.happened..There.are.two.circumstances.when.it.is. proper.to.postpone.questioning.of.injured.persons: . .

1.. Do.not.question.a.person.if.doing.so.delays.medical.treatment. 2..Do.not.question.a.person.who.is.extremely.upset.or.in.pain.

There. are. various. investigative. procedures. that. should. be. followed. during. an. investigation..The.following.procedures.should.be.followed.to.gain.maximum.results: . .

1.. The.investigator.should.possess.familiarity.with.the.equipment,.operation,. or.process.involved.that.is.likely.to.bring.about.accidents. 2..The.scope.of.the.investigation.and.the.size.of.the.investigation.team.should. be.determined.depending.on.the.nature.of.the.accident,.its.magnitude,.and. its.technical.complexity.

Accident/Incident Investigation

. . .

53

3..To. obtain. accurate. facts,. the. investigator. must. get. to. the. scene. as. promptly.as.possible. 4.. The. theory. of. multiple. causation. must. be. considered. when. investigating. accidents. 5..The.real.purpose.is.to.gather.facts.that.led.to.the.accident,.and.not.to.focus. emphasis.on.placing.blame.

The.investigator.will.need.to.maintain.a.notebook.that.will.include.observation,. data,. and. information. pertaining. to. the. investigation. as. it. proceeds. through. its. many.steps.and.phases..The.investigator’s.notebook.should,.at.a.minimum,.contain. the.following: . . . . . . . .

. .

.

.

1.. At.the.accident.scene,.it.is.the.investigator’s.job.to.gather.all.information: a.. Field.notes.are.the.continuous.written.record.of.the.investigation. b.. Notes.aid.in.the.investigation,.interviews,.follow-up.investigations,.and. if.called.to.testify.in.court. c.. Notes.are.the.basic.source.of.information.for.the.written.report. 2..The.notebook.itself: a.. The. inside. cover. should. have. information. as. to. the. owner:. name,. address.(office,.not.home),.and.telephone.number. b.. It.should.be.carried.at.all.times. c.. It.should.be.large.enough.to.allow.the.recording.of.substantial.information.on.each.page,.as.well.as.diagrams..Approximately.4.×.6.inches.is. considered.best. 3..Basic.essentials.to.include.in.field.notes: a.. Who? −. Who.was.involved? −. Who.discovered.the.incident? −. Who.saw,.or.heard,.something.of.importance? −. Who.was.interviewed? −. Who.marked.the.evidence? b.. What? −. What.happened? −. What.do.witnesses.know? −. What.evidence.was.obtained? −. What.action.was.taken? −. What.other.agencies.were.notified? −. What.time.did.the.incident.occur? −. What.time.did.you.arrive? c.. Where? −. Where.did.the.incident.occur? −. Where.were.the.victims? −. Where.were.the.witnesses? −. Where.was.evidence.marked? −. Where.was.the.individual.suspected.of.causing.the.incident?

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

d.. When? −. When.was.the.victim.last.seen? −. When.was.the.suspect.last.seen? −. When.did.help.arrive? e.. How? −. How.was.the.offense.committed? −. How.did.the.incident.occur? −. How.were.the.tools.or.weapons.obtained? −. How.did.you.get.your.information? f.. With.what? −. With.what.trade.or.profession.are.tools.or.evidence.associated? −. With.what.other.incident(s).is.this.one.related? g.. Why? −. Why.did.the.incident.occur? −. Why.was.it.reported? −. Why.were.witnesses.reluctant? −. Why.was.there.a.delay? h.. With.whom? −. With.whom.was.the.victim.seen? −. With.whom.are.the.witnesses.connected? i.. How.much? −. How.much.damage.was.done? −. How.much.property.is.missing?

The.actual.procedures.used.in.a.particular.investigation.depend.on.the.nature.and. results.of.the.accident..The.employer.must.determine.the.scope.of.the.investigation. based.on.the.amount.of.resources.available.for.the.investigation..The.following.procedure.should.(or.might).be.followed,.depending.on.the.accident:

ConDuCting tHE invEstigAtion Determine.who.will.conduct.the.investigation..This.may.be.a.single.individual.or. a. team. approach,. depending. on. the. availability. of. qualified. personnel.. No. matter. which. procedure. is. used,. someone. should. be. assigned. responsibility.. Some. effort. should.be.expended.in.briefing.everyone.involved.regarding.what.is.known.about. the. accident. and. providing. the. company. with. written. programs. and. procedures.. Other.information.might.include.photographs,.maps,.any.changes.since.the.accident,. events.prior.to.the.accident,.and.a.list.of.any.witnesses.

visit tHE sitE As.soon.as.feasibly.possible,.conduct.a.site.visit..The.site.should.have.been.secured.. Do.not.disturb.the.location.of.anything.on.the.site.unless.hazards.or.an.emergency. situation. exists.. Someone. may. need. to. make. sketches. or. take. photographs. of. the. site..Some.guidelines.for.sketches.and.photographs.can.be.found.in.Table 3.3.and. Table 3.4,.respectively.

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tABle 3.3 sketching checklist By.eliminating.irrelevant.details.and.adding.measurements,.you.can.often.sketch.a.scene.more.clearly. than.you.can.photograph.it..The.following.points.will.make.sketching.for.accident.maps.easy.without. sacrificing.accuracy. . 1.. Use.graph.paper..Let.each.square.represent.a.fixed.distance.such.as.a.foot,.and.write.the.scale.at. the.bottom.of.the.sketch. . 2.. Use.a.strip.of.graph.paper.to.measure.diagonals.on.the.sketch. . 3.. Locate.each.important.object.with.a.rough.outline. . 4.. Label.large.objects.inside.their.outline..Label.small.objects.outside.their.outline.with.an.arrow.to. the.object;.the.arrow.should.just.touch.the.object. . 5.. For.maps.with.a.lot.of.detail,.use.a.sketch.log..Use.double.letters.to.identify.reference.points.and. single.letters.to.identify.items.of.evidence. . 6.. Indicate.distances.of.movable.objects.from.at.least.two.fixed.points..Logs.for.detailed.maps.have. columns.for.measurement.data. . 7.. Include.a.north.arrow.in.each.sketch. . 8.. Mark.camera.positions.by.a.letter.inside.a.circle..Later,.the.appropriate.letter.should.be.used.on. each.print. . 9.. Identify.the.sketches.with.a.label,.data.box,.or.on.the.back.with.date,.time,.place,.description,. who did.the.sketch,.etc.,.just.as.you.would.a.photograph.

tABle 3.4 general uses of Photographs in Accident Investigations . 1.. Orientation.to.the.scene.of.an.accident . 2.. Record.of.the.detail.of.injury.and.damage . 3.. Record.of.relative.positions.of.large.numbers.of.items.or.damaged.fragments . 3.. Depiction.of.witnesses’.views.of.the.scene . 4.. Evidence.of.improper.assembly.or.use.of.equipment,.materials,.and.structures . 5.. Detail.of.marks,.spills,.instructional.aids,.signs,.etc. . 6.. Records.of.disassembly.of.parts.for.analysis.by.examination . 7.. Evidence.of.deterioration,.abuse,.and.lack.of.proper.maintenance . 8.. Location.of.parts,.or.other.evidence,.overlooked.during.early.stages.of.the.investigation . 9.. Depiction.of.the.sequence.of.failure.of.machines .10.. Analysis.worksheets .11.. Illustration.for.follow-on.training

Note:. A. photograph. log. should. be. maintained. in. order. to. document. what. was. photo.graphed.and.the.sequence.of.photos.(see.Table 3.5). As.the.site.is.viewed,.some.items,.which.should.be.recorded.by.position,.include . .

1.. The.dead.and.injured.people 2..Machines,.vehicles,.and.other.types.of.equipment.involved.in.or.affected. by.the.accident

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 3.5 Photograph log Accident Investigation Photography log Film roll Identification number: ________ date: ________ Film type, speed, & size: ________ Accident #: ________ Photo #

subject

location

lens/speed

Angle

comments

. 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. .10.

. . . . . . . . . .

3..Parts.broken.off.or.detached.from.equipment.and.materials 4.. Objects. that. were. broken,. damaged,. or. struck. during. or. as. a. result. of. the. accident 5..Gouges,. scratches,. dent,. paint. smears,. and. rubber. skid. marks,. etc.. on. surfaces 6..Tracks.or.similar.traces.of.movements 7..Defects.or.irregularities.in.surfaces 8..Accumulations.of,.or.stains.from,.fluids,.whether.existing.before.the.accident.or.spilled.as.a.result.of.the.accident 9..Spilled.or.contaminated.materials 10..Areas.of.debris 11.. Sources.of.distractions.or.adverse.environmental.conditions 12..Safety.devices.and.equipment

While.some.of.these.are.not.actually.parts.but.are.very.useful.elements.of.evidence,.some.parts.that.should.be.examined.to.see.if.they.should.be.extracted.from.the. accident.site.for.analysis.or.even.subjected.to.a.technical.examination.are.as.follows: . . . . .

1.. Components.of.equipment,.materials,.and.parts.of.structures.that.are.fractured,.distorted,.scarred,.chafed,.or.ruptured 2..Parts.suspected.of.internal.failure.or.subjected.to.sudden.stoppage.or.abnormal.stress.as.a.consequence.of.the.accident 3..Parts.suspected.of.improper.assembly.or.mating 4..Parts.suspected.of.deficient.material.in.fabrication,.improper.tempering.or. heat.treatment,.or.improper.bonding 5..Parts.or.components.that.seem.faulty.in.workmanship.or.deficient.in.design,. or.seem.to.have.inadequate.interface.with.other.equipment.and.materials

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. . . . . .

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6..Parts.improperly.mounted.or.inadequately.supported,.such.as.lines,..tubing,. fittings,. wiring. and. controls,. and. those. subjected. to. cyclical. operation,. vibration,.or.reactive.movement.of.pressure.or.tension 7.. Parts.requiring.or.showing.evidence.of.need.for.lubrication.or.surface.conditioning 8..Controls.and.position.or.operation.indicators 9..Parts.that.are.power.sources,.such.as.engines,.motors,.pumps,.transformers,.and.relays 10..Substitute.or.modified.component.parts 11.. Foreign.objects.and.parts.that.seem.different.in.smell,.color,.shape,.size,.or. location 12..Fluid.spills.and.stains,.as.well.as.parts.that.show.signs.of.leakage

The.site.visit.will.set.the.tone.for.the.remainder.of.the.investigation..It.will.probably.generate.as.many.questions.as.are.answered.by.the.site.visit..However,.the.site. visit.and.its.documentation.are.necessary.in.order.to.effectively.analyze.the.causes.of. the.accident.as.well.as.being.an.aid.in.the.completion.of.your.final.report..Once.all.the. physical.evidence.has.been.gathered,.it.is.time.to.interview.any.witnesses.or.victims.

intErviEwing Interviewer . 1.. Definition.of.interview:.the.art.and.science.of.questioning.or.talking.with. someone,.especially.to.get.information.or.to.gain.understanding. . 2..Before.the.interview: . a.. Be.prepared..Have.some.knowledge.of.the.situation. . i.. Gather.information.about.people,.circumstances,.and.the.situation. . ii.. Is.there.anything.similar.or.different.from.other.interview.circumstances? . iii.. What. about. the. people. involved?. We. see. people. differently.. Avoid. preconceptions. . iv.. Know.the.location.of.where.the.interviewer.is.going..Get.directions. . b.. Know.what.you.want.to.know.(plan): . i.. Specifics:.who,.what,.when,.where,.how. . ii.. Have.a.list.of.questions.to.ask. . iii.. Ask.open-ended.questions.to.get.responses.other.than.yes.or.no. . c.. Practice.interviewing: . i.. Listen.and.learn.from.voice.and.questions.(use.a.tape.recorder). . ii.. Talk.to.other.interviewers.or.help.as.needed. . iii.. Be.brief,.clear,.and.to.the.point. . d.. Personal: . i.. Most.difficult.interview—when.people.are.forced.to.talk.to.interviewers. . ii.. Key.(be.patient.with.yourself.and.have.confidence.in.yourself.as.the. interviewer).

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

iii.. Appearance.(appropriate.to.the.situation). iv.. Be.on.time. 3..The.interview: a.. Beginning: i.. Develop.personal.(respect,.understanding).relationship. ii.. Note.taking.(shorthand,.abbreviations). iii.. Be.very.observant: −. Verbal −. Nonverbal.(eye.movement,.body.position) b.. Middle: i.. Check.it.out.(everything,.anything). ii.. Ask.yourself: −. What.am.I.doing?.Am.I.getting.what.I.want? −. Do.the.facts.agree?.If.as.the.interviewer.you.do.not.understand,. ask.questions,.find.out. −. “Probing”.for.information.(examples:.“Tell.me.more.about.that”. or.“Anything.else?”). −. Set.the.pace.for.the.interview..If.pace.is.fast,.slow.down..Take. a.break;.walk.around. −. Ask. (who,. what,. when,. where,. how).. “Why”. often. elicits. an. emotional.response—opinions,.not.information. c.. The.end: i.. Review.the.outcome.of.what.has.been.accomplished..Tell.the..person. interviewed..Go.over.notes. ii.. Allows.the.interviewer.to.act.on.information.missed. iii.. Find.out.if.there.are.other.sources.of.information. iv.. When.the.interviewer.has.all.your.information:.Finish.by.standing. up,.making.contact.(thank.you),.be.quiet,.and.leave. 4..After.the.interview: a.. Record.immediately.any.impressions. b.. Separate.opinions.from.facts. c.. Go.over.the.notes.(i.e.,.reread,.fill.in). d.. Add.anything.additional. e.. Jot.down.added.questions.and.comments. f.. Make.decisions.about.future.interviews. g.. Take.a.break. h.. Review.positives.and.negatives. 5..Techniques: a.. Prompt.(through.making.comments.on.what.has.been.said)..Example:. “Yes,.and.what.about…?” b.. Nonverbal.cues.(silence,.pauses). c.. Be.pleasant.and.respond.to.people. d.. Be.permissive.(make.allowances.for.people.being.different). e.. Keep.pressure.or.coercion.off.yourself.(do.not.hassle.the.interviewee). f.. Be.yourself.(use.this.information.to.fit.you).

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Accurate Interviews When.possible,.the.victims.and.witnesses.should.be.interviewed.at.the.scene.of.the. accident..There.are.several.reason.why.this.is.the.best.procedure.to.follow: .

.

. .

1.. The.average.employee.has.difficulty.explaining.with.words.only,.how.an. accident.happened..At.the.scene,.the.employee.can.point.out.things..This. results.in.a.better.understanding.of.what.happened.and.why. 2..Employees.are.less.likely.to.stray.from.the.facts.when.they.are.telling.about. the.occurrence.at.the.scene.of.the.accident..When.not.at.the.scene,.some. employees.are.inclined.to.exaggerate.the.role.of.environmental.factors.as. contributors.to.the.accident. 3..Supervisors.can.better.evaluate.the.part.that.environmental.hazards.played. in.the.accident.when.they.see.the.work.areas.with.their.own.eyes. 4..Often,.supervisors.can.get.a.better.idea.of.what.needs.to.be.done.to.prevent. recurrence.when.they.have.the.opportunity.to.size.up.the.actual.situation. When.starting.the.interview,.follow.these.key.steps: •. •. •. •. •.

Remind.employees.of.the.investigation’s.purpose. Ask.employees.to.give.their.complete.version.of.the.accident. Ask.them.questions.to.fill.in.the.gaps. Check.your.understanding.of.the.accident. Discuss.how.to.prevent.this.type.of.accidents.recurrence.

expanding the Interview for details During.the.interview,.the.investigator.should.introduce.control.questions.to.ensure. the.accuracy.of.statistical.data.as.well.as.permit.subsequent.evaluation.of.the.reliability.of.information.supplied.by.the.witness..The.control.questions.should.include . .

.

. .

. . .

1.. Time.and.location.of.the.accident. 2..Environment:.weather,.lighting,.temperature,.noise,.distractions,.concealments..Include.pre-contact,.contact,.and.post-contact.time.periods.by.specific.questions. 3..Positions.of.people,.equipment,.material,.and.their.relationships.to.pre-contact,. contact,. and. post-contact. events.. Include. the. position. of. the. witness. being. interviewed. 4.. Other. witnesses,. known. as. well. as. those. unidentified. by. name,. and. their. positions. 5.. If. anything. was. moved,. repositioned,. turned. off. or. on,. or. taken. from. the. scene.(including.the.injured).during.pre-contact,.contact,.and.post-contact. phases. 6..Observations.of.the.response.of.emergency.teams.and.supervisory.personnel.and.their.actions.at.the.scene. 7..What.attracted.the.witness’.attention.to.the.accident? 8..What.would.the.witness.do.to.prevent.getting.involved.in.a.similar.accident. under.similar.circumstances?

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

At. times. it. is. useful. to. have. the. victim. and. other. persons. being. interviewed. reenact.the.accident..This.may.provide.some.answers.and.may.enhance.recall.of. some.details.previously.not.remembered..Reenactment.is.not.necessary.in.all.accident.investigations. evaluating the Witness’ state The.investigator.needs.to.analyze.the.witness.as.well.as.his.or.her.testimony.during. the.course.of.the.interview..He.should.consider.and.try.to.determine,.by.observation. or.direct.questions,.the.witness’.state.with.respect.to . . . . . . . . . .

1.. Delay.between.the.time.of.occurrence.of.the.accident.and.interview..People. forget.50.percent.to.80.percent.of.the.detail.in.just.a.24-hour.period. 2..Contact. with. principals. in. the. accident.. People. who. feel. they. have. faults. may.give.misleading.information.to.witnesses,.such.information.later.being. remembered.as.observation.rather.than.hearsay. 3..Contact.with.other.witnesses.with.domineering.personalities.or.perceived. expertise.that.distorts.the.witness’.memory. 4.. Contact. with. news. media. or. other. investigators. who. induce. inaccuracies. through. leading. questions. and. alleged. “facts”. or. opinions. they. present. for. substantiation. 5.. Signs.of.shock,.amnesia,.or.other.psychological.disturbance.resulting.from. the. accident.. Unpleasant. experiences. are. frequently. blanked. from. people’s. memory. 6..General.health.and.use.of.medication,.drugs,.or.alcohol,.all.of.which.affect. perception,.attention,.and.memory. 7..Personal.problems.in.any.of.the.areas.of.the.relationship.of.risk.to.stress.. Self-induced. stresses. cause. preoccupation. and. inattention,. which. may. be. masked.by.detailed.testimony. 8..Personal.interests.or.other.needs.to.end.the.interview,.evade.responsibility,. or.divert.an.investigator’s.inquiry.from.a.particular.subject.area. 9..Personality.types.with.resultant.tendencies. 10..Apparent. rationalizations.. Are. parts. of. the. witness’. story. entirely. too. smooth.and.complete.in.their.first.statement?.The.more.intelligent.a.witness. is,.the.stronger.their.tendency.to.mull.events.over.in.their.mind,.and.become. aware.of.gaps.and.supplement.knowledge.with.assumptions.from.an.honest. desire.to.give.coherent.information.

The.investigator.should.interview.each.victim.and.witness..Those.who.were.present.before.the.accident.and.those.who.arrived.at.the.site.shortly.after.the.accident. should.be.interviewed..Keep.accurate.records.of.each.interview..Use.a.tape.recorder. if.desired.and.if.approved.by.the.person.being.interviewed. summarizing the Interviewing Process After.interviewing.all.witnesses,.the.team.should.analyze.each.witness’.statement.. They. may. wish. to. re-interview. one. or. more. witnesses. to. confirm. or. clarify. key. points.. While. there. may. be. inconsistencies. in. witnesses’. statements,. investigators.

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should.assemble.the.available.testimony.into.a.logical.order..Analyze.this.information.along.with.data.from.the.accident.site. Not.all.people.react.in.the.same.manner.to.a.particular.stimulus..For.example,.a. witness.within.close.proximity.to.the.accident.may.have.an.entirely.different.story. from.one.who.saw.it.at.a.distance..Some.witnesses.may.also.change.their.stories. after.they.have.discussed.it.with.others..The.reason.for.the.change.may.be.additional.clues. A.witness.who.has.had.a.traumatic.experience.may.not.be.able.to.recall.the.details. of.the.accident..A.witness.who.has.a.vested.interest.in.the.results.of.the.investigation. may.offer.biased.testimony..Finally,.eyesight,.hearing,.reaction.time,.and.the.general. condition.of.each.witness.may.affect.his.or.her.powers.of.observation..A.witness.may. omit.entire.sequences.because.of.a.failure.to.observe.them.or.because.their.importance.was.not.realized. In.general,.experienced.personnel.should.conduct.interviews..If.possible,.the.team. assigned.to.this.task.should.include.an.individual.with.a.legal.background..In.conducting.interviews,.the.team.should . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.. Appoint.a.speaker.for.the.group. 2..Get.preliminary.statements.as.soon.as.possible.from.all.witnesses. 3..Locate.the.position.of.each.witness.on.a.master.chart.(including.the.direction.of.view). 4..Arrange.for.a.convenient.time.and.place.to.talk.to.each.witness. 5..Explain.the.purpose.of.the.investigation.(accident.prevention).and.put.each. witness.at.ease. 6..Listen;.let.each.witness.speak.freely,.and.be.courteous.and.considerate. 7..Take.notes.without.distracting.the.witness..Use.a.tape.recorder.only.with. the.consent.of.the.witness. 8..Use.sketches.and.diagrams.to.help.the.witness. 9..Emphasize.areas.of.direct.observation..Label.hearsay.accordingly. 10..Be.sincere.and.do.not.argue.with.the.witness. 11.. Record.the.exact.words.used.by.the.witness.to.describe.each.observation.. Do.not.put.words.into.a.witness’.mouth. 12..Word.each.question.carefully.and.be.sure.the.witness.understands. 13..Identify. the. qualifications. of. each. witness. (name,. address,. occupation,. years.of.experience,.etc.). 14..Supply.each.witness.with.a.copy.of.his.or.her.statement(s)..Signed.statements.are.desirable.

hAndlIng the evIdence The. gathering. of. evidence. is. a. fact-finding. process. that. provides. the. data. to. be. analyzed,.and.prevention.decisions.can.be.based.upon.the.findings..The.investigator’s.evidence.usually.comes.from.four.sources:.people,.locations,.equipment/parts/ accessories,.and.paper.documentation..The.evidence.sought.should.identify.what. was. normal,. what. occurred. abnormally,. what. time. it. occurred,. how. it. happened,. and.what.the.results.of.the.incident.were.

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

At.times,.specific.analytical.techniques.and.tests.must.be.performed.on.chemicals,. parts,.and.equipment.in.order.to.verify.suspicions,.such.as.that.a.faulty.or.damaged. part.existed..This.will.require.a.laboratory.test.to.support.your.other.evidence. Evidence. should. provide. reasons. why. the. accident. occurred,. the. sequence. of. events.leading.up.to.the.accident,.and.a.possible.or.plausible.event.sequence..When. you. have. collected. all. your. evidence,. you. will. want. to. use. one. or. more. analysis. techniques.discussed.in.Chapters.7.through.11..Once.all.facets.are.analyzed,.then. appropriate. interventions. and. prevention. activities. can. be. put. forward. and. a. final. report.on.the.incident.generated.

develoPIng AccIdent InvestIgAtIon Forms The.development.of.standard.accident.investigation.forms,.including.accident-specific. forms,. will. allow. the. investigator(s). to. make. comparisons. between. accidents. and. injuries.that.are.similar.or.caused.by.the.same.event,.because.evidence.or.data.have. been.collected.in.a.systematic.and.consistent.fashion.(see.Table 3.6)..Examples.of. various. accident. investigation. forms. can. be. found. in. Appendix. B.. These. forms. should.be.tailored.to.meet.the.investigators’.or.company’s.needs,.or.designed.to.fit. their.own.specifications..The.completed.accident.investigation.forms.will.assist.in. the.final.accident.report.

FInAl rePort oF InvestIgAtIon As.noted.earlier,.an.accident.investigation.is.not.complete.until.a.report.is.prepared. and.submitted.to.the.proper.authorities..Special.report.forms.are.available.in.many. cases..Other.instances.may.require.a.more.extended.report..Such.reports.are.often. very. elaborate. and. may. include. a. cover. page,. a. title. page,. an. abstract,. a. table. of. contents,.a.commentary.or.narrative.portion,.a.discussion.of.probable.causes,.and.a. section.on.conclusions.and.recommendations..The.following.outline.has.been.found. especially.useful.in.developing.the.information.to.be.included.in.the.formal.report: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.. Introduction: a.. Purpose.of.the.investigation b.. Scope.of.the.investigation c.. Who.is.the.investigator(s) 2..Description.of.the.accident: a.. Where.and.when.the.accident.occurred b.. Who.and.what.were.involved c.. Operating.personnel.and.other.witnesses d.. Account.of.the.accident.(what.happened?): i.. Sequence.of.events ii.. Extent.of.damage iii.. Accident.type iv.. Agency.or.source.(of.energy.or.hazardous.material) 3..How.was.the.accident.investigation.approached? 4..How.was.the.evidence.collected?

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tABle 3.6 Accident Investigation report Form ACCIDENT.NUMBER:.. ____________________________________________________________________ COMPANY..___________________________ . ADDRESS.._______________________________________ DEPARTMENT.OR.LOCATION.OF.ACCIDENT.IF.DIFFERENT.THAN.ABOVE: _________________________________________________________________________________________ WHO.WAS.INJURED,.ILL,.OR.DIED? NAME.OF.INJURED.. _____________________.SOCIAL.SECURITY.NUMBER. .____________________ SEX.. _________ .AGE.. .________ .DATE.OF.BIRTH.. .__________ .DATE.OF.ACCIDENT. .__________ HOME.ADDRESS.._______________________________ .TELEPHONE.#. .__________________________ EMPLOYEE’S.USUAL.OCCUPATION..________________________________________________________ OCCUPATION.AT.TIME.OF.ACCIDENT..______________________________________________________ LENGTH.OF.EMPLOYMENT..__________ .TIME.IN.OCCUP..AT.TIME.OF.ACCIDENT. . _____________ EMPLOYMENT.CATEGORY..___________________________________________________ .(i.e.,.full.time) TYPE.OF.INJURY.. _____________________________ .PART.OF.BODY. .__________________________ SEVERITY.OF.THE.INJURY.. _______________________________________________________________ NAMES.OF.OTHERS.INJURED.IN.SAME.ACCIDENT _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ WHEN.DID.THE.ACCIDENT.OCCUR? DATE.OF.ACCIDENT.______________________ .TIME.OF.ACCIDENT. .__________________________ SHIFT.. __________________________________________________________________________________ WHERE.DID.THE.ACCIDENT.OCCUR? LOCATION.OF.ACCIDENT.._________________________________________________________________ ON.EMPLOYER’S.PREMISE?.. ______________________________________________________________ ACTIVITY.AT.TIME.OF.ACCIDENT.._________________________________________________________ SUPERVISOR.IN.CHARGE.._________________________________________________________________ WHAT.HAPPENED.OR.CAUSED.THE.ACCIDENT? DESCRIBE.HOW.THE.ACCIDENT.OCCURRED _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ DESCRIBE.THE.ACCIDENT.SEQUENCE _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ CAUSAL.FACTOR _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ HOW.CAN.IT.BE.PREVENTED.FROM.OCCURRING.AGAIN? CORRECTIVE.ACTIONS _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ PREPARED.BY..___________________________________________________________________________ TITLE.. __________________________________________________________________________________ DEPARTMENT..___________________________________________________________________________ SIGNATURE..___________________________________________ .DATE. .__________________________

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. 5..Analysis.of.evidence.and.methodology.used: . a.. Direct.causes.(energy.sources,.hazardous.materials) . b.. Indirect.causes.(unsafe.acts.and.conditions) . c.. Basic.causes.(management.policies,.personal.or.environmental.factors) . 6..Discussion.of.findings,.outcomes,.and.conclusions . 7..Delineation.of.recommendations.and.interventions . 8..Follow-up.to.solutions . 9..Appendices: . a.. Accident.investigation.forms . b.. Documentation . c.. Analyses.results . d.. Interviewee’s.statements . 10..Signature.of.all.those.responsible.for.the.investigation

FolloW-uP Once.the.accident.investigation.process.is.complete.and.the.final.report.done,.a.review. process.should.be.in.place,.with.management.involvement,.to.determine.the.actions. to.take.regarding.the.findings.and.recommendations.from.the.final.report..A.process. should.be.installed,.or.formulated,.to.ensure.the.implementation.of.interventions.and. preventive.activities. Once.the.implementation.process.is.in.place.and.active,.its.overall.effectiveness. must.be.determined..You.will.want.to.know.how.the.accident.investigation.process. and.outcome.impact.your.safety.and.health.program,.and.this.allows.you.to.assess. the.need.for.change.in.your.safety.and.health.effort.

summAry Accident.investigations.are.an.integral.part.of.any.good.safety.and.health.initiative. or.program..Investigations.should.be.performed.for.all.accidents,.injuries,.illnesses,. property.damage,.and.near-miss.incidents..It.should.be.a.formalized.part.of.a.company’s.safety.and.health.commitment.

reFerences Reese,.C..D..and.J..V..Eidson..Handbook of OSHA construction safety & health..Boca.Raton,. FL:.CRC.Press/Lewis.Publishers,.1999. United.States.Department.of.Labor,.Occupational.Safety.and.Health.Administration,.Office.of. Training.and.Education..OSHA.Voluntary.Compliance.Outreach.Program:.Instructors. Reference.Manual..Des.Plaines,.IL:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.1993. United. States. Department. of. Labor,. National. Mine. Health. and. Safety.Academy..Accident. Prevention. Techniques:. Accident. Investigation.. Beckley,. WV:. U.S.. Department. of. Labor,.1984. United.State.Department.of.Labor,.Mines.Safety.and.Health.Administration..Accident.Investigation.(Safety.Manual.No..10)..Beckley,.WV:.U.S..Department.of.Labor,.Revised.1990.

4

Hazard Recognition and Avoidance

hAzArd IdentIFIcAtIon Potential.safety.hazards.come.from.a.large.number.of.sources..Each.poses.it.own. unique.danger.and.also.varies.greatly.in.the.degree.of.risk.that.it.poses.as.well.as. the. type. of. energy. that. it. can. release. when. not. prevented. or. controlled.. Table  4.1. provides.a.list.of.a.wide.range.of.equipment,.tools,.sources,.etc..that.can.cause.safety. hazards.to.exist.

emPhAsIs on hAzArds The.emphasis.in.this.chapter.is.on.safety.hazards..Hazards.are.defined.as.a.source. of.danger.that.could.result.in.a.chance.event.such.as.an.accident..A.danger.itself.is.a. potential.exposure.or.a.liability.to.injury,.pain,.or.loss..Not.all.hazards.and.dangers. are.the.same..Exposure.to.hazards.may.be.dangerous.but.this.depends.on.the.amount. of.risk.that.accompanies.it..The.risk.of.water.contained.by.a.dam.is.different.from. being.caught.in.a.small.boat.in.rapidly.flowing.water..Risk.is.the.possibility.of.loss.or. injury.or.the.degree.of.the.possibility.of.such.loss..Accidents.do.not.occur.if.a.hazard. does.not.exist.that.presents.a.danger.to.those.working.around.it..If.the.potential.exposure.is.high,.there.is.a.greater.risk.that.an.undesired.event.will.occur..An.accident. is.an.unplanned.or.undesirable.event.whose.outcome.is.normally.a.trauma..Trauma. is.the.injury.to.living.tissue.caused.by.some.outside.or.extrinsic.agent..Trauma.is. caused.by.an.agent,.force,.or.mechanism.impinging.on.the.human.body. The.emphasis.area.regarding.safety.hazards.will.be.to.identify.the.hazard.and.its. danger,.and.to.suggest.ways.to.remove,.intervene,.or.mitigate.its.risk.for.the.purpose. of.preventing.accidents.that.result.from.the.errant.uncontrolled.release.of.energy.that. normally.results.in.trauma.to.those.who.have.the.exposure.to.that.hazard.

AccIdent cAuses Experts.who.study.accidents.often.do.a.“breakdown”.or.analysis.of.the.causes..They. analyze.them.at.three.different.levels: . . .

1.. Direct.causes.(unplanned.release.of.energy.and/or.hazardous.material) 2..Indirect.causes.(unsafe.acts.and.unsafe.conditions) 3..Basic.causes.(management.safety.policies.and.decisions,.and.personal.factors)

65

66

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 4.1 Potential sources of safety hazard Acids Abrasives Biohazards Bloodborne.pathogens Blasting Caustics Chains Chemicals Compressed.gas.cylinders Conveyors Cranes Confined.spaces Derricks Electrical.equipment Elevators.and.manlifts Emergencies Environmental.factors Excavations Explosives Falls Fibers Fires Flammables Forklifts Fumes Generators Gases Hand.tools Hazardous.chemical.processes Hazardous.waste Heavy.equipment High.voltage Hoists Hoses Hot.items Hot.processes

Housekeeping/waste Ladders Lasers Lifting Lighting Loads Machines Materials Mists Noise Platforms Personal.protective.equipment Power.sources Power.tools Pressure.vessels Radiation Rigging Respirators Scaffolds Slings Solvents Stairways Storage.facilities Stored.materials Transportation.equipment Transportation.vehicles Trucks Unsafe.conditions Unsafe.act Ventilation Walkways.and.roadways Walls.and.floor.openings Warning.devices Welding.and.cutting Wire.ropes Working.surfaces

DirECt CAusEs Most.accidents.are.caused.by.the.unplanned.or.unwanted.release.of.large.amounts.of. energy,.or.of.hazardous.materials..In.a.breakdown.of.accident.causes,.the.direct.cause. is.the.energy.or.hazardous.material.released.at.the.time.of.the.accident..Accident. investigators. are. interested. in. finding. out. what. the. direct. cause. of. an. accident. is. because.this.information.can.be.used.to.help.prevent.other.accidents,.or.to.reduce.the. injuries.associated.with.them.

Hazard Recognition and Avoidance

67

Energy.is.classified.in.one.of.two.ways:.it.is.either.potential.or.kinetic.energy.. Potential energy.is.defined.as.stored.energy,.such.as.a.rock.on.the.top.of.a.hill..There. are. usually. two. components. to. potential. energy:. the. weight. of. the. object. and. its. height..The.rock.resting.at.the.bottom.of.the.hill.has.little.potential.energy.as.compared.to.the.one.at.the.top.of.the.hill. The.other.classification.is.kinetic.energy,.which.is.best.described.as.energy.motion.. Kinetic energy. depends. on. the. mass. of. the. object.. Mass. is. the. amount. of. matter. .making.up.an.object,.such.as.an.elephant.has.more.matter.than.a.mouse,.and.therefore. more.mass..The.weight.of.an.object.is.a.factor.of.the.mass.of.an.object.and.the.pull.of. gravity.on.that.object..Kinetic.energy.is.a.function.of.an.object’s.mass.and.its.speed.of. movement.(or.velocity)..A.bullet.thrown.at.you.has.the.same.mass.as.one.shot.at.you,. but.the.difference.is.in.the.velocity.and.there.is.not.any.disagreement.as.to.which.has. the.most.kinetic.energy.or.potential.to.cause.the.greatest.damage.or.harm. Energy.comes.in.many.forms,.and.each.has.its.own.unique.potential.for.release.of. energy.and.the.ensuing.form.of.danger.and.potential.for.an.accident.and.the.trauma.that. it.can.cause..The.forms.of.energy.are.pressure,.biological,.chemical,.electrical,.thermal,. light,.mechanical,.and.nuclear..Examples.of.each.form.of.energy.are.found.in.Table 4.2. If.the.direct.cause.is.known,.then.equipment,.materials,.and.facilities.can.be.redesigned.to.make.them.safer;.personal.protection.can.be.provided.to.reduce.injuries;.and. workers.can.be.trained.to.be.aware.of.hazardous.situations.so.that.they.can.protect. themselves.against.them..The.remainder.of.this.book.is.directed.toward.managing,. preventing,.and.controlling.hazards.that.occur.within.the.nation’s.industries.

hAzArd AnAlysIs Hazard.analysis.is.a.technique.used.to.examine.the.workplace.for.hazards.with.the. potential.to.cause.accidents..Hazard.identification,.as.envisioned.in.this.section,.is.a. worker-oriented.process..The.workers.are.trained.in.hazard.identification.and.asked. to.recognize.and.report.hazards.for.evaluation.and.assessment..Management.is.not. as.close.to.the.actual.work.being.performed.as.are.those.performing.the.work..Even. supervisors.can.use.extra.pairs.of.eyes.looking.for.areas.of.concern. Workers.may.already.have.hazard.concerns.and.have.often.devised.ways.to.mitigate.the.hazards,.thus.preventing.injuries.and.accidents..This.type.of.information.is. invaluable.when.removing.and.reducing.workplace.hazards. This. approach. to. hazard. identification. does. not. require. that. someone. with. special.training.conduct.it..It.can.usually.be.accomplished.using.a.short.fill-in-the-blank. questionnaire..This.hazard.identification.technique.works.well.where.management.is. open.and.genuinely.concerned.about.the.safety.and.health.of.its.workforce..The.most. time-consuming. portion. of. this. process. is. analyzing. the. assessment. and. response. regarding.potential.hazards.identified..Empowering.workers.to.identify.hazards,.make. recommendations.on.abatement.of.the.hazards,.and.then.suggest.how.management. can.respond.to.these.potential.hazards.is.essential..Only.three.responses.are.required: . . .

1.. Identify.the.hazard(s). 2..Explain.how.the.hazard(s).could.be.abated. 3..Suggest.what.the.company.could.do..Use.a.form.similar.to.the.one.found.in. Table 4.3.

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tABle 4.2 Forms of energy and examples of their sources Pressure energy

light energy

Pressurized.vessel Caisson.work Explosives Noise Compressed.gases Steam.source Liquefied.gases Air.under.pressure Diving Confined.spaces

Intense.light Lasers Infrared.sources Microwaves Sun Ultraviolet.light Welding RF.fields Radio.frequency

Biological energy Allergens Biotoxins Pathogens Poisonous.plants

nuclear energy Alpha.particles Beta.particles High-energy.nuclear.particles Neutrons Gamma.rays X-rays

chemical energy Corrosive.materials: . Flammable/combustible.materials . Toxic.chemicals . Compressed.gases . Carcinogens . Confined.spaces . Oxidizing.materials Reactive.materials: . Poisonous.chemicals.and.gases . Explosives . Acids.and.Bases . Oxygen.deficiency.atmosphere . Fuels . Dusts.or.powders

thermal (heat) energy Chemical.reactions Combustible.materials Cryogenic.materials Fire Flames Flammable.materials Friction Hot.processes Hot.surfaces Molten.metals Steam Solar Weather.phenomena Welding

electrical energy Capacitors: . Transformers Energized.circuits: . Power.lines . Batteries . Exposed.conductors . Static.electricity Lightning

Hazard Recognition and Avoidance

69

tABle 4.3 hazard Identification Form hAzArd IdentIFIcAtIon Form Worker’s.Name.(Optional):.._____________________________.Date:. ._________________________ Jobsite:.._________________________________________ .Job.Titles:. ._________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ . 1.. Describe.the.hazard.that.exists. ____________________________________________________________________________________ . 2.. What.are.your.recommendations.for.reducing.or.removing.the.hazard? ____________________________________________________________________________________ . 3.. What.suggestions.do.you.have.for.management.for.handling.the.hazard? ____________________________________________________________________________________ . 4.. Manager’s.or.supervisor’s.response.to.hazard.concern.identified. ____________________________________________________________________________________ NOTE: Use a Separate Form for Each Hazard Identified.

The. information. obtained. from. the. hazard. identification. process. provides. the. foundation.for.making.decisions.upon.which.jobs.should.be.altered.in.order.for.the. worker.to.perform.the.work.safer.and.expeditiously..Also,.this.process.allows.workers.to.become.more.involved.in.their.own.destiny..For.some.time,.involvement.has. been.recognized.as.a.key.motivator.of.people..This.is.also.a.positive.mechanism.for. fostering.labor/management.cooperation. It.is.important.to.remember.that.a.worker.may.perceive.something.as.a.hazard,. when.in.fact.it.may.not.be.a.true.one;.the.risk.may.not.match.the.ranking.that.the. worker. places. on. it.. Also,. even. if. hazards. do. exist,. you. need. to. prioritize. them.. Companies.need.to.prioritize.them.according.to.the.ones.that.can.be.handled.quickly,. the.ones.that.may.take.time,.or.those.that.will.cost.money.above.their.budget..If.the. correction.will.cause.a.large.capital.expense.and.the.risk.is.real.but.does.not.exhibit. an.extreme.danger.to.life.and.health,.companies.might.need.to.wait.until.next.year’s. budget.cycle..An.example.of.this.would.be.when.workers.complain.of.a.smell.and. dust.created.by.a.chemical.process..If.the.dust.is.not.above.accepted.exposure.limits. and.the.smell.is.not.overwhelming,.then.the.company.may.elect.to.install.a.new.ventilation.system—but.not.until.the.next.year.because.of.budgetary.constraints..The. use.of.PPE.until.the.hazard.can.be.removed.would.be.required. Hazard.identification.is.a.process.controlled.by.management..Management.must. assess.the.outcome.of.the.hazard.identification.process.and.determine.if.immediate. action.is.necessary.or.if,.in.fact,.there.is.an.actual.hazard.involved..When.the.company. does.not.view.a.reported.hazard.as.an.actual.hazard,.it.is.critical.to.the.ongoing.process. to.inform.the.workers.that.the.company.does.not.view.it.as.a.true.hazard.and.explain. why..This.will.ensure.the.continued.cooperation.of.workers.in.hazard.identification. The. expected. benefits. are. a. decrease. in. the. incidence. of. injuries,. a. decrease. in. lost. workdays. and. absenteeism,. a. decrease. in. workers’. compensation. costs,. increased.productivity,.and.better.cooperation.and.communication..The.baseline.for. determining. the. benefit. of. hazard. identification. can. be. formulated. from. existing.

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company.data.on.occupational.injuries.and.illnesses,.workers’.compensation,.attendance,.profit,.and.production.

WorksIte hAzArd AnAlysIs Worksite.analysis.is.the.process.of.identifying.hazards.related.to.a.project,.process,. or. activities. at. the. worksite.. Identify. hazards. before. determining. how. to. protect. employees.. In. performing. worksite. analyses,. consider. not. only. hazards. that. currently.exist,.but.also.hazards.that.could.occur.because.of.changes.in.operations.or. procedures. or. because. of. other. factors,. such. as. concurrent. work. activities.. First,. perform.hazard.analyses.of.all.activities.and.projects.prior.to.the.start.of.work,.determine.the.hazards.involved.with.each.phase.of.the.project,.and.perform.regular.safety. and. health. site. inspections.. Second,. require. supervisors. and. employees. to. inspect. their.work.areas.prior.to.the.start.of.each.shift.or.new.activity,.investigate.accidents. and.near-misses,.and.analyze.trends.in.accident.and.injury.data. When.performing.a.worksite.analysis,.all.hazards.should.be.identified..This.means. conducting.comprehensive.baseline.worksite.surveys.for.safety.and.health.and.periodic. comprehensive.updated.surveys..Companies.must.analyze.planned.and.new.facilities,. processes,.materials,.and.equipment,.as.well.as.perform.routine.job.hazard.analyses.. This.also.means.that.regular.site.safety.and.health.inspections.should.be.conducted.so. that.new.or.previously.missed.hazards.and.failures.in.hazard.controls.are.identified. A.hazard.reporting/response.program.should.be.developed.to.utilize.employees’. insight.and.experience.in.safety.and.health.protection..Employees’.concerns.should. be.addressed,.and.a.reliable.system.should.be.provided.whereby.employees,.without.fear.of.reprisal,.can.notify.management.personnel.about.conditions.that.appear. hazardous..These.notifications.should.receive.timely.and.appropriate.responses,.and. employees.should.be.encouraged.to.use.this.system. Another. way. to. maintain. a. worksite. hazard. analysis. is. to. investigate. accidents. and. near-miss. incidents. so. that. their. causes,. and. means. for. their. prevention,. are. identified..By.analyzing.injury.and.illness.trends.over.a.period.of.time,.patterns.with. common.causes.can.be.identified.and.prevented. Each.company.may.require.different.types.of.hazard.analyses,.depending.on.the. company’s.role,.the.size.and.complexity.of.the.worksite,.and.the.nature.of.associated. hazards..The.company.may.choose.to.use.a.project.hazard.analysis,.a.phase.hazard. analysis,.or.job.safety.assessment. A.project.hazard.analysis.(preliminary.hazard.analysis).should.be.performed.for. each.project.prior.to.the.start.of.work.and.should.provide.a.basis.for.the.project-specific. safety.and.health.plan..The.project.hazard.analysis.should.identify.the.following: . . . .

1.. The.anticipated.phases.of.the.project 2..The.types.of.hazards.likely.associated.with.each.anticipated.phase 3.. The. control. measures. necessary. to. protect. site. workers. from. the. identified. hazards 4..Those.phases.and.specific.operations.of.the.project.for.which.activities.or. related. protective. measures. must. be. designed,. supervised,. approved,. or. inspected.by.a.registered.professional.engineer.or.competent.person

Hazard Recognition and Avoidance

.

71

5..Phases. and. specific. operations. of. the. project. that. will. require. further. analyses.are.those.that.have.a.complexity.of.potential.hazards.or.unusual. activities.involved;.those.where.there.may.be.uncertainty.concerning.the. worksite’s.condition.at.the.time.of.project;.or.those.where.there.is.concern. for.methods.that.will.be.used.to.complete.a.phase.or.operation

A. phase. hazard. analysis. may. be. performed. for. those. phases. of. the. project. for. which.the.project.hazard.analysis.has.identified.the.need.for.further.analysis,.and.for. those.phases.of.the.project.for.which.methods.or.site.conditions.have.changed.since. the.project.hazard.analysis.was.completed..The.phase.hazard.analysis.is.performed. prior. to. the. start. of. work. on. that. phase. of. the. project. and. is. expanded,. based. on. the.results.of.the.project.hazard.analysis,.to.provide.a.more.thorough.evaluation.of. related.work.activities.and.site.conditions..As.appropriate,.the.phase.hazard.analysis. should.include . . . . .

1.. Identification.of.the.specific.work.operations.or.procedures 2..An.evaluation.of.the.hazards.associated.with.the.specific.chemicals,.equipment,.materials,.and.procedures.used.or.present.during.the.performance.of. that.phase.of.work 3..An.evaluation.of.how.safety.and.health.has.impacted.any.changes.in.the. schedule;.and.how.work.procedures.or.site.conditions.that.have.occurred. since.performance.of.the.project.hazard.analysis.need.to.be.completed 4..Identification. of. specific. control. measures. necessary. to. protect. workers. from.the.identified.hazards 5..Identification.of.specific.operations.for.which.protective.measures.or.procedures.must.be.designed,.supervised,.approved,.or.inspected.by.a.registered. professional.engineer.or.competent.person

A.job.safety.assessment.or.analysis.should.be.performed.at.the.start.of.any.task. or. operation.. The. designated. competent. or. authorized. person. should. evaluate. the. task.or.operation.to.identify.potential.hazards.and.determine.the.necessary.controls.. This.assessment.should.focus.on.actual.worksite.conditions.or.procedures.that.differ. from.or.were.not.anticipated.in.the.related.project.or.phase.hazard.analysis..In.addition,.the.authorized.person.should.ensure.that.each.employee.involved.in.the.task.or. operation.is.aware.of.the.hazards.related.to.the.task.or.operation.and.of.the.measures. or.procedures.that.workers.and.visitors.must.use.to.protect.themselves..Note:.The.job. safety.assessment.is.not.intended.to.be.a.formal,.documented.analysis,.but.instead.is. more.of.a.quick.check.of.actual.site.conditions.and.a.review.of.planned.procedures. and.precautions..A.more.detailed.explanation.of.job.safety.analysis.is.provided.in. Chapter.12.

trAInIng on hAzArd IdentIFIcAtIon Supervisors.and.workers.must.be.trained.to.both.identify.hazards.in.order.to.prevent.accidents,.and.to.identify.existing.and.potential.hazards.that.may.prevail.in.the. workplace..When.looking.at.specific.jobs,.identify.the.hazards.by.breaking.down.the.

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Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

job.into.a.step-by-step.sequence.and.identifying.potential.hazards.associated.with. each.step..Consider.the.following: . . . . .

1.. Is. there. a. danger. of. striking. against,. being. struck. by,. or. otherwise. making.injurious.contact.with.an.object?.(Example:.Can.tools.or.materials.be. dropped.from.overhead,.striking.workers.below?) 2..Can. the. employee. be. caught. in,. on,. or. between. objects?. (Example:. an. unguarded.V-belt,.gears,.or.reciprocating.machinery.) 3..Can.the.employee.slip,.trip,.or.fall.on.the.same.level,.or.to.another.level?. (Example:.slipping.in.an.oil-changing.area.of.a.garage,.tripping.on.material. left.on.stairways,.or.falling.from.a.scaffold.) 4..Can. the. employee. strain. him-. or. herself. by. pushing,. pulling,. or. lifting?. (Example:.pushing.a.load.into.place.or.pulling.a.load.on.a.hand.truck.) 5..Does.the.environment.have.hazardous.toxic.gas,.vapors,.mist,.fumes,.dust,. heat,.or.ionizing.or.nonionizing.radiation?.(Example:.Arc.welding.on.galvanized.sheet.metal.produces.toxic.fumes.and.nonionizing.radiation.)

During.training,.practice.identifying.all.hazards.or.potential.hazards..With.identification.of.the.hazards,.take.steps.to.prevent.the.accidents.or.incidents.from.occurring..If.the.hazards.are.known,.it.is.easier.to.develop.interventions.that.mitigate.the. risk.potential..These.interventions.may.be.in.the.form.of.safe.operating.procedures.. Training. workers. to. identify. potential. or. real. hazards. as. quickly. as. possible. definitely.will.reduce.the.number.of.accidents/incidents.that.could.occur..Once.hazards. are.identified,.the.company.must.have.a.system.of.reporting.these.hazards.that.is. accompanied.by.real-time.response.by.supervision.and.management.

WorksIte hAzArd IdentIFIcAtIon Employers.must.identify.the.workplace.hazards.before.they.can.determine.how.to. protect. their. employees.. In. performing. worksite. hazard. identification,. employers. must.consider.not.only.hazards.that.currently.exist.in.the.workplace,.but.also.those. hazards.that.could.occur.because.of.changes.in.operations.or.procedures,.or.because. of.other.factors.such.as.concurrent.work.activities..For.this.element,.employers.should . . . . .

1.. Perform.hazard.identification.of.all.worksites.prior.to.the.start.of.work. 2..Perform.regular.safety.and.health.inspections. 3..Require.supervisors.and.employees.to.inspect.their.workspace.prior.to.the. start.of.each.work.shift.or.new.activity. 4..Investigate.accidents.and.near-misses. 5..Analyze.trends.in.accident.and.injury.data.

So.that.all.hazards.are.identified,.conduct.comprehensive.baseline.worksite.surveys. for. safety. and. health,. and. perform. periodic. comprehensive. updated. surveys.. Analyze.planned.and.new.facilities,.processes,.materials,.and.equipment..Perform. routine.job.hazard.analyses. Provide. for. regular. site. safety. and. health. inspections. to. identify. new. or. previously.missed.hazards.and.failures.in.hazard.controls..So.that.employee.insight.and.

73

Hazard Recognition and Avoidance

experience.in.safety.and.health.protection.can.be.utilized.and.employee.concerns. can. be. addressed,. provide. a. reliable. system. wherein. employees,. without. fear. of. reprisal,.can.notify.management.personnel.about.conditions.that.appear.hazardous. and.receive.timely.and.appropriate.responses;.and.encourage.employees.to.use.the. system... Provide. for. investigation. of. accidents. and. near-miss. incidents. to. identify. both.their.causes.and.means.for.their.prevention..Analyze.injury.and.illness.trends. over.time.so.that.patterns.with.common.causes.can.be.identified.and.prevented.

rAnkIng hAzArds Once.a.number.of.hazards.have.been.identified,.a.mechanism.for.ranking.the.hazards.. needs.to.exist..The.employer.can.devise.his.own.or.use.someone.else’s.approach..An. approach. is. provided. in. this. section. that. can. be. tailored. and. revised. to. meet. the. company’s.needs. The.main.purposes.of.ranking.hazards.are.to.determine.which.hazards.should.be. addressed.first.and.provide.a.method.to.prioritize.this..The.first.step.is.to.determine. the.probability.of.the.hazarding.occurring..This.can.be.combined.with.its.severity. or.the.outcomes.of.its.occurrence..To.have.some.numeric.values.to.compare,.start. with.Probability.(P).multiplied.by.Outcomes/Severity.(OS);.the.product.becomes.the. .factor.of.potential.exposure.and.the.outcome.of.exposure..These.estimates.can.come. from.the.hazard.analysis.and.past.history.from.accident.records. For. occupational. exposure. purposes,. the. values. in. Table  4.4. can. be. used. for. Probability;.for.Outcome/Severity,.Table 4.5.can.be.used.to.determine.an.OS.value. tABle 4.4 Probability of exposure values Frequency (exposure)

P value

Frequently.(daily) Likely.(weekly) Occasional.(monthly) Seldom.(yearly) Unlikely.(every.5.years)

5 4 3 2 1

tABle 4.5 severity and outcome of exposure values outcome Catastrophic Critical Moderate Minor Negligible

severity

os value

Deaths.and.multiple.employees.in.hospital Severe.disabling.injury.or.illness Medical.treatment First.aid.required No.injury.or.illness

5 4 3 2 1

74

Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques

tABle 4.6 resultant effect of Impact (reI) values reI

Worker

Property

Very.High.–.5

Death

Total.loss

High.–.4

Critical.or.severe

Major.repairs

Medium.–.3

Medical.treatment

Low.–.2 Very.Low.–.1

First.aid No.injury.or.illness

Minor.repairs.to. operate Cosmetic.repairs No.damage

Productivity Down.longer.than.a. week Down.less.than.a. week Down.less.than. 2 days Down.for.a.shift No.downtime

economic ≥$10,000