AASHTO_Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works.pdf
March 31, 2017 | Author: Hugo Egoavil Perea | Category: N/A
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
= 0639804
0033532 OLA
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Ob39804 0033533 T 5 4
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Executive Committtee 1994-1995
Voting Members Officers: President: Wayne Shackelford,Georgia Vice President: Bill Burnett, Texas Secretary/Treasurer: Clyde E. Pyers, Maryland
Regional Representatives: Region I
Patrick Garahan, Vermont
Region II
Ben Watts, Florida
Region III
Darre1 Rensink, Iowa
Region IV
Larry Bonine, Arizona
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Non-Voting Members Executive Director: Francis B. Francois, Washington, D.C.
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I
Ob37804 0031534 7 7 0
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75
AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures 1995 JAMES E. SIEBELS, COLORADO, Chairman G. CHARLES LEWIS, GEORGIA, Vice Chairman STANLEY GORDON, FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION, Secretary
PENNSYLVANIA, Mahendra G. Pate1 PUERTO RICO, Jose L. Melendez, Hector Camacho RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhournand SOUTH CAROLINA, Rocque L. Kneece SOUTH DAKOTA, John C. Cole TENNESSEE, Ed Wasserman TEXAS, Charles C. Terry U.S. DOT, Stanley Gordon (FHWA), Nick E. Mpars (USCG) UTAH, David L. Christensen VERMONT, Warren B. Tripp VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley WASHINGTON, M. Myint Lwin WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods WYOMING, David H. Pope ALBERTA, Dilip K.Dasmohapatra MANITOBA, W. Saltzberg NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS, John C. Pangalinan NEW BRUNSWICK, G.A. Rushton NEWFOUNDLAND, Peter Lester NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, Jivko Jivkov NOVA SCOTIA, C.Y.S. Nguan ONTARIO, Ranjit S . Reel SASKATCHEWAN,Lome J. Hamblin ENGLAND, Philip J. Andrews MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM., David Lenhardt N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Wallace R. Grant PORT AUTHORITY OF NY & NJ, Joseph K. Kelly NY STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William Moreau BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, (vacant) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-FOREST SERVICE, Steve L. Bunnell MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT COMMAND, (vacant) U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEER-DEPT. OF THE ARMY, Paul C. T. Tan
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ALABAMA, William F. Conway ALASKA, Steve Bradford, Ray Shumway ARIZONA, William R. Bruesch, F. Daniel Davis ARKANSAS, Dale F. Loe CALIFORNIA, James E. Roberts COLORADO, A.J. Siccardi CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton DELAWARE, Chao H. Hu D.C., Gary A. Burch, Charles F. Williams, Jacob Patnaik FLORIDA, Jerry Potter GEORGIA, Paul Liles HAWAII, Donald C. Ornellas IDAHO, L. Scott Stokes ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson INDIANA, John J. White IOWA, William A. Lundquist KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst KENTUCKY, Richard Sutherland LOUISIANA, Wayne Aymond MAINE, Larry L. Roberts, James E. Tuley MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman MASSACHUSETTS, Joseph P.Gill MICHIGAN, Sudhakar Kulkarni MINNESOTA, Donald J. Flemming MISSISSIPPI, Wilbur F. Massey MISSOURI, Allen F. Laffoon MONTANA, William S . Fullerton NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon NEVADA, Floyd I. Marcucci NEW HAMPSHIRE, James A. Moore NEW JERSEY, Robert Pege NEW MEXICO, Martin A. G a r n i c k NEW YORK, Michael J. Cuddy, Amn Shirole NORTH CAROLINA, John L. Smith NORTH DAKOTA, Steven J. Miller OHIO, B.David Hanhilammi OKLAHOMA, Veldo M. Goins OREGON, Terry J. Shike
...
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AASHTO T I T L E
CHBTW 95 œ Ob39804 0033535 827 œ
PREFACE
This construction handbook has been developed for use by contractors and construction engineers involved in bridge consíruction on Federal-aid highway projects. This document may also be of interest to faisework design engineers, and supplements information found in the Guide Design Specgcation for Bridge
Temporary Works.") The content is construction-oriented, focusing primarily on standards of material quality and means and methods of construction. The handbook contains chapters on falsework, formwork, and temporary retaining structures. For more indepth discussion on a particular topic, related literature and references are identified. This study was conducted under FHWA Contract No. DTFH61-91-C-O0088by Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., Northbrook, Illinois. The project was directed by the Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Task --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Group of the FHWA, whose comments and review were very helpful in the preparation of this document. The
task group consisted of the following Federal, State, and industry representatives: Sheila Rimai Duwadi, Federal Highway Administration James R. Hoblitzeii. Federal Highway Administration Donald W. Miller, Federal Highway Administration William S. Cross, Federal Highway Administration Ian M. Friedland, Transportation Research Board James M. Stout, California Department of Transportation Donald Flemming, Minnesota Department of Transportation Nick Yaksich, Associated General Contractors Kent Starwait, American Road and Transportation Builders Association Ramon Cook, The Burke Company Robert Desjardins, Cianbro Corp. Richard F. Hoffman, McLean Contracting Robert T. Ratay, Consulting Engineer Additional information and input was solicited from other individuals and indusuy associations in their fields of interest. Special recognition is extended to representatives of the Shoring and Forming Engineering Committee of the Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute: L.Edwin Dunn, California Department of Transportation (Retired); Robert G. Lukas, Ground Engineering Consultants, Inc.; Alan D. Fisher, Cianbro Corporation: Mark K. Kaler, Dayton-Superior Corporation: Harry B. Lancelot, Richmond Screw Anchor Company; Donald F. Meinheit and Raymond H.R. Tide.
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AASHTO
TITLE CHBTW 95
Ob39804 003L53b 7b3
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Chapter 1.
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................
SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RELATED PUBLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.
FALSEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manufactured Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shallow Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DeepFoundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protection of the Foundation Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TimberConstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical Shoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cable Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridge Deck Falsework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traffic Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loads During Falsework Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concrete Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Load Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OtherConditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VerticalTake-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspection During Concrete Placement ............................... Inspection After Concrete Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
FORMWORK
.........................................................
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Form Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORMWORKTYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Job-Built Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modular Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stay-in-Place Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gang Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Girder Forms .............................................. CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORM MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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1 1 1 2 3
3 3
7 10 12 12 13 14 19 19 19 21 24 25 27 30 30 30 30 32 32 32 32 33 33 35
35 35 36 40 43
47 49 50 50 51 51 53 54 56
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 W 0 6 3 9 8 0 4 0033537 LTT
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Chapter 4
.
Page
TEMPORARY RETAINING STRUCTURES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Woodsheeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SoldierPiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel Sheet Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tangent Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECTION OF COFFERDAM SCHEME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RELATIVECOSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECTION OF SUPPORT METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEALING AND BUOYANCY CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEEPAGE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Timber Sheet Pile Cofferdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soldier PileAiVood Lagging Cofferdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soiland Rock Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59 59 62 62 66 67 68
70 70
71 72 75 76 76 77 78 80 83
APPENDIX A . SECTION PROPERTIES OF STANDARD DRESSED (S4S) AND ROUGH SAWN LUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
APPENDIX B. FALSEWORK AND FORMWORK DESIGN EXAMPLES
91
.
APPENDIX C RECOMMENDED THICKNESSES OF WOOD LAGGING APPENDIX D. STEEL SHEET PILE DATA
..................
113
........................................
115
.............................................................
121
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REFERENCES
....................
vi Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHETW 95 W Ob39804 0031538 5 3 6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Page
1.
Acceptable and unacceptable weld profiles
2.
Shapes in which knots appear in various structurai members and methods of measuremen.t
3.
Determination of combined slope of grain...........................................
4.
Frame and braced tower buckling modes
5.
Adjustable horizontal shoring beams spanning between bridge piers and temporary timber bents
6.
Adjustable overhang bracket for precast concrete stringer ...............................
7.
Analysis of plate bearing tests
..................................................
15
8.
Analysis of pile loading tests
..................................................
16
9.
Washout under sill support
..........................................
7
. . . . . . . .9
..........................................
9
11
.... 11 12
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10.
.................................................... 17 Sole plate and bracing details for falsework supported on a sloped surface ...................17
11 .
Timber cross-bracing between longitudinal stringers
12.
Cantilevered ledger beam at temporary pile bent
13.
Examples of plan bracing of modular frames
14.
Bracing detail for screw leg supporting a sloped soffit
15.
Typical installation of wire rope clip..............................................
25
16.
Bridgedeck falsework
.......................................................
26
17.
Traffícopenings
18.
Deformation of spans subject to post-tensioning
.....................................
31
19.
Formworkcomponents .......................................................
35
20.
Plywood sheathing for horizontal formwork
........................................
36
21.
Form ties
................................................................
45
22.
Coil tiesystem
23 .
Exterior and interior formwork hangers
24.
Distribution of concrete pressure with form height
25 .
Lateral pressure of concrete on formwork
..................................
20
.....................................
20
.......................................
22
.................................
...........................................................
23
28
.............................................................
...........................................
47
....................................
48
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49
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
28.
m
Page
......................................................... 50 Assembled gang form ............................................. ......... 52
Job-buiit formwork
32.
................................................ 52 Plate girder form spanning between two supports .................................... 53 Plate girder forms used to fom a bridge pier ....................................... 54 Vibration of concrete ........................................................ 55 Installation of wedges .......................................................55
33.
Coilboltassembly ..........................................................
34.
Typicalcofferdams
35 .
Internally braced cofferdam systems
36.
Self-supporting and externally anchored cofferdam systems
37 .
Types of timber sheet piling
38 .
Louver effect for woad lagging
39.
Steel soldier piles
40.
Concrete in-fill between soldier piles
41.
Wood lagging to front flange
42.
Typical steel sheet-piling sections
...............................................
66
43 .
Typical pile arrangements .....................................................
67
44.
Peneiration of sheeting required to prevent piping in isotropic sand
........................
73
45 .
Penetration of sheeting required to prevent piping in stratified sand
........................
74
46.
Wood sheeting systems
......................................................
76
47 .
Soldier pile retained with soil anchors
............................................
78
48.
Sheet pile àriving procedure
...................................................
79
49.
Sheet pile installation
........................................................
84
50.
Typical framing arrangements
..................................................
86
51.
Typical connection for inclined brace and horizontal wale
..............................
87
29. 30. 31 .
Gang form for wali construction
......................................................... .............................................
56
60 60
............................. 61
...................................................
63
.................................................
64
..........................................................
64
.............................................
65
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65
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27.
Ob39804 0033539 472
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
.
Figure No
26.
m
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
.
= Ob37804
003L540 1 9 4
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Page
Figure No 52.
Typical wale and anchor rod details
..............................................
88
53.
92
54.
............................................ Load-deflection curve for steel overhang bracket ....................................
55 .
Needle beam for slab overhang
56.
Pier cap on friction collar
57 .
Normal interlock swing is at least 10" on arch web and straight web shapes
58.
Steel sheet piling interlocks in the normal position
59.
Slab falsework with overhang bracket
................................................
101
....................................................
105
.................
.................................. Steel sheet piling interlocks in the reverse position (not recommended) ....................
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98
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116
117 117
Ob39404 003l154L O20
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
LIST OF TABLES
.
Page
Table No
1.
Early ASTM steel specifications
2.
.................................................
3
Permissible variations in cross section for W and HP shapes
4
3.
Permissible variations in camber and sweep
............................. .........................................
4
4.
Matching filler metal requirements ................................................
6
5.
Referred analysis of carbon steel for good weldability..................................
6
. 7.
Fahework depth and span relationship
8.
Formulas for stress and deflection calculations for plywood
6
............................................
29
Grade-use guide for Plyform sheathing ............................................
37
9.
............................. 38 Section properties for Plyform Class I and Class II. and Structural I Plyform ................. 39
10.
Design stresses for Plyform
11.
Formulas for safe support spacings of joists and ledgers
12.
Beam formulas
13.
Typical equipment for construction of tiebacks
14.
Section properties of standard dressed (S4S) lumber
15.
Section properties of rough sawn lumber
16.
Recommended thickness of wood lagging for various soil types
17.
Standard sheet piling (cuca 1972)
18.
H-pileproperties
...................................................
39
................................
41
............................................................
42
......................................
81
..................................
89
..........................................
90
.........................
113
..............................................
118
..........................................................
119
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95 W Ob39804 0031542 Tb7 D
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO AC1 AISC
AIS1 AITC
ANSI APA ASCE ASTM AWS BOCA FHWA NAVFAC NDS NFPA OSHA
UBC
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials American Concrete Institute American Institute of Steel Construction American Iron and Steel Institute American Institute of Timber Construction American National Standards Institute American Plywood Association American Society of Civil Engineers American Society for Testing and Materials American Welding Society Building Officials & Code Administrators Federal Highway Administration Naval Facilities Engineering Command National Design Specification for Wood Construction National Forest Products Association Occupational Safety and Health Administration Uniform Building Code GENERAL NOTATIONS
in ft
Ibf
m --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
N kg
inches feet pounds (force) meters newtons kilograms
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A A S H T Q T I T L E CHBTW 95 M Ob39804 0033543 9T3
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION SCOPE
This construction handbook has been developed for use by contractors and construction engineers involved in bridge construction on Federal-aid highway projects. This document may also be of interest to falsework design engineers, and supplements information found in the Guide Design Specification for Bridge
Temporary Works.") The content is construction-oriented, focusing primarily on standards of material quality and means and methods. This handbook contains chapters on falsework, formwork, and temporary retaining structures. For more indepth discussion on a particular topic, related literature and references are identified. Chapter Two. Falsework identifies material standards, the assessment and protection of foundations, construction-relatedtopics, loading considerations, and inspection guidelines. Methods for in situ testing of foundations are identified. General guidelines regarding timber construction, proprietary shoring systems, cable bracing, bridge deck falsework, and traffic openings are also discussed. Chapter Three. Formwork identifies and describes the various components and formwork types commonly used in bridge construction. Information on load considerations and design nomogmphs are provided. General guidelines relating to formwork construction and form maintenance are also discussed. Chapter Four. Temporary Retaining Structures focuses primarily on cofferdams and their application to bridge construction. As indicated by the chapter title, however, generai topics relating to a wide range of temporary retaining structures are also addressed. Specific topics include classification of construction types, relative costs, sealing and buoyancy control, seepage control, and protection. The construction of timber sheet pile Cofferdams, soldier pile and wood lagging cofferdams, and steel sheet pile cofferdams is reviewed. Methods of internal bracing, and soil and rock anchorage are also discussed. Section properties of standard dressed and rough lumber, bridge deck falsework design examples, recommended thicknesses for wood lagging, and steel sheet pile data are included as appendixes. Definitions and related publications are identified below.
DEFINITIONS For the purpose of this manual, the following definitions apply. These definitions are not intended to be exclusive, but are generally consistent with the common usage of these terms. Falsework - Temporary construction work used to support the permanent structilre until it becomes selfsupporting. Falsework would include steel or timber beams, girders, columns, piles and foundations, and any proprietary equipment, including modular shoring frames, post shores, and adjustable horizontal shoring. Shoring - A component of falsework such as horizontal. vertical, or inclined support members. For the purpose of this document, this term is used interchangeably with falsework. Formwork - A temporary structure or mold used to retain the plastic or fluid concrete in its designated shape until it hardens. Formwork must have enough strength to resist the fluid pressure exerted by plastic concrete and any additional fluid pressure effects generated by vibration.
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Cofferdam - A temporary watertight enclosure that allows construction of the permanent structure under
dry conditions. RELATED PUBLICATIONS
California Falsework Manual, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, 1988. Certifcation Program for Bridge Temporary Works (FHWA-RD-93-033), Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,1993. Formwork for Concrete (SP-4, Fifth Edition, American Concrete institute, Detroit, MI, 1989. Foundation Construction, A. Brinton Carson, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1965. Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works (FHWA-RD-93-032). Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,1993. Guide Standard Specificationfor Bridge Temporary Works (FHWA-RD-93-031), Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 1993. Haridbook of Temporary Structures in Construction, R. T. Ratay, Ed., First Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1984. Lateral Support Systems and Underpinning, Vols. I, II, III (FHWA-RD-75-I28, 129, 130). Federai Highway Administration, Washington, DC. 1976. Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures (NAVFAC DM-7), Depanment of the Navy, Alexandria, VA, May 1982. Standard Specijications for Highway Bridges, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC (Readers are cautioned to use latest edition). Syrühesis of Falsework, Formwork, and ScafJolding for Highway Bridge Srructures (FHWA-RD-91-062). Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, November 1991. Temporary Works, J.R. Illingworth, Thomas Telford, London, England, 1987.
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CHAPTER 2. FALSEWORK MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED COMPONENTS
Structural Steel Quality of Steel - Steel grades greater than ASTM A36 are generally not recommended for faisework construction. The Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works permits the use of higher working responsibility. if steel properties are unknown and test samples are not taken, steel can generally be assumed to
be ASTM A36. For reference, some of the more common steel designations predating ASTM A36 are provided in table 1.
Table 1. Early ASTM steel specifications,'') ASTM reauirement Date
Specification
Remark
1924-1931
ASTM A I
Structural steel
55,000 to 65,000
M T.S. or not less than 30,000
Rivet steel
46,000 to 56,000
M T.S. or not less than 25,000
Structural steel
55,000 to 65,000
Yi T.S. or not less than 30,000
Rivet steel
46.000 to 56,000
M T.S. or not less than 25,OOO
ASTM A9
Tensile strength, Ibf/in2
Minimum yield point, lbfhn'
1939- 1948
ASTM A7-A9
Structural steel
60,000 to 72,000
Yi T.S. or not less than 33,000
1939-1949
ASTM A141-39
Rivet steel
52,000 to 62,000
M T.S. or not less than 28,000
Conversion: 1,ûOû ibf/in2 = 6.89 N / m 2
Dimensional Tolerances - Rolling smctural shapes and plates involves such factors as roll wear, subsequent roll dressing, temperature variations, etc., which cause the finished product to vary from published profiles. Mill dimensional tolerances are identified in ASTM A6, Standard Specifcation for General
Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling, and Bars for Structural Use.(') This information is provided in tables 2 and 3 for general reference. Conditioning of Salvaged Steel - ASTM A6 also provides guidelines for the conditioning of plates, structural shapes, and steel sheet piling, as follows: Plate Conditioning - Plates may be conditioned by the manufacturer or processor for the removal of imperfections or depressions on the top and bottom surfaces by grinding, provided the area ground is well faired without abrupt changes in contour and the grinding does not reduce the thickness of the plate by: (1) more than 7 percent under the normal thickness for plates ordered to weight per square fi, but in no case more than
1/8
in (3.2 mm); or (2) below the permissible minimum thickness for plates
ordered to thickness in inches or millimeters.
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stresses for other grades of steel, provided the grade of steel can be identified. Identification is the contractor's
m
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0033547 549
T'
m
T'
T
A, depth, in
Section nominal size, in
T + T',
B, flange width, in
E',
flanges, out over Under over Under of square, theoretical theoretical theoretical theoretical max., in
center, max., in
C, m a , depth at any c m s scction over theordical depth, in
web off
To 12, incl.
1I8
1I8
114
3/16
114
3/16
114
over 12
118
1/8
1I4
3/16
5/16
3/16
114
I H O I i 2 0 " l l l rui1.n
ANGLES
CHANNELS
W SHAPES
Table 3. Permissible variations in camber and Sizes
Permissible variation, in
Length
I
Camber Sizes with flange width quai to or greater than 6 in
All
Sizes with flange width less than 6 in
All
sweep
1/8 in x (total length, ft) 1/8 in x (total length, ft) 10
1
10
1/8 in x (total length, ft) 5 ~
Certain sections with a flange width approx. equal to depth and specified on order as COlUmIIs'
1/8 in x (total length' ft) wiîb 3/8 in max. 10
4
-
3/8 in + 1/8 in x (total length, ft 10
over 45 ft
- 45)
-
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Imperfections on the top and bottom surfaces of plates may be removed by chipping, grinding, or arc& gouging and then by depositing weld metal subject to the following limiting conditions: The chipped, ground, or gouged area shall not exceed 2 percent of the area of the surface being conditioned. After removal of any imperfections in preparation for welding, the thickness of the plate at any location must not be reduced by more than 30 percent of the nominal thickness of the plate.
(ASTM A131/A131M restricts the reduction in thickness to a 20-percent maximum.) The edges of plates may be conditioned by the manufacturer or processor to remove injurious imperfections by grinding, chipping, or arc-air gouging and welding. Prior to welding, the depth of depression, measured from the plate edge inward, shall be limited to the thickness of the plate, with a maximum depth of 1 in (25.4 mm). Structural Shapes and Steel Sheet Piling Conditioning - These products may be conditioned by the manufacturer for the removal of injurious imperfections or surface depressions by grinding, or chipping and grinding, provided the area ground is well faired without abrupt changes in contour and the depression does not extend below the rolled surface by more than: (1) 1/32 in (0.8 mm), for material less than 3í8 in (9.5 mm) in thickness; (2) 1/16 in (1.6 mm), for material 318 to 2 in (9.5 to 50.8 mm) inclusive in thickness; or (3)
118
in (3.2 mm) for material over 2 in (50.8 mm) in thickness.
Imperfections that are greater in depth than the limits previously listed may be removed and then weld metal deposited subject to the foliowing limiting conditions: The total area of the chipped or ground surface of any piece prior to welding shall not exceed
2 percent of the total surface area of that piece. O
The reduction in thickness of the material resulting from removal of imperfections prior to welding shall not exceed 30 percent of the nominal thickness at the location of the imperfection, nor shall the depth of depression prior to welding exceed 1%in (32 mm) in any case except as follows: The toes of angles, beams, channels, and zees and the stems and toes of tees may be conditioned by grinding, chipping, or arc-air gouging and welding. Pnor to welding, the depth of depression, measured from the toe inward, shall be limited to the thickness of the material at the base of the depression, with a maximum depth limit of 2 percent of the total surfaœ area.
Welding - Most of the ASTM-specificationconstruction steels can be welded without special precautions or procedures. The weld electrode should have properties matching those of the base metal. When properties are comparable, the deposited weld metal is referred to as “matching” weld metal. Table 4 provides matching weld metal for many of the common ASTM-designated structural steels. In general, welding of unidentified structural steel is not recommended unless weldability is determined. Most of the readily available structurai steels are suitable for welding. Welding procedures can be bas& on specified steel chemistry because most mili lots are usually below the maximum specified limits. Table 5 shows the ideal chemistry for carbon steels. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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Group Base metal steel specification' I ASTM A36, A53 Grade B, M O O , Mol, A529, A570 Grades 4û,45, and 50 A709 M e 36
II
III
IV
V
Welding fimess* Shielded metal arc Submerged arc Gas metal arc Flux cored arc welding (SMAW) welding (SAW) welding (GMAW) welding WAW) AWS A5.1 or A5.5 AWS A5.17 w A5.23 AWS A5.18 AWS A5.20 EóOXX or E7OXX F6X or Fix-EMLX ER70S-X ESXT-X and E7XT-X (except -2, -3, -10, -GS)
AWS A5.1 or A5.5 AWS A5.17 or A5.23 AWS A5.18 E70XX' Fix-Exxx ER70S-X
ASTMA242P A572 Grades 42 and 50 A588 A709 Grades 50 and SOW ASTM A572, Grades 60 and 65 ASTM A514 (over 2% in thick), A709 Grades 100 and 1OOW (2% in and under)
AWS A5.20 E7XT-X (except -2, -3, -10,
-GS)
ASTM AS14 (2% in and under), A709 Grades I00 and 1oOW (2% ia and under)
AWS A5.5
AWS A523
AWS A5.28
EOXX' AWS A55
FIX-EXXX'
ERBOS'
ElOOXX'
AWS A5.23 F I O X - E ~
AWS A528 ER~OOS~
AWS A5.5 EllOMC
FIIX-~m ER110s'
AWS A5.23
AWS ~ 5 . 2 8
AWS A5.29 E8XT' AWS A5.29 EIOXT' AWS A5.29 E l 1Xl' ~
Notes: (a) When welds are to be stress relieved, the deposited weld metal shall not exceed 0.05 percent vanadium. (b) See AWS Dl.1-92. Sec. 4.20 for electrarlag and electrogas weld metal requirements. (c) In joints involving base metals of two different groups,low-hydrogen filler metal electrodes applicable to the lower strength group metal may be used. "he low-hydrogen processes shall be subject to the technique requirements applicable to the higher strength group. (d) Special welding materials and procedures may be required to match the notch toughness of base metal or for atmospheric corrosion and weathering charactexistics. (e) Low hydrogen classifrcations only. (0 Deposited weld metal shall have a minimum impact strength of 20 ft-lbf (27 J) at O O F (-18 "C)when C h q y V-notch specimens are used. ?his requirement is applicabte only ta bridges. (s) Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm
Table 5. Preferred analysis of carbon steel for good weldability.'5) Element Normal Range (96) Carbon 0.06 - 0.25 Manganese 0.35 - 0.80 Silicon 0.10 max Sulfur 0.035 max Phosphorus 0.030 max
Guidance with respect to worlananship, qualification, i d inspection of weldable steel can l x obtained from Structural Welding Code, AWS D1.1-92,'4' Acceptable and unacceptable weld profiles prescribed by AWS are illustrated in figure 1.
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Table 4. Matching fiiier metal req~irernents.'~)
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(B) ACCEPTABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES
(A) DESIRABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES
Note:Convexity. C. of a weid o( individurl suñaca bead SMnot exceed the value of the following table: ~ n d L l g ~ a
wmh of Individual sumcr &ad.
Max. convexity
L
1/16 in (1.6
L
t
I3
4
I-1 -
I
4c
WIDTH OF TRAFFIC OPENING
O U
o
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m
(a) Minimum clearance diagram.
(b) "Set-back distance between traffic barrier and vertical shoring.
Figure 17. Traffic openings.
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Min. width of traffic opening
Opening width provides for
Required falsework span 0)
Min. depth required for falsework
Freeway
25 ft (7.6 m) 37 ft (11.3 m) 49 ft (14.9 m) 61 ft (18.6 m)
1 lane + (d) 2 lanes + (d) 3 lanes + (d) 4 lanes + (d)
32 ft (9.8 m) 44 ft (13.4 m) 56 ft (17.1 m) 68 ft (20.7 m)
1 ft-9 in 2 ft-2 in 2 ft-8 in 3 ft-3 in
Non-freeway
20 ft (6.1 m) 32 ft (9.8 m) 40 ft (12.2 m) 53 ft (15.8 m) 64 ft (19.5 m)
1 lane + (e) 2 lanes + (e) 2 lanes + (f) 3 lanes + ( f ) 4 lanes + (f)
27 ft (8.2 m) 39 ft (11.9 m) 47 ft (14.3 m) 59 ft (17.9 m) 71 ft (21.6 m)
1 ft-9 in (.53 m) 1 ft-11 in (S8 m) 2 ft-4 in (.71 m) 2 ft-9 in (.84 m) 3 ft-5 in (1.04 m)
Special (a) roadways
20 ft (6.1 m) 32 ft (9.8 m)
1 lane + (e) 2 lanes + (e)
20 ft (6.1 m) (c) 32 ft (9.8 m) (c)
1 ft-7 in (.48 m) 1 ft-9 in (.53 m)
Facility to be spanned
(.53 m) (.66 m) (31 m) (1.0 m)
When checking vertical construction clearances, remember that deflection of the falsework stringers under the dead load of the concrete will reduce the theoretical clearance. The Guide Design Specijication for Bridge Temporary Works requires the use of temporary bracing while falsework is being erected or removed, to prevent any falsework member from falling onto an adjacent
any sidewalk or shoulder of a roadway that is open to the public, or to a point 10 ft (3.0 m) from the centerline
of any railroad track. Temporary bracing should be installed at the same time the member being restrained is erected or, if traffic is being detoured during falsework erection, before any traffic is permitted to pass through the opening.
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roadway. Such temporary bracing is required for falsework whose height exceeds its clear distance to the edge of
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 M Ob39804 00311573 630 M
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LOADING Loads During Falsework Erection During erection of the falsework, the lower tiers or framing are subject to a steady increase of dead load plus live load, as weil as wind and impact forces. It is when the structure or component becomes of appreciable height in comparison with its plan dimensions that wind loading and other lateral loads are of consequence. At this point, the potential for overturning is perhaps greater than at any other time during construction and, therefore, adequate bracing is required to ensure stability. The next criticai stage corresponds to construction of the formwork. This will usually entail the loading of formwork, closely followed by reinforcement onto the falsework. The falsework will also be subjected to the additional loads of the labor force and stacked materials. The contractor should be cognizant of the potential for locally overloading the falsework or components, and should take adequate precautions to avoid unstable conditions due to unbalanced loading(s). Concrete Placement
Control of the sequence and rate of placing of the concrete is necessary so that adverse pressures are not allowed to develop. While it is desirable to load the falsework system as uniformly as possible, the rate of placement and location of construction joints is generaily dictated by the area of the pour. Hence, the likelihood of some non-uniform loading is inherent in almost any cast-in-place concrete construction project. The effect of any proposed changes in the method or sequence of concrete placement requires careful consideration. The method of placing the concrete on the formwork, and its distribution, can impose impact or surge effects on formwork and falsework that should be avoided or minimized. It is important that wedges and props are properly nailed or otherwise restrained so that they do not work loose due to impact or vibration. Any potential uplift forces should also be adequately considered. The concrete discharged onto the formwork should not be allowed to accumulate and cause local overloading.
Load Redistribution For post-tensioned consmction, it is generally recognized that redistribution of gravity load occurs after the superstructure is stressed. The distribution of load in the falsework after post-tensioning is dependent on factors such as spacing and stiffness of falsework supports, foundation stiffness, superstnicture stiffness, and tendon profile and loads. In practice, the loads superimposed on the falsework from post-tensioning operations will only occur at locations where the stressing tends to sag the span between bearings, as illustrated in figure 18(a). This type of redistribution is not generally accounted for by the equipment supplier and, therefore, the magnitude of the forces should be clearly identified on the falsework plans. In the simple span structure illustrated in figure 18(b), the load is transferred to the point of bearing after the bridge is post-tensioned. Similar conditions can develop where there is a redistribution of vertical load due to deck shrinkage.
Caltrans has found that depending on the falsework configuration, type of consmction, and construction sequence. the maximum load imposed on the falsework developed within 4 to 7 days after the concrete was placed, and varied between 110 to 200 percent of the measured load at 24 hours.('8)
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
(a) Deformation of post-tensioned cantilever.
(b) Deformation of two-span post-tensioned structure. Figure 18. Deformation of spans subject to post-tensioning.
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95 W 0639804 0033575 403
Other Conditions
Where precast concrete, structural steel, or other such components are applied as load to the falsework, care should be taken to minimize impact forces in both the vertical and horizontal directions. Dragging of sections into final position should be avoided, unless specific provisions have been incorporated into the design. Any restrictions on the loading of the falsework so as to avoid placement of concrete or other loads when high winds, heavy rains, snow, or flooding occur should also be defuied. INSPECTION General As a minimum, inspection of the falsework is recommended during erection, prior to loading, and before
dismantling. A punchlist of items to be checked are as follows: a
Ail the drawings and written instructions have been strictly complied with.
o
Only the correct materials in serviceable condition have been employed, especially if specific types or qualities are required.
o
The ground has been adequately prepared and steps taken to prevent erosion.
o
Suitable foundation pads or other bases have been provided and have been properly leveled. Foundation pads, "sleepers," and other load-distributing members laid on a slope are adequately prevented from movement down the slope.
o
Any chocks or other supports are the correct shape and are adequately secured.
o
Baseplates have been used and are properly spaced and centered on the supporting foundation pad.
o
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o
The extension of each screw or adjustable base is within the permitted limits and b r a d if necessary. Vertical members are plumb.
o
Joints in vertical members are properly butted and aligned, and reinforced if required.
o
The spacing and level of each lift of bracing members are correct.
o
The number and position of all bracing members (longitudinal, lateral, and plan) are correct with connections close to node points.
Vertical Take-up
Readiiy identifiable components of the deflection arise from elastic shortening of support members and foundation settlement, but additional and often more significant deflections may occur due to take-up arising from the straightening of bent sole plates, crushing of timber packers, and other causes. The magnitude of deflections arising from take-up is largely dependent on the properties of packing materials and joint details. As a general rule, the vertical take-up may be on the order of
1/16
in (1.6 mm) for every lumber surface in contact
with another wood member or steel component.
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Inspection During Concrete Placement As concrete is being placed, the falsework should be inspected at frequent intervals. Settlement of
falsework should be monitored by telltales and referenced to stationary points such as the permanent bridge piers. Inspection should not be conducted beneath the area of a pour as connete is being placed. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
If it appears that a serious problem is developing, concrete placement should be temporarily
discontinued in the affected area until satisfactory corrective measures have been provided by the contractor. Concrete placement should not be resumed until the engineer is satisfied that further settlement will not occur. Reference is made to the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works regarding the placement of construction joints, but these policies tend to vary from State to State. Indications of distress or potential problems are as follows: excessive compression at the tops and
bottoms of wood posts and wood blocking; pulling of nails in lateral bracing; movement or deflection of braces; excessive deflection of stringers; tilting or rotation of joists or stringers; excessive movement of telItales; posts or towers that are moving out of plumb; and the sound of cracking timbers. Inspection After Concrete Placement
Falsework inspection should not stop with completion of the concrete pour, but should be continued periodically until the falsework is removed. Continuing inspection is particularly important in the case of castin-place continuous structures and post-tensioned structures because of the load redistribution that occurs as the deck concrete shrinks or when the post-tensioning forces are. applied.
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~
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
0 6 3 9 8 0 4 0033577 28b
CHAPTER 3. FORMWORK
INTRODUCTION
Formwork is a temporary srrucm that retains plastic or fluid concrete until it gains sufficient strength to support itself. The formwork system includes the sheathing that is in direct contact wirb the concrete, the supporting members, hardware, and bracing. The cost of formwork is significant relative to the cost of the in-place concrete. Therefore, the selection and design of formwork can significantly affect the overall cost of the structure. Formwork selection is influenced by many factors, including concrete pressures, uniformity of the structure shape, accessibility to the structure, crane capacity, material availability and cost, anticipated number of reuses, and crew experience.
This chapter presents an overview of formwork components and corresponding information for design. Formwork for Concrete, published by the American Concrete Institute. provides extensive data for design.(") Allowable stresses for formwork materials are those used in standard structural design, except when test data give different values for proprietary products. Precautions to be taken in the erection. maintenance, and removal of forms are also discussed in this chapter.
FORM COMPONENTS Vertical forms are constnicted from five basic components: (1) sheathing, (2) studs to support the sheathing, (3) walers to support the studs and align the forms, (4) braces to prevent shifting of the forms under construction and wind loading, and ( 5 ) form ties and spreaders to hold the forms at the correct spacing under the pressure exerted by the fresh concrete. The formwork srructural components and accessories should be integrated to provide sufficient capacity in addition to easy assembly and disassembly. Typical vertical form components are illustrated in figure 19. Boord Sheothing Plywood Sheothing
Double W o l e r s
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Figure 19. Formwork c~mponents.('~) 35 Licensee=Fluor Corp no FPPPV per administrator /use new u/2110503106, User=Gome Not for Resale, 12/21/2004 11:01:15 MST
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Wood Spreoder
A A S H T O TITLE
C H B T W 95
m
O L Y J A O ~ 0031,578 112
m
Sheathing Sheathing is the supporting component of the formwork closest to the concrete. Sheathing materials consist of wood, plywood, metal, or other products capable of transferring the load of the concrete to supporting members such as joists or studs. The following factors should be considered when selecting a type of sheathing: strength; stiffness; ease of removal; initial cost; reuse potential; surface characteristics; resistance to damage during concrete placement; workability in cutting, drilling, and attaching fasteners; weight; and ease of handling. The design information provided here relates to plywood sheathing because it is the most common sheathing material. Figure 20 shows horizontal plywood sheathing for a concrete bridge deck to be supported on steel
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
girders.
Figure 20. Plywood sheathing for horizontal formwork. Plywood is widely used for both job-built forms and prefabricated form modules. Virtually any exterior type of American Plywood Association (APA) plywood is appropriate for forming concrete since this plywood is manufactured with waterproof glue. However, the plywood industry produces a product called Plyform that is intended specifically for concrete forming. Plyform differs from conventional exterior plywood grades in that Plyform is constructed only from certain wood species and veneers, and its exterior face panels have thicker face plies for greater stiffness and are sanded smooth. Typical Plyform trademarks, which indicate class, veneer grade, and conformance with applicable standards,are given in table 7. Plyform is available in Class I and Class II, with Class I being the stronger and stiffer panel. Structurai I Plyform is stronger and stiffer than either Class I or II, and is often recommended for higher concrete pressures. High Density Overlaid (HDO) Plyform is available in any of the three classes. The face
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 9 5
Ob37804 O033579 059 M
plies of HDO Plyform are bonded with a resin-impregnated fiber overlay, forming a hard, smooth surface that eases removal and improves moisture resistance. Table 7. Grade-use guide for Plyform Veneer grade Use these terms when specifying plywoob APA B-B PLYFORM Class I & II'
Typical trademarks
Description Specifically manufactured for concrete forms. Many reuses. Smooth, solid surfaces. Müi-oiled unless otherwise specified.
Inner piics
-APAPLVFORM
B-B
CLASSI
EXlERIOR
C
B
15 l d l
APA
High Density Overlaid PLYFORM Class I & u b
Hard, semi-opaque resin-fiber overlay, heat-fused to panel faces. Smooth surface resists abrasion. Up to 200 reuses. Light oiling recommended between pours.
c-Plugged
B
APA STRUCTURAL I
PLYFORM
Especially designed for engineered applications. All Group 1 species. Stronger and stiffer than PLYFORM Class I and II. Recommended for high pressures where face grain is p a d e l to supports. Also available with High Density Overlay faces.
dPASTRUCTURAL I PLVFORM CLASSI EXTERIOR
E-E -000-
C or c-Plugged
B
C
C
SSlU
~
Special Overlays, proprietary panels, and Medium Density Overlaid plywood specifically designed for concrete forming!
Produces a smooth uniform concrete surface. Generally mill-treated with form release agent.
APA B-C EXT
Sanded panel often used for concrete forming where only one smooth, solid side is required.
No standard grading; for details of proprietary versions, see manufacturers' specifications.
-AMB-c
GRWPl
EXTERIOR
-0004 id3 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Notes: (a)
It>)
Commonly available in 19BZ-in (15. I-mm), 5/8-in (15.9-mm), 23nZ-in (18.3-mm), and %-in (19.1-mm) panel thicknesses [4-ft by 8-ft (1.2-m by 2.4-m) size]. Check dealer for availability in your area.
Plywood manufactured in the United States is built up of an odd number of layers, with the grain of adjacent layers perpendicular. Alternating the grain direction of adjoining layers minimizes shrinkage and warping. In determining the flexural strength, shear strength, and stiffness of a panel, only those layers having their grain perpendicular to the supporting stud are assumed to be stressed. The safe span of plywood is therefore dependent not only on the type of the plywood, but also on whether it is useü in the weak direction
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75
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(the face grain runs parallel to the supports) or in the strong direction (the face grain runs perpendicular to the supports).
Formulas for calculating the maximum allowable pressures for plywood members based on stress and deflection are given in table 8. Table 9 summarizes section properties for Plyform Class I and Class II, and Structural I Plyform. Design stresses and moduli of elasticity for these plywood classes are given in table 10. Due to the nature of plywood, the moment of inertia cannot simply be divided by half of the plywood thickness to get the section modulus. Therefore. the moment of inertia, I, is to be used to calculate deflection and the section modulus, KS, to calculate bending stress. Bending stress and rolling stress may each be increased by 25 percent under loads of short duration, though this applies only when the number of reuses is limited. Since the limit on the number of reuses is not well defmed, the designer must decide whether to use this factor. Also, the design stresses may be higher if special conditions exist, such as if the Plyform is weil sed& against moisture so that the moisture content always remains below 16 percent. In addition to plywood strength, the designer must consider the effect of reuse on the permanent set
or deflection of the plywood.
3 spans
2 spans Maximum allowable pressure, w, (lbf/fS) based on bending stress
w, =
Maximum allowable pressun, w, (lbf/ftz) based on shear stress
Bending deflection,
96F,KS -
120F,,KS
11"
11"
19.2F,( Ib/Q)
w, =
I,
12
wi:
4 (in)
Shear deflection, 4 (in)
w1: A p - 1743EI A, =
~~
~~
20Fs(lb/Q)
w, =
Cwt 21; 1270EeI
~
To calculate the maximum allowable pressure based on maximum allowable deflection, Ad, calculate 4 and A, with w = 1.0 lbffft2. Then the maximum allowable pressure based on deflection, w, (in ibffft*) is calculated as follows:
w, =
A*. 4 +Ab
~
~
~
~~~
Convasion: 1 ibffff = 47.9 N/m*; Loo0 lbUm2 = 6.89 Nlmn?; 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 ít = 0.305 m. I, = span. c a t a - t w e n t a of supports, in 1, = clear span, (in) I, = clear span + Y in for 2-in framing, or clear span + S/S in for 4-m framing, in A = ddection, in C = CoI1-t = 120 for face grain perpeodicular to the supports. or 60 for face grain parallel to supports t = plywood thichicJs. in
w = uniform load, IbVff
FI = bending sircas. ibf/in* F. = roiling shcar stress. Ibf/ïm2 Ib/Q = rolling shear constant, in*/ít KS = effective section modulus. in3/ít I = momait of i n d a , ¡n'/fi E = modulus of elasticity. adjusted, IbVfr' E. = modulus of elasticity. unadjusted, IbUR?
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--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The design smsses in table 10 are given for Plyform used in wet conditions such as concrete forming.
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
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Table 9. Section properties for Plyform Class I and Class IT, and Structural I Plyform.@)
I Properties for
I
stress
I
applied parallel with face grain Properties for stress applied perpendicular to face grain
Effective section modulus KS (in’lft)
Rolling shear
4.743 5.153 5.438 5.717 7.009 7.187
1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8
0.066 0.077 0.115 O.130
0.244 0.268 0.335 0.358
2.1 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.3
O.180 O.199 0.296 0.427 0.554
0.430 0.455 0.584 0.737 0.849
1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.3
0.063 0.075 0.115 0.130 O.180 0.198 0.300 0.421 0.566
0.243 0.267 0.334 0.357 0.430 0.454 0.591 0.754 0.869
1.4 1.5
0.067 0.078
0.246 0.271
1.7 1.8
0.116 0.131
0.338 0.361
1
2.1 2.2 2.6 3.0
1-1B
3.3
O.183 0.202 0.317 0.479 0.623
0.439 0.464 0.626 0.827 0.955
15/32
1R 19ß2 518 2302 314 718 1 1-118
0.018 0.024 0.029 0.038 0.072 0.092
Effective section
Rolling shear constant 1WQ Wft)
0.107 O.130 0.146 O. 175 0.247 0.306 0.422 0.634 0.799
2.419 2.739 2.834 3.094
8.555 9.374 10.430
0.151 0.270
4.499 4.891 5.326 5.593 6.504 6.631
0.015 0.020 0.025 0.032 0.060 0.075
7.990 8.614 9.571
0.123 0.220 0.323
4.503 4.908 5.018 5.258 6.109 6.189 7.539 7.978
0.021 0.029
0.147 0.178
0.034 0.045 0.085 0.108 0.179 0.321
0.199 0.238 0.338 0.418 0.579 0.870
8.841
0.474
1 .O98
0.398
3.798 4.063 6.028 7.014 8.419
class 11
15132 IR --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
19/32 518 23/32 314 718 1 1-118
0.138 0.167 0.188 0.225 0.317 0.392 0.542 0.812 1.O23
2.434 2.727 2.812 3.074 3.781 4.049 5.997 6.987 8.388
Structural i
15/32 IR
19/32 518 23/32 314 718
2.405 2.725 2.811 3.073 3.780 4.047 5.991 6.981 8.377
Notes: (a) All properties adjusted to account for reduced effectiveness of plies with grain perpendicular to applied stress. ( I Conversion: I ) 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 ft; 1 Ibfíft’ = 47.9 Nim’.
Table 10. Design stresses for Plyform.(”’ Plyform Class I Plyform Class II Modulus of elasticity - E (lbflin’, adjusted, use for bending deflection calculation) Modulus of elasticity - E. (Ibflin’, unadjusted, use for shear deflection calculation) Bending stress - Fb (lbfIin*) Rolling shear stress - Fs (Ibfíin’)
Stnictural I Plyform
1,650,000
1,430,000
1,650,000
1,500,000
1,300,000
1,500,000
1,930 72
1,330
72
Conversion: 1,000lbf/in2 = 6.89N/mmz
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1,930 102
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75 W 063780q 0033582 b y 3
In addition to plywood, reconstituted wood materials are available for use as sheathing or as form liners. Only those materials manufactured for forming applications, with edge sealing and surface treatment, can be expected to endure as well as treated plywoods. Forms that are built similarly to steel plate girders, described later in this chapter, are composed of webs, flanges, and stiffeners, with the webs in direct contact with the concrete. Steel has high suength, stiffness, and durability, but is heavier and therefore more cumbersome to work with. For pier caps and other applications where conduit and plumbing penetrations are limited, however, steel formwork is often utilized if enough reuses to justify the cost of steel forms are anticipated. Fiberglasreinforced plastic forms are strong, lightweight, can be readily fabricated to nonstandard shapes, and can be extensively reused. These forms are common in the construction of round columns, as are spiral wound waxed paper tubes and ail-steel, two-piece column forms. Structural Supports
For vertical wail forms, the form ties and sheathing transfer the lateral loads from fluid concrete to studs and walers. As with sheathing, important considerations in the selection of structurai support members include strength, stiffness, dimensional accuracy and resistance to permanent deflection, workability, weight, cost, and durability. In proprietary modular forms, these structural supports and aligners may be made of steel, aluminum, magnesium, or lumber. Design information for proprietary systems are available from the manufacturer. Almost ail formwork jobs, regardless of the types of primary materials selected, usually require some economical for ail types of formwork. Partially seasoned stock is usually preferred for concrete forming, because dried lumber can swell excessively when wet and green lumber tends to dry out and warp during hot weather, thus causing problems in form alignment. Information on the design of structurai lumber is presented in this chapter. Since lumber species, grades, sizes, and lengths vary geographically, local suppliers wiil be the primary source of advice for the specific materials and sizes that are available. Lumber may be finished on all four sides and is then referred to as "standard dressed or S4S lumber. When it is used directly as it comes from the sawmill, the lumber is designated as rough. Properties of standard lumber sizes common in formwork construction are identified in appendix B. Guidelines discussed in Chapter 2. Falsework to ensure correct timber quality and size of material are also applicable to formwork. Expressions commonly used to determine support spacing are provided in table 11
and general beam formulas are provided in table 12. Allowable stresses and strength factors are specified in the
NDS Supplement - Design Valuesfor Wood Construction.(2') In addition to designing structural lumber to withstand bending and shear stresses, consideration must
also be given to bearing stresses. Ailowable bearing stresses for loads applied parallel to the grain and loads perpendicular to the grain are also given in the NDS Supplement.
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lumber. Lumber that is straight and free from defects may be used for formwork. Softwoods are generally most
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
0639804 0033583 5 8 T
Table 11. Formulas for safe support spacings of joists and ledgers.'Ig) --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
To check
for single span beam
La, = Y360
1 = 1.37
Lm = y270
1 = 1.51
(Gr (GI
1 = 1.83
n
1 = 2.02
r!(
4,
=
1/16 in
1 = 2.75
A-
= 1/8 in
1 = 3.27
A-
= 1/4 in
1 = 3.90
1 = 3.43
(Gr
1 = 4.08
-7"
1 = 4.85
(EI W
HORIZONTAL SHEAR
1 = 9.80
1 ?!
I = - 16Hbh + 2 h
(+r
for three or more span beam 1 = 1.69
(q (q"
1 = 1.86
1 = 3.23
1 = 3.84
r[:
1 = 4.57
(+IB (gr
(.r [ ! J 4 I
I
I
BENDING
(r:
for two-span beam
i = 9.80
1 =-
W
JE W
192Hbh +2h 15w
1
=
10.95
40Hbh 1=-+2h 3w
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 nun; 1 ft = 0.305 m; 1,OOO Ibf/in2= 6.89 N/mm2 1 = safe spacing of supports, in w = load, Ib per lineal fi E = modulus of elasticity, lbfhn' h = depth of section, in I = moment of inertia, in' b = width of section, in A = deflection, in
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S = section modulus, in3 f = design value for extreme fiber stress in bending, lbf/inz H = design value for horizontal shear stress, lbfhn*
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0 0 3 1 5 8 4 4Lb
Table 12. Beam formulas. Simply supported beam, uniform load
ha, A,
v, 2.
=
w1 at support
2'
=, :
at center
A,
=
-,pi 3
,V
=
i,
at support
Cantilever beam, uniform load
2
A-
,V
at support
WI4
at free end 8EI = wl, at support
= -,
Beam continuous over two equal spans, uniform load
ha, = -w,l
8
5.
at center
48EI
ha, = -w12 ,
4.
W
Simply supported beam, concentrated load at center M-
3.
-w,l
at center 8 5wl = -, at center 384EI
=
W
at center support
-,WI4 185EI
l
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0.229(1) from exterior support
A-
=
,V
5 = -wl, at center support
at
I
8
Beam continuous over three equal spans, uniform load
ha, = -wl ,
10
A,
V,
at
W
an interior support
wi 4 = -,
at 0.446(1) from an exterior support 145EI = ;wi, at an interior support
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--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.
A A S H T O T I T L E C H B T W 95
m
Ob39804 0033585 352
m
Table 12. Beam formulas (Continued). 6.
Beam overhanging one support, uniform load between supports wl'at center between supports M- = 8 A-
=
W
-,5wl
384EI wi 3a A, = 24EI v- = wl
at center between supports
-
A L
I
I
+ +-l.,II
I
T
7.
Beam overhanging one support, uniform load M,
w2
wa M, = -, 2 =
-(i4
2
at support B
wx 24EI(1) wa Ac = -(4a21 %EI A,
\
W 1 -(i + a)*(l - a)2, at x = -
A-B
- 212x2 + 1x3 -
~
i
+
2
W
- l 3 + 3a3)
V, = wa
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN; 1 kipin = 113 kN-mm
M = bending moment, kip-in A = bending deflection, in V = shear, kip w = uniform load per unit of length, kip/in P = concentrated load, kip
E = modulus of elasticity, kip/in2 I = moment of inertia, in' 1 = length of beam between reaction points, in a = beam dimension shown in figures,in x = variable distance dong beam, in
Form Accessories Forming hardware associated with bridge construction is generally proprietary. Formwork accessories include form ties, form hangers, and cantilever overhang brackets. Manufacturers publish safe working loads for their proprietary form accessories. The formwork designer should beaware of the safety factors used to determine the allowable loads. Since most formwork accessories are designed and tested as a system, components from different manufacturers should not be interchanged. Form Ties - A form tie is a tensile unit used to maintain form alignment against the lateral pressure of unhardened concrete. A form tie generally consists of an inside tensile member and an external holding device. Two basic types of form ties include continuous single member ties and threaded internal disconnecting ties. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
m
Ob39804 003158b 299
Examples of various form ties in these two categories are shown in figure 21. The safe tension loads for these ties range from 1,000 Ibf (4.400N) to over 50,000 lbf (220,000 N). Selection of form ties for a given application is mainly dependent on the required capacity. The advantages and limitations of the various form ties may also affect form tie selection. Continuous single member form ties consist of a single piece tensile unit and a device for holding the tie against the exterior face of the form. These ties are typically made from rods or bands. They may be cut to length on the job or completely prefabricated. Many ties are equipped with spacers, to keep forms apart a specified distance, and breakbacks, to facilitate partial removal of the ties so that no metal is near the concrete surface. A portion of a tie equipped with a breakback remains in the concrete. Some single member ties, such
as taper ties and threaded bar ties, can be completely removed from the concrete and reused. Taper ties and threaded bar ties (figures 21(e) and 21(f)) may be manufactured for light to heavy construction, whereas rod- or band-type ties (figures 21(a), 21(b), 21(c), and 21(d)) are generally used only for light construction. The advantages of continuous single member form ties include ease of installation, low cost, and ready availability through the United States. Also, carpenters and laborers are generally familiar with the installation procedures for these ties. Taper ties and threaded bar ties are entirely removable and reusable. Many of these types of ties, however, are not equipped with form spacers. One limitation of a taper tie is that after removal, a hole is left through the concrete, requiring patching, the cost of which may be relatively high. The watertightness of a filled hole depends on the filler and on membrane materials. While ties may be equipped with breakbacks, rust stains from the metal left in the concrete m a y eventually appear on walls exposed to weather, an important issue if there are architecturai concerns associated with the construction of the bridge. She-bolts (figure 21(g)) bave external threads on the components that remain outside of the form. This outside component of the she-bolt allows adjustment for variable form thicknesses. The various components of
the she-bolt can be pre-assembled and then fed through the forms. Stripping of forms is relatively easy with these form ties. The internal tensile unit is left in the concrete and can be used as an anchor for subsequent concrete-placing operations. The internal component can be set back further from the concrete wall surface than other types of ties, thus providing the greatest corrosion resistance with the least surface finishing problems.
Also, the inner rods can be made of stainless steel if more protection is required. She-bolts are also convenient to use in the construction of tapered walls since the inner rod can be cut in the field to any length. The limitations of she-bolts include the high initial cost of the hardware, though some components of the she-bolt may be reused hundreds of times if properly maintained. This tie is not equipped with internal form spacers, although spacer cones are available. With spacer cones, however, a she-bolt tie requires the assembly of seven individual pieces. Also, a she-bolt assembly equipped with spacer cones cannot be fed through the foxms. If no cones are used and the she-bolt assembly is fed through the forms, reinforcing steel may interfere with the installation of the ties. It is also difficult to inspect the internal threads of the she-bolt for wear.
Coil tie systems (figure 21(h)) may include plastic cones that act as form spacers and that set the coil tie a specified distance from the concrete surface. Coil threads are self-cleaning, are not prone to cross threading, and are easy to examine. The coil tie remains in the Concrete and provides an anchor for subsequent pours. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0031587 125
1-
O
=.
/
4-
Woll thickness -Form
4
+ I -
.-.+[
Form
--Notched foi tic bimLbOCk
o : o
AO
)
mnci connecting hotdwrc secure5
toc thrwqh 5lOtS
4 -
(a) Fiat tie.
(e) Taper tie,
(b) Snap tie.
(0 Threadedbartie.
r
Breokbock dmensim tic t w i s t off otthc
\c,,t;;nq
er rod flots pfevcnt dutinq stripping
(c) Wire panel tie.
(g) She-bolt.
(d) Puli-out tie.
(h) Coil tie. Figure 21. Form ties. 45
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--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Concrete corei or
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 003L588 Ob1
Construction of forms with coil tie systems begins with the erection of one side of the form and installation of the coil tie system as shown in figure 22. The reinforcing see1 is then positioned, the closure forms erected, and the remaining tie hardware installed. With this installation technique, the reinforcing steel is not positioned in ftont of tie holes and therefore does not interfere with the tie installation. However, the coil tie system does not provide the option of being fed through the forms. The external hardware has a high initial cost. but can be reused.
Figure 22. Coil tie system.
Form Hangers - The proprietary form hangers used with bridge deck formwork are generally the same --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for cast-in-place decks supported on steel girders and on precast girders. A variety of formwork hangers are
available for the construction of bridge decks. Examples of an exterior hanger and of an interior hanger are illustrated in figure 23. Exterior hangers are designed to support the overhanging portion of a bridge deck on the fascia beam of
the bridge. Exterior hangers generally consist of a vertical support on the interior side of the fascia beam and an
exterior angled support typically used to support an overhang bracket on the exterior face of the beam. An interior hanger, as shown in figure 23, may be equipped with a fixed length or adjustable coil bolt assembly.
Form hanger capacities generally range from 2,000 Ibf (8,800 N) to 6,000lbf (26,400 N).
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B A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
L LUC
FLANGE WIDTH 3w-I
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114=
3' MIN.'
Ob39804 0031589 T T B
,318"
BRACKET
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm (a) Exterior hanger.
(b) Interior hanger.
Figure 23. Exterior and interior formwork hangers.'=) LOADS Loads acting on formwork include the weight of fomwork, reinforcing steel and concrete, the horizontal pressures exerted by plastic concrete, and various construction live loads, impact, and environmental loads. During construction and use of formwork, it is necessary to know and understand the assumptions made in the design of the formwork. Violation of these assumptions could lead to overloads and subsequent failure of the formwork. Construction activities that must be controlled to avoid overloading the f m w o r k include concrete dumping onto the forms, movement of wohnen and equipment, temporary materiai storage, concrete pumping, internai or externai vibration of concrete, and concrete placement sequence. The laterai load imposed by fresh concrete against wall or column f m s is a function of concrete unit weight, vibration and revibration of concrete, initial concrete temperatures, rate of concrete placement, and use of retarding admixtures and plasticizers. The Guide Design Specflcaion for Bridge Temporary Works provides several equations for calculating lateral pressure against forms due to newly placed concrete.") The design pressure envelope in figure 24 and the
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 W Ob39804 O033590 7LT W
design lateral pressures in figure 25 are based on these equations and are applicable only for the following conditions: The concrete weighs 150 Ibf/e (23.6 kN/m3). is made with Type I cement, and has a slump of not more than 4 in (100mm). For concrete weighing other than 150 lbf/fs (23.6 W/m3), the resulting pressure from the equations is multiplied by the ratio of actuai unit weight to 150 Ibflfe (23.6 lcN/m3). The concrete contains no admixtures or pozzolans. When a retarding admixture, or fly ash or other pozzolan replacement of cement is used in hot weather. an effective temperature less than
that of the concrete in the forms should be used. The temperature of the concrete is between 40 OF &d 80 O F (4.4
"Cand 26.7 OC).
The concrete is consolidated by internal vibration to a depth of 4 ft (1.2 m)or less. Column forms are assumed to have a maximum plan dimension of 6 ft (1.8 m), othemise they
are classified as waii foms. If these conditions do not apply, the foms must be &signed for the full hydrostatic pressure (unit weight x height) of the newly poured concrete layer.
DESIGN PRESSURE ENVELOPE
HEIGHT OF
CONCRETE
ENVELOPE OF PRESSURE IF CONCRETE ACTED AS FLUID
FORMWORK
/
-.t
'\.
/
pmex+
\.
LATERAL PRESSURE
Figure 24. Distribution of concrete pressure with form height.
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--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TYPICAL ENVELOPE OF PRESSURE ON FORMWOAK
m
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75
Ob39804 003159L 656
m
3200
2800
2400
-3 IL
w
2000
U
3
8 1600 w U
a 1200 r3 o m
U
800
400
O
2
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O
4
6
10
8
12
14
16
18
20
POUR RATE (FTM) Conversion: 1 ibf/ft! = 47.9 Nh2; 1 ft = 0.305 m; (OF- 32)/1.8 = “C Figure 25. Lateral pressure of concrete on formwork. FORMWORK TYPES
Bridge formwork can be divided into two categories: vertical and horizontal formwork. Vertical formwork can be constructed using job-built systems or prefabricated systems. Horizontal formwork can be constructed utilizing job-built, prefabricated, or permanent stay-in-place systems. These systems are defined as: o
Job-Built Formwork - a formwork system designed and built for a specific application, most commonly using plywood and lumber.
o
Prefabricated or Modular Formwork - a modular system that has the durabiiity for multiple reuses and normally is built with plywood with a metai framing. Prefabricated formwork can
be built for custom uses on special projects.
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0 6 3 9 8 0 4 0033592 592
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
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Stay-in-Place Formwork - a formwork system designed such that the formwork is not removed after construction. This system most commonly consists of stay-in-place metal decks or precast concrete planks for forming concrete deck systems.
Job-Built Formwork Job-built wood forms have a low initial material cost, but generally require much labor and can only be reused 10 to 15 times. The labor cost to repair and erect job-built wood forms is high compared to that for prefabricated modular forms that have much greater reuse potential. An example of a job-built form in bridge --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
consmction is given in figure 26.
Figure 26. Job-built formwork.
Modular Formwork The term "modular form" refers to all-metal forms or metal-supported-plywood systems whose integrated design of tie and connecting hardware is engineered to assure dimensional control, speed of erection, and ease of stnpping as well as stnictural integrity. Care must be taken when assembling modular forms to ensure tight and well-aligned joints with no offsets. Also, these forms must be inspected for permanent set or deflection that may occur after many reuses. The most common modular forms consist of steel frames with replaceable plywood faces. This combination provides the job-site workability of plywood and the iarge tie spacing and form durability of steel. Overlaid plywood furíher extends the form-face wear, and yet can be nailed or cut. The most successful of &se systems utilize high-carbon steels to minimize weight. The steel portion of the form is generally designed to protect the edges of the plywood and absorb tie loads and stripping, wracking, and lifting stresses. Since ties fit between panel joints (instead of through the plywood), the steel firame absorbs the tie loads and the wear. AU-
steel forms are practical for piers and columns since they provide great rigidity and strength and can be rapidly 50 Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
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erected, disassembled, moved, and re-erected. A sufficient number of reuses must be expected to justify tbe high initiai cost. Also, special precautions must be taken when placing concrete in cold weather since the ali-steel forms provide littìe or no insulation protection to the concrete. Lightweight modular forms are also made of aluminum and magnesium, but are susceptible to deterioration from contact with fresh concrete. They should, therefore, only be used if suitably coated or as a stnictural support with a separate sheathing material. Aluminum exwsions can provide bolt slots, nailer pockets, and other special features. Aluminum beams and double-channel walers provide large gang-wail forms that are exceptionaliy lightweight and suaight due to the nature of the extrusions. Stay-in-Place Formwork
In areas where form removal is expensive or hazardous, the use of stay-in-place (SIP) forms may be desirable. SIP forms help facilitate the construction of bridge decks over high-traffic areas. The additional dead weight of the deck slab, appearance, and corrosiveness of the environment are some of the factors that should be considered when deciding if metal or precast concrete SIP forms should be used. Ribbed metal deck and precast concrete elements may act solely as formwork for cast-in-place concrete, or may act compositely with the elements fabricated from nonweldable grades of steel is generally prohibited. Gang Forms
Gang forms consist of prefabricated formwork panels bat include sheathing, studs, and walers, joined into larger units for ease in erecting, removal, and reuse. These systems are quickly assembled and permit repetitive uses without rebuilding for efficient wall constniction. Modular units are fastened to each other and to lift brackets, lift beams, tag lines, and possibly a work platform while still on the ground. Vertical angles may also be provided along the edges in order to attach individual gang forms with bolts or special steel clamps. Although gang forms may be used as hand-set units, they are more commonly lifted into place by cranes and are therefore limited in size only by the crane capacity. The use of iarge gang forms helps to offset the high cost of labor, though large forms do not easily accommodate odd shapes or field adjustments. Integration of relatively small modular panels with large gang forms maximizes the benefits of both systems. After the concrete becomes self-supporting, the forms can be removed as large units and efficiently reused. Lift brackets are attached to a lift beam or directly to gang form structural elements that must have sufficient strength ta withstand the inclined loads from the slings during lifting. Gang forms used in multi-lift applications must be supported by specially designed inserts, anchors, and brackets because these are in t u n supported by freshly cured concrete. A gang form, equipped with a working platform, is shown in figure 27. The entire unit is lifted into
place and then removed as a unit when the concrete has gained sufficient strength. Gang forms are well suited to the construction of walls as shown in figure 28.
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concrete and become part of the load-bearing structure. Welding to flanges in tension zones or to structurai
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 27. Assembled gang form.
Figure 28. Gang form for wall construction.
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A A S H T Q T I T L E CHBTW 95
= 0639804 0033595 2TL M
Plate Girder Forms Plate girder forms, such as the one shown in figure 29, are well suited for the construction of bridge pier caps. These systems are capable of forming concrete while srnicturaîiy spanning between supports witb no intermediate shoring. In many applications, these panels also do not require external waiers. The large tie spacing and high pressure capacity provide form tie cost advantages in spite of the high form cost and weight. Large plate girder modules create fewer joints to seal, align, and finish. The most significant cost-savings result from the self-spanning capabilities of this system, which makes bridge pier construction possible while minimizing the amount of falsework. In plate girder form systems, the web of the steel girder doubles as a form face. The steel ribs of the girder serve as web stiffeners to support the weight of the form and concrete. They also act as beams to transfer the horizontal pressures of the liquid concrete from the form web to the form top and bottom flanges. The plate girder forms come in modules that are bolted together, as needed, for the specific project. Proprietary bolting hardware ailows the uansfer of fiange forces between individual modules, thereby allowing the formwork system to span between supports without intermediate shoring. Examples of plate girder forms are given in figures 29 and 30.
/
TOP YOKE TY-4 @ I4 '-0 " CTRS MAX
'A "O x 2 " D BOLT @ EACH PLATE JOINT 1 '-0" CTRS MAX
/
( 2 t l "O x 4 " A325 BOLTS @ EACH P G CORNER BOLTING BLOCK TOROUE TO 700 FT LBS
4
T
i. L
B C 3 6 " R x 10'-O" BC 36"R x 10'0"
36"R x lO'-O''
BRACKET X E W JACK SJ 10 (TYP)
WINDBEAM WE1 WITH PIPE BRACE PB 10-15 (TYP)
Conversion: 1 ft = 0.305 m; 1 in = 25.4 mm
(Courtes, of Economy Forms Corporation) Figure 29. Plate girder form spanning between two supports. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 H Ob39804 0033596 138
(Courtesy of Economy Forms Corporation) Figure 30. Plate girder forms used to form a bridge pier.
CONSTRUCTION
It is essential that fonnwork is erected as designed. The assumptions made in the design of the formwork, such as rate of concrete placement, should be designated on the shop drawings and confumed during construction. Guidelines that apply to the safe construction of formwork are as follows: In addition to inspection prior to concrete placement, inspection should continue during the pour to ensure early recognition of possible form displacement or failure. A supply of extra bracing materiais necessary in an emergency should be readily available. 8
Construction materiais, including concrete, must not be dropped or piled on tbe formwork in such a way as to damage or overload it.
0
Safe working loads as provided by the manufacturer should never be exceeded. These dowable loads are based on the assumption that the component is in good condition. Products that have excessive thread wear or have been bent, overloaded, or damaged in any way should be discarded or, if possible, reconditioned by the manufacturer. Products from different manufacturers should not be interchanged. Lift height, rate of concrete pouring, and use of admixtures must not differ from the assumptions used in the design of the fonnwork.
54 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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Ob39804 0033597 074 H
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
e
Any welding of formwork should be performed only by a certified welder. Extreme caution
must be used when field welding any item. This produces residual stresses and embrittiement that may lead to sudden failure. in general, manufacturers do not guarantee products that have been altered in any way after leaving the factory. 0
Improper instaliation of form ties, including failure to install the required type or number of ties, misalignment of form ties, and incorrect form tie lengths should be avoided.
O
External vibration should not be used if the forms were not designed for this method of concrete consolidation. Excessive vibration of new concrete or deep vibration into semihardened lifts mz7y place higher than expected loads on formwork. Depth of vibration should be limited to the top 4 ft (1.2 m) of new concrete. Also, new concrete should not be placed while lower lifts are still in a plastic state (see figure 31).
Liquid Concrete
Wrong
Right
Figure 31. Vibration of concrete.'") b
Steel wedges for securing form ties should be nailed into position to avoid movement of the wedges during vibration of the concrete. The snap tie head must be positioned at the midpoint of the wedge or higher; that is, on the thicker portion of the wedge (see figure 32).
Double Head Wedge Loosens and Bounces of1
pj o
Wrong
Right
Figure 32. Installation of wedges.'") b
To avoid crushing of walers or bending of wedges or washers when using a double waler system, the manufacturer's recommended spacing between a pair of waiers should be maintained. In general, this spacing should equal 518 to % in (16 to 19 mm) when snap ties are 55
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0033598 T O O
=
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used. For use of double walers with coil bolts, coil ties, coil hanger saddles, hebolts, taper ties, and other coil threaded items, the spacing between double walers should be equal to the nominal diameter of the bolt plus i/2 in (13 mm).(=) Plastic cones and metal washers are designed to act only as form spreaders. Attempts to straighten warped walers using the form tie wedge or to over-tighten the wedge may shatter the plastic cones, bend the metal washers, or cause premature failure of the tie at the breakback. a
Joints or splices in sheathing, plywood panels, and bracing should be staggered. Forms should
be sufficiently tight to prevent the loss of mortar through the joints. a
No attempt should be made to plumb forms after concrete has been placed. The full capacity of coil tie assemblies can be obtained only when the required bolt penetration is achieved. Installing coil bolts with less than the required minimum coil penetration causes excessive wear on the first few threads of the bolt and places the entire load on a smaller portion of the coil. This may cause the coil welds to break and the coil itself to unwind (see figure 33).
I
Right
Insufficient
Form Failure
Wrong Figure 33. Coil bolt assembly.'")
FORM MAINTENANCE General guidelines for form maintenance developed by the American Plywood Association are as follows:'2o' Cleaning and Oiling - Soon after removal, plywood forms should be inspected for wear, cleaned, repaired, spot-primed, refinished, and lightly oiled before reusing. Use a hardwood wedge and a stiff fiber brush for cleaning (a metal brush may cause wood fibers to "wool"). Light tapping with a hammer will generally remove a hard scale of concrete. On prefabricated forms, plywood panel faces (when the grade is suitable) may
be reversed if damaged, and tie holes may be patched with metal plates, plugs, or plastic materials. Nails should
be removed and holes filled with patching plaster, plastic wood, or other suitable water-resistant materials. Handling and Storage - Care should be exercised to prevent form panel chipping, denting, and comer
damage during handling. Panels should never be dropped. The forms should be carefully piled flat, face to face and back to back, for hauling. Foms should be cleaned immediately after stripping and can be solid-stacked or 56 Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
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stacked in small packages, with faces together. This slows the drying rate and minimizes face checking of the sheathing. Plywood stack handling equipment and small trailers for hauling and storing panels between jobs will minimize handling time and damage possibilities. During storage, the plywood panels should be kept out of the sun and rain,or covered loosely to allow air circulation without heat buildup. Panels no longer suited for Specially coated panels with long-lasting finishes are available that make stripping easier and reduce maintenance costs. They should be handled carefully to ensure the maximum number of reuses. Hairline cracks or splits may occur in the face ply. These "checks" may be more pronounced after repeated use of the form. Checks do not mean the plywood is delaminating. A thorough program of form maintenance including careful storage to assure slow drying will minimize face checking. Oils and Compounds - Protective sealant coatings and parting agents for plywood increase form life
and aid in stripping. Mill-oiled Plyform panels may only require a light coating of oil or parting agent between
uses. Specifications should be checked before using any oil or compound on the forms. A frequently used mili oil is 100 or higher viscosity pale (color) oil. A liberai amount of oil or parting agent, applied a few days before the plywood is used, then wiped so
only a thin film remains, will prolong the life of the plywood form, increase its release characteristics, and minimize staining. When selecting and using a parting agent, one must be aware of requirements relating to fire safety, personnel safety, environmental concern, and the effect of the parting agent on concrete finishing or painting.
Plywood Form Coatings - Lacquers, resin, or plastic base compounds and similar field coatings sometimes are used to form a hard, dry, waterproof film on plywood forms. The performance level of the coating is generally rated somewhere between B-B Plyform and High Density Overlaid (HDO) plywood. In most cases, the need for oiling between pours is reduced by the field-applied coatings, and many contractors report obtaining significantly greater reuse than the B-B Plyform, but generally fewer than with HDO plywood. Mill-coated products of various kinds are available in addition to mill-oiled Plyform. Some plywood manufacturers suggest no oiling be used with their proprietary concrete forming products, and ciaim exceptional concrete finishes and a large number of reuses. In any event, the selection of a release agent should be made with an awareness of the product's influence on the finished surface of the concrete. For example, some release agents, including waxes or silicones, would not be used where the concrete is to be painted. The fmished architectural appearance should be considered when selecting the form surface treatment.
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formwork may be saved for use in subflooring or wall and roof sheathing if their condition permits.
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
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CHAPTER 4. TEMPORARY RETAINING STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION
This chapter addresses a wide variety of temporary retaining structures common to bridge construction, with specific emphasis on cofferdam construction. A cofferdam is a watertight structure that allows foundations to be constructed under dry conditions. When built in water, cofferdams are usually constructed from cells that are filled with soil to form a free-standing gravity wall. The term cofferdam also covers land-based operations and systems located partially in water, where a temporary earth fill is placed to create a dry working platform adjacent to another cofferdam. Steel sheet piling is most commonly used in the construction of medium to large --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cofferdams. For land-based operations, steel soldier piles, driven or predrilled, combined with wood lagging is
also a popular system. For shallow excavations and smaller operations, wood sheeting is a viable aitemative. Many other systems that combine steel, concrete, wood, and soil stabilization schemes are available for the construction of cofferdams. Many new innovative patented systems, such as the prefabricated "Portadam," are also being utilized. CLASSIFICATIONS
Cofferdams can be classified in various ways. Several classification methods are outlined below:
By type of environment o
o o
in water in soil partially in water and partially in soil
By type of construction o o o
o o
wood sheeting soldier piles and wood lagging soldier piles with concrete in411 soldier pile tremie concrete steel sheet piles
e e
o
tangent piles or contiguous piles of concrete precast concrete elements cast-in-place concrete diaphragm walls cast-in-place shotcrete
By method of support self-supporting o cantilever system o double-wail sheet-piled dam o cellular cofferdam externaliy supported o deadman system o soil and/or rock anchors o batter pile bents
internally braced o strut waier systems o compression rings stabilized soil systems o jet-grouted o chemically stabilized o frozen ground boxed caissons
Not ail of these systems are applicable to bridge construction. Sketches of several systems are shown in figures 34 through 36.
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 9 5
Ob39804 0 0 3 L b 0 1 325
Structural bracing frame Structurai bracinq
Sheet pile
Concrete seai caurse
ûearing oiles
(a) Without seal.
(b) With seai.
Figure 34. Typical cofferdams. X= 1.5 in hard clays. 2 IO 2.5 in sliff to medium clays
/--
Ground surface 7 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ûracinq ta be installed Ercavation subqradt
inslrlled or grade beam lo extend r on opposne side of excavation U
LEorth berm t o remain in place until replaced by temporary bracing system
Raker-supported internai bracing.
Sheeting Compression Ring
u (b) Internai bracing with compression rings.
Figure 35. Internally braced cofferdam systems.
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AASHTO T I T L E
CHBTW 95 H Ob39804 0031b02 261 H
Construction Area Possible Earth Fill
(b) Double-walled sheet pile dam.
(a) Cantilever system.
EOUIVALENT RECTANGULAR SECTION
EOUIVALENT RECTANGULAR SECTION
,
EOUIVALENT RECTANGULAR SE,CTION
- Id CIRCULAR CELLS
(cl CLOVERLEAF TYPE CELL
Ib) DIAPHRAM CELLS
(c) Cellular cofferdams
ORIGINAL CIOUNO
OWDGE
STEEL PILING S"EET
U
(e) With deadman anchor.
(d) With grouted anchor.
Figure 36. Self-supporting and externally anchored cofferdam systems.
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Construction Area
Ob39804 0033603
A A S M T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
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Wood Sheeting Wood sheet piles are constructed from wood planks 2 to 4 in (51 to 102 mm) thick, 8 to 12 in (203 to 305 mm) wide, with lengths varying up to 24 ft (7.3 m). In their simplest form, the planks are driven with the nmow edges abutting. The connections may consist of mill-cut tongue and grooves or the planks may be staggered and nailed together to fom lapped joints. Wakefield type sheeting is constructed by nailing together three rows of planks, with the center row offset to obtain lapped joints. These various schemes for constructing wood sheeting are illustrated in figure 37. In order to drive wood piles into soil, the lower end of the piling is beveled and provided with a dnving
shoe ma& of
1116-
to
i/rc-in
(1.6- to 3.2-mm) thick metal. Even so, this type of sheeting is hard to drive into
very stiff or dense formations. Also, wood sheeting can span only limited lengths and therefore requires fairly cumbersome bracing. When a single plank 3 to 4 in (76 to 102 mm) thick is used, bracing is required at a 5- to 7-ft (1.5- to 2.1-m) spacing. Bracing may be spaced at larger intervals if heavy or builtup members are used. Soldier Piles Soldier piles are isolated vertical elements, usually spaced at 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3.0 m), and driven or set in predrilled holes and bacHilled with lean grout or concrete. The soil between the piles is supported by lagging, shotmete, or cast-in-place reinforced concrete, The soldier piles must carry the full earth pressure, while the lagging must resist earth loads that are relatively minor due to the soil arching effects. Because of this soil arching phenomenon, lagging is designed empirically for a soil pressure reduced by 50 percent or more. The design of the lagging may also be based on experience for the type of soil and span. A table giving recommended lagging thicknesses is included in appendix C. The most common soldier piles are rolled steel shapes, bearing piles, or H-sections. However, soldier piles can be formed from precast sections, steel pipes, rails, double channels, or even sheet piles. Wood lagging; usually 2 to 4 in (51 to 102 mm) thick, is the most common element used to span between the soldiers. Lagging
can also consist of light steel sheeting, corrugated metal, or precast concrete planks. Lagging can be placed behind or in front of the front flange by using welded studs or bolts, or a J-type or C-type bolt hooked to the front flange. Each bolt will engage two planks with a washer plate. Lagging can also be placed behind the back flange. However, this reduces the soil arching effects and is therefore not a desirable method. Some schemes for attaching the lagging to the piles, such as Contact Sheeting, are patented. Lagging placed behind the front or back flange stays in position by soil pressure. Various soldier pile shapes and methods for attaching lagging are
shown in figures 38 through 41. Other schemes can be devised to suit a particular field situation. Spacers are often placed between the lagging boards to allow drainage of seepage and backpacking of overcut zones. The space is sometimes filled with excelsior, hay, or a geotextile to prevent soil washout. In hard clays, shales, or cemented materials, lagging can be omitted or only a skeleton system provided (widely spaced lagging), if the soldier piles are spaced sufficiently close. Spalling of the soil can be prevented by attaching wiremesh to the soldiers. Soil raveling can also be controlled by spraying a bituminous compound or shotcrete. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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~
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(4flan butt-jointed sheeting. (b) Lapped butt-joint. (e) Tongue and groove joint. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
( d ) Joint formed by nailing or spiking strips to sheet pila. (e) K y e d joint with keyr inserted znd driven a t l a driving p i l a (f)Birdsmouthjoint formed by bolting together doublabeveilsd p L . d u ( E ) Wake6cld shoot piling.
W-IELO SHEETING Soikad ar bQlIed pionninq
PLAN TBG SHEETING
HEAVY TIMBER SECTIONS with added TandG ar dovetail joints
Figure 37. Types of timber sheet piling,'")
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
m
Ob39804 O031605 T 7 0
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PLAN
I-
WOOD CLEAT
t
"LOUVER" OR SrnCI
FRONT ELEVATION
SOLDIER PILE
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm Figure 38. Louver effect for wood lagging.")
.
.
LAGGING CAN ALSO BE ATTACHED TO FRONT F iANGE.
.
LAGGING CAN ALSO BE ATTACHED TO FRONT FLANGE ADAPTABLE OR TIEBACKS
BEHIND FRONT FLANGE
(a) WF section of H-pile section.
01)Channel section.
LAGGING TO FRONT
WELDED BOLT, OR S T SECTION
t TIEBACK+
(c) Pipe section.
Figure 39. Steel soldier piles.(24) --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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A A S Y T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
= 0639BOY
003LbOb 907 W
CONCRETE WALL STEEL W SECTION
(a) Cast-in-place.
(b) Shotcrete.
Figure 40. Concrete in-fill between soldier piles.(")
T
I
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THREADED BOLT ATTACHED BY NELSON STUD OR RAM SET. CONTACT SHEETING INCORPORATED (NYACK. N.Y.)
'\.-i,
%BOLT PASSES BETWEEN AND PLATE HOLDS THE TWO LEVELS OF LAGGING BOARDS
'-PLATE OR CHANNEL SECTION HOLDS TOP AND BOTTOM LAGGING
(b) Bolt.
(a) Contact sheeting.
SPLIT "TO' WELDED TO FACE
(c) Split T-section. Figure 41. Wood lagging to front flange.'")
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0033607 843
Steel Sheet Piles Steel sheet piles are rolled 2-shaped or arch-shaped members, with interlockings to engage each other. A variety of steel sheet piles are available in different forms from various manufacturers. Hot-rolled and cold-
rolled sections are manufactured with various types of interlocks. Generally, hot-rolled sections have stronger interlocks and tighter joints as compared with cold-rolled shapes. Pieces at corners and joints are fabricated either by riveting, bolting, or welding. Common sheet pile shapes are shown in figure 42, and section properîies of some common sheet piles are included in appendix D. Further information on specific sheet piles can be
obtained from the nmufacturers' catalogs. If sheet piles from various manufacturers or different shapes are mixed, their interlocking capability should be verified. If adjacent sheet piles are to be installed at an angle to one another, the maximum angular change that can be accommodated by the interlocks should be verified by the manufacturer. Straight sheet piling permits about a 10" angular change. For larger changes, bent sheet piling --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
can be utilized. The arch-shaped sheet pile sections (PDA and PMA) interlock at the mid-line of the wall,
whereas the 2-sections or the straight web sections interlock on the inside and outside line of the wall.
!i
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/ 14.9'7
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/K0.50"
-16.1"
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-4
-
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0.50"
0.60"
-
i
t
7
19.69"
PS27 5'
0.40 t
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm Figure 42. Typical steel sheet-piling sections.'z)
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A A S H T Q TITLE
C H B T W 95
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Tangent Piles
Tangent or contiguous piles consist of a single TOW of tangentially touching piles. The piles are constructed by drilling and backfîlling with concrete. In water-bearing soils, the hole may be drilled using a bentonite slurry and the concrete placed by the tremie method. Reinforcement may consist of a cage of several rebars, a single bar, or a wide flange or I-beam section, placed in the hole before concreting, or mucked in the wet concrete if no rebar cage is used. A watertight connection is not usually obtained because small gaps of up to a couple of inches (approx. 50 mm) could remain between adjacent piles. A closed joint can be achieved by constructing alternate piles, followed by intermediate ones that cut away a part of the first piles. This system is usually referred to as a "secant-pile" wall. Another method of achieving a tight system is to instail a second row
of smaller piles behind the fmt row (see figure 43 for layout of piles).
TANGENT PILES
SECANT PILES
DOUBLE LINE OF FILES Figure 43. Typical pile arrangements.
A concrete diaphragm wail is a continuous concrete wall built downward from the ground surface. The wall m a y consist of precast or cast-in-place concrete panels cast within a trench that is stabilized with bentonite slurry as tbe excavation proceeds. The trench is usually 24 to 36 in (610to 914 m)wide and is excavated using a clamshell bucket or by a rotary cutting system within guide wails that range in lengths from 10 to 20 ft
(3.0 to 6.1 m). After an individual panel is excavated, the trench is cleared of sediments at the base and those suspended in the slurry by a desanding process. A reinforcing cage is then inserted in the trench. End stops are installed at the ends and concrete is placed by the tremie method. Soon after the initial set of the concrete, the Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
67
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
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end stops are removed. Once the concrete is set and attains a specified strength, neighboring panels can be excavated. In one system, precast concrete panels are inserted in the excavated trench and the remaining bentonite slurry is replaced by a bentonite-cement slurry. The slurry attains a strength of 200 to 600 lbf7in2
(1,380 to 4,140 kN/m2). which is better than the adjacent soil. SELECTION OF COFFERDAM SCHEME
Size and layout of the cofferdam will depend on the shape and size of the foundation and the layout of the supporting piles and foundation seal, if any. The entire construction must be accommodated within the cofferdam, including any batter piles. Where space is available and soil conditions are suitable, a sloping cut can be made to the foundation level or to a higher level to reduce the depth of a cofferdam.
Factors that should be considered in the selection of a cofferdam scheme are listed below: Soil type and strength.
o
Ground water.
Available installation equipment.
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
e
Static or flowing water.
o
o
Tolerable movement.
o
o
Environment and neighboring conditions.
e
Duration of the work.
e
o o
Relative cost of the system.
External loading (e.g., from railroad surcharge, barge impact, currents, etc.). o
Local experience. Space available for benching and sloping cuts and external anchorage. Construction staging. Interference with existing facilities and obstructions. Availability of materials.
Size of internal structure (foundation, batter piles, etc.). Wood sheeting is suitable only for relatively shallow depths. It cannot be driven very hard and so it is often driven as the bottom is excavated, especially in stiff or dense soils. Some overdigging may occur behind the sheeting, and so wood sheeting is appropriate only in cohesive soils that can stand temporarily unsupported. As the sheeting is pushed down, it slides against the walers and the face of the excavation. It is necessary to backfill all voids soon after the sheeting is installed. Soldier piles and wood lagging are suitable for use in cohesive soils, except when the soils are soft or loose and have a tendency to flow after exposure and before the lagging boards can be installed. Usually this system is not suitable for wet granular soils unless they are predrained. However, predraining may be difficult when the wet soils (silts, sands, gravel, etc.) overlay an impervious stratum or rock. Installation of wood lagging requires some overcut behind the lagging, which causes additional ground movements in the retained soil. Interlocking steel sheet piles are most commonly used when a water cutoff is required. Although seepage through the interlocks will occur, the amount of ground water flow will be reduced. Sheeting is also used to provide a cutoff below the excavation level or to reduce seepage gradients below the bottom of the
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 W Ob39804 0031610 3 3 8 W
excavation. Where rock exists within the excavation, a tight seal may be difficult to attain between the toe of sheeting and the top of the rock. The presence of boulders or obstructions can lead to ripping of sheet piles or jumping of interlocks, which will seriously impair the effectiveness of the sheet pile wall. Steel sheeting walls are most often used for water-retaining cofferdams built in soft clays, organic soils, silts, wet granular soils, and
dilatant soils of low plasticity for which a soldier pile scheme is inappropriate. Hard driving conditions may preclude the use of sheet piles and suggest predrilled soldier piles, slurry construction, or tangent piles. Cast-in-place diaphragm walls are suitable for virtually any type of soil. However, their use for temporary bridge construction is rare due to high costs and the permanent nature of this type of cofferdam. Their use would be more economically feasible if they could be combined with the permanent structure elements, --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
such as abutments and wing walls, or counterweight pits or anchor pits for cable suspension bridges. Diaphragm
walls with precast concrete elements are rarely used for bridge temporary works. Contiguous or tangent piles are constructed by boring or drilling a circular hole, generally 12 to 36 in (305 to 914 mm) in diameter, placing a reinforcing cage or a steel beam, and backfilling with concrete. Reinforcing elements may be placed in alternate piles or every third pile, depending on design requirements. This system is useful in dense or extremely dense wet granular soils in which it would be difficult to drive sheet piles. The system is, of course, more attractive if it is incorporated into the permanent structure for a loadbearing or retaining wall. A me caisson is typically a prefabricated boxlike structure, that is sunk from the ground or water
surface to the desired depth. Its use is more common in marine construction where it can be installed in a predredged location and then sunk by removing soil from inside without dewatering. The most common shapes are circular and rectangular, with compamnents for bridge piers of all sizes. For smaller sizes, the shell may be of steel, reinforced to prevent buckling. Larger sizes are made of reinforced concrete with a steel cutting edge consisting of angles and plates. After installation to the required stratum, it will typically form a permanent deep foundation or bridge pier. These are useful in relatively shallow [15 to 30 ft (4.6 to 9.1 m) deep] foundations where the soil or rock is too hard for sheet pile driving, or in highly porous soil that cannot be dewatered by conventional methods. They are not suitable for very deep excavations, or where the skin friction on the walls of the caisson is excessive for sinking, or the foundation structure is a sloping rock surface. Great care stili is
required to ensure even sinking to the required depth, to overcome friction, and to prevent tipping that may be hard to correct. The caisson bottom will need to be properly sealed prior to dewatering by placing tremie concrete of sufficient thickness to withstand hydrostatic pressures. A complicated marine installation of a caisson can sometimes be converted to a land job by creating a sand island at the pier site. The island is made by earth filling to a level above the high-water level. Thereafter, a more conventional cofferdam of driven steel sheet piles can be installed.
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 003LbLl 274
RELATIVE COSTS
Relative costs of the various cofferdam systems are typically in the following ascending order:
Wood sheeting Soldier piles and lagging Steel sheet piles Drilled in soldier piles and cast-in-place concrete or shotcrete Contiguous or tangent piles Cast-in-place diaphragm walls Caissons --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SELECTION OF SUPPORT METHOD
The simplest support system is a cantilever wall, where the wall element (sheeting, soldier pile, pile, or diaphragm wall) is installed to a sufficient depth in the ground to become fixed as a vertical cantilever. ?bis type is suitable for a moderate height, generally less than 15 ft (4.6 m), where the embedding medium is sufficiently strong to restrain the wall. The embedment length should be designed to accommodate any scour or erosion in front of the wall. For deeper cofferdams, or those with insufficient or inadequate subgrade soils, a bracing system is required. A conventional internal bracing consists of walers and struts. Various layouts of struts are possible to suit the shape of the cofferdam and desired open space. For a relatively wide excavation, the wall can be braced with inclined rakers reacting on a deadman or on one or more foundation units connected by grade beams. A circular cofferdam can be braced with compression rings of rolled-steel W-shapes or by cast-in-place reinforced concrete beams. These beams will require laterai support.
A self-supported system or an externally braced system provides an unobstructed working area For narrow cofferdams, internal bracing is usually more economical although it may restrict working space. Grouted soil anchors are feasible in granular soils that are at least medium dense and in cohesive soils with unconfined strengths of over 1.5 ton-forcdf? (144 kN/m2) and where sufficient space is available for anchorage beyond a 45" slope Bom the bottom of the wall. For installation of grouted anchors, a bench about 50 ft (15 m) wide is
required for the anchor installation equipment. Ground freezing can be used as a means of ground support, water cutoff, or a combination of both. However, the process of ground freezing is expensive and takes a fairly long time. Unless other systems cannot be used, this metbod may not be a viable scheme for bridge temporary works. Ground stabilization by injection is also not a common method for cofferdams in bridge temporary works. However, grouting is utilized for minimizing seepage through sheet pile interlocks and where the sheet pile or other retention system has been damaged by obstructions or hard-driving resistance.
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Ob39804 003LbL2 L O O
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
=
SEALINGANDBUOYANCYCQNTROL
When conditions are encountered that render it impractical to dewater a cofferdam for the construction of the structural unit, a foundation seal is usually placed under water to resist buoyancy, to act as a lower support for the sheet piles, to tie the driven piles together to resist uplift, and to provide subsequent support for the construction of the pier footing. Foundation seal concrete is placed underwater by the tremie method. The size and thickness of the seal concrete should be sufficient to permit subsequent dewatering without the risk of buoyancy. For tremie concrete, the mix selected should be highly flowable. A slump of 6 to 8 in (152 to 203 mm) is desirable. Coarse aggregates should be under W in (19 mm) and preferably rounded for better workability. An appropriate mix design and trial batches should be prepared. Air entrainment is not necessary. Use of
pozzolan as a partial replacement for cement improves flow and reduces heat of hydration. Placement of tremie concrete is best initiated in a sealed tube or tremie pipe 10 to 12 in (254 to 305 mm) in diameter. The bottom is closed by a plate with a gasket, tied to the pipe with twine. The plate is held in place tightly by the static pressure of water as the pipe is lowered. Concrete is placed into the pipe, just sufficient to balance buoyancy. The pipe is then raised about 6 in (150 mm) off the bottom. This is usually sufficient to break the seal and the concrete flows out. Additional concrete is constantly kept flowing into the uemie pipe. The concrete continues to flow out and fill the cofferdam, maintaining a surface slope of about 6 (horizontal):l (vertical) to 10 (horizontal):l (vertical). The tip of the pipe must be kept immersed a depth of 3 to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m) in the concrete. If the tip is raised out of the concrete, the seal will be lost, the flow rate
will increase, and water will be mixed with the concrete, causing segregation and loss of strength. The tremie pipe layout and sequence should be such as to maintain acceptable flow distances of about 25 to 35 ft (7.6 to 10.7 m) and to prevent cold joints. The latter requires relatively high pour rates of about 50
to 100 yd3/h (38 to 76 m3/h). Retarding admixtures have been found to be helpful in preventing cold joints. The --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tremie concrete surface will be somewhat irregular, with a mound at the location of the urnie pipe. The valleys can be filled after dewatering, when any laitance is also removed. Horizontal lifts are not desirable in a tremie concrete placement as the surfaces will have laitance. If a large cofferdam is to be subdivided, it should be done with a vertical bulkhead. Buoyancy is resisted by the weight of the seal concrete, the cofferdam elements (if they are anchored with the seal), and from uplift resistance of the foundation piles embedded in the seal. However, the weight of the cofferdam elements should not be included in the resistance of hydrostatic uplift pressures. Also, since it is difficult to estimate the frictional resistance of sheet piles and to engage ail of the sheet piles in the seal coat, the resistance of the sheet piles to buoyant forces should not be included. When conditions are encountered that render it impractical to place seai coat concrete of sufficient thickness to resist buoyancy, additional resistance can be provided by rock or soil anchors drilled to sufficient depth below the seal coat and embedded in the seal coat or anchored to it. Anchors can be installed through sleeves cast in the seal coat and grouted after the anchors have been preloaded.
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0033633 047
Where the foundation is supported on the subgrade soils, it will be necessary to remove al disturbed soil from the excavated subgrade. In underwater excavation, this is difficult to verify. Dry excavation is
possit4e only in cohesive soils or in cohesionless soils if the water table is sufficiently depressed. Even i€ the disturbed soil is removed while it is dry, piping and sloughing can occur under any seepage head. Hence, the subgrade should be protected by placing a layer of clean gravel or crushed rock, Flooding of the cofferdam to a level equal to the outside water level will also ensure subgrade integrity. SEEPAGE CONTROL When the water level outside the sheeting is higher than the excavation level within the cofferdam, the water percolates through the soil behind the sheeting and then upwards in front of the sheeting. The upward seepage reduces the effective weight of the soil and consequently the passive resistance. Seepage forces per unit volume equal the unit weight times the seepage gradient. When the gradient is high, seepage forces can equal the buoyant weight, and sand boiling or piping can occur. Piping is controlled by dewatering outside the cofferdam (lowering the water table), by pressure relief using dewatering wells within the cofferdam, and by use of a cutoff (extending sheeting deeper to reduce gradients). Deepening of the cutoff is particularly effective if the toe is embedded in an impervious layer that will stop or reduce flow around the bottom of the cutoff. The design of sheeting penetration to control piping for various subsurface conditions is presented in figures 44 and 45. In order to prevent blow-up of a relatively thin impervious layer penetrated by the sheeting, pressure relief of underlying pervious soils may be necessary using deep wells. If interlocks between sheet piles are poor, high water pressures may be created in the soil sandwiched between two impervious layers by the head of water outside the sheeting. Minor seepage within the cofferdam can be removed by sump pumps or wellpoints. The latter is preferred where excessive seepage through the interlocks creates piping or boiling. In certain situations, grouting of the interlocks might be a better alternative to control horizontal seepage. Cement-bentonite grout has been found to be very effective in sealing the interlocks within the soil, For the section within the water, cinders sprayed on the surface flow into the interlocks and help to seal them. Alternate measures include caulking and --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
welding.
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ü b 3 9 8 0 4 O033634 T 8 3 W
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
P E N E T R A T I O N R E Q U I R E D FOR S H E E T I N G I N DENSE S A N D OF l l M / T E û DEPTH
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Figure 44. Penetration of sheeting required to prevent piping in isotropic sand.(12) Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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2.
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
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COARSE SAND UNDERLYING f I N € SAND . a r
PRESENCE O f COARSE LAYER MAKES f L O 8 II F I N E M A T E R I A L MORE NEARLY U E R T I C A L A Y O G ~ N E R A L L Y INCREASES SEEPAGE GRADIENTS I N TUE F I N E LAYER C O M P A R E D TO TME HOMOGENEOUS CROSS-SECTION O f f I t . 8 - 2 . I f TOP O f COARSE LAYER I S A T A DEPTH BELOW S U E E T I N G T I P S GREATER TMAN W I D T H OF EXCAVATlON,SAFETY FACTORS O f F I G . 8 - 2 f o b I Y f I N l T E DEPTH A P P L Y .
I f TOP O f COARSE LAYER IS A T A DEPTH BELOW S H h E T I U G T I P S LESS T H A N W I D T U O f EXCAVATION, TUE U P L I F T PRESSURES ARE 6ûEATER T U A N FOR TME UOYOGENEOUS CROSS-SECTION. I f PERMEABIL I TY O f COARSE LAYER I S YORE TUAN T E N T I M E S T H A T O f F I N E L A Y E R , f A I L U R E HEAD In,) TUICKNESS OF F I N E LAYER I U z ) .
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S H E E T I N 6 AND SENERALLY DECREASES SEEPAGE GRADIENTS l n THE COARSE u m .
I F TOP OF F I N E LAYER L I E S BELO8 S H E E T I N 6 T I P S , SAFETY f A C T O R S ARE IWTERMEOIATE BETWEEN TUOSE FOR AN IM?ER#EABLE BOUNDARY A T TOP OR BOTTOM O f TUE F I N E LAYER I N f l G . 8 - 2 .
I f TOP O f THE F I N E LAYER L I E S A I O V E S U E E T I N G T I P S THE SAFETY FACTORS O f F I G . 8 - 2 ARE SOMEWUAT CONS E UVA T I VE FOR PENETRA T I ON REQUIRED.
I MPERV IOUS F I N E LAYER I N HOMOGENEOUS SAND STRATUM I f THE TOP OF F I N E LAYER I S A T A DEPTH GREATER T H A N WIDTH OF E X C A V A T I O N BELOW 5 H E E T f N 6 T I P S , SAFETY FACTORS O f F I G . 8 - 2 APPLY, ASSUMING IMPERVIOUS BASE A T TOP OF F I N E L A Y E R .
I F TOP O f F I N E LAYER I5 A T A OEPTU L E S 5 T H A N W l D r U O f E X C A V A T l O ü BELOW S H E E T I N 6 T l ? S , PRESSURE R E L I E F I S REQUIRED SO T M A T U N B A L A I C E D MEAD BELO8 F I N E LAYER DOES NOT EXCEED H E I G H T OF S O I L ABOVE BASE Of LAYER.
I f F I N E L A Y E R L I E S ABOVE SUBGRADE O f EXCAVATION, F I N A L C O N D I T I O N I S SAFER THAN UOMOGENEOUS CASE, BUT DAN6EROUS C O N D l T l O N M A ï A R I S E D U R I N 6 EXCAVATION ABOVE TUE f I N € LAYER AND PRESSURE R E L I E F I S REQUIRED AS I N TUE PRECEDlN6 CASE.
Figure 45. Penetration of sheeting required to prevent piping in stratified sand.('') Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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. . I
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
O639804 0033636 856
PROTECTION A cofferdam constructed in a channel creates an obstruction to flow and therefore creates a higher --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stream velocity. Erosion along the cofferdam should be prevented by placing riprap on the bed unless the anticipated scour is provided for in the design. Scour depths and required riprap for protection can be estimated from formulae given in standard textbooks. Additional scour can occur from obstructions created by floating debris, bushes, and logs during floods. Scour is most severe in fine sand or silt, and at comers of the cofferdam due to eddy currents. Stability of the cofferdam must be investigated for ail conditions of loading. Differential pressures on the sides of the cofferdam can occur when variations exist in the height of soil or in surcharge loadings. In the cofferdams for abutments, there is often a higher ground level on the land side and a lower ground level on the channel side. The cofferdam bracing must be designed for this unequal loading. The higher pressures can be balanced by use of external deadman anchors, grouted tiebacks, tension piles, or a batter pile frame system. Pressures can also be equalized by excavating from the high side and filling on the low side. It is sometimes feasible to create a rigid truss by welding the waiers to the sheet piles and providing diagonal bracing in a vertical plane. A deep truss can also be created by welding the interlocks of the sheet piles. In marine construction, the cofferdam will need protection from impact by barges and waterway M i c . Lateral loads from collision of work barges and loading from construction equipment should be accommodated in the protection scheme. During winter construction, loading from ice forces, if applicable, needs to be considered. When water levels exceed the design level, cofferdam stability will be affected not only by increased lateral pressures, but also by uplift pressures on the seal coat, if any, and by reduced passive pressure on the embedded sheet pile section due to increased seepage gradients. These situations can be negated by flooding the cofferdam until the water level drops below the design level. The correct level of flooding can be obtained by cutting a slot in the sheet pile at the design water level. After completion of the footings and the pier or abutment within the cofferdam, intemai waiers and braces can be removed in stages as the backfilling progresses. The cofferdam must remain stable during these stages with the reduced number of supporting members. Conditions can exist where the sheet pile toe remains higher than the excavation level, such as from the presence of obstructions, boulders, and cobbles. in such cases, the sheet piles require protection from kickout of their toe from lateral pressures. Lateral support can be provided by internal braces or external anchors, depending on the site and ground conditions. For vertical support, the cofferdam can be supported by grouting and stabilizing the lower strata or by leaving an adequate bench near @e toe of sheet piles and stepping in for the remaining excavation. These situations frequently occur where zones of gravel, cobbles, boulders, or extremely dense tills overlay weathered rock and the foundations are designed to bear on sound rock.
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
=
Ob39804 003LbL7
CONSTRUCTION Timber Sheet Pile Cofferdam
Timber sheet piles are used only for small and relatively shallow excavations. Their use is more common in utility trenches. Various types of wood sheet piling are shown in figure 46. The difficulty in the
use of wood sheeting is the need for bracing at spacings of 5 to 7 ft (1.5 to 2.1 m), therefore a cluttered cofferdam results from the obstructions of walers and struts. Furthermore, the wood sheeting cannot be driven through hard or dense soils, requires progressive excavation, and can sustain only light driving. Hard driving results in splitting or brooming and damage to the sheeting. They are most useful in low headroom situations, for low heads of water and for cofferdams founded on an irregular bedrock surface, and where hand excavation is necessary due to obstructions, such as utilities. Wood sheeting can also be advantageous in circular cofferdams in cases where they can be braced with rolled-steel compression rings. The maximum length of available wood sheeting is approximately 24 ft (7.3 m). For deeper excavations, a telescopic arrangement with lower shafts progressively reduced in size, can be utilized. The step-in at each level will depend on the size of the bracing waiers or rings at the upper shaft.
TIMBER
Ca
STEEL
R A N K S . SHEET
PILES. TRENCH SHfETS ETC
cha
eLociSPUR ORACE.
-
WELD A = WELD B I 3 C VERTICAL COMPONENT OC BRIICELOAO
SHEETING (3"THICK1
v Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm Figure 51. Typical connection for inclined brace and horizontal wale.'")
87 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
m
Ob39804 0033b29 404
m
INSIDE WALE
TE WASHER) --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
STEELSHEET PILE ANCHOR
OUTSIDE WALE
FIXING BOLTS
LATE WASHER)
SECTION A.A
Figure 52. Typical wale and anchor rod de@ ats.li )'
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
0639BOY 0033630 3 2 6
APPENDIX A SECTION PROPERTIES OF STANDARD DRESSED (S4S) AND ROUGH SAWN LUMBER
Nominal size bxh in x in
1 x4 1 x6 1x8 1 x 10 1 x 12
Table 14. Section properties of standard dressed (S4S) lumber Actual b in
Actual h in
34 34
3%
%
Area A in2
-
Axis Moment of inertia, in'
I
x-x
Axis Y-Y
Approximate
Section modulus, S , in'
Moment of inertia, F, in4
Section modulus, S , in3
weightb Ib/ft
%
7% 9% 11w
2.63 4.13 5.44 6.94 8.44
2.68 10.40 23.82 49.47 88.99
1.53 3.78 6.57 10.70 15.82
0.12 0.19 0.25 0.33 0.40
0.33 0.52 0.68 0.87 1.05
0.7 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.3
2x4 2x6 2x8 2 x 10 2 x 12
1% 1142 11% 1% 1%
3% 5% 7% 9% 11%
5.25 8.25 10.88 13.88 16.88
5.36 20.80 47.63 98.93 177.98
3.06 7.56 13.14 21.39 31.64
0.98 2.04 2.60 3.16
1.31 2.06 2.72 3.47 4.22
1.5 2.3 3.0 3.9 4.7
3x4 3x6 3x8 3 x 10 3 x 12
2'42 2% 2% 2% 2%
3% 7% 9% 11%
8.75 13.75 18.13 23.13 28.13
8.93 34.66 79.39 164.89 296.63
5.10 12.60 21.90 35.65 52.73
4.56 7.16 9.44 12.04 14.65
3.65 5.73 7.55 9.64 11.72
2.4 3.8 5.0 6.4 7.8
4x4 4x6 4x8 4 x 10 4 x 12
3% 3'42 3% 3142 3%
3% 5% 7% 9% 11%
12.25 19.25 25.38 32.38 39.38
12.51 48.53
7.15 17.65
111.15
30.66
230.84 4 15.28
49.91 73.83
12.51 19.65 25.90 33.05 40.20
7.15 11.23 14.80 18.89 22.97
3.4 5.3 7.0 9.0 10.9
6x6 6x8 6 x 10 6 x 12
5%
5%
5% 5% 5%
7% 9% 11%
30.25 41.25 52.25 63.25
76.26 193.36 392.96 697.07
27.73 51.56 82.73 121.23
76.26 103.98 131.71 159.44
27.73 37.81 47.90 57.98
8.4 11.5 14.5 17.6
8x8 8 x 10 8 x 12
7% 7% 7%
7% 9% 11%
56.25 71.25 86.25
263.67 535.86 950.55
70.3 1 112.81 165.3 1
263.67 333.98 404.30
70.31 89.06 107.81
15.6 19.8 24.0
lox 10
l o x 12
9% 9%
9% 11%
90.25 09.25
678.76 1204.03
142.90 209.40
678.76 821.65
142.90 172.98
25.1 30.3
12x 12
11%
11lh
32.25
1457.51
253.48
1457.51
253.48
36.7
%
5%
5%
1.55
Notes: (a)
fi) (c)
This table is based on information from references 19 and 21. The section properties are given for dry lumber,which is defined as lumber îhaî has been seasoned to a moisture content of 19 percent or less. Based on a unit weight value of 40 lb/f?. Actual weights vary depending on species and moisture content. At 15-percent moisture content, the unit weight of coastal region Douglas Fir is 34 lWfI3 and that of Southern pine ranges between 36 and 44 IWft?. The other species commonly used for formwork in North America weigh less. Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 Ibf/fP = 157 N/m3: 1 Ibfm = 1.49 kglm.
89 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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Table 15. Section properties of rough sawn lumber Nominal size
Actual b in
Actual h in
Area A in2
718
718
3 518 5 SI8 7 318 9 3/8 11 3/8
2x4 2x6 2x8 2 x 10 2 x 12
1 518 1 518 1 518 1 518 1 SI8
3x4 3x6 3x8 3 x 10 3 x 12
bxh
Axis Y-Y
Axis X-X
Approximate
weight' 1wt
Section modulus, S, in' 1.92 4.61 7.93 12.82 18.87
Moment of inertia, F, in' 0.20 0.3 1 0.4 1 0.52 0.64
Section modulus,
3.17 4.92 6.45 8.20 9.95
Moment of inertia, I in' 3.47 12.98 29.25 60.08 107.32
0.46 0.72 0.94 1.20 1.45
0.9 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.8
3 518 5 518 7 3/8 9 318 11 3/8
5.89 9.14 11.98 15.23 18.48
6.45 24.10 54.32 111.58 199.31
3.56 8.57 14.73 23.80 35.04
1.30 2.01 2.64 3.35 4.07
1.60 2.48 3.25 4.13 5.01
1.6 2.5 3.3 4.2
2 518 2 SI8 2 518 2 SI8 2 518
3 SI8 5 SI8 7 318 9 318 11 3/8
9.52 14.77 19.36 24.61 29.86
10.42 38.93 87.75 180.24 321.96
5.75 13.84 23.80 38.45 56.61
5.46 8.48 11.12 14.13 17.15
4.16 6.46 8.47 10.77 13.06
2.6 4.1 5.4 6.8 8.3
4x4 4x6 4x8 4 x 10 4 x 12
3 SI8 3 518 3 518 3 518 3 518
3 SI8 5 518 7 318 9 318 11 3/8
13.14 20.39 26.73 33.98 41.23
14.39 53.76 121.17 248.91 444.61
7.94 19.12 32.86 53.10 78.17
14.39 22.33 29.28 37.21 45.15
7.94 12.32 16.15 20.53 24.91
3.7 5.7 7.4 9.4 11.5
6x6 6x8 6 x 10 6 x 12
5 518 5 518 5 518 5 SI8
5 518 7 518 9 SI8 11 SB
31.64 42.89 54.14 65.39
83.43 207.81 417.97 736.41
29.66 54.51 86.85 126.69
83.43 113.09 142.75 172.42
29.66 40.21 50.76 61.30
8.8 11.9 15.0 18.2
8x8 8 x 10 8 x 12
7 7 7
518
7 518 9 SI8 11 5/8
58.14 73.39 88.64
281.69 566.58 998.25
73.89 117.73 171.74
281.69 355.58 429.47
73.89 93.27 112.65
16.2 20.4 24.6
l o x 10 l o x 12
9 SI8 9 SI8
9 518 11 5/8
92.64 111.89
715.19 1260.08
148.61 216.79
715.19 863.80
148.61 179.49
25.7 31.1
12 x 12
115B
11518
135.14
1521.92
261.83
1521.92
261.83
37.5
in x in 1x4 1x6 1x8 1 x 10 1 x 12
718
718 718
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
518
SI8
S, in'
5.1
Notes: (a) @)
(c)
This table is based on information from references 19 and 21. The section properties are given for dry lumber, which is defined as lumber that has been seasoned to a moisture content of 19 percent or less. Based on a unit weight value of 40 ib/ft3. Actual weights vary depending on species and moisture content. At 15-percent moisture content, the unit weight of coastal region Douglas Fir is 34 ib/f? and that of Southern pine ranges between 36 and 44 Ib/fl'. The other species commonly used for fomwork in North America weigh less. Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 Ibf/f? = 157 N/m3; 1 lbflft = 1.49 kg/m
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APPENDIX B FALSEWORK AND FORMWORK DESIGN EXAMPLES
-
EXAMPLE 1 SLAB FALSEWORK WITH OVERHANG BRACKET Problem Description:
Check the fomwork elements and overhang bracket in figure 53. Specifically, investigate the following items: 0
e
a
P l y w d sheathing [%-in (19-mm) Plyform Class Il. maximum allowable pressure Stringers [2-in by 4-in nominal (50-mm by 100-mm) S4S dimension lumber]. bending stress horizontal shear stress bearing stress deflection Steel overhang bracket and hangers. safe load deflection
e a
a
a
a
a
The bridge deck will be consîructed from normai weight concrete. The screed rails will be placed directly over the bridge deck steel girders. Therefore, the fomwork and falsework will not be affected by the screed loads. No motorized carts will be driven on the formwork. The Class I Plyform sheathing will be placed so the stress is applied parallel to the face grain (that is, the supports will be perpendicular to the face grain). Assume the sheathing will be placed over two spans. The stringers span over four supports (three spans). The bearing area of the stringer on each support is 4.5 in2 (2,900 mm?. All lumber is to be Douglas Fir - Construction Grade S4S dimension lumber. Assume the allowable bending stress for the lumber is 1O , OO 1bWn2(6.9 N/mm2), the allowable horizontal shear stress equals 95 lbf/in2(0.66 N/mm2), and the allowable bearing stress is 625 lbf/in2 (4.3 N/mm2). The modulus of elasticity (E) equals 1,500,000 lbf/ina (10,300Nhnmz).
References:
Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works") National Design Specification for Wood Construction, 1991 Edition") NDS Supplement - Design Valuesfor Wood Constructionf2') American Plywood Association Concrete Dayton-Superior 1985 Bridge Deck Forming Handbook(22)
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Design Conditions:
C H B T W 95
A A S H T O TITLE
m
ob39804 o o 3 1 , ~ 3 3935
/-- 2"X4"(@ 12" O.C.
r
m
3 / 4 PLYFORM CLASS I
8 MIN. CONCRETE
1/2" DIA. COIL BOLT (TYP.)
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m. Figure 53. Slab falsework with overhang bracket. Calculation and Discussion: 1.
Calculate the load on the plywood sheathing. Section 3.2 of the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Wot,; specifies a minimum live load of 50 lbf/ft? (2,400 N/m2) be applied to fonnwork for the vertical load of construction traffic. This load applies to the fonnwork sheathing only, and not to the underlying falsework members. Also, according to the specification, the combined dead and live loads shall equal at least 100 lbf/ft2 (4,800 N/m2) when no motorized carts are used.
Dead load (calculated where the concrete depth is greatest) The concrete depth to the left of the exterior girder is approximately 10 in (250 mm). concrete:
(10 in)(l fU12 in)(150 lbffft?) = 125 lbf/ft? (5,990 N/m2)
plywood:
2.2 lbf/ft? (105 N/m2) from table 9 in chapter 3.
Live load Live load on fonnwork
50 lbf/ft? (2,390 N/m?
Total dead and live load: 177 lbf/ft! (8,430 N/m? The total dead and live load exceeds the specified minimum of 100 lbf/ft! (4,800 N/m2). Therefore, the allowable pressure must exceed 177 lbf/ft? (8,430 N/m?.
92
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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m
A A S M T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
2.
Ob39804 0031634 871
m
Determine the maximum allowable pressure on the plywood sheathing based on bending stress, shear stress, and deflection. Allowable pressure (wb)based on bending stress: From table 8 in chapter 3, wb =
96FbKS , for two spans 1:
where, for this example,
Fb= 1,930 lbflin’ (13.3 N/mm2), bending stress from table 10 KS = 0.455 in3/ft (24,450 mm3/m), effective section modulus from table 9 1, = 12 in (305 mm), span from center-to-center of supports
=
96(1,930)(0.455) (12)’
ft
Allowable pressure (w,) based on shear stress:
From table 8 in chapter 3, 19.2 F(lb/Q) w, =
4
, for two spans
where, for this example,
F, = 72 Ibf/in2(0.50 N/mm2), rolling shear stress from table 10 lb/Q = 7.187 in2/ft (15,200 mm2/m),rolling shear constant from table 9 1, = 12 in - 1.5 in = 10.5 in (267 mm), clear span
ws = 19.2(72)(7.187) = 946 ! !!! [45,300.$] ft2 10.5 Allowable pressure (w,) based on bending and shear deflection: According to section 3.3.3 of the Guide Design SpeciJicationfor Bridge Temporary Works, forms for exposed concrete surfaces should not exceed either 118 in (3.2 mm) or la40 of the center-to-center distance between joists.
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Wb
AASHTO
TITLE CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0031635 708
Therefore, the maximum allowable deflection ($13 is: IR
in (3.2 mm)
or (11S40)(12 in) = 0.05 in (1.3 mm)
For this example, & = 0.05 in (1.3 mm). Determine the bending deflection (A,,) based on a 1.0 lbf/ft2 (47.9N/m? load using the following equation from table 8 in chapter 3: wi; , for two spans = 2,220 EI where, for this example, l3 = 10.5 in + 0.25 in = 10.75 in (273 mm),clear span plus % in (6.4 mm)
E = 1,650.000 lbf/ii2(11,400 Nhnm’), adjusted modulus of elasticity I = 0.199 in4/ft (272,000 mm4/m), moment of inertia --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ab =
(l.0)(10.75)4 = O.oooO183 in (0.000465 mm) 2,220(1,650,000)(0.199)
Determine the shear deflection (AJbased on a 1.0 lbf/fe (47.9 N/m?load using the following equation from table 8 in chapter 3:
A, =
Cwt 21; 1,270 E,I
where, for this example,
C = 120 for face grain perpendicular U, supports t = y4 in (19 mm), plywood thickness i, = 10.5 in (267 mm), clear span
E, = 1,500,000 Ibf/in2 (10,300 N/mm2), unadjusted modulus of elasticity I = 0.199 in4/ft (272,000 mm4/m), moment of inertia
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75
Ob37804 003Lb3b 644
The allowable pressure (w,) based on deflection is therefore: Aau. = 0.05 w, = 4 + A, 0.0000183 + 0.0000196 w, = 1,320 ibf/ft2 (63,200 N/mz) --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The maximum allowable pressure on the plywood sheathing is governed by wb, which is 585 Ibf/f$ (28,000 N/m2). The combined &ad and live load is 177 ibf/f? (8,430 N/m2). Therefore, the capacity of the plywood sheathing exceeds the total design load. 3.
Calculate the load on the most heavily loaded stringer, which in this example is the fourth stringer from the left. The average concrete depth at this stringer is approximately 9 in (230 mm). Dead load Section 2.2.2 of the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works specifies that the combined weight of concrete, reinforcing and prestressing steel, and formwork shall be assumed to be not less than 160 Ibf/fe (25,100 N/m3). The dead load on the stringer is therefore:
(:,!J - [y b f ] /
concrete, formwork: (9 in)(12 in)
\
-(1,750 E)
= l2;?
stringer: 1.5 IbUft (22 N/m) from table 14 in appendix A. Live load According to section 3.1.3 of the specification, structurai supports on the soffit of a bridge deck and slab overhangs are falsework by definition and shall be designed accordingly. The construction live load must include the actual weight of any equipment to be supported on the falsework plus a uniform load of 20 Ibf/f? (960 N h 2 ) over the area supported and a line load of 75 Ibf/ft (1100 N/m) applied at the outside edge of bridge overhangs. In this example, the line load is applied to the leftmost stringer. The stringers in this example must therefore be designed for the following live load: live load on stringer: -(12 20 Ibf ft
(-E)
=f 20 t Ibf 290 N
in)(* 12 in
Total dead and live load: 142 lbf/ft (2,070 N/m)
According to section 2.2.4 of the speciíìcation, the minimum total vertical design load for any falsework member shall not be less than 100 lbf/ft? (4,790 N/m% which for a 1 2 4 (305-mm) spacing, gives a lW-lbf/ft (1,460-Nhn) load on the sîringer. Therefore, the design load on the stringer is 142 lbf/ft (2,070 Nh).
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 M Ob39804 003Lb37 5 8 0
4.
Determine the maximum moment and maximum shear in the stringer. The stringers span over four supports (three spans). The center-to-center distance between supports is 4 ft (1.2 m). Beam formulas for calculating maximum moments, shears, and deflections can be found in table 12 in chapter 3. The maximum moment & occm I) at an interior support for the stringer (assuming four supports):
M = -w12 = (142 Ibffft)(4 ft)2 10
10
M = 2,730 Ibf-in (308 N-m) The maximum shear (V) also occurs at an interior support:
v = -3wl
5
3(142 lbffft)(4 ft)
5
5
V = 341 lbf (1,520 N) 5.
Calculate the bending and shear stresses in the swinger. Bending stress: The section properties for the 2-in by 4-in nominal (50-mm by 100-mm) stringer can be found in table 14 in appendix A. The section modulus (S,)
is 3.06 in3 (50,100 nun3).
The bending stress (f,) is: fb =
M = -
s,
2,730 lbf-in 3.06 i n 3
fb = 892 lbf/in2 (6.2 N/mm2)
The allowable bending stress is 1,OOO lbf/in2(6.9 N/mm3). The stringer is therefore acceptable in bending.
Shear stress: From table 14 in appendix A, the actual dimensions of 2-in by 4-in nominal (50-mmby 100-mm)S4S dimension lumber are: b = 1.5 in (38 mm) h = 3.5 in (89 mm)
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Ob39804 0031638 417
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
The horizontal shear stress (H) is: --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
H = - 3V 2bh
5
3(341 lbf) 2(1.5 in)(3.5 in)
H = 97 lbflin (0.67 N/mm 9 The allowable shear stress is 95 lbf/in2(0.66 N/mm2), which is nearly equal to the calculated shear stress. The stringer is therefore acceptable in shear. The allowable spacing of the supports based on h e bending and shear capacity of the stringer may also be determined using the formulas given in table 11 in chapter 3.
6.
Calculate the bearing stress in the stringer. The largest reaction (R)occurs at an interior support: R - , w11 l= 10
1l(142 lbf/ft)(4 ft) 10
R = 625 lbf (2,780 N) The bearing area (A) is given as 4.5 in2 (2,900 mm2). The bearing stress (0 is therefore: R f=---
-
A
625 lbf 4.5 in2
f = 139 lbtlin' (0.96 Nimm?
The allowable bearing stress is 625 lbf/in2(4.3 N/mm2). The stringer is therefore acceptable in bearing. 7.
Calculate the maximum deflection due to bending of the stringer. Deflection: The moment of inertia (h) is 5.36 in4 (2,230,000 mm4) as given in table 14 of appendix A. The maximum deflection (A) occurs in an exterior span: (142 Ibf/ft)(4 ft)4 12 in A = - w14 145EI 145(1,500,000 lbf/in 2)(5.36 in 4,
(71
A = 0.054 in (1.4 mm)
According to section 2.3.5 of the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works,the calculated vertical deflection of falsework members shall not exceed 1n40of their span under the dead load of the concrete only. In this example, ia40of the span is 0.20 in (5.1 mm). The deflection due to the total dead and live load is only 0.054 in (1.4 mm). The deflection of the stringer is therefore within the limit required by the specification.
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95 H Ob39804 0033639 3 5 3
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8.
Determine the capacity and deflection of the steel overhang bracket, Safe working loads for steel overhang brackets and hangers can be found in the product catalogs provided by manufacturers. These allowable loads are dependent on a number of factors including the bracket dimensions, the deck slab thickness and length of the slab overhang, the design live load, the screed load (where applicable), and the safety factor used to determine the allowable loads and bracket spacings. The effects of the brackets on the bridge girder must also be consider4 when using these brackets to construct deck overhangs. Note rhat increasing the length of the bracket’s vertical leg generally increases the bracket capacity. More importantly, the load fiom the bracket is transferred to the bridge girder near its bottom flange, thereby reducing twisting or bending of the girder. The total vmicai load on the bracket may be estimated as follows. The avenge depth of the concrete on the overhang is approximately 9 in (230 mm). The total dead and live distributed load is therefore 142 lbf/f? (6800 N/m2) based on the calculations in step 3, total dead and live load = 142 ib/ft!(3.5 ft)(4 ft) = 1,990 lbf (8,850 N) line load = 75 lbf/ft x 4 ft = 300 lbf (1,300 N) Therefore the total load on the bracket is 2,290 Ibf (10,200 N). The manufacturer’s product technical literature should then be consulted to determine safe working loads for the given bracket spacings. To estimate the deflection of the hanger, use the load-deflection curve in figure 54. For the bracket in this example, the deflection is estimated based on the sum of the vertical loads on the bracket.
I
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
I
-
!
!
!
!
I
6000 4500
3000 1500 O O
0.25
0.75
0.5
1
1.25
Deflection at outboard end of bracket (in)
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 lbf = 4.45 N Figure 54. Load-deflection curve for steel overhang bracket. Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0031b40 075
The deflection of the bracket will be estimated only for the concrete load since the deflection due to the weight of the falsework may be corrected prior to concrete placement.
[-
Total weight of concrete = (8 in i 1 0 in) 3.5 ft)(4 ft) 1 5 t ) bf ~ ~ 2 ~ ) = 1,580 lbf (7,030 N)
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
According to figure 54, the deflection at the outboard end of the bracket based on a total vertical load of 1,580 lbf (7,030 N) is approximately 0.4 in (10 mm).
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 003Lb4L T O I W
-
EXAMPLE 2 NEEDLE BEAM Problem Description:
Check the stresses and defl-ction of the needle beam shown in figure 55. Specifically, investigate the following items: e
o
o o
Bending stress. Horizontal shear stress. Bearing stress on piate and washer with contact area A = 15 in2 (9,680 m '). Maximum deflection.
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Design Conditions:
o
o o
o
The 8-in(200-mm) thick bridge deck will be constructed from normal weight concrete. The screed rails wiil be placed directly over the bridge deck steel girders. Therefore, the formwork and falsework will not be affected by the screed loads. No motorized carts will be driven on the formwork. The needle beam is to be constructed of Douglas Fir - Construction Grade S4S dimension lumber. Each needle beam consists of two 2-in by 12-in nominai (50-mm by 300-mm) members spaced at 4 ft (1.2 m) on center. The allowable bending stress for the lumber is 1,OOO lbf/in2 (6.9 N/mm2) and the allowable horizontal shear stress equals 95 lbf/ii2 (0.66 N/mmZ). The allowable bearing stress is 625 1bElin' (4.3 N/mm2). The modulus of elasticity (E) is 1,500,000 Ibf/in2 (10,300 N/mm2). Assume the formwork applies a lO-ibf/ft' (480-N/mZ)disuibuted load on the needle beam.
Note that in this example the fascia beams of the bridge are relatively shallow. An overhang bracket cantilevered from a fascia beam would cause it to rotate significantly. A needle beam is therefore used to support the overhanging portion of the bridge deck slab. In general, for beams with depths less than 24 in (610 mm), a needle beam such as the one shown in this example should be considered. References:
Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works") National Design Spec@cation for Wood Construction, I991 Edition(" NDS Supplement - Design Values for Wood Construction""
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
0639804 0031642 948
SIDE FORM JOISTS
I
\
c
FASCIA BEAM
SHORE (BRACED FOR STABILITY)
2
I
NEEDLEBEAM 2-2x12 Q 4 - 0C.C. DOUGLAS FIR
WEDGES
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m Figure 55. Needle beam for slab overhang. Calculation and Discussion
Calculate the loads on the needle beam. Dead load According to section 2.2.2 of the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works, the weight of the concrete, steel reinforcement, and formwork shall be assumed to equal at least a 16O-ibf/ft! (25,100-N/mm3 load due to the falsework members that bear on the needle beam. The dead load on the needle beam is therefore:
[
concrete, formwork: (8 in) - - 4 ft) - = 640 lbf (2,800 N) (1~1n13:1 1 6 ~ 9 falsework:
[
m b f 1 3. 2 ; ft + 1 ft
4 ft) = 105 lbf (470 N)
Live load The construction live loads specified in section 2.2.3.1 of the specification include a 2O-ibfff? (96O-Nlm3 distributed load and a 75-lbf/ft (l,lOO-N/m) line load applied at the outside edge of the deck overhang, which in this case is located directly over the shore.
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1.
A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 75
m
Ob37804 0031643 884 W
The needle beam must therefore be designed for the following live loads: distributed load:
line load
(3*2i +
1
1 ft 4 ft)(20 Ibf/ft? = 210 Ibf (930 N)
(y).
ft) = 300 lbf (1,300 N)
Total dead and live load: 1,260 Ibf (5,600 N) The load is applied as a concenîrated load on the needle beam at the location of the shore as shown in figure 55. 2.
Determine the maximum moment and the maximum shear in the needle beam. Each needle beam is constructed from two 2-in by 1241-1nominal (50-mm by 300-mm). The weight of one 2 x 12 is 4.7 lbf/ft (70 N/m) from table 14 in appendix A. The concentrated load on each 2 x 12 is one-half of the load calculated in step 1, that is, 630 lbf (2,800 N). Maximum moment (M) occurs at the outside coil bolt support:
M = [(630 lbf)(34ft)( +‘ ( 4 7 lbf ft
ft)’(i/;I- 12 in ft
M = 23,100 lbf-in (2,610 N-m), per 2 x 12
Maximum shear (V) also occurs at the outside support: V = 630 lbf
+ (4.7 Ibf/ft)(4 ft)
V = 650 lbf (2,890 N), per 2 x 12
3.
Calculate the bending and shear stresses in each 2 x 12 of the needle beam Bending stress: The section properties for the 2 x 12 can be found in table 14 of appendix A. The section modulus (S,) is 31.64 in3 (518,000 mm’). The bending stress (f,) is:
M S,
fb=-=
23,100 lbf-in 31.64 in3
fb = 730 Ibf/in’ (5.0 N/mm2)
The allowable bending stress for each 2 x 12 is 1,000 lbf/in2(6.9 N/mm2). The needle beam is therefore acceptable in bending. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
m 0637804
0031bY4 710
m
Shear stress: The actual dimensions of a 2 x 12 S4S member are: b = 1.5 in (38 mm) h = 11.25 in (290 mm) The horizontal shear stress (H) is: 3(650 lbf) H = - 3v = = 58 1bWn * (0.4 N/mm 3 2(1.5 in)(11.25 in) 2bh The allowable shear stress is 95 lbf/in2(0.66 N/mm2). The needle beam is therefore acceptable in shear. 4.
Calculate the bearing stress on the plate washer. The bearing reaction at the outside support equals (including both 2 x 12’s): + (1,260 lbO(9.25 ft)
R =
= 1,940 lbf (8,600 N)
6.25 ft
The bearing stress (f) is: --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
f=
R
15.0 in’
=
lbf = 130 Ibf/in2(0.9 N / m ?
15.0 in’
The allowable bearing stress is 625 Ibf/in2 (4.3 N/mm?. Therefore, the bearing stress in the needle beam is acceptable.
5.
Calculate the deflection of the needle beam at the edge of the bridge deck overhang, that is, 1 ft (0.3 m) from the right end of the needle beam. The needle beam can be set to the correct elevation, after the deflection due to the weight of the falsework members has occurred. The calculation for deflection, therefore, includes only the deflection due to the weight of the concrete. Deflection (calculated for one 2 x 12): The moment of inertia (I,) for one 2 x 12 is 177.98 in4 (74,000,000 mm4). (630 lbf)(3 ftY(6.25 ft + 3 ft) A =
3(1,500,000 Ibffin 2)(178 in4)
= 0.11 in (2.8 mm)
When the deflection is significant, the falsework should be set high at the outer runner to account for deflection of the needle beam due to the concrete load. In addition, the wood-to-wood surfaœs in the support falsework tend to seat when the concrete is applied. A commonly used practice is to set the falsework high by 1/16in (1.6 mm) per wood interface.
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AASHTO T I T L E C H B T U 75
O637804 0031645 657
m
-
EXAMPLE 3 PIER CAP VERTICAL FORMWORK Problem Description:
Check the pier cap vertical formwork elements shown in figure 56. Specifically, evaluate the following items: Sheathing Tys-in (19-mm) Plyform Class I]. bending stress rolling shear svess deflection Studs.
bending stress horizontal shear stress bearing stress on walers deflection Walen.
bending stress horizontal shear stress bearing on tie plates [bearing area (A) is 15 in2 (9,700 mm2)1 --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Design Conditions:
The pier cap will be constructed from normal weight concrete, containing no admixtures or pozzolans and having a slump less than 4 in (100 mm). These concrete properties have been chosen in order to demonstrate the pressure equations given in section 3.2.2.2 of the Guide Design Specijicutionfor Bridge Tempormy Works. When these criteria have not been fulfilled, the hydrostatic pressure equation of section 3.2.2.1 is used instead. The sheathing (Plyform Class I) will be placed so that the stress is applied parallel to the face grain (that is, the face grain will run perpendicular to the supports). The plywood will be placed across at least four supports (three spans). All lumber is to be Douglas Fir - Construction Grade S4S dimension lumber. The allowable bending stress for the lumber is 1,OOO lbflin’ (6.9 N/mm2), the allowable horizontal shear stress is 95 ibf/in2 (6.6 N/mm2), and the allowable bearing stress is 625 lbf/in’ (4.3 N/mm2).
Note that the conditions assumed for design must be verified in the field.
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~~
~~
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 75
Ob39804 0033646 5 9 3
I
I
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PIER ELEVATION
3/4' K Y F W CLASS I
i
2x4. c w0.c.
+1/2'
DIA. COL BOLT WITH 4x5' WASHER SPACED @ 4'-O'
TWO 2x6' IWALERSI 4181(3/4' PLYFORM. CLASS 1
2x4' BRACE e 4DC. BOW SDE
xexK)'LONG @ Io-0.c
FRICTION COLLAR
SECTION A
-A
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m Figure 56. pier cap on friction collar. Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0031647 42T
Calculate the loads on the pier cap vertical formwork.
1.
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All the elements of the vertical side forms, including sheathing, studs, and walers, are defined as formwork and are therefore governed by the provisions of chapter 3 of the Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary Works. The lateral pressure exerted by fluid concrete on the side forms is determined by the equations in section 3.2.2 of the specification. Assume the contractor will pour one pier cap in approximately 30 minutes. The rate of placement (R) is then: 3.67 ft = 7.3 f t h (2.2 mh) R =30 min
Equation 3-4 from the specificaion applies since the pour rate exceeds 7 f t h (2.1 m/h). Assume the temperature of the concrete is 70 OF (21.1 OC). The lateral pressure (p) is calculated as follows: p = 1 5 0 + -43 400 70
+
2,800(7.3) 70
p = 1,060 Ibf/ft (50,800 N/m *) However, according to section 3.2.2.2 of the specification, this lateral pressure need not exceed 150 times the depth of the fluid concrete: p = 15q3.67 ft) = 550 lbffft (26.300 N/m The vertical side forms are therefore to be designed for a lateral pressure that varies linearly from p = O at the top of the pier cap form to p = 550 lbf/ft2 (26,300 N/m3 at the bottom of the form. This pressure may also be determined from the graph given in figure 25 in chapter 3 of this handbook. 2.
Determine the maximum allowable pressure on the vertical plywood sheathing based on bending stress, shear stress, and deflection. The sheathing capacity should be compared to the maximum pressure, which for this case equals 550 lbf/ft! (26,300 N/m?. Allowable pressure (w,,) based on bending stress: From table 8 in chapter 3: Wb
=
120FbKS 1;
where, for this example Fb = 1,930 lbf/in2(13.3 N/mmZ), bending stress from table 10
KS = 0.455 in3/ft (24,450 mm3/m),effective section modulus from table 9 I, = 16 in (406 mm), span from center-to-center of supports Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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Allowable pressure (w,) based on shear stress: From table 8 in chapter 3:
w, =
2OF.(lWQ)
, for two spans
'2
where, for this example F, = 72 lbf/in2(0.50 N/mm?, rolling shear stress from table 10 lb/Q = 7.187 in2/ft (15,200 mm2/m), rolling shear constant from table 9 1, = 16 in W'
- 1.5 in = 14.5 in (368 mm), clear span
= 2q72)(7'187)
14.5
= 714 lbflft' (34.200 N/m ,)
Allowable pressure (wJ based on bendmg and shear deflection: According to section 3.3.3 of the Guide Design Spec$cation for Bridge Temporary Works, forms for exposed concrete surfaces should not exceed either 118 in (3.2 mm) or 1/240 of the center-to-center distance between joists.
118
in(3.2 mm)
or (in40)(16 in) = 0.07 in (1.8 mm) For this example, kl,= 0.07 in (1.8 mm) Determine the bending deflection (AJ based on a i.O-lbtlft? (47.9-N/m2) load using the following equation from table 8 in chapter 3: wi: = 1,743 EI
, for two spans
where, for this example
l3 = 14.5 in
+ 0.25 in = 14.75 in (375 mm), clear span plus '/4 in (6.4 mm)
E = 1,650,000 lbf/in2(11,400 Nhnm'), adjusted modulus of elasticity I = 0.199 in4/ft(272,000 mm'/m), moment of inertia
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Therefore, the maximum allowable deflection (4,Jis:
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
= Ob39804
0031649 2 T 2
(i.0)(i4*75)4 = O.ooOo827 in (0.00210 mm) (1,650,000(0.199) Determine the bending deflection (AJbased on a l.0-lbf/ft2(47.9-N/m2)load using the following equation from table 8 in chapter 3:
As =
Cwt '12' 1,270 EeI
where, for this example C = 120 for face grain perpendicular to supports t = % in (19 mm), plywood thickness 1, = 14.5 in (368 mm), clear span
E. = 1,500,000 lbf/in2(10,300 N/mm2), unadjusted modulus of elasticity I = 0.199 in4/ft(272,000 mm4/m), moment of inertia
The allowable pressure (w,) based on deflection is therefore: WA =
41,.-A,
+
As
0.07 O.oooO827 + 0.0000374
wA= 583 lbf/ft2 (27,900 N/m2)
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The maximum allowable pressure on the vertical sheathing is acceptable for shear and deflection. However, the bending capacity [412 ibf/ft2 (19,700 Nhn?)] of the plywood is approximately 33 percent too low. The required capacity in 530 lbf/fl! (26,300 N/mZ). increasing the plywood thickness from % in (19 mm) to 1 in (25 mm) increases the bending capacity of the sheathing to:
w,
=
667 IbWft' (31,900 N/m2)
Instead of increasing the plywood thickness, the spacing of the studs may be decreased. The allowable pressure based on bending of %-in (19-nun) plywood with supports spaced at 12 in (305 mm) is:
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A A S M T O T I T L E C H B T W 75 9 Ob39804 0031b50 TL4 9
Therefore, the plywood thickness must be increased or the stud spacing decreased in order for the sheathing capacity to exceed the design load. When evaluating the other vertical formwork components, use a spacing of 16 in (406 mm) for the spacing of the studs, as shown in figure 56.
3.
Check the stresses and deflection in the studs of the vertical formwork. The studs are loaded by a triangular load distribution that varies linearly from 550 lbf/fi? (26,300 Nhn') to O. The studs are spaced at 16 in (406 mm) on center. The linear load on each stud is therefore 733 lbf/ft (10,700 N/m) at the bottom of the stud and O at the top. The studs are supported on the waiers. Using conventional beam theory, calculate the maximum moment, shear, and reaction force in the stud under these loading conditions. The maximum values are as follows:
M = 155 lbf-ft (210 N-m), maximum moment V = 556 lbf (2,470 N), maximum shear R = 1,003 Ibf (4,460 N), maximum reaction Bending stress: The section properties for the 2-in by 4-in nominal (50-mm by 100-mm) S4S stud can be found in appendix A (table 14). The section modulus (S,) is 3.06 in3 (50,100 nun3). The bending stress (fb) is:
-
fb = M = (155 Ibf-ft)(l2 idft)
3.06 in3
sxx
fb = 608 1bWin *(4.2 N/mm2)
The allowable bending stress is 1,000 lbf/in2(6.9 N/mm*). The stud is therefore acceptable in bending. Shear stress: From table 14 in appendix A, the actual dimensions of the stud are: b = 1.5 in (38 mm) h = 3.5 in (89 mm)
The horizontal shear stress (H)is:
H = -3 v
=
2bh
3(556 lbf) 2(1.5 in)(3.5 in)
H = 159 lbf/in2(1.1 N/mmz) This stress exceeds the allowable shear stress of 95 lbf/in2 (0.66 N/mm2). The stud spacing may be decreased or the stud size increased to reduce the maximum shear stress. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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A A S H T O TITLE
C H B T W 95
m
O L ~ ~ ~ H 0J L0 , 3 1 , ~ 950 ~
m
If a 2-in by 6-in nominal (50-mm by 150-mm) S4S stud is used instead, the shear stress becomes:
3(556 Ibo = 101 Ibf/in2 (0.70 N/mm2) 2(1.5 in)(5.5 in)
H -
The spacing of the studs would have to be reduced to 9 in (230 mm) in oder to decrease tbe shear stress to the allowable shear stress. For a 9-in (230-mm) spacing, the shear stress (H) equals: H = (9 id16 in) (159 lbfïm2) H = 89 lbf/in2 (614,000 N/mm*) Bearing stress: The bearing area (A) equals: A = (1.5 in)(2)(1.5 in) = 4.5 in2 (2,900 mm2)
The bearing stress (f) is therefore equal to: f - , = R
A
1,003 Ibf 4.5 in2
f = 223 lbf/in2 (1.5 N/mm?
The allowable bending stress is 625 Ibf/in2(4.3 N/mm2). The studs are therefore acceptable in bearing. 4.
Check the bending deflection of the studs. The deflection of the studs can be conservatively estimated using the deflection formula for a simply supported beam. At the midpoint between walers, the linear load equals 383 lbf/ft (5.59 N/m). Use this average load to estimate the deflection: 5w14 A=-384EI
-
5(383 lbf/ft)(26 in)* (1 fV12 in) 384(1,500,000 ibf/in ‘)(5.36 in4)
A = 0.02 in
The allowable deflection is given in section 3.3.3 of the Guide Design SpeciJicafionfor Temporary Work. The maximum allowable deflection is ID in (3.2 mm) or 1n40 of 26 in (660 mm), which equals 0.11 in (2.8 mm). The stud deflection is therefore acceptable.
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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AASHTO T I T L E
5.
063980Y 0033652 897 W
CHBTW 95
Check the bending, shear, and bearing stress in the walers. Three studs bear on each waler between tie rods. The lower waler carries more load than the higher waler. The maximum reaction on the stud support (waler) is given in step 3. The load from each stud is 1,003 Ibf (4,460 N). The maximum values under these loads are as follows:
M = 20,000 lbf-in V = 1,500 lbf R = 1,500 lbf (6,670 N) Bending stress: The section modulus (SJ of one 2-in by 6-in (50-mm by 150-mm) S4S dimension lumber is 7.56 in3 (124,000 mm3), from table 14 in appendix A. Each waler consists of two 2 x 6‘s. The bending stress (fb) is: fb =
M = 20,000 lbf-in 2S, (2)(7.56 in3)
The walers are therefore not acceptable in bending. Using a 2-in by 8-in nominal (50-mm by 200-mm) section, with S , equal to 13.14 in3 (215,000 m’), the bending stress is: fb =
20.000 lbf-in (2)(13.14)
fb = 761 Ibf/in2= (5.2 N/mm2)
This calculated bending stress is below the maximum allowable bending stress of 1,OOO ibf/in2 (6.9 N/mm2). Shear stress: Check the shear stress using 2 x 8 walers. The actual dimensions of each 2 x 8 are: b = 1.5 in (38 mm) h = 7.25 in (184 mm) The horizontal shear stress (H) for two 2 x 8’s is: H=-
3v = 3(1,500 lbf) (2)2bh (2)(2)(1.5 in)(7.25 in)
H = 103 Ibf/in2 (0.71 N/mmZ) 111 Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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f,, = 1,323 Ibf/in2(9.1 N/mm?
A A S H T O TITLE
C H B T W 95
m
o b m o 4 0 0 3 ~ b 5 37 2 3
rn
This exceeds the allowable shear s m s by 8 percent. The designer should determine if an allowable s m s increase may be taken for shortduration loading. Bearing stress: The bearing stress (0 on the tie plaie is: f = - R=
A
1,500 lbf 15 in2
f = 100 lbffin' (0.69 N / m ?
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The allowable bearing stress is 625 lbf/in2(4.3 N/mmZ). The waler is therefore acceptable as designed. The reaction load (R) must be transferred through the tie rods. Check manufacturer product data for allowable tensile loads on the tie rods.
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A A S H T O T I T L E CHBTW 9 5
Ob39804 0031654 bbT
APPENDIX C RECOMMENDED THICKNESSES OF WOOD LAGGING'24'
Table 16. Recommended thickness of wood lagging for various soil types.
Unified classification
Soil descripiion
Silts or fine sand and silt above water table
ML
ci
Sands and gravels (medium dense to dense)
GW, GP, GM,GC, SW, SP,SM CL, CH
8
clays (stiff to very stiff); nonfissured Clays, medium consistency and
CL,CH
Sands and silty sands, (ïoose)
SW,SP,SM
Clayey sands (mediumdense to dense) below water table
sc
Clays, heavily overconsolidated fissured
CL, CH
Cohesionless silt or fine sand and silt below water table
ML; SM-ML
2 E3
Recommended thickness of lagging (rough-cut) for clear spans of: Depth
6R
7A
8ft
9R
loft
2 in 3 in
3 in
3 in
4 in
4
5A
SM-ML O A to 25 fî
in
3 3
2
i CI
25 ft to 60 ft
3 in 3 in
3 in
4 in
4 in
5 in
O ft to 25 ft
3 in
3 in
3 in
4 in
4 in
5 in
25 fî to 60 A
3 in
3 in
4 in
4 in
5 in
5 in
O ft to 15 fi
3 in
3 in
4 in
5 in
--
--
15 ft to25 fi
3 in
4 in
5 in
6 in
--
--
25 fi to 35 A
4 in
5 in
6 in
--
--
~
Sofi clays
"
2
CL,CH
Slighîiyplastic silts &low water
ML
Clayey sands flocse) below water table
sc
Notes: (a) In the category of "potentially dangerous soils," use of lagging is questionable. (b) Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 A = 0.305 m
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~~
A A S M T O T I T L E CHBTW 95
= Oh37804 0031655 5Th m
APPENDIX D STEEL SHEET PILE DATA
The following information is excerpted from the United States Steel Sheet Piling Handbook.’”’ While specific sheet pile data provided in this appendix may be dated, information relating to nomenclature, driving practices, steel grades, and interlock characteristics is still applicable. Standard Nomenclature System for Sheet Piling As part of the steel industry’s program for unifying and improving the classification and designation of
structurai steel products, a standardized nomenclature system for steel sheet piling was introduced in 1972. The following information describes this system. --````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Alphabetic and Numerical Designations:
P Z
= Steel sheet piling
SA
= 2-shaped profile or cross section = Straight web profile = Shallow arch profile
MA DA X Number
= Median arch profile = Deep arch profile = High-strength interlock = Weight of sheet piling shape, lbf/ft2of wall
S
For example, the designation PSX32 represents steel sheet piling (P) with a straight web ( S ) and a high-strength interlock ( X ) and which weighs 32 ibf/ft2(156 kg/m2)of wall. Driving Practices
The driving dimensions given for the various sheet piling profiles are nominal. Because of normal miii tolerances and probable variations in onsite conditions, sheet piles may drive either short or long in a waU, even when they are carefully lined up and driven with a template. This can be anticipated particularly in the case of 2 piles - where a gain or loss of seved inches (per pair of piles) is possible. To a large extent, such
dimensional variations occur as a result of the setting-up position. To compensate for this, standard practice requires that setting and driving operations be checked frequently. In this way, the position of certain pairs of piles can be changed whenever it is necessary to compensate. Steel Grades
The common specification for USS steel sheet piling is ASTM A328. Because this is the most frequently specified grade, it is the most readily available. ASTM A328 - This is the basic sheet piling specification and provides for a minimum yield point of
38,500 lbf/in2(265 Nhnmz) and minimum tensile strength of 70,000 Ibf/in2(483 N/mmZ). With this grade, it is general practice to allow a working stress of at least 25,000 lbf/in2 (172 N/mm2). Because of its applicability to a majority of piling uses, it is the one grade most readily available either from rollings or from stock. 115 Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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AASHTO
0639804 0033656 432 H
TITLE CHBTW 95
ASTM A572 Grade 50 - This grade has a minimum yield point of 50,000 lbf/in2 (345 N/mm2) and an allowable design stress of 32,000 lbf/in2 (221 N/mmZ). This is almost 30 percent higher than the suggested allowable design stress for carbon grade (ASTM A328). This grade (ASTM A572 Grade 50) is generally available on order from planned rollings; it is not a normally stocked grade. PSX32, the high interlock-strength piling, is available only in 50-kip/in2 ( 3 4 5 - N h 9 minimum yield point steel. The increased strength offered by this grade increases resistance to bending forces and is used n o d y for the 2-pile profiles.
Interlock Characteristics Interlocks of straight web and arch web piling are referred to as the "thumb and finger" type: this design provides three contact points and helps develop both strength and watertightness characteristics. adjacent sections for piling lengths up to 50 ft (15 m). PSX32 used in larger structures where swing requirements are minjmal, has a swing of at least 5". Where lengths are longer than 50 ft (15 m), the swing requirement should be shown on the order. Where swings in excess of the above must be ensured, it is possible to use pre-bent pieces. When PSX32 is used in a circular coffer-cell, PS28 or PS32 shapes may be considered in the arcs that connect the main cells. These latter shapes have the increased swing that may be needed to close the arcs, if other than T-typeconnectors are used.
Figure 57. Normal interlock swing is at least 10" on arch web and straight web shapes. The interlocks of 2 piling is the ball-and-socket type. This interlock has the least driving resistance (provided that the socket end is driven over the ball end). While no swing is guaranteed in 2-type piling interlocks, some small yet practical amount may be developed during the actual installation. Again, where swing must be assured, pre-bent piles can be supplied. It is suggested that if 2 piles are to be used for circular structures, USS product engineers should be consulted prior to ordering. Interlocks are manufactured so that the sheet piling will be reasonably free-sliding to grade.
In a given structure where sheet piling from different producers must be mixed, it is suggested that the number of such connections should either be held to a minimum or that compromise connections be fabricated.
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Arch web and straight web piling interlocks have a swing of at least 10" (figure 57) between two
Ob39804 003Lb57 379
AASHTQ T I T L E CHBTW 95
Nonnal warranties applicable to sheet piie generally do not apply where sheet piling from different manufacturers are interlocked together. The interlocks of USS steel sheet piling are designed for the normal joining technique as shown in figure 58. On occasion, however, a design requirement will call for a reversed position as shown in figure 59. While the shapes can be joined in such a manner, this reversed position will result in a weaker interlock connection and will create difficulty in holding the alignment of the sheet piling wail for any extended run.
Performance warranties apply only to the normal method. Table 17 shows which shapes interlock with one another. Additionally, the ball element of PZ27 will interlock witb tbe sockets of PZ32 and PZ38.
--````,`,`,````,,`,,,,`,``,`,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 58. Steel sheet piling interlocks in the normal position.
Figure 59. Steel sheet piling interlocks in the reverse position (not recommended). 117 Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Provided by IHS under license with AASHTO No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
m
063980Y 003Lb58 205
m
Table 17. Standard sheet piling (circa 1972).
-
Designation
Profile
Weight per linear ft, Ib
Weight per sq ft of wall, lb
57.0
38.0
PZ38
Section modulus Driving
per ft
Area A, in2
width, in
Wall, in3
per pile, in3
16.8
18
46.8
70.2
21
38.3
67.O
-
56.0
pZ32
32.0
16.5
PZ27
P.DA27
~
40.5
27.0
11.9
18
3.O2
45.3
36.0
27.0
10.6
16
10.7
14.3
-
-
Y
36.0
PMA22
22.0
10.6
195/8
5.4
8.8
16
2.5
3.3
16
2.4
3.2
37.3
PSA2a
28.0
11.0
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30.7
PSA23
23.0
9.O
-
~~
PSX32
44.0
32.0
13.0
PS32
PS2a
40.0
32.0
11.8
16%
2.4
3.3
15
1.9
2.4
~
35.0
28.0
10.
~
15
1.9
Conversion: 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 Ibf = 4.45 N
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2.4
-
AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95 W Ob39804 0033657 141 W
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REFERENCES
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1.
J.F. DUNTEMA", L. EDWIN D U " , S A F D A R GILL, ROBERT G. LUKAS, and MARK K. W E R , Guide Design Specificationfor Bridge Temporary Works, FHWA Report No. FHWA-RD-93032, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,March 1993.
2.
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION, Iron and Steel Beams I873 to 1952, H.W. Ferris, Ed., New York, NY, 1953.
3.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS, "Specification for General Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling, and Bars for Structural Use (ASTM A6)," Philadelphia, PA. 1992.
4.
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, Structural Welding Coúe-Steel (ANSVAWS Dl.l-92), American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 1992.
5.
OMER W. BLODGETT, Design of Welded Structures, James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1966.
6.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Forest Service, Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material, Handbook No. 72, Forest Products Laboratory, Washington, DC, 1987 Revision.
7.
GERMAN GURFINKEL, Wood Engineering, Second Edition, KendaiUHunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, IA, 1981.
8.
NATIONAL FOREST PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION, National Design Specificationfor Wood Construction, 1991 Edition, Washington, DC, 1991.
9.
AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE, American National Standard for Construction and Demolition Operations: Concrete and Masonry Work - Safety Requirements (ANSIA10.9-1983), American National Standards Institute, New York, NY, 1982.
10.
SCAFFOLDING, SHORING, AND FORMING INSTITUTE, INC., Guide to Horizontal Shoring Beam Erection Procedure for Stafionary Systems, Publication No. SH305. Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc., Cleveland, OH, 1983.
11.
DAYTON-SUPERIOR CORPORATION, Bridge Deck Forming Handbook, Miamisburg, OH, 1985 (Rev. 6-88A).
12.
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures, NAVFAC DM-7, Alexandria VA, May 1982.
13.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, California Falsework Manual, Division of Structures, Caiírans, Sacramento, CA, 1977.
14.
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION, Code of Standard Practice, Ninth Edition, Chicago, IL, 1989.
15.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE INSTITUTE,Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast Concrete, Chicago, IL, 1985.
16.
R.T. RATAY, Ed., Handbook of Temporary Structures in Construction, First Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1984.
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AASHTO T I T L E CHBTW 95
Ob39804 0033663 8 T T
ACI-ASCE COMMITEE 343, "Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures (AU 343R-88)," ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Pan 4, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1990.
18.
B.H. NELSON and PJ. JURACH, "Long Span Bridge Deflection," Repon FHWA/CA/SD-¿3UOl,Office of Scnicaue Design,California Deparunent of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, December 1983.
19.
M.K. HURD AND ACI COMMITTEE 347, Formwork fur Concrete (SP-41, Fifth Edition, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,1989.
20.
AMERICAN PLYWOOD ASSOCIATION, Concrete Forming, Form No. V345P, Tacoma, WA, 1988.
21.
NATIONAL FOREST PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION, NDS Supplement-Design Valuesfor Wood Construction, Washington, DC,1991.
22.
DAYTON-SUPERIOR CORPORATION, Form Accessory Handbook (Rev. 5-WD), Miamisburg, OH, 1989.
23.
M.J. TOMLINSON, Foundation Design and Construction, 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York NY, 1975.
24.
D.T. GOLDBERG, W.E. JAWORSKI, and M.D. GORDON, Lateral Support System and Underpinning, Vols. I, II, III, Federal Highway Administration Report Nos. FHWA-RD-75-128, 129, 130, Washington, DC,1976.
25.
BETHLEHEM STEEL CORPORATION, Bethlehem Sheet Pile Data, Bethlehem. PA, 1992.
26.
F. HARRIS, Ground Engineering Equipment and Methods, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY,1983.
27.
U.S. STEEL CORPORATION, Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual, Pittsburgh, PA, 1972.
28.
U.S. STEEL CORPORATION, Steel Sheet Piling Handbook, Pittsburgh, PA, 1972.
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122
*U.S.
G~P~0~:1993-301-717:80351
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17.
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