A Proposal To Improve Teacher Training

 

D YXBYBWDC PB MKYXBUN PNDGFNX PXDMJMJO MJ YBBX GB^JPXMNW4  Jbnc E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Wg Wgfmnenchnmj fmnenchnmj E.   jkgomjjImog.bro psgfmnenIokdmc.gbk Kdrgf 8949

Pfms pdpnr prbpbsns tfdt ^JNWGB brodjmzn tndks mj orbups be pbbr gbujtrmns tb emj` dj` sfdrn rnsndrgf dj` nxpnrmnjgn-hdsn` mjebrkdtmbj dhbut edgtbrs tfdt mjecunjgn tfn qudcmty be  tndgfmjo tndg fmjo.. Pfn tndk tndks s wbuc wbuc` ` gbkp gbkpmcn mcn cbgdccycbgdccy-`nvn `nvncbpn cbpn` ` ljbw ljbwcn`o cn`on n dhbu dhbutt tfrnn tfrnn tbpm tbpmgs1 gs1 _fdt tndgfmjo prdgtmgns drn kbst neengtmvn mj gcdssrbbks2 Fbw `b tndgfnrs wfb usn tfbsn prdgtmgns cndrj tfnk2 Fbw dj` wfdt sfbuc` tndgfnr trdmjmjo mjstmtutmbjs tndgf tndgfnrs sb tfdt tfny wmcc usn neengtmvn prdgtmgns2 Pfn pdpnr rnvmnws puhcmsfn` rnsndrgf cmtnrdturn tb droun tfdt tfn djswnrs tb tfnsn tfrnn qunstmbjs drn jbt ynt euccy `nvncbpn`, dj` nspngmdccy jbt ebr pbbr  gbujtrmns.

_n hncmnvn tfdt mt ms pbssmhcn tb mjgrndsn `rdkdtmgdccy cnvncs be cndrjmjo dkbjo tfn sgfbbcgfmc`rnj be tfn wbrc`, dj` nspngmdccy mj pbbr gbujtrmns. Pfnrn ms dj uronjt jnn` tb `b sb1 Gfmc`rnj mj tfn ndrcy ord`ns drn jbt jb t kdstnrmjo tfn rnd`mjo slmccs jngnssdry ebr eurtfnr cndrjmjo. _mtfbut _mtfbut tfnsn ebuj`dtmbjs, rnturjs bj tfn fuon mjvnstknjt tfdt obvnrjknjts dj` fbusnfbc`s kdln mj n`ugdtmbj wmcc hn suhbptmkdc (^JNWGB, 8949, p. 490.) Pfn Mjtnrjdtmbjdc D`uct Cmtnrdgy Wurvny sfbwn` tfdt jndrcy 69% be tfn 4> tb 5> don orbup mj gbujtrmns sugf ds Gfmcn, Ybrtuodc dj` Ybcdj` fd` prbhcnks uj`nrstdj`mjo wrmttnj knssdons nvnj tfbuof kbst be tfnk rdtn tfnksncvns ds –cmtnrdtn‛ mj tfn Ybpucdtmbj Gnjsus (MDCW-BNG@, 8999). Pfn 899? PMKWW stu`y rnpbrtmjo bj 6tf 6 tf ord`n stu`njts "sfbws cdron odps mj cndrjmjo dgfmnvnknjt hntwnnj gbujtrmns...tfn dvnrdon stu`njt mj Nc Wdcvd`br, Ofdjd, Mj`bjnsmd dj` Kbrbggb emourns dcbjosm`n br hncbw tfn  pbbrnst-pnrebrkmjo 49% be stu`njts mj fmofnr-pnrebrkmjo fmofnr-pnrebrkmjo gbujtrmns" (^JNWGB, 8949, p. 49>). Pfnsn emourns wnrn `msgussn` dt tfn _brc` Ngbjbkmg Ebruk (_ (_dtlmjs, dtlmjs, 8949). Ebrtujdtncy,, pbbr gbujtrmns Ebrtujdtncy gbu jtrmns gdj mkprbvn cndrjmjo butgbkns wmtfbut emrst dgfmnvmjo fmof cnvncs be ngbjbkmg orbwtf. Wgfbbcs W gfbbcs gdj hn fmofcy neengtmvn nvnj wfnj wf nj stu`njts gbkn erbk pbbr edkmcmns (KgNwdj, 4==6< Ysdgfdrbpbucbs, 4==7). Pfnrn ms d gbrrncdtmbj  hntwnnj pbvnrty dj` stu`njts' tnst sgbrns (Wmrmj, 899>), hut sgfbbcs kdy jbt hn tfn gdusn. ^W rnsndrgf sfbws tfdt tfn `meenrnjgn mj tnst sgbrns hntwnnj pbbr p bbr dj` rmgf stu`njts ms  prmkdrmcy tfn gukucdtmvn neengt be ndrcy stmkucdtmbj stmkucdtmbj (Fnglkdj, 8996< Fdrt & Xmscny Xmscny,, 4==>) dj` cndrjmjo but be sgfbbc, prmjgmpdccy `urmjo tfn vdgdtmbj kbjtfs (Dcnxdj`nr, Njtwmstcn, & Bcsbj, 899?< @bwjny, Fmppnc, & Fuofns, 8996). Mj neengt, `meenrnjgns mj dvnrdon stu`njt WNW `b jbt dggbujt ebr d smojmemgdjt dkbujt be vdrmdtmbj mj sgfbbc neengtmvnjnss.

4

 Yrnsnjtn` dt tfn djjudc knntmjo be tfn Gbkpdrdtmvn dj` Mjtnrjdtmbjdc N`ugdtmbj Wbgmnty, Kdrgf 4->, 8949, Gfmgdob.

@meenrnjgns mj stu`njt cndrjmjo mj sgfbbc sfbuc` hn dttrmhutn` tb `meenrnjgns mj tfn

 

8 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

qudcmty be tndgfmjo, sgfbbc kdjdonknjt kdjdonknj t pbcmgmns, prnvmbus ljbwcn`on dj` mjerdstrugturn. Be tfnsn, qudcmty be tndgfmjo ms tfn kbst mkpbrtdjt vdrmdhcn tfdt gdj hn gfdjon` (Wgfnnrnjs, 899>< Hdrhnr dj` Kbursfn`, 8996). Obb` tndgfmjo ms be gbursn kbrn `meemguct mj grbw`n` gcdssrbbks, wmtfbut tnxthbbls br tndgfmjo kdtnrmdcs dj` wfnj gfmc`rnj drn fujory, fujory, dj` tfbsn gbj`mtmbjs kust hn bvnrgbkn. Mj tfn kndjtmkn, fbwnvnr fbwnvnr,, sbkn tndgfnrs drn dhcn tb tndgf neengtmvncy `nspmtn tfbsn gbj`mtmbjs. Me wn uj`nrstbb` fbw tfbsn neengtmvn tndgfnrs tndgf, dj` fbw tfny gdkn tb cndrj tb tndgf ds tfny `b, wn gbuc` rn`ugn tfn cmkmtdtmbjs mkpbsn` hy mjd`nqudtn emjdjgn dj` nxtnrjdc njvmrbjknjts. _n _n prbpbsn tfdt nvnj pbbr gbujtrmns gdj, wmtf dggnss tb rncnvdjt rnsndrgf emj`mjos dj` ^JNWGB dssmstdjgn, `nvncbp tfn gdpdgmty tb `nsmoj dj` mkpcnknjt neengtmvn prbordks ebr trdmjmjo tndgfnrs wfb wmcc hn neengtmvn mj tfnmr gcdssrbbks. Ybbr gbujtrmns gdj mkprbvn tfnmr cndrjmjo butgbkns hy prnpdrmjo tndgfnrs wfb tndgf wncc. Pfms pdpnr beenrs d strdtnoy ebr gdpturmjo, gb`meymjo dj` `mssnkmjdtmjo tfn mjebrkdtmbj dj` kntfb`s tfdt gbujtrmns rnqumrn tb rdmsn tfn qudcmty be tndgfmjo. Pfn tdsl rnqumrns gucturdccy rncnvdjt gfdjons mj kntfb`s be mjstrugtmbj dj` mj prnpdrdtmbj be tndgfnrs tb `ncmvnr tfdt mjstrugtmbj. Pfn strdtnoy mjgcu`ns hbtf fbrmzbjtdc dj` vnrtmgdc gbccdhbrdtmbj. Pfn pdpnr gbjgcu`ns wmtf d `nsgrmptmbj be fbw ^JNWGB gdj gbjtrmhutn tb tfn mkpcnknjtdtmbj dj` rndcmzdtmbj be tfn strdtnoy. @nemjmjo tfn Tudcmty be Pndgfmjo –Tudcmty be tndgfmjo‛ rnenrs tb dspngts be wfdt tndgfnrs `b mj gcdssrbbks. Nvnrybjn wfb fds hnnj tb sgfbbc kdy rnknkhnr d –obb`‛ br d –hd`‛ tndgfnr erbk cbjo dob wfb fd` dj mkpdgt bj bur cndrjmjo (Yn`nrsnj, Edu Edugfnr, gfnr, & Ndtbj, 4=?6). _fdt wds mt dhbut tfbsn tndgfnrs tfdt gbjtrmhutn` kbst tb cndrjmjo2 Kbst rnsndrgf fds hnnj ebgusn` bj m`njtmemgdtmbj be tfn gfdrdgtnrmstmgs be tndgfnrs kbst strbjocy dssbgmdtn` wmtf stu`njt tnst sgbrns. Kbst stu`mns mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns fdvn usn` `dtd dhbut dh but emxn` gfdrdgtnrmstmgs be tndgfnrs (sugf ds rdgn, onj`nr, don br cnjotf be trdmjmjo) rdtfnr tfdj tfnmr hnfdvmbr mj tfn gcdssrbbk. Pfn rncdtmvn mkpbrtdjgn be tfnsn vdrmdhcns `meenrs, fbwnvnr, erbk bjn gbujtry tb djbtfnr. Pfnrn Pfnrn fdvn hnnj sbkn qudsmnxpnrmknjtdc stu`mns hut kbst usn` skdcc sdkpcns dj` mjd`nqudtn nxpnrmknjtdc gbjtrbcs, wfmgf dcsb cmkmts tfn onjnrdcmzdhmcmty be emj`mjos. @nemjmjo Neengtmvn Pndgfmjo Yrdgtmgns Mt fds, ebr snvnrdc rndsbjs, tdlnj d cbjo tmkn tb m`njtmey tfn tndgfmjo prdgtmgns tfdt kbst gbjtrmhutn tb stu`njt cndrjmjo (Qnmgfjnr, 4===). Nvnj d smjocn kmjutn be tndgfmjo kdy mjgcu`n snvnrdc hnfdvmbrs dj` sbkn –cnssbjs‛ kdy tdln kdjy kmjutns tb gbkpcntn. Wpngmemg hnfdvmbrs vdry erbk `dy tb `dy, kdlmjo mt `meemguct tb nstdhcmsf rncmdhcn kntfb`s be bhsnrvdtmbj. Pfn neengtmvnjnss be d omvnj prdgtmgn `npnj`s bj tfn slmcc be tfn tndgfnr usmjo mt, dj` dcsb bj tfn cndrjmjo `mspbsmtmbj dj` cnvnc be gbojmtmvn `nvncbpknjt `nvncbpknj t be tfn stu`njts nxpnrmnjgmjo mt. _n `b fdv fdvn, n, fbwnvnr, sbkn gbjgnptudc (br tfnbrntmgdc) kb`ncs be tndgfmjo. Pfnsn kb`ncs spngmey tfn kntfb`s dj` rnsburgns tfdt sfbuc` hn neengtmvn mj dgfmnvmjo spngmemg lmj`s be cndrjmjo bhangtmvns (Grnnknrs & Lyrmlmd`ns, 8995< Ecngfsmo & Wgfmnenchnmj, 8997< Abygn & _nmc, _nmc, 8990). Pfny drn vdcudhcn ebr tfnmr nkpfdsms bj tfn gbkpcnxmty be tfn tndgfmjo prbgnss. Neengtmvn tndgfmjo rnqumrns d vdrmnty be hnfdvmbrs, dggbr`mjo tb wfdt ms tb hn cndrjn`, wfdt tfn stu`njt ljbws, wfdt tfn tndgfnr ljbws fbw tb tndgf, dj` btfnr gbj`mtmbjs.  Jbt kugf usn dppndrs tb fdvn hnnj kd`n be tfnsn kb`ncs. Pfn gbkpcnxmty be d kb`nc kdlns mt `meemguct, usmjo gbjvnjtmbjdc dpprbdgfns, tb vdcm`dtn v dcm`dtn tfn kb`nc mtsnce ds  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

7 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

`mstmjgt erbk mts gbjstmtunjt prdgtmgns. Enw tndgfnrs fdvn hnnj trdmjn` tb usn tfn kb`ncs tb oum`n tfnmr tndgfmjo. Omvnj tfn fmof gbsts be `dtd gbccngtmbj hdsn` bj gcdssrbbk bhsnrvdtmbj kdjy rnsndrgfnrs edcc hdgl bj usmjo mjput br rnsburgn vdrmdhcns ds prbxmns ebr  tndgfnr hnfdvmbr. Unry Unry cmttcn rnsndrgf fds hnnj `bjn bj tndgfmjo prdgtmgns br kb`ncs kb`n cs mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns. _n `b fdv fdvnn sbkn mjebrkdtmbj dhbut tfn neengtmvnjnss be snpdrdtn mjstrugtmbjdc  prdgtmgns. Pfnrn fdvn hnnj d enw (wncc-`nsmojn`) stu`mns mj fmofcy `nvncbpn` gbujtrmns tfdt rncdtn rncmdhcn kndsurns be tndgfnr gcdssrbbk hnfdvmbr tb kndsurns be stu`njt ljbwcn`on. Pfnsn stu`mns drn eurtfnr nvm`njgn tfdt wfdt tndgfnrs `b mj gcdssrbbks ms mkpbrtdjt ebr cndrjmjo. Ebr nxdkpcn, djdcyzmjo tfn ^W Jdtmbjdc Dssnssknjt be N`ugdtmbjdc Yrbornss `dtd, _njocmjsly (8998) fds sfbwj tfdt –tfn neengts be gcdssrbbk  prdgtmgns, wfnj d``n` tb tfbsn be btfnr tndgfnr gfdrdgtnrmstmgs drn gbkpdrdhcn mj smzn tb tfbsn be stu`njt hdglorbuj`‛ (p. 4). Gbkpdrdtmvn Mkpbrtdjgn be @meenrnjt @ meenrnjt Yrdgtmgns Pfn kbst gbkpcntn kntd-djdcysms be stu`mns be sgfbbc dj` tndgfmjo tndgf mjo neengtmvnjnss kdy hn tfdt `bjn hy Wgfnnrnjs (899>). Fn gbjgcu`ns tfdt vdrmdhcns gbjtrbccn` hy tndgfnrs (sugf ds kntfb`s be mjstrugtmbj) fdvn d orndtnr neengt bj cndrjmjo butgbkns tfdj `b vdrmdhcns tfdt `nsgrmhn mjputs tb sgfbbcs (sugf ds pnr pupmc nxpnj`mturns br gcdss smzn). Pdhcn 4 cmsts tfn 4> gdtnobrmns br –drnds‛ be –mjstrugtmbjdc gfdrdgtnrmstmgs‛ gbjstrugtn` hy Wgfnnrnjs hdsn` bj d kntd-djdcysms be kbrn tfdj 899 stu`mns. Pfn 40 ddrnds rnds gbjtdmj 05 suh-drnds br vdrmdhcns (mj`mgdtbrs) tfdt dppndr mj tfn stu`mns. Pfn –kndj neengt‛ ebr dj drnd ms tfn dvnrdon be tfn neengt smzns mj tfn stu`mns tfdt mjgcu`n` tfn suh-drnd vdrmdhcns. Ebr nxdkpcn, wmtfmj Cndrjmjo Pmkn drn tmkn bj tdsl, bppbrtujmty tb cndrj, fbknwbrl dj` kdstnry cndrjmjo. Dgtmvdtmjo mjgcu`ns gbbpnrdtmvn cndrjmjo, smtudtn`/`msgbvnry cndrjmjo,  pnnr tutbrmjo, stu`njt wbrl, dj` mj`mvm`udc wbrl dj` stu`njt `msgussmbjs. ^j`nr Cndrjmjo tb cndrj strdtnomns dppndr gbbpnrdtmvn cndrjmjo trdmjmjo, prbhcnk-sbcvmjo, kntd-gbojmtmvn trdmjmjo, pnnr tutbrmjo, sgmnjtmemg mjqumry trdmjmjo, tfmjlmjo dcbu` dhbut trdmjmjo, gbjgnpt kdppmjo, dj` btfnrs.

 Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

0 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

Pdhcn 4 Gfdrdgtnrmstmgs be Neengtmvn Mjstrugtmbj Hdsn` bj Gdtnobrmzdtmbj be Udrmdhcns mj Kntd-Djdcysms Drnd Kndj Neengt Wmzn Cndrjmjo tmkn .9=> Gcdssrbbk Brodjmzdtmbj .9?> Br Br`n `nrc rcy y, eujg eujgtm tmbj bjdc dc cn cndr drjm jmjo jo nj njvm vmrb rbjkn jknjt jt .48= .48= Gcndr dj` strugturn` tndgfmjo .485 Dgtmvdtmjo .487 Cndrjmjo tb usn cndrjmjo strdtnomns .847 Gfdccnjon .479 Wuppbrt (kutudc rnspngt) .496 Enn`hdgl/kbjmtbrmjo .9>5 Nvdcudtmbj be obdcs/dttdmjknjt .965 D`dptmvn tndgfmjo .955 Yrdgtmgn .969 Kdtnrmdc .94> –Mjtnordtn`‛ mjstrugtmbjdc gbjgnpts .96= erbk Wgfnnrnjs (899>, pp, 446, 489) Kntd-djdcysms ms be orndt vdcun mj m`njtmeymjo grbss-jdtmbjdc smkmcdrmtmns dj` `meenrnjgns, ds wncc ds tfn cmkmtdtmbjs be gbrrncdtmbjdc djdcysms. Gdtnobrmns drn gbkpbsn` be snts be vdrmdhcns dppndrmjo mj `meenrnjt stu`mns. Pfn mjgcusmbj be vdrmdhcns mj bjn gdtnobry rdtfnr tfdj djbtfnr mjvbcvns qudjtmtdtmvn djdcysms ds wncc ds suhangtmvn  au`oknjts. Pfn rnsuct ms d snt be `mspdrdtn `mspdrdtn kndsurns, tfn rnsuct be kdjy `meenrnjt rnsndrgfnrs wbrlmjo snpdrdtncy, `nvmsmjo tfnmr bwj gbjgnptudc sgfnkns. Pfms djdcysms tnccs us tfn mkpdgt be tfn pdrtmgucdr vdrmdhcn bj kndsurns be cndrjmjo, tdlmjo mjtb dggbujt dcc tfn btfnr vdrmdhcns mjgcu`n` mj tfn stu`y. stu`y. Mt `bns jbt tdln mjtb dggbujt tfn mjtnrgbrrncdtmbj be tfn vdrmdhcns, br tfn mkpdgt be b e gbjtnxtudc vdrmdhcns, br –fm``nj‛ br mjtnrkn`mdry vdrmdhcns jbt mjgcu`n` mj tfn stu`y. Wgfnnrnjs jbtns tfdt tfn rncdtmvn nxpcdjdtbry pbwnr be tfn 40 gdtnobrmns be mjstrugtmbjdc prdgtmgns vdrmns dgrbss gbujtrmns. Pfms kdy mj`mgdtn tfdt tfn kndjmjo be tfn gdtnobrmns vdrmns dgrbss gbjtnxts, br tfdt tfnrn drn btfnr vdrmdhcns, jbt mjgcu`n` mj tfn kntd-djdcysms, tfdt dcsb deengt cndrjmjo butgbkns. Mj btfnr wbr`s, dctfbuof tfnrn kdy hn d onjnrdc kb`nc tfdt nxpcdmjs tndgfnr neengts bj stu`njt cndrjmjo, tfn vdcuns be tfn vdrmdhcns mj tfn kb`nc vdry dgrbss gbjtnxts. Mj djy nvnjt, tfn rnsndrgf `n `nkbjstrdtns kbjstrdtns tfn vdrmnty be neengtmvn kntfb`s be tndgfmjo. Kbst tndgfnrs, fbwnvnr, rncy bj d smjocn kntfb`. Pfn kntfb` ms vdrmbuscy ljbwj ds –`mrngt mjstrugtmbj‛ br tfn –wfbcn gcdss kntfb`‛ br –erbjtdc tndgfmjo‛, tnrks tfdt smojdc mts prmjgmpdc gfdrdgtnrmstmgs. Pfn tndgfnr ms gbjsm`nrn` tfn sburgn be (onjnrdccy gbojmtmvn dj` `ngcdrdtmvn) ljbwcn`on tb hn cndrjn`< tfn tdsl ms tb prnsnjt br trdjskmt tfn ljbwcn`on smkuctdjnbuscy tb dcc stu`njts stu`njts mj d orbup. @npnj`mjo bj tfn tndgfnr”s pnrgnptm pnrgnptmbj bj be tfn ljbwcn`on dj` dhmcmty cnvnc be tfn orbup, tfn kntfb` gdj hn dmkn` dt cbw pnrebrkmjo br fmof pnrebrkmjo stu`njts, br tfbsn mj tfn km``cn. Pfbsn jbt mj tfn tdront orbup, fbwnvnr, emj` tfn cnssbj nmtfnr tbb fdr` br tbb ndsy. Pfn rnsuct ms tfny cndrj cnss tfdj tfn edvbrn`  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

> D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

orbup. Nvnj mj `nvncbpn` gbujtrmns kbst mjstrugtmbj ms tndgfnr-gnjtnrn` (dj` erbjtdc) rdtfnr tfdj cndrjnr-gnjtnrn` (dj` `meenrnjtmdtn`) (Hdnr, Lbgfnr, & _yss, 899=). Mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns tfn erbjtdc kntfb` prn`bkmjdtns (N`wdr`s, Gdcvb, nt dc, 4==>). Erbjtdc tndgfmjo ms jbt tbtdccy mjneengtmvn. Pfn kntfb` wbrls rndsbjdhcy wncc me stu`njts drn rncdtmvncy fbkbonjnbus mj prmbr ljbwcn`on dj` cndrjmjo dhmcmty dj` tfn tndgfnr tdlns tfnmr dvnrdon ljbwcn`on dj` dhmcmty mjtb dggbujt. Hut tfn wbrl be Ecngfsmo dj` Wgfmnenchnmj (8997) dj` Abygn dj` _nmc (8990) kdlns gcndr tfdt tfn kbst neengtmvn tndgfnrs usn kdjy be tfn prdgtmgns p rdgtmgns cmstn` mj P Pdhcn dhcn 4. Mj d omvnj smtudtmbj neengtmvn tndgfnrs nkpcby d gbkhmjdtmbj gb khmjdtmbj be prdgtmgns mj rnspbjsn tb tfnmr dssnssknjt be tfnmr stu`njts” gurrnjt ljbwcn`on dj` cndrjmjo dhmcmty, dhmcmty, dj` tfnmr bwj suhangt ljbwcn`on lj bwcn`on dj` `m`dgtmg slmccs. Pfn hnst tndgfnrs sbkntmkns usn bjn gbkhmjdtmbj ebr dcc stu`njts (wfbcn gcdss mjstrugtmbj) hut kbrn betnj usn `meenrnjt kntfb`s ebr `meenrnjt orbups be stu`njts (Cmttcn, 8995< Eugfs, nt dc, 8996). _fdt @b _n Kndj hy Pndgfnr Neengtmvnjnss2 Pfms qunstmbj dsls dhbut tfn ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs rnqumrn` ebr neengtmvn mjstrugtmbj, hut dcsb dhbut ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs tb gdrry but btfnr dspngts be tfn tndgfmjo  prbenssmbj. Kbst rnsndrgf dssnssmjo tndgfnr pnrebrkdjgn fds gbjsm`nrn` mjstrugtmbj mjstrugtmbj be stu`njts ds tfn sbcn eujgtmbj be tfn tndgfnr (Jyn, Lbjstdjtbpbucbs, & Fn`ons, 8990). _n ljbw, fbwnvnr, fbwnvnr, tfdt stu`njt cndrjmjo ms d abmjt prb`ugt be tndgfnr dj` stu`njt dgtmvmty dj` `mspbsmtmbj (Dj`nrsbj, 4==4). Me dcc tfdt wnrn rnqumrn` tb hn dj neengtmvn tndgfnr wds obb` `ncmvnry, –wn gbuc` prbhdhcy emj` tfn hnst cngturnrs, kdln vm`nb tdpns be tfnmr cnssbjs, dj` sfbw tfnk tb stu`njts‛ (Wcdvmj, 4==0). 4== 0). Pfn hnst tndgfnrs jbt bjcy spndl wncc, hut dcsb sncngt kdtnrmdc rncnvdjt tb stu`njts, kdjdon tfn gcdssrbbk ds dj brodjmzdtmbj tb bptmkmzn tmkn bj cndrjmjo, kbtmvdtn stu`njts tb njodon mj tfn cndrjmjo prbgnss dj` rn`mrngt dgtmvmtmns ds suoonstn` suoonstn` hy ebrkdtmvn nvdcudtmbj. Mj d``mtmbj tb mjstrugtmbj, mjstrugtmbj, tndgfnrs betnj `nvncbp jnw gurrmgucuk, knjtbr btfnr tndgfnrs, dj` wbrl wmtf pdrnjts dj` d`kmjmstrdtbrs. Pnst Wgbrns ds tfn @bkmjdjt Kndsurn be Neengtmvnjnss D rngnjt rnvmnw be rnsndrgf drouns tfdt dssnssknjts be tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss sfbuc` tdln mjtb dggbujt kbrn tfdj bjn lmj` be butgbkn (Gdkphncc, Lyrmdlm`ns, Kumas, & Xbhmjsbj, 8997). Pfn wbrl humc`s bj d kugf ndrcmnr kntd-djdcysms hdsn` bj rnsndrgf sfdrn` dgrbss jdtmbjdc hbuj`drmns (Gcdrdpn`n, 4=44). Dckbst 499 yndrs dob psygfbcbomsts dj` n`ugdtbrs fd` rngbojmzn` tfdt neengtmvn gcdssrbbk prdgtmgn ms rnspbjsmvn tb mj`mvm`udc dj` gbjtnxtudc `meenrnjgns. Mt humc`s bj nxpnrmnjgn dj` pcdjjmjo butsm`n dj` ms tfnrnebrn `yjdkmg (dj` gbkpcnx) rdtfnr tfdj rucns-`rmvnj (dj` smkpcn). Ds d gbjsnqunjgn, dssnssknjt be tndgfmjo sfbuc` hn tdmcbrn` tb tfn cndrjmjo smtudtmbj dj` ds d prbgnss. _mtf tfn `nvncbpknjt be jnw tngfjbcbomns be kndsurnknjt, fbwnvnr, rnsndrgf mjgrndsmjocy rncmn` bj kndsurns be (br prbxmns ebr) stu`njt dgfmnvnknjt sgbrns (m.n., gurrnjt gbojmtmvn ljbwcn`on) ds tfn prmjgmpdc br sbcn mj`mgdtbr be tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss. Fmof stdlns tnstmjo jbw prnvdmcs mj kbst mj`ustrmdcmzn` jdtmbjs dj` ms fndvmcy prbkbtn` mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns. Ds kdjy grmtmgs fdvn jbtn`, tfnsn tnsts kndsurn bjcy d skdcc sdkpcn be wfdt gdj hn cndrjn` mj sgfbbc. _fnj tfny drn usn` tb dssnss tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss, tndgfnrs tnj` tb rn`ugn tfn rdjon be wfdt tfny tndgf tb wfdt tfn tnst gbvnrs. Dctnrjdtmvn Kndsurns be Neengtmvnjnss Mj d``mtmbj, Gdkphncc dj` gbccndouns jbtn, nkpfdsms bj kndsurnknjt `mkmjmsfn` dttnjtmbj tb mjstrugtmbjdc tfnbry< sgfbbc neengtmvnjnss upstdon` tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss ds d gbjgnrj< gbrrncdtmbj stdtmstmgs m`njtmemn` grmtmgdc vdrmdhcns hut jbt fbw tb mjtnrvnjn tb  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

5 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

mkprbvn cndrjmjo< dj` hy ebgusmjo prmkdrmcy bj gcdssrbbk mjstrugtmbj, nkpfdsms bj tnst sgbrns mojbrn` tfn btfnr dgtmvmtmns be (nvnj obb`) obb` ) tndgfnrs, sugf ds –d`kmjmstrdtmvn dj` gcnrmgdc tdsls, cnssbj prnpdrdtmbj, kdrlmjo, rnpbrt wrmtmjo, knntmjos, gurrmgucuk `nvncbpknjt, sbgmdc dj` wncedrn tdsls wmtf pupmcs dj` pdrnjts, sgfbbc kdjdonknjt dj` cnd`nrsfmp dj` prbenssmbjdc `nvncbpknjt.‛ (Gdkphncc, nt dc, 8997, p 7>4-8). Ynrfdps kbst snrmbuscy, snrmbuscy, kbst rnsndrgf fds dssukn` d o onjnrmg njnrmg kb`nc be tndgfmjo neengtmvnjnss, rdtfnr tfdj d gbjtnxtudccy-hdsn` kb`nc tfdt tdlns mjtb dggbujt tfn mkpdgt be  edgtbrs tfdt vdry dgrbss sgfbbcs dj` gbujtrmns. @mspdrmtmns mj emj`mjos, ebr nxdkpcn mj tfbsn rnpbrtn` hy Euccnr dj` Gcdrln (4==0), fdvn hnnj trndtn` ds prbhcnks be stu`y `nsmoj br kndsurnknjt nrrbr, rdtfnr tfdj ds rnecngtmjo tfn neengt be edgtbrs ujmqun tb d gbujtry br d rnombj. Mjtnrjdtmbjdc donjgmns fdvn uron` `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns tb d`bpt –hnst  prdgtmgns‛ m`njtmemn` mj vnry `meenrnjt gbjtnxts tfdj tfbsn be tfn rngnmvmjo rngnmvmjo gbujtry. Mj d``mtmbj, Gdkphncc dj` gbccndouns droun, wn sfbuc` `nvncbp d kndjs tb dssnss tfn vdrmbus wdys mj wfmgf tndgfnrs gdj hn neengtmvn. Pfny pbmjt tb tfn sb-gdccn` FdyKgHnr kb`nc (@npdrtknjt ebr N`ugdtmbj dj` Nkpcbyknjt, 8999) ds d stdrtmjo pbmjt. Pfms kb`nc mjgcu`ns mj`mgdtbrs be prbenssmbjdc gfdrdgtnrmstmgs, tndgfmjo slmccs dj` gcdssrbbk gcmkdtn. D smkmcdr kb`nc, prbpbsn` hy Gfnjo dj` Psum (4===), cmsts snvnj `mknjsmbjs br dspngts be tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss1 dgfmnvnknjt be mjstrugtmbjdc bhangtmvns< kdjdonknjt dj` utmcmzdtmbj be rnsburgns< prbpnr usn be mjstrugtmbjdc kntfb`s< sdtmsedgtmbj be gbjstmtunjgmns< nvm`njgn be dggbujtdhmcmty< dhsnjgn be `yseujgtmbjdc hnfdvmbr< dj` nvm`njgn be gbjtmjubus cndrjmjo bj tfn abh. D rngnjt rnvmnw be Dknrmgdj nxpnrmnjgns mj nvdcudtmjo tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss cmsts ? `meenrnjt dpprbdgfns1 gcdssrbbk bhsnrvdtmbjs< prmjgmpdc nvdcudtmbjs< djdcysms be gcdssrbbk prb`ugts< pbrtebcmbs< snce-rnpbrts< stu`njt rdtmjos< dj` vdcun-d``n` kb`ncs (Obn, Hncc, & Cmttcn, 8996). Pfn rnvmnw mj`mgdtns tfn `meenrnjgns hntwnnj tfn dpprbdgfns, dj` tfnmr spngmemg hnjnemts dj` cmkmtdtmbjs. Jb kntfb` ms ynt wncc njbuof `nvncbpn` tb suppcdjt tfn btfnrs. Neengtmvnjnss dj` Pndgfmjo Gbkpntnjgy Pndgfnr neengtmvnjnss ms sbkntmkns `nemjn` ds –tndgfnr gbkpntnjgy‛. D tndgfnr ms gbkpntnjt (mj d omvnj `bkdmj) wfnj s/fn ms dhcn tb usn gbjgnptudc ljbwcn`on dpprbprmdtncy mj dgtmjo mj d omvnj smtudtmbj. Gbkpntnjgns drn rncdtmvncy stdhcn dj` ujbhsnrvdhcn gfdrdgtnrmstmgs be d pnrsbj. Pfny drn rngbojmzn` rngboj mzn` ds gbkpntnjgmns tfrbuof dgtmbj. Ds gbkpntnjgmns gdj mjtnrdgt dj` gbkhmjn, mt ms pbssmhcn ebr d gbkpntnjt gb kpntnjt mj`mvm`udc tb hnfdvn dpprbprmdtncy mj kdjy `meenrnjt smtudtmbjs (Dchnrt, 8996). _n gmtn tfnsn `meenrnjt sgfnkns ds nxdkpcns be gurrnjt neebrts tb gb`mey ncnknjts be tndgfnr pnrebrkdjgn. Wmkmcdr neebrts fdvn hnnj spbjsbrn` hy ^JNWGB (snn ebr nxdkpcn fttp1//ujns`bg.^JNWGB.bro/mkdons/994>/994>7?/4>7??6n.p`e ). ). Neebrts be tfms lmj` drn vdcudhcn gbjtrmhutmbjs tb bur uj`nrstdj`mjo be tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss. Pfny drn cmkmtn`, fbwnvnr, hy tfn edgt tfdt ndgf fds hnnj h nnj `nvncbpn` mj d pdrtmgucdr gucturdc gbjtnxt wmtf cmttcn br jb dttnjtmbj tb tfn btfnr gbjtnxts mj wfmgf n`ugdtmbj bpnrdtns. _n cdgl d ujmvnrsdc kb`nc, gbjstrugtn` hy tdlmjo mjtb dggbujt fbw tfn neengtmvnjnss be tndgfmjo vdrmns dgrbss kuctmpcn gbjtnxts. Mj br`nr tb djswnr tfdt qunstmbj wn rnvmnw nxpcdjdtmbjs be wfy sbkn tndgfnrs drn  hnttnr tfdj btfnrs. Drn Obb` Pndgfnrs Hbrj br Gdj Pfny hn Prdmjn`2 Me tndgfmjo qudcmty wnrn tfn rnsuct be rncdtmvncy emxn` gfdrdgtnrmstmgs br dttrmhutns sugf ds onj`nr, onjnrdc mjtnccmonjgn br pnrsbjdcmty, bur hnst fbpn ebr mkprbvnknjt be  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

? D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

n`ugdtmbj wbuc` hn tb rngrumt dj` sncngt kbrn tndgfnrs wmtf tfn mj`mgdtn` gfdrdgtnrmstmgs. gf drdgtnrmstmgs. Pfms strdtnoy ms jbt endsmhcn, fbwnvnr, wfnj pnrsbjs wmtf tfnsn gfdrdgtnrmstmgs drn mj sgdrgn suppcy. suppcy. Onjnrdc mjtnccmonjgn dj` tfn –rmoft‛ –rmoft‛ pnrsbjdcmty drn mj fmof `nkdj` mj cdhbr kdrlnts tfdt rnwdr` btfnr abhs kbrn fmofcy tfdj tndgfmjo. Me, fbwnvnr, tndgfnr  pnrebrkdjgn `npnj`s prmjgmpdccy bj spngmdc ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs tfdt gdj hn tduoft dj` cndrjn`, tfn pbtnjtmdc pbbc be neengtmvn tndgfnrs gdj hn kugf cdronr. ^jebrtujdtncy,, wn fdvn hnnj `mstrdgtn` hy d cnodgy be rnsndrgf tfdt gcdmks tfdt ^jebrtujdtncy tndgfnr trdmjmjo ms mjneengtmvn br dt hnst ujrncmdhcn. Ebr nxdkpcn, Euccnr dj` Gcdrln (4==0) ebuj` bjcy 84 be 7? stu`mns tfdt fd` d stdtmstmgdccy smojmemgdjt (hut betnj skdcc) gbrrncdtmbj  hntwnnj yndrs be trdmjmjo dj` stu`njt tnst sgbrns. Kdjy btfnr rnsndrgfnrs fdvn rnpbrtn` d skdcc br jb dssbgmdtmbj hntwnnj fdvmjo fd` tndgfnr trdmjmjo br yndrs be trdmjmjo, dj` kndsurns be stu`njt dgfmnvnknjt. Pfnrn drn snvnrdc rndsbjs wfy tfnsn jnodtmvn jnod tmvn rnsucts bggur bggur.. Emrst, kbst be tfn rnsndrgf fds hnnj be `uhmbus qudcmty, hdsn` bj smjocn kndsurns be stu`njt ljbwcn`on dj` wmtfbut sueemgmnjt gbjtrbcs ebr btfnr vdrmdhcns sugf ds edkmcy hdglorbuj`, gcdss smzn, tbtdc tmkn bj tdsl dj` btfnr edgtbrs tfdt dcsb mkpdgt bj cndrjmjo. Wngbj`, kdjy stu`mns fdvn edmcn` tb `mstmjoumsf hntwnnj nxpnrmnjgn` dj` mjnxpnrmnjgn` tndgfnrs mj tfnmr djdcysms. Ds wn wmcc sfbw, tfn neengts be obb` trdmjmjo kdy hn cdtnjt `urmjo tfn emrst yndrs be tndgfmjo. Pfmr`, dckbst dcc tfn stu`mns fdvn trndtn` –trdmjmjo‛ ds d ujmebrk nxpnrmnjgn, mojbrmjo tfn edgt tfdt trdmjmjo mjstmtutmbjs vdry wm`ncy mj tfnmr qudcmty dj` tfnrnebrn tfnmr mkpdgt bj tndgfnr gdj`m`dtns. Emjdccy, kbst rnsndrgf fds bwj jbt hnnj `nsmojn` tb `nkbjstrdtn tfn `mrngt neengt be trdmjmjo bj cndrjmjo hy tndgfnrs. Xngnjt Xngnj t rnsndrgf fds hnouj tb nxpcbrn tfnsn mssuns. @bns tfn Neengt be Prdmjmjo Udry Udry Dgrbss Mjstmtutmbjs2 Kbst rnsndrgf tfdt mjgcu`ns yndrs be trdmjmjo ds d vdrmdhcn fds mojbrn` `meenrnjgns  hntwnnj mjstmtutmbjs wmtf rnspngt tb tfn gbjtnjt dj` qudcmty be tfn trdmjmjo tfny beenr beenr.. Nvnj ebr `nvncbpn` gbujtrmns gbu jtrmns tfnrn drn enw me djy systnkdtmg gbkpdrmsbjs be wfdt tndgfnr  trdmjmjo mjstmtutmbjs dj` prbordks tndgf. Kmjmstry be N`ugdtmbj-gbjtrbccn` tndgfnr gbccnons kdy rngnmvn sbkn supnrvmsmbj, hut ujmvnrsmtmns bpnrdtn dutbjbkbuscy. Mj br`nr tb `nkbjstrdtn tfdt tndgfnr pnrebrkdjgn ms rncdtn` tb qudcmty q udcmty be trdmjmjo rnsndrgfnrs fdvn gbkpdrn` tfn pnrebrkdjgn be tndgfnrs tdlmjo mjtb dggbujt sbkn prbxy kndsurn be tfn qudcmty be tfnmr trdmjmjo. Ebr nxdkpcn, d rngnjt kntd-djdcysms be fmof qudcmty ^W rnsndrgf `nkbjstrdtns tfdt gbjtrbccmjo bj kn`mdtmjo vdrmdhcns, tndgfnrs wfbsn stu`njts cndrj kbrn bvnr dj dgd`nkmg yndr1 d. gdkn erbk hnttnr-r hnttnr-rdtn` dtn` uj`nrord`udt uj`nrord`udtnn mjstmt mjstmtutmbj utmbjs< s<  h. sgbrn` fmofnr bj tnsts tfdt kndsurn ljbwcn`on be suhangt kdttnr dj` tndgfmjo kntfb`s< g. drn kbrn kbrn cmlncy cmlncy tb fdvn d`vdjgn` `nornns, `nornns, dj` tb fdvn tdlnj tdlnj gbursnwbrl gbursnwbrl mj mj tfn suhangt tfny tndgf< dj` `. fdvn knt tfn gnrtmem gnrtmemgdtmbj gdtmbj br cmgnjsmj cmgnjsmjo o rnqumrnknjts rnqumrnknjts ebr ebr tfnmr sgfbbc sgfbbc `mstrmgt `mstrmgt (_dyjn & ]bujos, 8997). Pfnsn emj`mjos gdj hn mjtnrprntn` tb kndj tfdt sbkn tndgfnrs `b dgqumrn tfn ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs tfdt rnsuct mj fmofnr stu`njt pnrebrkdjgn dj` tfdt mjstmtutmbjs vdry mj tfnmr neengtmvnjnss mj prb`ugmjo tfnsn neengts. _n `b jbt fdvn, fbwnvnr, d gbccngtmbj be gdrneuccy `bjn stu`mns mj wfmgf tndgfnr gdj`m`dtns drn rdj`bkcy dssmojn` tb mjstmtutmbjs, br mj wfmgf `dtd ms gbccngtn` bj tfn qudcmty dj` gbjtnjt be tfn mjstrugtmbj tfny rngnmvn. Eurtfnrkbrn, wn fdvn jb stu`mns bj  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

6 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

tfn qudcmty be tndgfnr trdmjmjo mjstmtutmbjs mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns. Gdj _n Cndrj fbw Pndgfnrs Cndrj2 Dssnssknjt be tfn neengt (br qudcmty) be tndgfnr trdmjmjo ms ds `meemguct ds tfn dssnssknjt be tfn neengts be tndgfnrs bj stu`njts. Emrst, rnsndrgfnrs fdvn usn` `mstmjgt kntfb`s tb bhsnrvn tfn neengts be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj. Pfnsn cnd` tb `meenrnjt gbjgcusmbjs. Wngbj`, tfn prbgnss be tndgfnrs cndrjmjo tb tndgf ms jbt d bjn-tmkn prbgnss tfdt nj`s wmtf tfn emrst tndgfmjo dssmojknjt. Pndgfnr Pndgfnr n`ugdtmbj mjstmtutmbjs drn jbt tfn bjcy –tndgfnrs‛ be  tndgfnrs. Wtu`mns tfdt dttnkpt tb `nemjn –qudcmty be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj‛ edcc mjtb twb kdabr gdtnobrmns. Bjn dpprbdgf, ebr nxdkpcn tfdt `nsgrmhn` hy Gbgfrdj-Wkmtf dj` Qnmgfjnr (899>) snnls tb m`njtmey tfn gbjtnjt dj` prbgnss be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj prbordks tfdt rnsuct mj `nsmrn` neengts. Pfms gbuc` hn gbjsm`nrn` tfn mjput dpprbdgf. Pfn bhangtmvn be tfn strdtnoy ms tb m`njtmey pbcmgmns tfdt gdj hn dppcmn` dt d jdtmbjdc br systnk cnvnc tb mkprbvn cndrjmjo butgbkns. Pb njfdjgn tfn onjnrdcmzdhmcmty be emj`mjos rnsndrgfnrs sfbuc` dornn bj d rn`ugn` snt be vdrmdhcns bhsnrvdhcn mj dcc systnks br sgfbbcs. D sngbj` dpprbdgf m`njtmemns tfn prbenssmbjdc gbkpntnjgmns gbkpntnjg mns be (neengtmvn) tndgfnrs dj` cbbls ebr tfnmr brmomjs (Hcõknln, Enchrmgf, Kóccnr, Ldmsnr, & Cnfkdjj, 8996< Bsnr Bsnr,, Dgftnjfdonj, & Xnjbc`, 8995). 8 995). Pfms ms dj butput dpprbdgf. Pfn bhangtmvn ms tb m`njtmey  hdsmg ljbwcn`on dj` hnfdvmbrdc slmccs dgqumrn` tfrbuof trdmjmjo tfdt gdj hn gbkhmjn` mj `meenrnjt wdysrnqumrns tb knnt gbjsnjsudc tfn `nkdj`s be kbst tndgfmjo-cndrjmjo smtudtmbjs. Pfms tndgfnrs. m`njtmemgdtmbj `nemjmtmbj be hdsmg gbkpntnjgmns be neengtmvn Pfn dpprbdgf ms kbrn gbkkbj dkbjo Nurbpndj rnsndrgfnrs. Nxnkpcdry be tfms lmj` be rnsndrgf ms tfdt hy Hdnr dj` gbccndouns (Hdnr, N`nckdjj, @õrr, & Oum`mkdjj, 8996< Hdnr, Lbgfnr, & _yss, _yss, 899=), wfb kndsurn` cnvncs be tndgfmjo gbkpntnjgmns be  prbspngtmvn tndgfnrs `urmjo tfrnn yndrs be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj dj` tfnj `urmjo tfnmr emrst yndr be gcdssrbbk tndgfmjo. Gbkpntnjgy cnvncs mjgrndsn` bvnr tfn trdmjmjo pnrmb`, tb tfn cnvnc be nxpnrmnjgn` tndgfnrs. Bj tfn btfnr fdj` tfny `ngcmjn` scmoftcy mj tfn emrst yndr be tndgfmjo. Pndgfnr N`ugdtmbj vnrsus Pndgfnr Wbgmdcmzdtmbj Me tndgfnrs gbjtmjun tb cndrj bjgn nkpcbyn`, tfn jnw cndrjmjo kdy nmtfnr suppbrt br gdjgnc but cndrjmjo dgqumrn` `urmjo tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj. Mj tfms sngtmbj wn usn tfn tnrk –tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj‛ tb rnenr tb tfn ebrkdc, dgd`nkmg trdmjmjo omvnj tb prbspngtmvn tndgfnrs. Nxpnrmnjgns `urmjo nkpcbyknjt gbjtrmhutn tb –bggupdtmbjdc sbgmdcmzdtmbj‛, `nemjn` ds gfdjons mj ljbwcn`on dj` hnfdvmbr tfdt bggur bjgn bj tfn abh. Kdjy tndgfnrs hnomj tfnmr prbenssmbj ujprnpdrn` ebr tfn hbbkmjo, huzzmjo gbjeusmbj be tfn rndc gcdssrbbk (Qnmgfjnr & Obrn, 4==9). Cdron gcdssns kdln mt `meemguct tb dppcy tfn dgtmvn pdrtmgmpdtmbj kntfb`s cndrjn` cn drjn` mj tfn ujmvnrsmty. Cnssbj pcdjs fdvn tb  hn d`austn` tb hn gbjsmstnjt wmtf tfn sgfbbc”s sgfbbc”s tnxthbbls dj` nqumpknjt (dssukmjo tfnrn ms djy). Yrmjgmpdcs dj` pdrnjts kdy hn djtdobjmstmg dj` `nkdj`mjo. Wtu`njts drn kugf kbrn vdrmn` mj prmbr ljbwcn`on dj` cndrjmjo slmccs tfdj tfbsn knt mj supnrvmsn` prdgtmgn tndgfmjo. Pndgfnrs nxpnrmnjgn sfbgl, hnwmc`nrknjt, gbjeusmbj, dj` erustrdtmbj. _fnj wfdt tfny cndrjn` mj ujmvnrsmty uj mvnrsmty br jbrkdc sgfbbc `bnsj”t emt rndcmty< jnw tndgfnrs rncy bj tfnmr gbccndouns ds rbcn kb`ncs (_m`nnj, Kdynr-Wkmtf, & Kbbj, 4==6). Me wfdt wds cndrjn` mj tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj `bns jbt kdtgf wfdt ms cndrjn` bj tfn  abh, mt ms kmscnd`mjo tb usn stu`njt cndrjmjo tb tnst tfn neengtmvnjnss neengtmvnjnss be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj. Pndgfnrs wfbsn prbenssmbjdc trdmjmjo wds `nemgmnjt kdy cndrj kbrn neengtmvn kntfb`s be tndgfmjo erbk tfnmr nxpnrmnjgn` gbccndouns, ds tfny `b `urmjo tfn mj`ugtmbj yndr mj Adpdj.  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

= D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

Kbrn cmlncy, cmlncy, jnw tndgfnrs drkn` wmtf tfn kbst rngnjt mkprbvnknjts mj kntfb`s dj` suhangt ljbwcn`on kdy rnornss tb cnvncs be prdgtmgn tfdt wnrn prnvdcnjt hnebrn tfn rnebrk. Gbkpdrmjo tfn Xncdtmvn Mkpdgt be N`ugdtmbj dj` Wbgmdcmzdtmbj Pfnrn fds hnnj cmkmtn` rnsndrgf gbkpdrmjo tfn rncdtmvn mkpdgt be n`ugdtmbj dj` sbgmdcmzdtmbj bj tndgfnr ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs br gbkpntnjgmns. Bjn be tfn enw stu`mns stu`mns nxdkmjn` ebccbwn` 7>? stu`njts trdmjn` mj 80 ord`udtn n`ugdtmbj prbordks dj` mjtb tfn emrst twb yndrs be tndgfmjo . Pfn stu`njts wnrn bhsnrvn` mj trdmjmjo dj` mj prbenssmbjdc tndgfmjo smtudtmbjs< kndsurns wnrn tdlnj be suhangt ljbwcn`on dj` tndgfmjo prdgtmgns. Pfnsn kndsurns mj`mgdtn` tfdt cnvnc be gbkpntnjgn gbkpn tnjgn wds deengtn` hy hbtf ebrkdc tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj dj` hy tfn tndgfmjo nxpnrmnjgn. Pfn mkpdgt be tfn sgfbbc gbjtnxt wds, fbwnvnr, d kbrn pbwnreuc mjecunjgn bj dgtudc tndgfmjo prdgtmgns. Pfn hnomjjmjo tndgfnrs rnpbrtn` tfdt kntfb`s be `msgmpcmjn cndrjn` mj trdmjmjo `m` ` m` jbt wbrl wncc mj tfn sgfbbc gbjtnxt. Cdron gcdssns kd`n mt `meemguct tb usn pdrtmgmpdtbry kntfb`s dj` rnsuctn` mj kbrn erbjtdc tndgfmjo. Mj tfn sngbj` yndr yn dr be tndgfmjo, fbwnvnr, tfn jnw tndgfnrs fd` kbrn suggnss mj dppcymjo tfn kntfb`s cndrjn` mj tfnmr tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj prbordks . Pfms emj`mjo ms gbjsmstnjt wmtf btfnr stu`mns tfdt rnpbrt tfdt bj dvnrdon tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss mkprbvns `urmjo tfn emrst emvn tb snvnj yndrs be tndgfmjo tndgf mjo (Hrbuwnr & Lbrtfdonj, 899>). D rncdtn` cmjn be rnsndrgf pbsmts tfn nxmstnjgn be d –tndgfmjo gucturn‛ tfdt mkpdgts tndgfmjo prdgtmgns. –Gucturn‛ ms usn` d hrbd`nr, mjgcusmvn tfdj bggupdtmbjdc sbgmdcmzdtmbj, hut tfn kngfdjmsks drndssmkmcdr. Jnwkbrn njtrdjts mjtb dtnrk orbup tnj` tb rncy bj tfn d`vmgn dj` nxdkpcn nxd kpcn be kbrn snjmbr knkhnrs. Me tfnrn drn enw br jb mjtnrvnjmjo nvnjts, bvnr tmkn d pbpucdtmbj gbkns tb hn kbrn dj` kbrn smkmcdr mj ljbwcn`on, vdcuns dj` slmccs, tb tfn pbmjt tfdt tfn pbpucdtmbj gdj hn `mstmjoumsfn` erbk btfnr pbpucdtmbjs. _n gdj, tfnrnebrn, tdcl be tfn tndgfmjo gucturn be, ebr nxdkpcn, Erdjgn ds `meenrnjt erbk tfdt be tfn ^jmtn` Wtdtns (Dj`nrsbj-Cnvmtt, 8998). @meenrnjgns gdj hn ebuj` jbt bjcy mj fbw tndgfnrs hnfdvn hut h ut dcsb tfn strugturn dj` bpnrdtmbj be sgfbbcs, dj` ebrkdc gurrmgucd. _fdt gbuc` hn gdccn` –gucturdc‛ `meenrnjgns gdj hn snnj, ebr nxdkpcn, mj `meenrnjgns dgrbss snvnj gbujtrmns mj tfn pdttnrjs mj wfmgf tndgfnrs prnsnjt kdtnrmdc tb tfnmr stu`njts (Omvvmj, Fmnhnrt, Adgbhs, Fbccmjoswbrtf, & Odccmkbrn, 899>). Pfn mkpdgt be bggupdtmbjdc sbgmdcmzdtmbj br tfn tndgfmjo gucturn bj tfn tndgfmjo  prdgtmgns be mj`mvm`udc tndgfnrs sfbuc` hn strbjonst mj gbujtrmns wfbsn tndgfnrs fdvn kdjy yndrs mj snrvmgn dj` mj wfmgf tndgfmjo prbordks fdvn jbt rngnjtcy uj`nrobjn d rd`mgdc rnvmsmbj be gurrmgucuk dj` kntfb`s. Mt sfbuc` hn cndst mj gbujtrmns wmtf fmof rdtns be tndgfnr turjbvnr br tfbsn wmtf d rngnjt smzndhcn nxpdjsmbj be tfn tndgfmjo ebrgn, dggbkpdjmn` hy suggnsseuc jnw prbordks be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj. Dssnssmjo tfn Tudcmty be Pndgfmjo mj Pndgfnr Pndgfnr N`ugdtmbj Yrbordks –Bggupdtmbjdc sbgmdcmzdtmbj‛ gdj hn djtmgmpdtbry, ds prbspngtmvn tndgfnrs dgqumrn tfn sdkn vdcuns dj` fdhmts fdh mts be tfnmr tndgfnr trdmjnrs. Pndgfnrs Pndgfnrs mj ujmvnrsmty-hdsn` tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj prbordks kdy, cmln tfnmr gbccndouns mj tfn `msgmpcmjns, fdvn fd` cmttcn br jb trdmjmjo tb hn tndgfnrs. Hut tfny drn tfn prb`ugts be tfn cdronr tndgfmjo gucturn. Pfbsn wfb fdvn hnnj gcdssrbbk tndgfnrs fdvn hnnj trdmjn`, hut tfnmr trdmjmjo wbuc` jbt fdvn  hnnj mj tfn ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs dvdmcdhcn tb`dy. Pfny drn cmlncy tb rncy fndvmcy bj cngturn kntfb`s dj` erbjtdc tndgfmjo. Mt ms rndsbjdhcn tb nxpngt, tfnrnebrn, tfdt mkprbvnknjt be tfn qudcmty be tndgfmjo mj tndgfnr trdmjmjo prbordks wbuc` fdvn d smojmemgdjt mkpdgt bj tfn qudcmty be tfn stu`njts pdssmjo tfrbuof tfbsn prbordks. Pfn dssnssknjt be tfms qudcmty sfbuc` nxdkmjn hbtf tfn gbjtnjt be wfdt ms tduoft hy tndgfnr  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

49 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

n`ugdtbrs, dj` tfn kntfb`s be mjstrugtmbj tfny usn. Gbjtnjt be Pndgfnr N`ugdtmbj dj` Tudcmty Pndgfnrs rnqumrn `meenrnjt lmj`s be ljbwcn`on dj` slmccs. Bjn gdtnobrmgdc sgfnkn cmsts tfnk ds suhangt kdttnr ljbwcn`on< psygfbcboy be cndrjmjo ljbwcn`on< l jbwcn`on< pn`dobomgdc slmccs< dj` gcdssrbbk kdjdonknjt slmccs. Pfn prbpnr hdcdjgn be tmkn omvnj tb ndgf gdtnobry kdy vdry dgrbss `msgmpcmjns (ebr nxdkpcn, `b euturn kdtfnkdtmgs tndgfnrs rnqumrn kbrn suhangt gbursns tfdj `b, ebr nxdkpcn, sbgmdc stu`mns tndgfnrs2). _ _nn ljbw cmttcn dhbut fbw tfn vdrmdtmbj mj dttnjtmbj omvnj tb tfn `meenrnjt gdtnobrmns deengts tfn qudcmty be tfn tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj prbordk, kndsurn` mj tnrks be tndgfnr cndrjmjo br stu`njt cndrjmjo. _n `b fdv fdvnn rnsndrgf, fbwnvnr, tfdt suoonsts tfdt tfmr`-ord`n stu`njts mj Hncmzn cndrj kbrn kdtf wfnj tfnmr tndgfnr fds fmof kdtf tnst sgbrns (Kuccnjs, Kurjdjn, & _mccntt,, 4==5). Dj` kdtfnkdtmgs 49tf ord`n tndgfnrs (mj Onrkdjy) wfb fdvn fmof cnvncs _mccntt be gbjtnjt ljbwcn`on dcsb fdvn fmof cnvncs be pn`dobomgdc ljbwcn`on (Lrduss, nt dc., 8996). Me tfnsn emj`mjos wnrn onjnrdcmzdhcn tb btfnr tndgfmjo gucturns dj` suhangts, tfny wbuc` hn fncpeuc mj `nsmojmjo tfn gurrmgucd be tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj prbordks. D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Tudcmty be Pndgfmjo Pfrbuof d Gbccdhbrdtmvn Gbccdhbrdtmvn Xnsndrgf Jntwbrl  Emourn 4 sukkdrmzns bur (gurrnjt) uj`nrstdj`mjo be (sbkn be) tfn vdrmdhcns mjvbcvn` fmofcy mofcy slmccn` gcdssrbbk tndgfnrs. mj tfn prbgnss hy wfmgf tndgfnr gdj`m`dtns hngbkn f Ndgf be tfn rncdtmbjsfmps mjgcu`n` mj tfms ordpfmg fds dj nkpmrmgdc hdsms, mj prmbr rnsndrgf br tfn bpmjmbj be nxpnrmnjgn` nxpn rmnjgn` prdgtmtmbjnrs. Pfn Emourn `bns jbt, fbwnvnr, tncc us dhbut tfn rncdtmvn mkpbrtdjgn be tfn vdrmdhcns. Mt `bns jbt spngmey tfn strnjotf be tfn gdusdc br dssbgmdtmvn rncdtmbjsfmp hntwnnj vdrmdhcns. Ds wn fdvn nkpfdsmzn`, tfn tndgfmjo-cndrjmjo prbgnss ms gbkpcnx, dj` nvnj kbrn gbkpcnx ms tfn prbgnss tfrbuof wfmgf neengtmvn n eengtmvn tndgfnr trdmjmjo, tndgfmjo dj` cndrjmjo gbkns dhbut. ^j`buhtn`cy tfnrn drn btfnr vdrmdhcns tfdt deengt tfn prbgnss1 tfnmr mjgcusmbj gbuc` dctnr tfn strnjotf be tfn bhsnrvn` rncdtmbjsfmp hntwnnj vdrmdhcns. Pfn mkpdgt be tfnsn (ujbhsnrvn`) vdrmdhcns gbjtrmhutns tb grbss-jdtmbjdc dj` hntwnnj-sgfbbc `meenrnjgns mj rnsndrgf emj`mjos. Mj sbkn mjstdjgns, tfn mkpdgt be b e tfnsn –gbjtnxtudc‛ vdrmdhcns gdj hn cdron, dj` tfnrnebrn sfbuc` hn tdlnj mjtb dggbujt mj `nsmojmjo wdys tb mkprbvn tndgfmjo dj` cndrjmjo. _n gdj m`njtmey tfrnn rncdtn` qunstmbjs br suh-kb`n suh-kb`ncs cs mj tfn emourn. Hnomjjmjo bj tfn rmoft ms tfn qunstmbj1 _fdt tndgfmjo rnsucts mj wfdt dj` fbw kugf stu`njt cndrjmjo2 Pfms ms tfn tbpmg bj wfmgf kbst rnsndrgf fds hnnj `bjn. Pfn sngbj` qunstmbj ms1 _fdt tndgfnr cndrjmjo rnsucts mj wfdt tndgfmjo2 Pfn qunstmbj qu nstmbj mkpcmns tfdt tfnrn kdy hn kbrn tfdj bjn sburgn erbk wfmgf tndgfnrs cndrj fbw tb tndgf. Wbkn rnsndrgf fds hnnj `bjn bj tfms tbpmg, hut dppdrnjtcy jbt mj pbbr gbujtrmns. _ _nn nxpngt, fbwnvnr, tfdt tfnrn ms djng`btdc nvm`njgn be vdcun. vd cun. Pfn tfmr` qunstmbj dsls1 _fdt tndgfnr trdmjmjo br n`ugdtmbj rnsucts mj tndgfnr cndrjmjo be fbw dj` wfdt tb tndgf2 Jbt kugf rnsndrgf fds hnnj `bjn bj tfms tbpmg, djywfnrn.

 Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

Emourn 4. Wbkn Udrmdhcns mj tfn Ebrkdtmbj be d Gcdssrbbk Pndgfnr  Pfdt Mjecunjgn tfn Neengtmvnjnss be tfn Pndgfnr mj tfn Gcdssrbbk

Yrmbr Ljbwcn`on Tudcmty be  Yrmbr Ljbwcn`on Cndrjmjo Dhmcmty

Cndrjmjo Dhmcmty Tudcmty be Gdj`m`dtn Tudcmty Gurrmgucuk

Wuhangt Ljbwcn`on Yn`dobomgdc Wlmccs

Wtu`njts

Tudcmty be Pndgfnr  N`ugdtbrs Cnjotf be  Prdmjmjo

Tudcmty 4st ]ndr Pndgfmjo

Wtu Wtu`njt Cnd Cndrjmj rjmjo o 4st ]ndr Pndgfmjo

Jnw Pndgfnr ”s Gbkpntnjgmns

Wgfbbc Gbjtnxt

Eutu Euturn rn Cndrjmjo

Tudcmty Euturn Pndgfmjo Knjtbrmjo hy Gbccndouns Mj-snrvmgn trdmjmjo

 

D Yrbpbsdc ebr ^JNWGB _n prbpbsn tfdt ^JNWGB spbjsbr dj mjtnrjdtmbjdc prbangt tb gdpturn dj` syjtfnsmzn nxmstmjo ljbwcn`on dhbut tndgfmjo prdgtmgns dj` tndgfnr trdmjmjo. Pfn tdront du`mnjgn ebr tfn rnsucts be tfn prbangt wbuc` wb uc` hn kmjmstrmns be n`ugdtmbj dj` tndgfnr trdmjmjo mjstmtutmbjs mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns. Pfn prbangt wbuc` suppcy tfnk wmtf spngmemg rngbkknj`dtmbjs bj tfn gbjtnjt dj` prbgnss be tndgfnr trdmjmjo, dpprbprmdtn ebr tfn gbj`mtmbjs dj` vdcuns be tfn gbujtry mj qunstmbj. Mjmtmdccy tfn neebrt wbuc` hn tb humc` d ljbwcn`on hdsn hd sn ebr ndgf be tfn tfrnn tbpmgs cmstn` dhbvn. Mt wmcc hn ndsmnr tb hnomj wmtf tfn emrst qunstmbj, omvnj tfn cdron jukhnr be stu`mns gdrrmn` but tfrbuofbut tfn wbrc`. ^JNWGB wbuc` rngrumt dj` dssmst tndks be rnsndrgfnrs dj` prdgtmtmbjnrs erbk snts be gbujtrmns< tfnsn tndks wbuc` gdpturn, gbkpmcn dj` djdcyzn puhcmsfn` dj` jbj-puhcmsfn` rnsndrgf dj` mjebrkdtmbj ebr ndgf tbpmg. Mj gbccdhbrdtmbj wmtf rnsndrgfnrs dj` prdgtmtmbjnrs erbk btfnr rnombjs, tfn tndks wbuc` tfnj `nvncbp rngbkknj`dtmbjs ebr tfn brodjmzdtmbj be tndgfnr trdmjmjo. Mj tfn cdst `ngd`n systnkdtmg d`vdjgns fdvn hnnj kd`n tfrbuof rnsndrgf jntwbrls dccbgdtmjo rnsndrgf tbpmgs tb dj` gbjjngtmjo gbjjng tmjo cdron orbups be rnsndrgfnrs mj d omvnj emnc` mj

d sden, brodjmzn` dj` neemgmnjt wdy. Pfn vdrmbus `bkdmjs mjgcu`n tfn fukdj onjbkn, rnd`mjo `meemguctmns dj` gbjjngtmvmty be tfn fukdj hrdmj. Wbkn dttnkpts fdvn hnnj kd`n tb `nvncbp dj mjtnrjdtmbjdc gbjsnjsus bj tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss (ebr nxdkpcn, Pn``cmn, Grnnknrs, nt dc, 8995) Pfn wm`n dkbujt be mjebrkdtmbj bj tndgfnr trdmjmjo sukkdrmzn` dhbvn mjvbcvns ujgnrtdmjtmns dj` dppdrnjt gbjtrd`mgtmbjs tfdt gbuc` hn rn`ugn` me d orbup be spngmdcmsts (rnsndrgfnrs dj` prdgtmtmbjnrs) gdj wbrl mj d gbbr`mjdtn` wdy bvnr d cbjo tmkn fbrmzbj. D gbkkbj rnsndrgf erdknwbrl dj` nxgfdjons nxgfdj ons be prbornss rnpbrts drn gbj`mtmbjs ebr  humc`mjo up d rbhust tfnbry. tfnbry. D rngnjt nxdkpcn be sugf orbup wbrl ms tfn rnpbrt bj d`vdjgns dhbut tfn Wgmnjgn be Ndrcy Gfmc`fbb` @nvncbpknjt onjnrdtn` hy kdjy rnsndrgfnrs brodjmzn` hy tfn Dknrmgdj Jdtmbjdc Dgd`nky be Wgmnjgns Wgmnjg ns (Wfbjlbee dj` Yfmccmps, 8999). ^JNWGB fds tfn nxpnrmnjgn tb cnd` d wbrc`wm`n neebrt tb systnkdtmzn wfdt wn ljbw dhbut Neengtmvn Kntfb`s be Pndgfmjo dj` Pndgfnr Pndgfnr Prdmjmjo dggbr`mjo tb rncnvdjt gbjtnjts dj` gbjtnxts. Hnttnr tndgfmjo gdj g dj mjgrndsn `rdkdtmgdccy tfn cnvncs be cndrjmjo dkbjo tfn sgfbbcgfmc`rnj be tfn wbrc`, dj` nspngmdccy mj pbbr gbujtrmns. Mt ms uronjt tb rdmsn stu`njts” pnrebrkdjgn mj `nvncbpmjo gbujtrmns wfnj mjgrndsns mj prb`ugtmvmty drn jbw cmjln` tb tfn dhmcmty tb uj`nrstdj` wrmttnj knssdons.

 

8 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

Xnenrnjgns Dchnrt, @. (. (8996). Pfn gbkpntnjgn pnrebrkdjgn p nrebrkdjgn `mstmjgtmbj dj` mts mkpcmgdtmbjs ebr tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj dj` trdmjmjo. Mj W. Fmougfm (N`.), Gbkpdrdtmvn stu`y bj tndgfnr  n`ugdtmbj systnk hntwnnj Dustrmd dj` Adpdj ebr gbjstrugtmjo gbj strugtmjo d jnw gbjgnptmbj be  tndgfnr trdmjmjo (mj Adpdjnsn) (pp. Adpdjnsn)  (pp. 46?-895). Fmrbsfmkd1 ^jmvnrsmty be Fmrbsfmkd. Dcnxdj`nr, L. C., Njtwmstcn, @. X., & Bcsbj, C. W. (899?). Cdstmjo gbjsnqunjgns be tfn Wukknr cndrjmjo odp. Dknrmgdj odp. Dknrmgdj Wbgmbcbomgdc Xnvmnw  Xnvmnw  ,, ?> (Dprmc), ?> (Dprmc), 45?-469. Dckbj`, X. O., @mHnccb, C. U., U., Kbuc`nr, H., & Qdpdtd-Xmvnrd, Qdp dtd-Xmvnrd, A.-@. (899?). Kb`ncmjo `mdojbstmg dssnssknjts wmtf Hdynsmdj jntwbrls. Aburjdc jntwbrls.  Aburjdc be N`ugdtmbjdc  , 00 (0),  Kndsurnknjt  , 00 (0), 704-7>=. Dj`nrsbj, C. _. (4==4). Mjgrndsmjo (4==4).  Mjgrndsmjo Pndgfnr Pndgfnr Neengtmvnjnss. Ydrms1 Neengtmvnjnss. Ydrms1 ^JNWGB/MMNY. Dj`nrsbj-Cnvmtt, C. (8998). Pndgfmjo Gucturns. Ljbwcn`on ebr tndgfmjo emrst ord`n mj  Erdjgn dj` tfn ^jmtn` Wtdtns. Grnsslmcc, Wtdtns. Grnsslmcc, JA1 Fdkptbj Yrnss. Hdnr, K., N`nckdjj, @., @õrr, O., & Oum`mkdjj, P. (8996). Dgqumrmjo tndgfmjo gbkpntnjgns--Bj neengtmvnjnss be tndgfnr trdmjmjo dj` neengts be nxpnrmnjgmjo

tndgfmjo `urmjo emrst yndr mj prbenssmbj. NGNX prbenssmbj. NGNX 8996, Erbk Pndgfmjo Pndgfmjo tb Cndrjmjo. Cndrjmjo.   Obtfnjhuro1 ^jmvnrsmty be Obtfnjhuro. Hdnr, K., Lbgfnr, K., & _yss, G. (899=). Gdj tndgfmjo hn cndrjn`2--Dgqumrmjo tndgfmjo gbkpntnjgmns `urmjo tndgfnr trdmjmjo dj` emrst yndr mj trdmjmjo. Dknrmgdj trdmjmjo.  Dknrmgdj  N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf Dssbgmdtmbj Dssbgmdtmbj Djjudc Knntmjo. Wdj Knntmjo. Wdj @mnob, GD. Hdrhnr, K., & Kbursfn`, K. (899?). Fbw (899?). Fbw tfn hnst pnrebrkmjo sgfbbc systnks gbkn but bj tbp. Hbstbj1 tbp. Hbstbj1 KgLmjsny & Gbkpdjy. Hcõknln, W., Enchrmgf, En chrmgf, D., Kóccnr, Kóccnr, G., Ldmsnr, O., & Cnfkdjj, X. (8996). Neengtmvnjnss be  tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj1 Wtdtn be rnsndrgf, kndsurnknjt mssuns dj` gbjsnqunjgns ebr euturn stu`mns. Q@K stu`mns. Q@K Pfn Mjtnrjdtmbjdc Aburjdc be Kdtfnkdtmgs N`ugdtmbj  N`ugdtmbj  ,, 09 (>), 09 (>), ?4=-?70. Hrbuwnr, J., & Lbrtfdonj, E. E. (899>). Gdj tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj n` ugdtmbj kdln d `meenrnjgn2  Dknrmgdj N`ugdtmbj Xnsndrgf Aburjdc  ,  , 08 (4), 08 (4), 4>7-880. Gdkphncc, X. A., Lyrmdlm`ns, X. @., Kumas, X. @., & Xbhmjsbj, _. _. (8997). @meenrnjtmdc tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss1 tbwdr`s d kb`nc ebr rnsndrgf dj` tndgfnr dpprdmsdc. Bxebr`  Xnvmnw be N`ugdtmbj  N`ugdtmbj ,  , 8= (788), 8= (788), 70?-759. Gfnjo, ]. ]. G., & Psum, Psum, L. P. (4===). Kuctmkb`ncs be tndgfnr neengtmvnjnss1 mkpcmgdtmbjs ebr  rnsndrgf. Aburjdc rnsndrgf.  , =7 (7),  Aburjdc be N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf  Xnsndrgf , =7 (7), 404-4>9. Gcdrdpn`n, N. (4=44). Ysygfbcbomn (4=44). Ysygfbcbomn `n c'njedjt nt pn`dobomn nxpnrmknjtdcn, Nxpnrmknjtdc  Yn`doboy dj` tfn Ysygfbcboy be tfn Gfmc` (trdjscdtn` erbk 0tf n`mtmbj). Cbj`bj1 n`mtmbj). Cbj`bj1 N`wdr` Drjbc`. Gbgfrdj-Wkmtf, K., & Qnmgfjnr, L. K. (899>). Wtu`ymjo Pndgfnr N`ugdtmbj1 Pfn rnpbrt be tfn DNXD Ydjnc bj Xnsndrgf dj` Pndgfnr Pndgfnr N`ugdtmbj. _dsfmjotbj, N`ugdtmbj.  _dsfmjotbj, @G1 Dknrmgdj N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf Dssbgmdtmbj. Grnnknrs, H. Y., Y., & Lyrmdlm`ns, C. (8995). Grmtmgdc djdcysms be tfn gurrnjt dpprbdgfns tb kb`ncmjo n`ugdtmbjdc neengtmvnjnss1 Pfn mkpbrtdjgn be nstdhcmsfmjo d `yjdkmg kb`nc. Wgfbbc Neengtmvnjnss dj` Wgfbbc Mkprbvnknjt   ,, 4?  (7),  (7), 70?-755. @bwjny, @. H., Fmppnc, Y. P., & Fuofns, K. (8996). Drn "edmcmjo" sgfbbcs rndccy edmcmjo2 ^smjo sndsbjdc gbkpdrmsbjs tb nvdcudtn sgfbbc neengtmvnjnss. Wbgmbcboy be  N`ugdtmbj  ,  N`ugdtmbj  , 64 (7), 64 (7), 808-8?9.  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

7 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

N`wdr`s, U., U., Gdcvb, G., & dc., n. (4==>). Nc (4==>). Nc cmgnb pbr `njtrb, nstu`mb nstu`mb ntjboräemgb sbhrn  prägtmgds `n trdhdab nj n`ugdgm÷j kn`md. Wdjtmdob, kn`md. Wdjtmdob, Gfmcn1 Kmjmstnrmb `n N`ugdgm÷j, Yrbordkd KNGN. Ecngfsmo, L.-F., & Wgfmnenchnmj, N. (8997). Unmjtn kb`ncbs `m`ägtmgbs pdrd Dkírmgd  Cdtmjd. _d  Cdtmjd.  _dsfmjotbj, sfmjotbj, @G1 Brodjmzdgm÷j `n cbs Nstd`bs Dknrmgdjbs. Eugfs, @., Eugfs, Eugf s, C., & Uduofj, Uduofj, W. (8996). Xnspbjsn (8996). Xnspbjsn tb Mjtnrvnjtmbj. D Erdknwbrl ebr  Xnd`mjo N`ugdtbrs. Jnwdrl, N`ugdtbrs. Jnwdrl, @N1 Mjtnrjdtmbjdc Xnd`mjo Dssbgmdtmbj. Euccnr, H., & Gcdrln, Y. Y. (4==0). Xdmsmjo sgfbbc neengts wfmcn mojbrmjo gucturn2 Cbgdc neengts dj` tfn mjecunjgn be gcdssrbbk tbbcs. Xnvmnw tbbcs. Xnvmnw be N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf  Xnsndrgf  ,, 50  50  (4), 44=-4>?. Omvvmj, L. H., Fmnhnrt, A., Adgbhs, A. L., Fbccmjoswbrtf, F., & Odccmkbrn, X. (899>). Drn tfnrn jdtmbjdc pdttnrjs be tndgfmjo2 Nvm`njgn erbk tfn PMKWW 4=== vm`nb stu`y. Gbkpdrdtmvn N`ugdtmbj Xnvmnw  Xnvmnw ,  , 0= (7), 0= (7), 744-70>. Obn, C., Hncc, G., & Cmttcn, B. (8996). Dpprbdgfns (8996). Dpprbdgfns tb Nvdcudtmjo Pndgfnr Pndgfnr Neengtmvnjnss1 D rnsndrgf syjtfnsms. _ syjtfnsms. _dsfmjotbj, dsfmjotbj, @G1 Jdtmbjdc Gbkprnfnjsmvn Gnjtnr ebr Pndgfnr Tudcmty. Fdrt, H., & Xmscny, P. (4==>). Kndjmjoeuc `meenrnjgns `meenrnjgns mj tfn nvnry`dy nxpnrmnjgn be ybujo

Fdrt, H., & Xmscny, P. (4==>). Kndjmjoeuc (4==>). Kndjmjoeuc `meenrnjgns `meenrnjgns mj tfn nvnry`dy nxpnrmnjgn be ybujo  Dknrmgdj gfmc`rnj. Hdctmkbrn1 gfmc`rnj. Hdctmkbrn1 Y.F. Hrbblns. Fdy KgHnr. (8999). Xnsndrgf (8999). Xnsndrgf mjtb Pndgfnr Pndgfnr Neengtmvnjnss. D Kb`nc be Pndgfnr Pndgfnr  Neengtmvnjnss. Cbj`bj1  Neengtmvnjnss.  Cbj`bj1 @npdrtknjt be N`ugdtmbj dj` Nkpcbyknjt. Fnglkdj, A. A. (8996, Duoust 8>). Wgfbbcs, slmccs dj` syjdpsns. syjdpsns. Xntrmnvn` Aujn 79, 8949, erbk Ubx1 fttp1//www.vbxnu.bro/mj`nx.pfp2q;jb`n/4>50 fttp1//www.vbxnu.bro/mj`nx.pfp2q;jb`n/4>50 Abygn, H., & _nmc, K. (8990). Kb`ncs (8990).  Kb`ncs be Pndgfmjo, Pndgfmjo, ?tf n`. Hbstbj1 n`. Hbstbj1 Dccyj & Hdgbj. Lrduss, W., Hrujjnr, K., Lujtnr, K., Hduknrt, A., Hcuk, _ _., ., Jnuhrdj`, K., nt dc. (8996). Yn`dobomgdc gbjtnjt ljbwcn`on dj` gbjtnjt ljbwcn`on be sngbj`dry kdtfnkdtmgs tndgfnrs. Aburjdc tndgfnrs.  Aburjdc be N`ugdtmbjdc Ysygfbcboy  Ysygfbcboy  ,, 499 (7), 499 (7), ?45-?8>. Cmttcn, D. (. (8995). N`ugdtmbj (8995). N`ugdtmbj ebr Dcc dj` Kuctmord`n Pndgfmjo1 Pndgfmjo1 gfdccnjons dj` bppbrtujmtmns. Dkstnr`dk1 bppbrtujmtmns.  Dkstnr`dk1 Wprmjonr Pfn Jntfnrcdj`s. KgNwdj, Y. Y. A. (4==6). Pfn neengtmvnjnss be kuctmord`n sgfbbcs mj Gbcbkhmd.  Mjtnrjdtmbjdc Aburjdc be N`ugdtmbjdc @nvncbpknjt   ,, 46 (5), 46 (5), 07>‗0>8. Kuccnjs, A. N., Kurjdjn, X. A., & _mccntt, A. H. (4==5). Pfn gbjtrmhutmbj be trdmjmjo dj` suhangt kdttnr ljbwcn`on tb tndgfmjo neengtmvnjnss1 D kuctmcnvnc djdcysms be cbjomtu`mjdc nvm`njgn erbk Hncmzn. Gbkpdrdtmvn N`ugdtmbj Xnvmnw  Xnvmnw  ,, 09 (8), 09 (8), 47=4>?.  Jyn, H., Lbjstdjtbpbucbs, W., & Fn`ons, C. U. U. (8990). Fbw cdron drn tndgfnr neengts2  N`ugdtmbjdc Nvdcudtmbj dj` Ybcmgy Djdcysms  Djdcysms  ,, 85  (7),  (7), 87?-8>?. Bsnr, E. E. L., Dgftnjfdonj, E., & Xnjbc`, ^. (. (8995). Gbkpntnjgn Brmnjtn` Pndgfnr Prdmjmjo. Dkstnr`dk1 Prdmjmjo.  Dkstnr`dk1 Wnjsn Yuhcmsfnrs. Yn`nrsnj, N., Edugfnr, P. P. D., & Ndtbj, _. _. _. (4=?6). D jnw pnrspngtmvn bj tfn neengts be emrst-ord`n tndgfnrs bj gfmc`rnj's suhsnqunjt d`uct stdtus. Fdrvdr` stdtus. Fdrvdr` N`ugdtmbjdc  Xnvmnw   ,, 06 (4),  Xnvmnw 06 (4), 4-74. Ysdgfdrbpbucbs, O. X., Xbads, G., & Uncnz, Uncnz, N. (4==7). Dgfmnv Dgfmnvnknjt nknjt nvdcudtmbj be Gbcbkhmd”ss Nsguncd Junvd1 ms kuctmord`n tfn djswnr2 Gbkpdrdtmvn N`ugdtmbj Gbcbkhmd”  Xnvmnw   ,, 7?  (7),  Xnvmnw  (7), 857-8?5. Wgfnnrnjs, A. (899>). Xnvmnw (899>). Xnvmnw dj` Kntd-Djdcysns be Wgfbbc dj` Pndgfmjo Pndgfmjo Neengtmvnjnss.  Neengtmvnjnss.  Pwnjtn, Jntfnrcdj`s1 ^jmvnrsmty be Pwnjtn, @npdrtknjt be N`ugdtmbjdc Brodjmzdtmbj dj` Kdjdonknjt.  Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.

 

0 D Yrbpbsdc tb Mkprbvn tfn Prdmjmjo be Pndgfnrs.

Wfbjlbee, A., & Yfmccmps, Yf mccmps, @. D. (8999). Erbk (8999). Erbk Jnurbjs Jnurbjs tb Jnmofhbrfbb`s1 Pfn Wgmnjgn be  Ndrcy Gfmc`fbb` @nvncbpknjt. _ @nvncbpknjt. _dsfmjotbj dsfmjotbj @G1 Jdtmbjdc Dgd`nky be Wgmnjgns. Wmrmj, W. X. (899>). Wbgmbngbjbkmg stdtus dj` dgd`nkmg dgfmnvnknjt1 d kntd-djdcytmg rnvmnw be rnsndrgf. Xnvmnw rnsndrgf. Xnvmnw be N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf  Xnsndrgf  ,, ?> (7), ?> (7), 04?-0>7. Wcdvmj, X. N. (4==>). D Kb`nc be Neengtmvn Mjstrugtmbj. Pfn N`ugdtmbjdc Ebruk  Ebruk  ,, >= (8), >= (8), 455-4?5. Pn``cmn, G., Grnnknrs, H., Lyrdlm`ns, C., Kumas, @., & ]u, ]u, E. (8995). Pfn Mjtnrjdtmbjdc Wystnk ebr Pndgfnr Pndgfnr Bhsnrvdtmbj dj` Enn`hdgl. N`ugdtmbjdc Enn`hdgl.  N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf dj`  Nvdcudtmbj  ,  Nvdcudtmbj  , 48 (5), 48 (5), >54->68. ^JNWGB. (8949). NE (8949). NED D Ocbhdc Kbjmtbrmjo Xnpbrt. Ydrms. Xnpbrt. Ydrms. _dtlmjs, L. (8949). Ocbhdc Donj`d Gbujgmc bj N`ugdtmbj ‗ d prbpbsdc ebr tfn Ocbhdc Xn`nsmoj Mjmtmdtmvn. Djjudc Mjmtmdtmvn. Djjudc Knntmjo dt @dvbs, _brc` _brc` Ngbjbkmg Ebruk (_NE).  (_NE).  _dyjn, D. A., & ]bujos, Y. (8997). Pndgfnr Gfdrdgtnrmstmgs dj` Wtu`njt Dgfmnvnknjt Odmjs1 D rnvmnw. Xnvmnw rnvmnw. Xnvmnw be N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf  Xnsndrgf  ,, ?7 (4), ?7 (4), 6=-488. _njocmjsly, njocmjsly, F. (8998). Fbw sgfbbcs kdttnr1 Pfn cmjl hntwnnj tndgfnr gcdssrbbk  prdgtmgns dj` stu`njt dgd`nkmg pnrebrkdjgn. N`ugdtmbjdc pnrebrkdjgn. N`ugdtmbjdc Ybcmgy Drgfmvns Drgfmvns   ,, 49  49 

(48). _m`nnj, K., Kdynr-Wkmtf, A., & Kbbj, H. (4==6). D grmtmgdc djdcysms be tfn rnsndrgf bj cndrjmjo tb tndgf1 Kdlmjo tfn gdsn ebr dj ngbcbomgdc pnrspngtmvn bj mjqumry.  Xnvmnw be N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf  Xnsndrgf ,  , 56 (8), 56 (8), 479-4?6. Qnmgfjnr, L. (4===). Pfn jnw sgfbcdrsfmp mj tndgfnr n`ugdtmbj. N`ugdtmbjdc n`ugdtmbj.  N`ugdtmbjdc Xnsndrgf  Xnsndrgf ,  , 86 (=), 86 (=), 0-4>. Qnmgfjnr, L., & Obrn, A. K. Pndgfnr sbgmdcmzdtmbj. Mj _ _.. X. Fbustbj, Fdj`hbbl Fbustbj,  Fdj`hbbl ebr  Xnsndrgf bj Pndgfnr Pndgfnr N`ugdtmbj (pp. N`ugdtmbj (pp. 78=-706). Jnw ]brl1 ]brl1 Kdgkmccdj.

 Jbnc E. E. KgOmjj dj` Nrjnstb Nrjnstb Wgfmne Wgfmnenchnmj nchnmj E. E.