A Concise Psychological Dictionary

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A Concise Psychological Dictionary Edited by A. V. Petrovsky

and M. G. Yaroshevsky

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rogress Publishers Moscow

Tran~laled

from Ihe Rus.\lan Ediled by Pyolr Shikhirt'I', Cando Sc, (Phil.) De work." Abiliti~,

Specific, individual p~)'cho­ logical feature~ allowing to ~ucces.~+ fully perform ~ome spel'ifll: activity (muskal, ~cenic, literary, etc.). A.,S. develop on the basis of sui table illdi notiOflS, such as good mu!>ical ear and memory. Today. we know of ~pcc iflC sensitive periods (sec Dt.'\·e/opmellta/ Semilil'('II('Ss ) , Juring which A .. S, develop particularly well. For imtance, A.,S. for music invol\e children unner fIH". who actively develop good musical ear and memory. Given that inclinations are many-~ided, A .. S. can form on various phy"iological ba~es. Thus, a certain level of A.,S. (mathematicIIl. artisti", etc.) could be devdoped in virtually all healthy children. Thus, there is every reason to believe that all-round d evelopment of talems in children .::al1 be achieved through specially organil>Cd training. Abstraction, a ba~ic type Qf thinkillg whereby the ~ubje(f mentally differentia'e~ some qualilies or IISpcCts of lin object and i~olate~ 111,,"111 from OIher

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intellectual construct (concept, model, theory, da~iflcation,_etc.) also d~noted by the term "A". Ongmally" A. IS st:en ill a direct sensory rellectlon of the environment, when some p'ropertl~ of the laller provide orien tatIOn for perception and action wh.ll~ others. are ignored. A. is a requl~lte condition for categorisation. By A. gcnerah~ed images of reality are formed, allo~lIlg to select relations and connections essential to activity by isolating t.hem from other rellU,ions and connectio ns. When essential properties of real~ty are ignored, A. assumes a su~erflclal and shallow character. In thiS case, the term is used to refer to conceptualisation and reasoning which ha~e n~ basis in reality. A. true to r~ahty IS that simplifIcation of the multitude of phenomena which increases t.he capacity of thought by vl~lUe ,of Its COIIcentration on that which IS essent.lal for a given cognitive silUa!i~n. Practice is the criterion for determllllng to w.hat extent A. is genuine and productive. Abulia, a pathological disturbance ~f the mental regulation of aetiol/s. It IS seen in the absence of an impulse t.o act, inability to make or aCI.on deCIsions, although the person IS awa.re of this necessity. A. should .be diStinguished from la~k of ~llIpower as a {'haracter trait resulll1lg from IInproper upbringing and corrigible by adequate training (see Will). Acalculia, inability to calc~llate and perform ari thme tical (Iperallon~ as a

result of cortical lesions. Various groups of A. are recognised: primary ~ .• associated with disturbance o~ sp~tlal organisation of numbers and Impaired ability to calculate; and secondary A., -;eell in other disorders of mental functions (aphasia. agnosia. amnesia) or in general impairment of purposeful intellectual activity. Acceleration, an increase in the rate of the somatic and physiological maturation of children and teenagers. observed over the past 100-150 y.ears. A. shows itself primarily in an m c rea~e in the bodily size and weight and m earlier onset of puberty. Data show that during this century the average size of infants has increased by 0.5-1.0 cm and the weight, by 100-300 g: the body size and w~ight of 5-7-year. olds has been increasmg by an average of 1.5 cm and 0.5 kg every ten rears; and the body size of schoolchildren has increased by 10-15 cm over the period. Puberty ~ts in ?I~e to _two years earlier. ThiS condlllon. gIVen traditional modes of pre+adolescent upbringing and sta~dard~ of behal'iOllr, can sometimes _~e_ r!se }O_ . me~l1al collisions, such as semanllC _hu_'!!.ers. -·c()I1f!iCH. and affective behaVIOUr. There are data related to the a~cele­ rated mental development of children .J£sychological acceleration): however, ) there Is not enough statistical data to draw a reliable conclusion. Accentuation of Character, exagger~­ tion of certain personality traits m~I~I' festing itself in selective vulnerablh~y of personality in ~elation to certam types of psychogemc stress (profound

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di\\re ....,>, ellces~ive mental pressure, etc.) while the person ..:an maintain emotional eqUilibrium under other types of mental :;tre~\. Although pure typt!s are s..:ar~e. and mIxed type~ predominate, the followmg Iype~ of A. of C. are distInguished: (I) •..:yeloid:- va.rimions of ",1000 resulting from external situation; (2) a~thenic-- worry, indeci~ive­ nes~, fatigue, irritability, inclination toward~ l/epreHiom;; (3) scnsitiveshyn~ss, ~nsitivity. tendency to feel lIlfenor; (4) ~..:hil.Oid-aloofn~. reti..:ence, lo~ of ability to maintain personal contacts hee £xlrol'ersionIl1IrOl'f'nion), inability to sympathise (see .ElI1phathy); (5) paranoiace)l.ce~lve Irrllability. persistence of negative uff('~·I.\, hypersensith'ity. susPICIousness. exaggerated sense of selfImportan..:e; (6) epileptic-uncontrolled and impulsive behaviour, intolerance, mental rigidity, fighting and quarrelmg. mordmately detailed speech, adherel~ce to standards: (7) histrionic (hysten..:al) -pronounced tendency towards repression of unpleasant faclS or events, lying, fantasy and affected behaviour aimed at drawing attention dIsregard for the feeling of oEhe; persons, tendency towards recklessness vanlly, "escape into disease" when th~ need for recognition is not satisfIed' (8) hypenhymic-constantly high splnb, cravl11g for action combined wllh mood shifES and a tendency to abandon pur\uit~ in mid-course, excessive loquac~ty (galloping thought); (9) dysthymlc,- e~cessive gravity, high sen~e of re~ponslbllity, concentration on gloumy and \ad aspects of life, ~u\CepllbllllY to depr~ions, inade-

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quate a":!l\cnes,\: (It)) un\tahle (extravert) -- temll-ncy to bc mnuellccd hy external ~hlllg~, ,8 ~'OlllII1U\lll' ,carch for .fr~sh mlprc).slons or new cumpany, abLlII) to estabh\h qUick contact (al _ though of 8\uperflcial character); (II). conformmg-cxaggcl"alcd sub~11lSSlvcness and dependability. Dependmg 011 the degree of manifeMation overt and .covert typc~ of A. of arc recog11l~ed. Becoming mure pronounced IOwards teenage. A. of C. ~bates towards adulthood, rnanife;ting IIself nOI III any situat ion (as in psychopal~Y) .but .only in a complex psychogel1lc Slluations, those bringing pressure 10 bear on the "weak link". A. of C. promote; the development of a~U1e a~ective reactions (sec P,~FhQ­ gen.,e Disorders), neuroses, pathological behaviour disorders. A. of C. ~ust be taken into account in elTe.;lUatm~ an individual approach to raising chlldr.en and teenagers, as well as in choos1l1g adequate forms of individual and ~amil!, psycholherapies. The above cJassllicallon was suggcsled by Karl Leonghard and Andrei Lichko. Acceplor of AClion Result a mental ",1echanism of anticipation ~nd evalualion of the result of action in functional systems. The. t~rm was introduced by ~yotr Anokhm III 1955. In Ihe informat~on aspect, A. of A.R. is "the informa1I0nai equivalent of the result" retrie~~d from memory in the proccs~ of deCfSlolI-lIIokillK which determines the org.a~isation of the organi~m's motor aClIvlty during the behavioural act and carries out Ihe comparison of the resull with its "anticipated rene.;tion". If they coincide, the completed futlc-

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lional s..:hemc falls apart, ilnd the Mlanism can I"lro..:eed to another purpO\eful hehuI'iour; if they overlap. improvemenls arc introdu!;cd !II the programme of aClion; if they are lotally dilIcrent, exploratory-orienting behaviour I~ developed.

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Achievement Motivalion, Ihe lllhjed_\ need 10 reach success in variou.\ types of actIvity. especially in competition with other people. Studics of A.M. were begun by a group of American researchers headed by David McClelland. They proposed the theory and methodology of measuring A,M. which were funher elaborated in the works of John Alkinson and Heinl. Heckhausen. A special projective method was worked out for lhe qualitative estimation and slUdy of A.M. (see Projective Tests). According 10 McClelland and others, A.M. is formed during the child's upbringing in the family, under the influence of his parents, flTSlly of his mother. The basis of A.M. Is made up of the affectivel y coloured associations which link the child's emotiOlwl experiem:e with Ihe forms of his behuI';Ollr. If in early childhood the child is praised by the parents for his successes and punished for failures, by lhe age of 5 to 6 he forms A.M. which laler becomes a steady need and is manifested in various types of activity. McClelland allernpted to explain, proceeding from A.M., the speciflc !raits in the socioeconomic developmenl of I'arious nalions. wh ich is counter 10 the historical approach. Soviet psy..:holog)' rejecls the idea of A.M. bcing formed exclusively during early childhood.

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Achitvement Tnc,. a technique of f1I'.YI:hlldiul(rllJHS reveahllg tht e!llellt !O whi..:h wbJC..:!'J have ma\lered 'I!'e(If" knowledge, abilitie1. and skill" A,T. (t'"'>cmble '>pecial abilitin IC!U (o;ec Crealil-ity Te.~hl. Unlike the laller, howe~er, the)' reveal what the \ubject ha~ already ma.\lered, ralher than generalised ~kills devoid of !;oncrete ..:ontent and rC';ulting from variegated life experienc.:. There are three types of A.T., namely_ allion tests, wrillen tests. and oral te'>ts. AClion tl;"5ts are designed to reveal an ability to perform actIons wilh mechanisms. malerials, and implernent\. Written A.T. are performed 00 spe..:ial qucslionnaires. The subjects are told to eilher select the correct oral an\wer among several options. or 10 mark in a diagram the reflection of the sltualion described ill a l',iHn question. or 10 find in a drawing the situation or detail providing a cut 10 the !;orrect solution, Oral A.T. are a sy~lem of prepared questions which the subj«:ts must answer: in this case, Ihe el(pcrimenter must foresee the diffh:ulties that may arise because of inexperien..:e in articulating replies. A.T. are used in general and "ocational training. Aclioo, a unit of activit)"; a ,'oluntary intentional mediated aCEi,-it)" directed towards reaching a realised f,:wl. A. as a :;pecifLC unit of numan~-adrvity was inlroduccd in So,iet psy,lr%gy by Sergei Rubinstein and Alexei N. Leontye'. The nOlion of A. as unIt 0; analysis and object of study is uscd in Ihe slUdy of pi.'r;:eplUu/, motor, mnemonic, mental. creative, and other A's. As regards ics structure, A., unlike the

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habitual or Imnulsiv" . ( h. " .... "'-1 ......., 18Vloural acts w leh afe directly determined b' I ,>.llIation) is always :t smg "anous means such . ro/('\ \' 1 • as SIKns, Ill" a 1/1',\, 1I0rms. etc. thco subject .. aMen an A., acquiring it as his OW" perso , . _. lal" A . E very A. consists of ~lt'nt1ng, eflee.lor and control pans.

~b.Jt'~t_I\'e

lIled~a,~~~

s regardl> theIr fUTlctioning, A's can ~ grouped

as voluntary and inten·

Ilona I. In Oll'o1?t'llesis the function of ~olun!ary control and regulation of A IS ef~e~ted 81 li.rst in the process

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the JOInI actil'ilies of the adult a~d ~he c!III? a.nd, later, as a result of the InferiOr/saIl on of social norms (patterns) and schemes of A., the child

Ix:gms to control his A. in accordance wlIh these. patterns and schemes. The

intentIOnality of A.. is explained by Ihe ~aci that the subJecl decides that Ihe ,magi! of the future result of his A. corr~spolI~s 10 Ihe motive of his activIty: In th1$ case this image of action acquires a personalised meaning and ~com.es Ihe subjecfs goal. The subject's lnt~nt/On gives rise to a goal-related a~tlfude, a readiness to alta in the antiCipated ~esull of A. The goal-related aHllude IS connected with the image of the anticipaled result, which does not Imply concrete ways and means by wh.ich the goal could be reached mOSI likely and effectively. This image only. chariS the general direction for formln~ A., while the executive pari of A:. IS de termined by the concrete condlllOns of the given situation. In Ihe pro~ess of carrying out an A., the subject comes inlo conlact with the objective world and Iransforms (outwardly or mentally) the objective situ a-

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tlOIl alld utlain .. a n ... ult. TI h e,"aluat" .. it .. p-er"Ollllli~ed me':III~:1 J(,~I hl\ ('motioll.f. In the pn)l"~'s.\ of A SilVia s.oals may 8111>Cilr hee Goal Pt""., ('w troll) and tht' plal"C' of.n. .In The (luiv 11/1. may change. A.:cordin . II) Lt'"Ol1I~e\". 1111 A. clln hecome all ~pt.r:o ~()~I, If. 1\ repealedly al1ninc-d soat hlch II> f1rlnly connected wit I tl' means of reaching ;, , .,·c, "0 I'oliger " . rea I Ised as a resull of il b . automatic and .becom'"'" . le~ommg _ ...." Wlt11l1 the structure '0 d·111011 . f or f ' of actIvit,,"n per ormlllg another A. (shif1 of the goal towards the condit io") . . " . Begmnlllg .to perf~Jrln an A. as a result of a cenam motive, the subject can later perform ~n A. for the purpose of the A. Itself (shtft of the motive towards the go~l), in which case the A. becomes an mdependent activity. The mechanism of Ih,~ ~orma\lon of realised "motivegoals IS aile of the mechanisms of the. f.orn.lation of new types of human actIvIty In onto~~nesis. On Ihe dynamic pl~ne the stability of an A. is determmed by its goal orientation. The psychophysiological organisaTion of an A. is provided by such a funClional block of the bruin as the block of programming. regulation and control ?f which the frontal lobes are the mos; Important part (Alexander Luria). Activafio n , a state of the ne r vouS system characterising the level of ils excitation and reac t ivity. A. of The nervous system as a whole, as its gene r al characteristic, should be dist inguished from A. of anyone brain struClure. The opt imal level of A. would be the utmost degree of cor-

rC_\plVC:, c 0OCial e'perien..::e, a sy.. tem of existing knowledge. norms anu rule\ of human acti\,jty: and by 'he 'p«"iflc\ of his phy~iological de,e-lormcllt. The nOtion of A. pe..::uliaritie~ and age boundaries i!. not an 3b~(>lutc aiterion, since age boundarie\ are vanable anll depend on the hislOri..::al perioo III question, and are differenr in different socio-cconomi..:: eonditiom. The following A. classification is a(ccpted in the USSR: infancy (from birth to age I): pre-pres..::hool childhooo (age I 10 J); preschool ..::hildhooJ (age", 10 0); Junior s.::hool age (age n to 10); teenagc peTiod (age 10 to 15); youth: first period (senior s..:hllol 3!!C,

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age 15 10 17) and second period (age 17 10 21); malure age: first period (age 21 to 35) and second period (age 35 to 60); elderly age (age 60 10 75); old age (age 75 10 90); and longevity (age 90 and more). AgnOliia. impairment of perception associated with cerla;n brai" lesions. Several forms of A. are di:'linguished:

(I) optical or visual A. -failure to re(ognise the ~hape an~ natur~ of objlo'c\\ despite the re!elllLO,1l of ,VIsual powers: (2) tactile A.--- inability to

recognise an object by louch (3Slereogllo,i~) or impairment of the ability 10 identify parts of one's own body or the rdalio~ of its ;odi,vidual !,arh. i.e. a defeci 111 apprecl311on, of the body \Cherne (somaloagnmlal ;

e\) acm;,!ic or auditory A.- impairmelll of phonemic hearing, i.e. the ahility to di .. tingui\h sound... re. underlying Ihe per~"\11's relaliollship~ wilh olhcr~. A. ",),pre~sed in forg;,,:nc',. 101l!ram:c of short.::omillg~, blind sa"riflcc fliT the sake of Olher persons. induding A.

IlI!r,,:n1 i.\ hurt if .....l1ll1 pcr;on or JlI.'r~nn, t" wh()ln ho:she aIl3(h ..." ro:.. Each A. dls!lnguishes an irritant of a c(,rtain type, providing for ils subsequent sepa· ration. into individual deml'nh. TI1U~. th~ Visual A. dis l ing\1ish~ a certain \lnrt. of. electromagnetic oscillations, ~naklr1~ rt possible to differentiate Ihe rnte~l~rty, colour, shape, and other properties of .obJccts. AI Ihe ~ame lime A re~ect~ ~I)atial and tcmporal rt'lation~ ~lllpS of the~e elementary stimuli. T y[lCs

of A aro; di..\lmg:;I~ht.J I' (ychological ~tudies of personalil), hee ExlrOI'('rsiOlI IlIlr(ll'",sioll) Anancasms. see

Ob.~e~sions.

Animal Psychology, the ~cience 01 the animal psyche, of the manifestations and regulariti~ of psychIC rel1ection at this level. A.P. studies the forma tion of psychic processes in animals in onlugl'ne:;i:;, the origius of the psyche anu ib development in the process of evolution, the biological requisites for and th e origin of human conS,iOIl.II/I'IS, T he thi nk.ers of long ago paid alienI ion to the abilities of animab. The birth of :.cientiflt: A. P. at the tu rn of the 19th CCIi\lJry is connected with the names of George BulTon and J ean Lama r ck ~lnd, lalcr on, Charles Darwin. In Ru::.sia, the founders of the scientiftC study of animal behaviour were Karl Ruli er and V.A. Wagner, who laid the fou nJa tion for a materiali~t evolutionary trend in A.P. in the 191h an d

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early Quaternary, n'~eral milhtHl )Til" a~CI. The Pfll1"::lpal rC"l.jlli~lles rnr anthrnpngene,,' wer,' .h\I;lh:t;nllt f'l','I' liar til anthropoid apt.""l. \uth a~ a hll/It level of de~el"plllent of b"th prmripal typt:1 nf mllwr adiv it y (/0':""1111/'111 and maniplilufiflll); nHP,imum l1e:"lhll· ity (among animal\) of Ihl' furelln1tw. particularly flll!!,er. of Ihe foreM IU, and adaptation of limb. WIH~ refute antrnpCl111t1rph;t,;. ideal;,l;.: :"Iml vul~ar·rt1.alen;l li\1 vlew~ IIf the fl'>ychit: .a.·livily of aIHl11ah, ha'ing thcm~c1ve\ (In tilt: l.e!lll1i\1 tlu:nry flf rd/I'(·lioll. They ,tudy the animal p'ydlC ill dialecllull Uluty with Iheir eXlernal, Ilrinwrily muwr, adi";ly hee

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by morphological Iransformalion~ (changes in the structure of man's Jinxl anle~lor~) as by profound qual. ilalin~ ,hange:. in behal'iour and fl)o)'Cht' and Ih~ e:;lab1i~hmenl of fundamenlali) nellt allitudeion.

Two ty~ of A. are recognised: longtenn A., which is a dependence of pen:eplioll on the stable qualities of the perwmulily (world olillook. COT/\'j,:lic)tl.\, education, etc.) and temporary A. innuenced by situational (J.I)'chic Slaies (emotions, expeclurifm,\, ClUi/llde\', etc.).

Aprax ia, impairment of vOluntary purpo.o;eful mov!'menl and actions. in spite

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of the ab,clKc of paral)'s]...,

pare~is,

or allY other elemelllary mOlOr disor-

der. A. is atlrihulablc 10 mOlOr impairment of a higher order. The form of A. depend, on Ihe localisation of the brain Ie.ion. The following ba')ic Iypes of A. afe recognised: (I) kin~Iheti~'

A. " inability to carry out a '>t't of ne..:~ary movemenl:'; (parlicularly in the absence of a vi!>ual aid) du~ to impairmenl of kinestheti c (related to perception of one'S own movement and I{)(;ation) analysis and \ynlhe\l\: (2) comtrUClional A.- impairment of the 'tIiwal-, organisation of a tiitlloJ.:lIl' between man and machine, and creatil.ln of hybrid intellect sy~Tem~ l"I)mbining the mental abilities of human being.. \eparated in lime and ~pace. providing for the u~e of information lind computcr lechnology adOI)led to each actin' parlit-ipanl in ~uch system:,;. P~ychology i~ a field where the idea .. of A.1. arc apl)lied. In ils lurn, Ihe knowledge of psychology b u ..ed in the theory of A.1. P~ychology deals wilh lhe problem of The exis!ing or lacking analogy between man'S psyche and A.1. Although A.1. rests on modelling individual a~pcct~ and proJX,rties of human IhillJ..illl!., the of ("IlI/m/ill/i ....alion (I) with other

25 peol)le. All subJ.tantial elcmenl~ of human heJwl'iO/lr, both motivatIOnal hee ,\.IOlil'(llioll) and operational (\ceO{Jt'ra/i,m) , are subje':1 10 A. T he basic intri l l~ic substance of the proce,,-s of learning is in A. of the meanings of objeCTS of material and irllellel·tua.' culture and thcir UTilisatIon Technique,. The piVOT of educalioll is A. of the 1lI0rai nOfms of behaviour. The effectIvene:,;s of A. (its qualily, durability and speed) depends on Ihe comple.,eness of the orielllu/illg hus(.~ oj ucllOn 10 be performed; on the objeclivt::, logical and psychological variety of the subject-mailer involving the content to be mastered: and 011 measures 10 cootrol the action-forming process. Along with A. of a new meaning (the forma· Tion of a manifesllng itself 111 tiredness (see Tirec/m'\.\) and quick loss of strength, low sensuli(>f1 Ihre.\l!old. ",,,[remely UlIstable mOO(k and sleep disturbance. A. may be (;3used by diseru.e a:; well as by cxce~i\le menial or physical strain, prolonged nega1ive emotional f'XPC'-

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fien,{'

or

('ollf/h'/.

Atrophy. degcnenl1ioll of organic ~lrUl'­ tures. In psych%!;)'. Ihe term is used in the sense of degeneration of some menIal function due 10 lack of e.'H'rcise or \0 unfavourable or traumatic pres-

sures (prolonged elllotional SlreS$, COIIjlkt. frlls/ralion. drugs, intoxication , elc.).

AUenlion. a.:tidty of a subject cOlleenIral«l at a gi\ien moment on some real or ideal object (lhing. event. ;maMe. dl~ourse. etc.). A. also characterises coordination of various links in the functional structure of an action which determine!> the ~uCCe!>S of its execulion, e.g. t~e speed and accuracy of a tU$k solutIOn. The range of problems mvolved in the !:otudy of A. has been outlined through differentiation of the broader. philosophical concepT of ap~r~'('plw" (Gottfried Leibniz, Immanuel Kant , Johann Herbart). In Wilhelm Wundl's works, this term was relaled 10 processes through which one becomes distinctly aware of the conTent of the perceived object and it becomes integrated in Ihe structure of pa\t experience ("creative lOynthesis··).

Nikolai Lange. a Ru\.\ian p\ychologi~t who dl'\'elopl'd the thenr)' of volilional A .• ha~ ~ignirwantly c('llitrihuted to the further dC\I:loprncnt of idcas about A. Like the French p~ychologi~t Th~odlile Ribot. he linked A. with regulation of ideomotor motions bee Ideomotor Act) achieved in perceiving and conceiving objects. In contemporary f,·\ydl0/0gy. studies of A. arc performed within the framework of ~!'IJ('ral fJS)'chology. and al!:oo I'n~il1l'('fln~ p.\"yI.:h%~y. p~y­ chology of la/Jullr. 1Il'lIrOf)syclw/ogy, medical ps.vd/O/o~y. dl'I'e/O{JIl1elltal psychology. ami petl(ll:o~ic p.5)'cI/Ology.

Three forms of A. are distinguished. The simplel>l and genetically initial form is involullIary A., which is passive in character. since il is impO!.ed on the subject by events ('xtraneous to the goals of his activity. Physiologically. lhis form of A. manifests itself through orielltalillg reacl;oll. If activity is achieved within the framework of the subject's conscious ;IIlell/;olls and requires volitional efforts on his part, one would speak of voluntary A., distinguished by an active nature, a complex structure mediated by socially developed organisation of behOl'iour and comlllllll ; catiOIl (2), and emerging in the process of practical activities. Socalled post-voluntary A. ma y appear in the course of development of the operational-technical aspects of activity in connection with its automaTion and due to the transilion of actions intO operatiolls, and also owing to changed motil'aliol/, e.g. shift of the molive 10 the goal. In lhilO case, the trend of activity would continue to correspond to consciously accepted goals; however,

its aClLlali,aooll would .w longer require \pcl.:ial mental elfnrt and would be re ... tricted in time ,>olelv by fin'd I/es.\ and exhau.,tion (If body resource., (Nikolai Dobrynin) . Selectivity. span, stabilit y, di.,tribution and pOtential switch-over of A. arc among the characteristics determined experimentally. SelectivilY of A. is due to the subject's ability to s ucces,>fully adju'>t himself (in case of hindrances) 10 perceiving information relating to some conscious goal. 'The number of objects that are distinctly comprehended simullaneously IS taken for the spa n of A .. which virtually docs not differ from that of direct memorisillg. or from that of short-term memory (see Memor)'. Shari-Term). 'This indicator would largely depend on the orgalllsation and nature of The memorised material. and is usually taken to equal 5-7 objects. 'The span of A. is assessed by means of tachy~toscopic presentation (see TClc"ystos,'ope) of many objects (lellers. words, figures. flowers, etc.). To determine the subject's ability to switch over and maintain stable A.. researchers use in\e.stigation methodS which allow them to describe the dynamics of cognitive and ext'cutive aclions in time. for instance, with changed goals. Distribution of A. is examined when thl! subject simultaneously performs twO or more actions which cannot be fulfIlled through rapid consecutive ~witch-over of A. Soviet psychology has developed a theory in which A. is regarded as a function of the !:ou bje ct'~ internal control of correspondence of mental actions to predevised programmes (Pyotr Galpcrin).

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UevdopmenT of such cuntrol nnpruvl..'3 the result~ or .. n)' acti\it)". nls of body adaptation to anticipated silualions; sele..:livily and orienTaTion of mental processes: mechanisms of uncol1sciou:> regulation of individual 3l'tivilY; and forming of individual daractcr. In social p.\ydlOlogy, A. is used to study the relalion~hip of 3n indi\'idual as a group member 10 various social objects: sel/regula/ion mechanisms: stability and coordination of social beha\'iour; and the process of socialisulioll and varialion of A., say. under the inl1uence of propaganda (sec Psychology of ProfJU;:ullda) , and aho to forecast posSible form~ of individual behaviour in "peei"c !>ituation~. The futluion, elfecl!> and ~nce of A. are revealed in studymg It!> role III aelivity regulation. The ba..ic functions of A. in aClivity are as rollow~: (a) A. determines Ihe stable, eOf1\i~tent, and purro~dul nat~re of activity, and aels a!> its ~ta­ bllisation me~hani~m allowing to pre'>t'rve . II!> orientation in continually changmg silUations; (b) A. frees the \ubJect from thl! need to lake deciSIOlh and voluntarily control his aetivlIy 111. standard, previously encountered \lIuations; (c) A. may abo aet as a fa(to~ that cau~~ inert activity and makes II difficult for dn individual to a~apt to new \ituation~. The effects 01 A. are only dirl!ctly revealed when Ihe condlllom of activity change. Hence, th!! adlvny "lI1terrupting" lechnique IS commonly u~ed to \tudy the phenom!!n(," of A.. For in'.tance, the subject

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asked to compare two differl'nt "crit_ ical" object~. after rl!peluedly being shown twO dlffNent "attitudinal" objects (Uznadze\ ~et fixation method). The content of A. would dl!pend on the place of the objective factor inducing that A. within the stnll.: ture of activity. Depending on the objective factor of activity (motive, goal, cond iti on) A. is directed at , psychologists distinguish threl! hierarchic levels of activity regulation, namely, meaning-related, goalrelated, and operational A's. Meaningrelated A's express an individual's attitude, manifest in his activity, to the objects that have acquired . aper,wllu/ised meaf}.illg. In their origin, meaningrelated A's are derivative from social A's. Meaning-related A's contain the informational component (individual's world oUllook and Ihe image of the Object to which he aspires), the component of affective assessment