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Hydrocarbon Liquid Transmission Pipeline and Storage Systems – Design and Operation
M. Mohitpour M.S. Yoon J.H. Russell
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© 2012, ASME, 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA (www.asme.org) All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Information contained in this work has been obtained by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither ASME nor its authors or editors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published in this work. Neither ASME nor its authors and editors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of the use of this information. The work is published with the understanding that ASME and its authors and editors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such engineering or professional services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ASME shall not be responsible for statements or opinions advanced in papers or . . . printed in its publications (B7.1.3). Statement from the Bylaws. For authorization to photocopy material for internal or personal use under those circumstances not falling within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act, contact the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, tel: 978-750-8400, www.copyright.com. Requests for special permission or bulk reproduction should be addressed to the ASME Publishing Department, or submitted online at: http://www.asme.org/Publications/ Books/Administration/Permissions.cfm Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mohitpour, Mo Hydrocarbon liquid transmission pipeline and storage systems : design and operation / M. Mohitpour, M.S. Yoon, J.H. Russell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7918-6000-7 (alk. paper) 1. Petroleum pipelines–Design and construction. 2. Liquefied natural gas pipelines–Design and construction. 3. Pipelines–Design and construction. I. Yoon, Mike II. Russell, J. H. (James Hooper), 1947- III. Title. TN879.53.M64 2012 665.5’44–dc23 2012016731
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DEDICATIONS This book is dedicated to the Pipeline Industry whose prime objective has been, and continues to be, transporting hydrocarbon energy efficiently but with utmost safety and reliability. It is dedicated to the experts and professionals in the industry whose breadth of expertise and continued effort has led to advancements that have been the cornerstone of integrity and safety in pipeline energy transportation. To our wives Carol, Julie, and Fern whose patience, unyielding support, and love allowed us to complete this book. They made us to wonder in our dreams to achieve our aspiration. THANK YOU.
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DEDICATIONS This book is dedicated to the Pipeline Industry whose prime objective has been, and continues to be, transporting hydrocarbon energy efficiently but with utmost safety and reliability. It is dedicated to the experts and professionals in the industry whose breadth of expertise and continued effort has led to advancements that have been the cornerstone of integrity and safety in pipeline energy transportation. To our wives Carol, Julie, and Fern whose patience, unyielding support, and love allowed us to complete this book. They made us to wonder in our dreams to achieve our aspiration. THANK YOU.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface
xvii
Acknowledgments
xix
Accreditation
xxi
Forewords
xxii
Metric Conversion of Some Common Units
xxv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Hydrocarbon Liquid Pipelines 1.1 Liquid Hydrocarbon Transportation System Scope 1.2 Hydrocarbon Liquid Pipelines 1.3 Liquid Pipeline Transportation Systems 1.4 Types of Transmission Pipelines 1.5 Liquid Petroleum Pipeline Networks 1.6 Single Versus Multiple Products Pipeline 1.6.1 Refined Petroleum Products 1.7 Liquid Pipeline Development History/Chronology 1.7.1 Historical Overview 1.7.2 Codes, Standards and Regulations (Addressing Liquid Pipeline Design, Construction and Operation) 1.7.3 Codes 1.7.4 Regulations 1.8 Major Pipeline Facilities Layout 1.8.1 Pump Station 1.8.2 Metering/Measurement 1.8.3 Valve and Manifolds 1.8.3.1 Valves 1.8.3.2 Manifolds 1.9 General Pipeline Operations References
1 1 1 3 5 5 11 11 12 12 15 15 16 22 22 22 26 26 27 28 29
v
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vi n Table of Contents Chapter 2 Hydrocarbon Liquid Properties 2.1 Hydrocarbon Liquids 2.2 Hydrocarbon Liquids Phase Behavior 2.2.1 Phase Diagram Determination 2.3 Properties of Petroleum Liquids 2.3.1 Mass, Volume, and Density 2.3.2 Density and Thermal Expansion 2.3.3 Compressibility, Bulk Modulus, and Thermal Expansion 2.3.3.1 Compressibility 2.3.3.2 Bulk Modulus K 2.3.3.3 Thermal Expansion 2.3.3.4 Calculating Bulk Modulus for Various Fluids 2.3.3.5 Other Techniques for Calculating Bulk Modulus 2.4 Specific Gravity and API Gravity 2.4.1 Specific Gravities of Blended Products 2.5 Viscosity, Newtonian Versus Non-Newtonian 2.5.1 Viscosity and Density Relationship 2.5.2 Viscosity of Blended/Diluted Liquids 2.5.2.1 (A) New Volume from Current Volume, Current SG, and Target SG 2.5.2.2 (B) Viscosity Blending Calculation 2.5.3 Hydrocarbon Liquids Blending and Volume Shrinkage 2.5.4 Viscosity Determination 2.6 Pour Point and Viscosity Relationship 2.6.1 Reasons for Pour Point Determination 2.7 Vapor Pressure 2.7.1 True Vapor Pressure 2.8 Flash Point 2.9 Hydrocarbon Liquid Specific Heat Capacity 2.10 Thermal Conductivity 2.11 Effect of Hydrocarbon Liquid Properties on Measurement Systems 2.11.1 (a) Base Conditions 2.11.2 (b) Impact of Phase Change 2.11.3 Properties Important to Measurement Systems 2.11.4 Factors Affecting Measurement Accuracy References
31 31 32 34 37 38 38 38 38 39 40 41 42 42 44 45 48 48
Chapter 3 System Hydraulics and Design 3.1 Fundamentals of Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics 3.1.1 Pipeline Flow Equations 3.1.1.1 Continuity or Mass Conservation Equation 3.1.1.2 Momentum Equation
63 63 63 64 64
48 48 49 50 50 51 52 52 55 55 56 57 57 57 57 58 59
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Table of Contents n vii 3.1.2 3.1.3
3.1.1.3 Energy Equation 3.1.1.4 Equation of State Solution Methods 3.1.2.1 Method of Characteristics 3.1.2.2 Explicit Methods 3.1.2.3 Implicit Methods Steady-State Solutions and Design Equations 3.1.3.1 Solution of Continuity Equation and Volume Correction 3.1.3.2 Solution of Momentum Equation and Pressure Profile Calculation 3.1.3.3 Solution of Energy Equation and Temperature Profile Calculation 3.2 Design Process 3.2.1 Codes and Standards 3.2.2 Design Factors 3.2.2.1 Supply and Demand 3.2.2.2 Pipeline Route and Environmental Issues 3.2.2.3 Operating Parameters 3.2.2.4 Pipe Parameters 3.2.2.5 Pumping Parameters 3.2.2.6 Economic Factors 3.2.3 Hydraulic Design Procedure 3.3 Liquid Pipeline Design 3.3.1 Crude Oil Pipeline System — Isothermal Flow 3.3.2 Pipeline Configurations 3.3.2.1 Side Stream Delivery 3.3.2.2 Side Stream Injection 3.3.2.3 Pipeline in Series 3.3.2.4 Pipelines in Parallel 3.3.3 Severe Elevation Change — Slack Flow 3.3.4 Severe Weather Conditions 3.3.4.1 Pipeline in a Hot Environment 3.3.4.2 Pipeline in a Cold Environment 3.3.5 Batch Pipeline Hydraulics Design 3.3.6 High Vapor Pressure (HVP) Pipeline Design 3.3.7 Heavy Crude Pipeline Hydraulic Design 3.3.7.1 Determine the Physical Properties under Pipeline Conditions 3.3.7.2 Determine the Pressure and Temperature throughout the Pipeline for the Anticipated Flow Rates 3.3.7.3 Review the Restart after Shutdown 3.3.7.4 Design Facilities 3.4 Locating Pump Stations
67 68 68 69 69 69 70 71 72 75 83 83 84 84 85 86 89 93 93 96 98 99 104 105 108 112 114 115 119 119 119 120 122 129 130 131 132 133 136
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viii n Table of Contents Addenda to Chapter 3 A3.1 Temperature Calculation A3.2 Erosional Velocity of Fluid A3.3 Minor Pressure Losses A3.4 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Pipe Volume References
144 144 148 149 154 157
Chapter 4 Pumps and Pump Stations 159 4.1 Introduction 159 4.2 Centrifugal Pumps 160 4.3 Centrifugal Pump Types 161 4.3.1 End Suction Single Stage Pumps 161 4.3.2 Vertical In-Line Single Stage Pumps 161 4.3.3 Horizontal Axially Split Between-Bearing Single-Stage Pumps 161 4.3.4 Horizontal Axially Split Between-Bearing Multi-Stage Pumps 161 4.3.5 Double–Case (Can) Vertically Suspended Volute Pumps 162 4.4 Pump Selection and Sizing 164 4.4.1 Pump Performance 164 4.4.1.1 Pump Performance Curves 165 4.4.2 Service Conditions 165 4.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 167 4.4.3.1 Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) 167 4.4.3.2 Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) 168 4.4.4 Specific Speed 169 4.4.5 Suction Specific Speed 170 4.4.6 Pump Performance Curve Characteristics 171 4.4.7 Centrifugal Pump Power and Efficiency 172 4.4.8 Performance Modifications for Varying Pipeline Applications 172 4.4.9 Cavitation 176 4.4.10 Viscous Hydrocarbon Behavior in Pumps 180 4.4.11 Temperature Rise 181 4.4.12 Minimum Flow 182 4.5 Pump Specification and Purchase 182 4.5.1 Pump Data Sheets 182 4.6 Retrofitting Centrifugal Pumps for Changing Service Conditions 183 4.6.1 Reduced Pipeline Throughput 183 4.6.2 Increased Pipeline Throughput 183 4.6.3 Affinity Laws 184 4.7 Pipeline Hydraulic Requirements 185 4.7.1 System Head Curves and Pump Operating Points 185 4.7.2 Hydraulic Performance in Batched Pipeline Systems with Constant Speed Pumps 188
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Table of Contents n ix
4.7.3 Hydraulic Performance in Batched Pipeline Systems with Variable Speed Pumps 4.7.4 Pump Configurations 4.7.4.1 Parallel Operation 4.7.4.2 Series Operation 4.8 Pump Drivers 4.9 Pump Station Design 4.9.1 Pump Station Diagram 4.9.2 Pump Station Piping 4.9.3 Control Valve and Sizing 4.9.4 Station Flow Recirculation 4.9.5 Pig Launcher and Receiver 4.9.6 Pump Station at a Tank Farm 4.9.7 Pump Station Heater 4.10 Pipeline System Control 4.10.1 Pump Station Operation 4.10.2 Pump Control Strategy 4.10.3 Station Control 4.10.3.1 Pump Station Valve Control 4.10.4 Injection/Delivery Station Control 4.10.5 Pump Unit Control 4.10.6 Throttling vs. Speed Controls 4.10.6.1 Throttling for Fixed Speed Pumps 4.10.6.2 Speed Control for Variable Speed Pumps 4.11 Station Electrical Control 4.11.1 Station Auxiliary Systems 4.11.2 Shutdown Modes 4.11.2.1 Emergency Shutdown System 4.12 Applicable Codes and Standards References
Chapter 5 Pipeline Operation and Batching 5.1 Pipeline Operation 5.1.1 Pipeline System Operation 5.1.2 Concepts of Pipeline Transient Flow 5.1.3 Surge Control 5.1.3.1 Control Devices 5.1.3.2 Pump Unit and Pump Station Operations 5.1.3.3 Special Surge Relief Devices 5.1.4 Example of Pipeline Operation and Surge Control 5.1.4.1 Scheduled Pipeline System Start-Up 5.1.4.2 Scheduled Pipeline System Shutdown 5.1.4.3 Emergency Shutdown of the Pipeline System
189 190 190 192 192 195 196 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 206 207 207 208 208 209 210 211 213 213 214 214 215 215
217 217 217 220 228 230 231 234 236 238 240 242
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x n Table of Contents 5.1.4.4 Batch Operation 5.1.5 Transient or Surge Analysis 5.2 Liquid Batching Transportation 5.2.1 Types of Liquid Pipelines 5.2.2 Liquid Hydrocarbon Batching 5.2.3 Batched Product Pipeline Growth and Technique 5.2.4 Products Batching Definitions and Terms 5.2.4.1 Batch Sequencing 5.2.4.2 Batch Cycle/Slug 5.2.4.3 Buffers 5.2.4.4 Batching Travel Time 5.2.4.5 Batch Interface Marking and Detection 5.2.4.6 Batch Injection, Transportation, and Delivery 5.2.4.7 Batch Reporting 5.2.5 Minimum Batch Size 5.2.6 Crude Oil Contamination 5.2.6.1 Natural Crude 5.2.6.2 Synthetic Crude 5.2.6.3 Contamination Level 5.2.7 Interface-Volume Estimations 5.2.7.1 Batch Calculation and Tracking Example 5.2.7.2 Results 5.2.8 Batched Products Pipeline Design and Operational Issues 5.2.8.1 Design and Operational Issues 5.2.8.2 Operation and Control 5.2.8.3 Pipeline System Operation/Control 5.2.9 Practical Batch Operation in Real-Time 5.2.9.1 Batch Launch and Delivery 5.2.9.2 Launching and Delivery Operation 5.2.9.3 Batch Tracking 5.2.10 Multiproduct Pipeline Batch Optimization Addendum to Chapter 5 Pipeline System Surge Mitigation Equipment A5.1 Flow Control Valves A5.2 Check Valves A5.3 Relief Valves A5.4 Bursting/Rupture Disc A5.5 Surge Diversion Valve A5.6 Increasing Pipeline Diameter and/or Wall Thickness A5.7 Variable Speed Drives and Soft Starters A5.8 Valve Opening and Closure Times A5.9 Surge Tanks A5.10 Pump Bypass Check Valves A5.11 Applications References
242 243 245 245 245 247 248 249 250 250 251 251 252 253 253 254 254 254 255 256 258 259 259 260 262 267 274 275 276 276 278 278 278 279 282 286 287 287 288 288 289 289 290 290 292
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Table of Contents n xi Chapter 6 Non-Conventional Hydrocarbon Liquids, Production, and Transportation 6.1 Heavy Oil Technology and Transportation 6.1.1 Background 6.2 Heavy Oil Types and Global Distribution 6.3 Heavy Oil Properties and Type 6.3.1 Types/Grouping 6.3.2 Oil Viscosity Prediction 6.4 Heavy Oils Transportation Technologies 6.4.1 Dilution 6.4.2 Upgrading/Partial Upgrading 6.4.3 Heating/Thermal Upgrading 6.4.4 Water Emulsion 6.4.5 Core Annular Flow (CAF) 6.4.6 Surfactant/Flow Improvers 6.4.7 Slurry Transportation 6.4.8 Comparison of Transportation Techniques 6.5 Heavy Crudes Properties for Pipeline Transportation 6.5.1 Grouping of Crudes and Designations 6.5.2 Typical Properties 6.6 Heavy Oil Pipeline Transportation Example—Role of Design for Operational Control 6.6.1 Summary on Role of Design 6.6.2 Need for Transient Analysis 6.6.2.1 Information Required for Pipeline Dynamic Assessment 6.6.3 Surge Mitigation Methods 6.6.4 Code Requirement 6.6.5 Case Study—Application to a Heavy Oil Pipeline Projects 6.6.5.1 Fluid Properties 6.6.5.2 Simulation Model and Data 6.6.6 Batch Movement/Transient Simulation Time 6.6.7 Simulations Scenarios and Techniques 6.6.7.1 Time Steps and Pipe Segment “Knot Spacing” 6.6.7.2 Valve Closure and Station Shutdown Timing Sequence 6.6.8 Simulation Results 6.6.8.1 Effect of Valve Closures 6.6.8.2 Effects Due to Pump Stations Shutdown 6.6.8.3 Delivery Restriction (Zero Delivery) 6.6.8.4 Terminal PCV Closure 6.6.8.5 Effect of Minimum Flow Delivery at Maximum Pump Stations Discharge Pressure—Line Packing Conditions 6.6.9 Conclusion Addendum to Chapter 6 Heavy Oil Resources and Recovery Techniques A6.1 Heavy Oil Resource Base
295 295 295 297 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 307 308 309 312 312 315 315 316 317 317 318 318 320 321 322 323 324 327 328 328 329 329 329 330 332 332 332 333 333 333 333
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xii n Table of Contents A6.2 Bitumen and Heavy Oils Recovery/Extraction Techniques A6.2.1 Extraction/Recovery Techniques A6.2.2 Production Techniques Scope A6.2.3 Recovery Techniques Summary A6.2.4 Oil Reservoir Classifications References
336 336 339 342 342 344
Chapter 7 Liquid Measurement 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Static Measurement 7.2.1 Tank Calibration 7.2.1.1 Manual Tank Strapping Method (MTSM) 7.2.1.2 Optical Reference Line Method (ORLM) 7.2.1.3 Optical Triangulation Method (OTM) 7.2.1.4 Electro-Optical Distance Ranging Method (EODRM) 7.2.2 Tank Capacity Tables 7.2.3 Liquid Calibration of Tanks 7.3 Tank Gauging 7.3.1 Manual Tank Gauging 7.3.2 Servo Tank Gauge 7.3.3 Radar Tank Gauge 7.3.4 Hybrid Tank Measurement Systems 7.3.5 Calculation of Tankage Volumes 7.4 Dynamic Measurement 7.4.1 Measurement Systems and Characteristics 7.4.2 Measurement Uncertainty 7.4.2.1 Quality of Liquids 7.4.2.2 Device Degradation 7.4.2.3 Operational Problems 7.4.2.4 Calibration 7.4.2.5 Transducer/Transmitter 7.4.3 Custody Transfer Requirements 7.4.4 Types of Meters 7.4.4.1 Positive Displacement Meters 7.4.4.2 Turbine Meters 7.4.4.3 Ultrasonic Meters 7.4.4.4 Coriolis Meters 7.4.5 Meter Selection 7.4.5.1 Meter Sizing 7.4.5.2 Instrumentation and Accessories 7.4.5.3 Flow Computers 7.4.6 Meter Station Design 7.4.6.1 Meter Station Components
347 347 348 348 348 349 351 353 355 355 355 355 356 357 358 359 361 361 362 364 364 365 365 365 365 366 366 368 371 373 376 377 377 379 380 381
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Table of Contents n xiii 7.4.6.2 Meter Run 7.4.6.3 Meter Provers 7.4.7 Prover Types 7.4.7.1 Tank Provers 7.4.7.2 Conventional Pipe Provers 7.4.8 Prover Calibration 7.5 Volume Accounting System 7.5.1 Ticketing Functions 7.5.2 Meter Ticket 7.5.3 Tank Ticket 7.5.4 Volume Tracking 7.5.5 Volume Calculation and Balancing 7.5.5.1 Volume Calculation 7.5.5.2 Meter Factor and Calibration 7.5.6 Determination of Liquid Volume 7.5.7 General Equations for Determining Liquid Volumes at Base Conditions 7.5.8 Volume Balancing Addendum: Standards Relevant to Liquid Petroleum Measurement A7.1 American Petroleum Institute (API)—www.api.org A7.2 ASTM International (American Standard for Testing Materials)—http://www.astm.org A7.3 American National Standards Institute/ American Society of Mechanical Engineers A7.4 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)— www.iso.org References
Chapter 8 Hydrocarbon Petroleum Tankage and Terminal Design 8.1 Introduction and Overview 8.2 History and Reasons for Use 8.3 Products Stored and Properties 8.4 Types of Petroleum Storage Tanks 8.4.1 Definition and Classifications 8.4.2 Types 8.4.2.1 Fixed Roof Tanks 8.4.2.2 Floating Roof Tanks 8.4.3 Emission Control in Storage Tanks 8.4.3.1 Tank Rim Sealing Systems: Floating Roof Tanks 8.4.4 Tank Fittings and Appurtenances 8.5 Petroleum Storage Tanks Standards (For Design, Operation, and Protection) 8.6 Regulations Affecting Terminal and Storage Facilities
382 384 386 386 386 390 392 393 394 395 396 396 396 396 396 397 399 400 400 403 403 403 405
407 407 410 412 415 415 416 416 419 428 428 435 445 450
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xiv n Table of Contents 8.7 Petroleum Storage/Terminal Design 8.7.1 Typical Layout and Spacing 8.7.2 Tank Design (Including Sizing, Materials, and Construction) 8.7.2.1 Design Data 8.7.2.2 Design Calculations 8.7.2.3 Tank Material 8.7.3 Civil Design 8.7.3.1 Tank Foundation 8.7.3.2 Types of Foundations 8.7.3.3 Bund Walls/Dikes 8.7.4 Fabrication and Welding 8.7.4.1 Tank Construction—Fabrication and Welding 8.7.4.2 Welding Techniques 8.7.4.3 Post Weld Heat Treatment of Welded Tanks Structures 8.7.4.4 Construction of Spheres 8.7.5 Mechanical/Piping Components and Instrumentation 8.7.5.1 Mechanical Appurtenances 8.7.5.2 Instrumentation and Controls 8.7.6 Tank Venting Emission Calculations 8.7.6.1 Total Losses from Fixed Roof Storage Tanks 8.7.6.2 Total Losses from Floating Roof Tanks 8.7.7 Operational Issues 8.7.8 Cathodic Protection of Above Ground Hydrocarbon Storage Tanks 8.7.8.1 Definition of Corrosion 8.7.8.2 Corrosive Environment 8.7.8.3 Consequences of Corrosion 8.7.8.4 Types of Corrosion 8.7.8.5 Storage Tank Cathodic Protection 8.7.8.6 Above Ground Storage Tank CP System 8.7.8.7 Typical CP Installation for Above Ground Storage Tanks 8.7.8.8 Applicable CP Standards 8.8 Tank Failures and Emergency Response 8.8.1 Tank Failures 8.8.1.1 Past Accidents 8.8.1.2 Causes of Tank Failure Hazards 8.8.2 Designing Tankage Systems to Minimize Hazards 8.8.2.1 Effective Steps 8.8.3 Design of a Foam System for Fire Protection of Storage Tanks 8.8.3.1 Identifying Flammable Liquid 8.8.3.2 Types of Foam Discharge Outlets 8.8.3.3 Foam System for Fire Protection of Storage Tanks 8.8.3.4 Foam Dam Design for Tanks 8.9 Emergency Response Planning and Facilities
452 452 456 456 457 465 465 465 469 471 474 474 476 482 485 485 485 486 490 491 499 500 503 503 503 503 506 510 517 519 519 520 520 523 524 528 528 537 537 538 538 543 543
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Table of Contents n xv 8.9.1 Planning for the Emergency 8.9.2 Responding to Oil Spill Emergencies 8.9.3 Tactical Priorities 8.9.4 Foam Application 8.9.4.1 Foam Supply 8.9.4.2 Water Supply 8.9.4.3 Exposure Protection References
Chapter 9 Liquid Pipeline Operation 9.1 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) 9.1.1 Introduction 9.1.2 Pipeline System Monitoring and Control 9.1.3 Control Center and SCADA System 9.1.4 Data Communications 9.1.5 Data Management 9.1.6 Alarms 9.1.7 Human Machine Interface (HMI) and Reporting 9.1.8 Security 9.2 Overview of Pipeline Leak Detection System 9.2.1 Introduction 9.2.2 Overview of Leak Detection Techniques 9.2.2.1 Inspection Methods 9.2.2.2 Sensor Methods 9.2.2.3 Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM) Methods 9.2.3 Implementation and Operation 9.2.4 Leakage Response 9.2.5 Summary 9.3 Drag Reducing Agent (DRA) 9.3.1 Introduction 9.3.1.1 Drag Reduction Mechanism 9.3.1.2 Benefits of Using a DRA 9.3.2 DRA Characteristics and Performance 9.3.3 DRA Operations 9.3.3.1 DRA Facilities 9.3.3.2 DRA Injection 9.3.3.3 DRA Concentration Tracking 9.3.3.4 DRA Limitations on Operation and Design 9.3.4 DRA Correlations 9.4 Tank Farm Operation and Volume Measurement 9.4.1 Tank Farm Operation 9.4.1.1 Normal Batch Lifting Sequence at a Product Lifting Tank Farm 9.4.1.2 Operation at the Delivery Terminal
544 544 545 545 546 547 547 548
551 551 551 554 554 559 562 564 566 571 572 572 576 576 577 579 584 587 587 587 587 588 589 590 590 590 591 593 593 594 596 597 597 598
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xvi n Table of Contents 9.4.1.3 Side-Stream Injection 9.4.1.4 Side-Stream Delivery 9.4.1.5 Break-Out Operation 9.4.1.6 Sump System 9.4.2 Tank Control 9.4.3 Tank Volume Measurement 9.4.4 Tank Inventory 9.5 Power Cost Control 9.5.1 Power Demand Control 9.5.2 Pump Unit Operating Statistics 9.5.3 Pump Station Monitoring 9.5.4 Power Optimization References
598 599 599 600 600 602 602 603 604 604 605 606 608
Appendix Glossary of Terms and Acronyms References
611 644
Index
645
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Preface This book is a sequel to and augments the series of ASME-initiated pipeline books and monograms, documents published since year 2000. The following include a partial list of such publications: ·· “Pipeline Design and Construction — A Practical Approach,” 3rd Edition 2007, M. Mohitpour, H. Golshan and A. Murray ·· “Pipeline Operation and Maintenance — A Practical Approach,” 2nd Edition 2010, M. Mohitpour, T. Van Hardeveld, B. Peterson and J. Szabo ·· “Energy Supply and Pipeline Transportation — Challenges and Opportunities,” 2008, M. Mohitpour ·· “Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems — A Practical Approach,” 2008, M. Mohitpour, K.K. Botros and T. Van Hardeveld ·· “Pipeline Integrity Assurance — A Practical Approach,” 2010, M. Mohitpour, A. Murray, I. Colquhoun and M. McManus ·· “Pipeline Transportation of Carbon Dioxide containing Impurities,” M. Mohitpour, P. Seevam, K.K. Botros, B. Rothwell and C. Ennis, 2011 ·· “Pipeline System Automation and Control,” M. Yoon, C. Warren and S. Adam, 2007 ·· “Pipeline Geo-Environmental Design and Geohazard Management”, edited by M. Rizkalla, 2008 ·· “Pipeline Geomatics,” edited by S. Adam and K. Davis, 2009 This book brings together the entire spectrum of hydraulics, design, and operating requirements for pipeline transportation and storage of hydrocarbon liquids, the essence of our energy supply. It is a professional reference, training tool, or comprehensive text for specialized university courses. The contents cover a broad range of subjects essential in knowing the elements making up hydrocarbon liquid pipeline and storage systems and how to most reliably design and operate such facilities with the least environmental impact and energy transportation disruption. Chapters of the book have been written based on the collective experience of the authors and research of appertaining published materials available from the pipeline industry journals and documents published by individual professionals, experts, operators, educators, and scientific research works. Each chapter has been written with the intent that it would stand alone as far as possible without referencing other chapters. In this way, professionals can source their search topic of interest more conveniently without recourse to other parts of the book. However, where appropriate, referencing has been alluded to. In this book, mostly metric units have been used. However in some chapters both imperial and metric units are referred to. This was justified because the industry continues to use the unit systems interchangeably. A conversion table is provided within this section. xvii
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xviii n Hydrocarbon Liquid Transmission Pipeline and Storage Systems The authors have exercised care to ensure correctness of the content, acknowledgement of other publications, copyright permissions, and referencing documents and names. It is not intended that specific techniques, examples, or applications be applied or copied for turnkey use. Readers are very much encouraged to check and assess all details before use and application. The authors and ASME welcome notification of corrections, omissions, and attributions. These will be attended to in the next edition and contributors acknowledged as such. Mo Mohitpour, White Rock, British Columbia, Canada Mike S. Yoon, Calgary, Alberta, Canada Jim H. Russell, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 2012
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Acknowledgments Writing this book was a tremendous enjoyment for the authors. The concept of writing this book rekindled the authors’ long time association of over 30 years (going back to 1982– 1983 with Canuck Engineering, in Calgary, Alberta, Canada) and, most of all, reconnected us with leaders and colleagues throughout the pipeline industry. The encouragement and enthusiasm from the industry and the continued support of our publisher; ASME Press was indeed the backbone of our interest and commitment to bring to fruition this document. The authors’ connection with the pipeline industry goes as far back as mid 1970s when as junior engineers entering the industry we were mentored by professionals in the industry, gained knowledge by hands-on work, field assignments, and direct involvement with leading edge pipeline technology projects globally. For example, while the use of X100 pipe is development of the past decade, its deployment and application goes as far back as 1975 when API X110 was contemplated for transportation of large quantities (6650 MMSCFD) of high-pressure dense phase natural gas to 3500 psig. Exxon-Mobil and Nippon Steel Corporation developed API X120 and now-a-days the use of high strength steel (API X80 and over) is common place in our industry (for both oil and gas pipeline use). It is the unyielding support of our mentors and associates in the industry that led us to initiate and contribute to the series of pipeline books published by ASME Press since 2000. Thanks are due to our colleagues in the industry who, in many ways, encouraged and contributed to the review of preparatory manuscripts, updating, corrections, additions, and the supply of materials for this book. The authors wish to express sincere thanks to and acknowledge the valuable contribution of all of the following colleagues for their intensive reviews of various chapters, verification of content, and suggestions; Dr. Alan Murray, P.Eng, Principia Consultant John Kazakoff, P.Eng, Silver Fox Engineering Consultants Hal Oliver, PE John A. Jacobson PE, CB&I, Texas Ed Seiders, PE, Willbros Engineering, Tulsa Mike McManus, P.Eng, Enbridge Andres Mendizbal, President, OCP Ecuador Wagner Carrera, Operation Supervisor, OCP Ecuador Dr. John M. Shaw, P.Eng University of Alberta Ms. Nafiseh Dodgostar, University of Alberta Jakob Buchert, Sr. Engineer, Energy Solutions International Dick Spiers, Sr. Consultant, Energy Solutions International Scott Lauchlan, Solution Team Leader, Telvent North America Dave Jardine, President and Chairman, Telvent North America Mike Doxey, Executive Vice President, HMT Inc Jim Enarson, Consultant Mike Fillipof, Actenum Corp
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xxvi n Metric conversion of some common units inch2
square centimeter
3
cm2
6.451 600
3
inch
cubic centimeter
cm
16.387 064
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
megajoule
MJ
3.6
mile per hour
kilometer per hour
km/h
1.609 344
pound
kilogram
Kg
0.453 592 37
newton
N
pound force 3
3
4.448 3
pound mass/foot (lbm/ft )
kilogram per cubic meter
kg/m
pound mass/gallon
kilogram per liter
kg/L
0.119 826
pound mass/hour
kilogram per hour
kg/h
0.453 592
psi
kiloPascal
kPa
6.894 757
psi/foot
kiloPascal per meter
kPa/m
22.620 59
psi/mile
Pascal per meter
Pa/m
4.284 203
Watt-hour
kilojoule
kJ
3.6
2
yard
3
square meter
16.018 463
2
0.836 127
3
0.764 555
m
yard
cubic meter
m
acre
square meter
m2
4046.856
atmosphere (std)
kilopascal
kPa
101.325
3
barrel (42 US gal)
cubic meter
m
0.158 987
Btu (International Table)
kilojoule
kJ
1.055 056
calorie (Thermochemical)
joule
J
4.184
degree F
degree Celsius
°C
5/9 ´ (°F-32)
degree R
degree Kelvin
K
5/9
foot
meter
m
0.3048
gallon (US liquid)
liter
L
3.785 412
horsepower (US)
kilowatt
kW
0.7457
inch (US)
millimeter
mm
25.4
inch of mercury (60°F)
kilopascal
kPa
3.376 85
inch of water (60°F)
kilopascal
kPa
0.248 843
mil
micrometer
μm
25.4
mile (US Statute)
kilometer
km
1.609 344
ounce (US fluid)
milliliter
mL
29.573 53
poise
Pascal-second
Pa.s
0.1
SSU
Saybolt-Universal-Seconds
cSt
See graph on next page
stokes
square centimeter per second
cm2/s
1
ton, long (2240 lbm)
ton
t
1.016 047
ton, short (2000 lbm)
ton
t
0.907 184 74
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Accreditation American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the authors would like to hereby accredit all organizations and individuals for the use and/or granting their kind permission to reprint or reproduce illustrations, photos, and other materials in this book. Where contacts were not possible, such organization or individuals are referenced and accredited in each chapter, as appropriate, and are included herein. American Petroleum Institute (API) ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) 2008 Buckeye Equipment CEPA (Canadian Energy Pipeline Association) CB&I Corrpro Canada Daniel Meters Enbridge Endress+ Hauser Energy Solutions International Flowserve FMC Technologies GPSA HMT Inc. www.hmttank.com Hydraulics Institute ITA Kobe Steel Ltd. (KOBELCO) Micro Motion Pembina Pipeline Corporation OCP Ecuador, Ecuador OTEC, Singapore Resource Protection International, Dr. Niall Ramsden Smith Meters Telvent North America, a Schneider Electric company TransCanada Corporation
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FOREWORDS Foreword From TransCanada The use of pipe for petroleum transportation was conceptualized in 1863 by Dmitri Mendelev. The development of hydrocarbon liquid pipeline transportation over long distances goes back to the late1800s when oil was exploited in large quantities first in the USA and in the Persian Gulf area and Baku, Azerbaijan. Pipelines have since proven to be the safest, the most reliable and economical means for transporting such oil and petroleum products from sources of supply to market areas. The series of pipeline books commenced with the authors’ training courses delivered for the industry and those held at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, since mid1980s. We at TransCanada supported the authors and ASME Press with the publication of the series of books in pipeline development that commenced in 2000 with the publication of “Pipeline Design and Construction — A Practical Approach,” Mohitpour, Golshan, and Murray. The book is now in its 3rd edition and the authors and colleagues have now seven such publications by ASME Press, New York. This book “Hydrocarbon Liquid Transmission Pipeline and Storage Systems — Design and Operation” is a culmination of the series. This book is a comprehensive resource that marks a significant contribution for the pipeline industry. The book brings together the entire spectrum of liquid pipeline transportation including pumping, storage, measurement, automation, design, and operation from supply to delivery points. TransCanada is very pleased to provide our support for the series of pipeline books published by ASME Press. This is a significant achievement by the authors to bring together the knowledge and expertise and condenses this important information in a single reference guide. Andrew Jenkins, P.Eng Vice President TransCanada
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Forewords n xxiii
Foreword From Enbridge Inc. The business of transporting a wide variety of hydrocarbon liquids by pipeline is multifaceted, technically intensive and continually evolving. Liquid pipelines are absolutely vital to the support and growth of our society, and they represent the safest and most efficient means of transport, particularly over long distances, for crude oils, refined products, and a host of other energy commodities. To undertake the writing of a comprehensive book on liquid pipelines is a monumental task. Hydrocarbon Liquid Pipelines and Storage Systems — Design and Operation is equal to that task. The authors have explained the history and purpose of pipelines; the origin and characteristics of the fluids they transport; the technical design philosophy and features of pipelines; the purpose and design of ancillary tanks and equipment; pipeline operations; batching and safety considerations, including the detection of leaks from the system. This book will well serve the need for a single source of learning for new entrants to the business and industry veterans alike, and I can envision the book becoming a vital teaching tool in pipeline company engineering departments, University programs, pipeline regulators’ offices and anywhere that a deeper understanding of how pipelines really work is sought. It has been my privilege to have known and worked with Messrs. Mohitpour, Yoon and Russell. They represent many decades of theoretical and practical experience in the pipeline industry and have condensed their broad and deep knowledge into a logically organized book. It is my honor to recommend it to you. Stephen J. Wuori President, Liquids Pipelines Enbridge Inc.
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xxiv n Forewords
Foreword From Willbros Engineering I feel honored to have been asked to prepare the foreword for “Hydrocarbon Liquid Transmission Pipeline and Storage Systems — Design and Operation.” This is the latest in a noteworthy series of technical books which have added immensely to the available literature on what is perhaps the most important bulk transportation technology in the world today. Indeed, today’s pipelines move almost anything imaginable from crude oils to refined products, from natural gas to carbon dioxide, from coal slurry to drinking water in a safe, efficient, reliable, and quiet way. In 2000, when this series was originally begun, there was little organized information available for the practicing pipeline professional, and what was available was mostly out dated and in sore need of bringing up to speed with today’s needs. I, like most other pipeline engineers, had amassed a collection of technical papers, vendors’ catalogs, engineering handbooks, magazine articles and such that I had found to contain the information that was needed in my work. Shortly after the ASME Pipeline Systems Division was organized in 2000, we began hearing from academic institutions that wanted to include some aspect of pipeline engineering in their curricula and asking where they could find suitable texts. The answer at the time was that there were very few. “Pipeline Design and Construction — a Practical Approach” by Mohitpour, Golshan and Murray was first published in 2000, with a second, updated edition published in 2003, followed by a third edition in 2009. It is a true pipeline engineer’s text, which includes not only detailed technical explanations for the theories and equations that are needed to design safe, efficient and reliable pipeline systems, but also has many practical examples for analyzing, planning and constructing those systems. It has undoubtedly resulted in better pipeline transportation systems around the world. This text has been followed on a regular basis by others, each of which delves into more detail on specialized aspects of pipeline technology: pipeline construction and maintenance, pipeline integrity management, pumping and compression systems, pipeline transportation of carbon dioxide, pipeline automation and control, and pipeline geomatics. The result is that today we have a well-documented, well-indexed collection of reference materials for the pipeline specialist, of which “Hydrocarbon Liquid Transmission Pipeline and Storage Systems — Design and Operation” is an invaluable addition. Ed Seiders Senior Technical Advisor
Tulsa, Oklahoma
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Metric conversion of some common units To Convert From Customary Unit
barrel per hour
To Define Unit As
Multiply By
L/s
0.044 163
cubic meters per day
3
m /d
0.158 987
MMBOD
cubic meters per day
3
m /d
0.158 987 106
Btu/second
kilowatt
kW
1.055 056
Btu/hour
watt
W
0.293 071
Btu/lbm
kilojoule per kilogram
kJ/kg
2.326
Btu/lbm-°F
kilojoule per kilogramKelvin
kJ (kg K)
4.1868
Btu/lbm-mole-°R
joule per mole-Kelvin
J/(mol K)
4.1868
Btu/°R
kilojoule per Kelvin
kJ/K
1.8991
Btu/ft2-hr.
joule per sq. meter-second
J/(m2 s)
3.154 591
Btu/ft-hr-°F
joule per meter-secondKelvin
J/(m/s K)
1.730 735
Btu/ft -hr-°F
joule per square metersecond Kelvin
J/(m2 s K)
5.678 263
Centipoise
milliPascal-second
cP
1
Centistoke
square millimeter per second
cSt
1
Foot
meter
m
0.3048
foot-pound force (ft. lbf)
joule
J
barrel per day
2
2
foot
liters per second
Symbol
square meter
1.355 818
m
2
0.092 903
3
0.028 316 85
3
cubic meter
m
3
foot /minute
liter per second
L/s
0.471 947
foot3/hour
cubic meter per day
m3/d
0.679 604
3
foot
MMSCFD
cubic meter per second
m /s
0.327 774
gallon/minute (GPM)
liter per second
L/s
0.063 090 xxv
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xxvi n Metric conversion of some common units inch2
square centimeter
3
cm2
6.451 600
3
inch
cubic centimeter
cm
16.387 064
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
megajoule
MJ
3.6
mile per hour
kilometer per hour
km/h
1.609 344
pound
kilogram
Kg
0.453 592 37
newton
N
pound force 3
3
4.448 3
pound mass/foot (lbm/ft )
kilogram per cubic meter
kg/m
pound mass/gallon
kilogram per liter
kg/L
0.119 826
pound mass/hour
kilogram per hour
kg/h
0.453 592
psi
kiloPascal
kPa
6.894 757
psi/foot
kiloPascal per meter
kPa/m
22.620 59
psi/mile
Pascal per meter
Pa/m
4.284 203
Watt-hour
kilojoule
kJ
3.6
2
yard
3
square meter
16.018 463
2
0.836 127
3
0.764 555
m
yard
cubic meter
m
acre
square meter
m2
4046.856
atmosphere (std)
kilopascal
kPa
101.325
3
barrel (42 US gal)
cubic meter
m
0.158 987
Btu (International Table)
kilojoule
kJ
1.055 056
calorie (Thermochemical)
joule
J
4.184
degree F
degree Celsius
°C
5/9 ´ (°F-32)
degree R
degree Kelvin
K
5/9
foot
meter
m
0.3048
gallon (US liquid)
liter
L
3.785 412
horsepower (US)
kilowatt
kW
0.7457
inch (US)
millimeter
mm
25.4
inch of mercury (60°F)
kilopascal
kPa
3.376 85
inch of water (60°F)
kilopascal
kPa
0.248 843
mil
micrometer
μm
25.4
mile (US Statute)
kilometer
km
1.609 344
ounce (US fluid)
milliliter
mL
29.573 53
poise
Pascal-second
Pa.s
0.1
SSU
Saybolt-Universal-Seconds
cSt
See graph on next page
stokes
square centimeter per second
cm2/s
1
ton, long (2240 lbm)
ton
t
1.016 047
ton, short (2000 lbm)
ton
t
0.907 184 74
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Metric conversion of some common units n xxvii ton of refrigeration
kilowatt
kW
3.516 853
yard (US)
meter
m
0.9144
Relationship between SSU and cSt
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