75824201-Architectural-Utilities-1-Plumbing-and-Sanitary.pdf

ARCHITECTURAL UTILITIEs· 1 PLUMBING AND SANITARY • THE NEW LADDER TYPE CURRICULUM

GEO'RGE SALINDA SALVAN ... fuap • ASSISTANT PROFESSOR • • • • • • •

College of Engineering and Architecture . Baguio Colleges Foundation 1980-1988 First and lone graduate of B.S. Architecture, 1963 North of Manila, St. louis University Baguio City Former instructor 1965-1969 at St. louis University Recipient of various ACE certificates. Architects Continuing Education Program A licensed Architect, active practitioner and a licensed building constructor, inventor and a board topnotcher. Past president of United Architects P~.·•s. Baguio Chapter 1982 and 1963 Elected National Director; UAP, Regionc..· District I for the year 1987. Conferred the title of "FELLOW" United 1-. ·-:hitects Phils. College of Fellows, October. 1988

JMC PRESSY INC . 388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City

Copyright © 1986 by: JMC PRESS, INC.

and GEORGES. SALVAN All rights reserved . No part of this t>ook may be reproduced in any manner without permission of the publisher.

FIRST EDITION ISBN: 971-11 -0322-2 Published and Printed by: JMC PRESS, INC. 388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City Distributed by: GOODWILL BOOKSTORE Main Office: Rizal Avenue, Manila P.O. Box 2942. Manila

Dedicated to all future Architects and Engineers The hope for a functional, comfortable and convenient designs for better living.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this book was made into reality through the patient and hardworking artist and graduate of architecture. Johnny T. Camsol who spent most of his time w ith the illustrations and all the layouts of the dummy. Special thanks and mention is also acknowledged to the Artists who helped in the illustrations notably, Clamor C. Lecitona from NU, Fermin Balangcod, Jerry Jun Suyat, Roy Pagador, Frederick Palasi, and Aey Puna, all from Baguio Colleges Foundations. To those who lent unselfishly their books, like Dean Aveline Cruz of BCF. Engineering Department, also to to Mr. Val Gutierrez, and to the BCF library through Ms. Macabior. for mderstanding my late returns of books. To Mr. Luis V. Canave who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing of books and to Mr. Francisco C. Malicsi, Teresita G. Espinosa, Eduardo C. Villanueva and Enrico P. Gomez for their untiring cooperation in preparing the manuscripts typewritten by Ms. Thelma T. Villareal , in computerized typesetting. The many students of architecture whose curiositY about and interest in the Plumbing and Sanitary its realization in book form have been a source of inspiration and lastly the writer wishes to acknowledge his heavy indebtedness to the authors listed in the bibliography.

GEORGES . SALVAN Baguio City, Philippines

v

PREFACE

The Architect as the prime professional; functions as the creator, coordinator and author of the building design with which a project will be cQnstructed. Architects has to be knowledgeable in a number of fields in addition to those that are concerned mainly with building design for him to properly assist and serve his client. It is not expected that the Architect will actually perform all the services, Rather he is to act as the agent of the client in procuring and coordinating the necessary services required by a project. After the design is approved, the complete construction drawings and specifications are prepared . It is here where the specifications and detailed construction drawings setting forth in detail the work required for Plumbing/ Sanitary and other service-connected equipment is done. Since the curriculum for B.S. Architecture was revised, there is a need for a more Compre~ensive Study of this subject in Plumbing and Sanitation. This book is intended for Architectural and engineering students but nevertheless offers information and reference materials for Practicing Professionals. It is arranged in 'a sequential manner so as to guide the reader from the Water Supply, Fire Protection, Storm Water System to Sanitary drainage systems. To make this book more complete is the addition of the chapter on RefLJse handling and Solid Waste Disposal and Recycling, from here recycling of Sewage Water is also included. Finally the specifications of the different Plumbing Fixtures for each room is included . Each subject matter is accompanied immediately with the corresponding illustrations for clarity and the excerpts from the plumbing code is also included.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

1

WATER SUPPLY ....... .................. ............. ............ ............ ......... . Water, 2 Water Supply, Equipment, Pumps, 4 Water Tanks, 8 Household Water Supply, 14 Water Pipes and Fi~i ngs , 15 Size~ of Pipes, 26 Flanges, 29 Valve and Control, 30 Hot Water Design and Zoning, 35 Water Tank Capacities

Chapter

Chapter

2

FIRE PROTECTION .. ...... ............................................. .. ........ ......

3

STORM WATER SYSTEM

43

Planning, 44 High Rise Fire Safety, 44 Stand Pipes and Hoses. 46 Sprinklers, 49

53

Drainage, 54 Roof Leader, 59

Chapter

Chapter

4

PLUMBING SYSTEM .... ..... ....... ......... .. ... ... ........... .... .. ...... ....... .. .

5

SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM ............ ......... .. ..... ....... ................

63

Sanitary Drainage System, 64 Elements of the Sanitary System, 65 Pipes Fittings and Accessories, 68 National Plumbing Code, 73 Traps, 84 Vents, 90 Air Gaps and Vacuum Breakers, 87 Sanitary Drain, 100 House Sewer, 101 Inspection and Test, 101

103

Several Types, 104 Septic Tank, 106 Sewage Disposal, 110 Sewage Treatment, 113

ix

Chapter

6

REFUSE HANDLING AND SOLID WASTE ... ..... ................ .. .......

117

Management in Buildings, 118 Recycling Solid Waste, 121 Waste Disposal, 121 Solid Municipal Waste."123· Liquid Municipal Wastes, 128 Septic Tanks, 128 Industrial Waste,

Chapter

Chapter

7

RECYCLING OF WATER

8

PLUMBING FIXTURES .. ....... .............. ,. .. ... .. ..... .... ........... ............ 143

1~

Sewage Treatment Works, 131 Recycling at N.Y. Institute of Technology, 134 Santee Water Reclamation Plant, 136 Biological Compost Toilet, 138

Water Closet, 144 Lavatories, 157 Bidets, 166 Urinals, 167 Bath Tube , 1® Bathroom Accessories, 171 Kitchen Sinks. 172

Chapter

9

SANITATION, INSECT, RODENT AND VERMIN CONTROL ......... .......... ..... ......... ........... ..... ..... .. ..,.......

177

Control Method Against the Mosquito, 17~ The field for drainage, 178 Ditching, 178 Filling. 179 Oil as a larvicide, 179 Oil used, 180 Application, 180 Rodent Control, 181 General Methocis of Control, 181 Poisoning, 181 Trapping: 181 Fumigation, 182 Ratproofing, 182 R~t stoppage, 183 Pest Control, What You Should Know, 1afi

X

APPENDICES ...... .. .. .. .. .. ... ........ .... .. ...... .... ... ... ..... ,... ,.. ..... .. .... ..

191

BIBLIOGRAPHY .. .. ... .. .......... .. .. ...... ...... .. .... .... .... .. .... .... .. .. ... ..... .

201

INDEX

203

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~lUJrP~LY

WATER SUPPLY WATER Water is a combination of two elementary substances hydrogen and oxygen . It appears in its natural state as: 830 times heavier than air . ice vapor or steam .. . 133 times lighter than air

Liquid Solid Gas Weight of water in Liquid form:

3.778 kg. per U.S Gallon 1.000 kg. per cubic meter There are.three sources of water:

a. Rainfall b. Natural Surface; water from streams, rivers and lakes, ponds. c. Underground water-deep and shallow wells

FROM THE RAINFALL Advantages

Disadvantages

Obtained from roofs and waterstleds. It is soft pure and good on places where there is an abundant rainfall.

Hard to store for a long time as it will be a breeding place for mosquitoes, requires big containers for storing big quantities for long uses, roofs may not be clean, bad for places that receives a little amount of rainfall.

FROM THE NATURAL SURFACE Advantages

Dissdvantages

Obtained from ponds, lakes, rivers easiness of procurements and good for locality near such bodies of water.

Dangerous because it containes large a·mounts of bacterias, organic and inorganic substances of varying quantities.

FROM UNDERGROUND Advantages

Disadvantages

Obtained from below ground surface by means of mechanical and manual equipments.

Because of various organic matter and chemical elements present, it requires treat· ment of various nature, such as sedimenta· tion, chemical, filtration, aerations.

More water can be obtained depending by equipments used and locality.

METHODS OF PURIFICATION AND TREATMENT OF WATER

1. Sedimentation -articles of matters that are suspended in the water are allowed to stay in a container so that they will settle in the bottom, then drawing the water out, leaving these sediments in the container.

SEDIMENTS

INTeRMITTENT

CONTINUOUS SEDIMENTATlDN

2. Chemical Treatments - water are given chemical treatments to kill the harmful bacterias present and to cure the turbid taste or mudtaste, remove clay, salts, iron etc. commonly used chemical is chlorine.

3. Filtration - water are filtered on various processes, so as to remove the particles of vegetable matter, mud, and o ther particles of matter present in the water, most commonly used materials are sand and gravel. Two Processes a. Slow Process

,-----SAND

'

b. Mechanical or rapid process IN ~NO

,... .,::~ .. ···

6RAVI!L

GRAV!!L

OUT

BY. ffiES5URE BY:

GRAVITY

4. Aeration -

r11w wet~r Is made

to pass on plp88 of tlrw sieves and exposed to air of

tiM mi8t.

,

~

..

...

f·-'

L*;

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-~

·---

~~4 p.- ~ 1"'·\t

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BI!JA~_1 -.: .

~

......

~

~"

...

-

I S~lNE~ I

~to eo hOI's per ~· to d1

WELLS a. W hen excavated by hand are called dug wells-for shallow water.

b. When sunk by machine are called Deep Wells and are classified as Driven -when the water is obtained from loose formation above solid rock such as sand and gravel and drilled ·wells - when th e water is tapped from the fis50res.

WATER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT PUMPS : arr. used whenever the water supply at its natural p ressure cannot be directly piped to a building, tank or reservoir. 3 Classes: a. Lifting water by suction to the level of a pump situated above the source.

b. Raising the water by forcing it to an elevation above a pump situated in the source. c. Both lifting the water to the pump by suction and in addition forcing the water to an elevation above the pump.

TYPES OF APPARATUS TO A CHIEVE THESE ENDS .

1. 2. 3 4. 5. 6.

Lift pump Force pump Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Hydraulic Rams

OTHER TYPES

a. Deep well reciprocating pump b . Turbine pump c. Deep w ell ejector d. Submersible pump

4

Uft Pump-Consist of a piston traveling up and down within a cylinder which is connected with a pi~ extendinq down into the source. The piston and the bottom of the cylinder are each proviqed with a valve opening upward. UPOA the piston1S upstroke,·valve a closes and valve b opens. Upon the piston's down· stroke valve a opens and b closes.

b Force Pump - used to deliver water at a point higher than the ~ition of the pump itself. when the plunger descends; the valve 8 is closed and the ·Nater in the cylinder is forced out through the valve b and up to the storage. When the plunger is raised valve b is closed and 8 open to admit water to the cylinder.

1

FORCE PUMP

PLUNGER 5

Reciprocating Pump - include that class of pumps in which the piston moves· to and fro. either horizontally or vertically.

~liv1.ry

1.

Powt~r

Pumps

a. Horizontal ReCiprocating Pumpsknown as dottble or single acting piston pumps. Adapted to all purposes where the suction lift, is not over 22 ft. (6. 70 mts) at sea level.

SUCTION

...

d~l1very

6

b. Verticw the fixtures to be supplied. When water is called for by the opening of any device like a faucet, air pressure in the top portion of the tank deliver water into the system. A FLOAT VALVE operates the pump to make up this water when the level has become low enough to actuate the starting switch. A high level switch turns it off when ttw water is up to level. In big water tanks, the water level is seen on a marker as made by the f loat valve which rise or descends.

valve plun_ger shuts ofT wh112n float

rc; honzontal

arm

I ~ marker

~====:!I

----...___

--

-.

~fdl'i 1,1100

2,0011 ~.oao

-.....;....

~.oan

.__,.

5,001l

--

flo ,OOO

11

3. Downfeed System-by gravity from overhead tanks and are supported either by structural frames or on the roof decks. Fixtures are below the gravity Tank. These elevated Tanks are installed when normal supply of water from main public service pipes is not frequent. It is also used when normal pressure from the City main is not enough to force the water to the h;ghest fixtures. Ov~rflow

Plptt

float

·to ,th floa-

to 1-th floor

to 3 rd floor to znd floor

Pump

UP

gatevalw ~ from

12

City MAIO

~ReLIEF HOT

lWA~R HEATER

SUPPl.Y' PtPE

FROM 'iOOSE PUMP]

•

OVERFLOW

~Pe

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CLE;ANOUT

P PAN

t

t

TO DRAIN

HOUSE TANK IN ELEVATED POSITION FOR DOWNFEED IN GRAVITY A . Sediment in Tank is drawn off through clean-out pipe and is prevented from entering house supply by pipe projection. B. Humidity on the air condenses on the cold sides and bottom of metal tanks and must be caught in a copper drip pan . ADVANTAGES and DISADVANTAGES:

A . Normal Water pressure

Advantages

DiSIIdvantages

1. Eliminates extra cost of pumps and

1. Pressure from water main is inadequate to supply tall buildings.

tanks.

2. Water supply is affected during peak load hour.

B. Air Pre••ure (Pneumatic) 1. Compact pumping unit requires limited space.

1. In case of power interruption, water supply is greatly affected by the loss of

pressure inside the tank.

13

2. Water chamber being air tight makes the system a sanitary one.

3. Compressed oxygen air tend to purify

" In large tall buildings. a standby generator is installed to operate in case of power failure.

the water and make it more palatable. 4. The system is efficient and economical as it requires smaller diameter pipe and has few working parts.

5. less initial construction cost and maintenance.

6. It is adoptable to all types of buildings. C. Overhead Feed System 1. Because of the water stored inside the tank, water supply is not affected by the peak load hour even if the pressure at the water main becomes considerably low.

1. Water inside the tank exposed to the atmosphere is subject to contamination.

2. Power interruption does not affect the water supply inside the building.

2. The water distribution unit is very expensive because it has so many working parts thus increasing maintenance cost.

3. When the pumping unit breaks down, the time involved to replace the parts does not affect the water supply of water.

3 The pumping unit including the entire installation throughout the building occupies valuable space. 4, It requires stronger Foundation and other structures to sustain the heavy load of the tank and water.

HOUSEHOLD WATER SUPPLY

Water is conveyed to the plumbing tixtures by means of PIPES. Materials commonly used are galvanized iron (G.I.I and Plastic pipes, IPVC) or polyvinyl chloride. Others are brass, copper, wrought and cast iron. The pipe from the public water main or source of water supply to the building served is called HOUSE SERVICE or SERVICE PIPE. The vertical supply pipe which extends upward from one floor to the next is called a riser and the horizontal pipes that serves the faucets or fixtures are called BRANCHES.

14

Water Main refers to the public water system laid undernround along the streets where house service is connected. ·

Galt. valve

c::.h·~kvalve

(Orpor.atlon

Stop (Coc.!c)

GOOSENECK -one end is 0.30 and the other end is 0.90 long this prevent the pipe from ·snapping when the soil settles.

CORPORATION COCK -a stop valve placed in a service pipe close to its connection with a water main.

PIPE FITTINGS -include the equipment required for the joining of the various lengths of pipe, such as couplings for connections in a straightline, elbows for connections at 90° or 45°; Tees for 45° or 90° branches from one side, and crosses for 90° branches opposite each other.

Five Types of Fittings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Threaded or screw connection Flanged Soldered or welded Compression Glued or cement(adhesive)

)

)G.I. :copper or brass for PVC

Kinds of Malleable Fittings Commonly in G.l. (Galvanized iron pipe Fittings)

••

-~----------------~)W

ZS TO

·IS' rmt

15

• V./"?

~LVANIIeD IRON PIPE

lDng

up to 6 -0 Mt~TS (zof\)

. ~-

~

- mshlledtwo pipes to~ STRA16Hi C.OUPI.INc;

to JQ&n

0~ .

., . ··.. I

'

-

CROSS ~E:

RETURN BEND

16

lreDU,IN6 SOCKET

.•

Use for Ordinary shower head.

UNION-used when a pipe has already been installed but dismantling is difficult.

Thia C.I!JmpjA~ ~le~ent is ad;~~qle and disengage& by tYfAi~tg and tJlen sliding away to permit uncouping of pipes.

BU$H !f:.!G ::-:- u~~ ~$ r~d.IJCef if ?.14" tQl /2" fau~~t

pip@.

Y:/'~T

Connections of galvanized iron pipe are done by placing TEFLON tape on the threads or white lead liquid.

TO C.l..OSE A PIPE

17

PLASTIC PIPES AND FITTINGS

There are three Types: 1. Polybutylene or IPB)

size 16 mme (5/8") to 63 mm0 (2 1/2") lengths from 30m for a (2"'0) to 300m for a (1 /2"'0) comes in coils used for HOT and COLD in-House water piping systems.

2. Polyethylene {PE) Used for service connections, in-house plumbing, distribution mains, sewer, waste disposal.

3. Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC)

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a. uPVC pressure mains-used for waterworks and irrigations. Nominal Sizes: in mm 50 (2"), 63 (2 1/2") 75 (3") 100 (4"'), 150 (6") 200 (8")

\, ~

Fittings:

zz.s• BEND

18

b. uPVC potable water pipes and fittings.

Nominal Size mm Outside Diam

Equ ivalent in inch

Thickness (mm)

Length

3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

20

112"

2.0

25

3/4"

32 40 50

1" 1 1/4" 1 1 /2"

2.5 2.5 2.5

63

2 ..

2:7

3.4 ·

(mm)

3.00 m length

,...

Connections of Joints are done by using SOLVENT CEMENT.

( ~ONNE:CTION WITH 6.1· PlPE6)

MAL.E. TltR'EADE.D

ADAPTOR

ELBOW '30• eQ.JAL..

C.AP

SOCKET

FE MALE n+Fn!AOJ::O ADAPTOR

(~ONNEcn·0!-4 WITH G-1. 'FIXTIJ~)

19·

W4TER Ct..OS!:.T

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{ I G . l. N I PPL..C G. I. 8l.ISHINGr

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Ji'JSDU I HoT WATER

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desirable when pump tnl4!t IS ~" ( odarg4.r)

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CHEQ( VALVE

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ti()T WA~~ STORA"E . HEATl:R

CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL WATER TANKS-TOTAL GALLONS ·····-·· ·

DEPTH

... ···-·····

DIAMETER

OF 18"

24"

30"

36"

42~

48"

!S4"

0 .30

0 .4!S

0.60 .

0.7!5 ,

0.90

I.OS

1.20

1.35

0 -49

1.10

LH

3 .06

4.41

!5.98

'ZU 8 .91

0.30 t"O" 5.88

13.22

23.50

36.72

52.88

71.37

84.00 118.97 146.18 IT7.7'2

0 ."5 1! a"

8

20

35

S:U)I

71

108

I-A

178

o.eo

2'·0"

12

2e

47

73

106

144

238

0 .75 2'-8"

15

33

58

92

t32

180

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23!5

3'-o"

18

40

7t

ItO

159

218

82

128

185

LfNGlH 12"

ozs

0.80

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!

&Cf

66"

72 "

U50

1.65

1.80

12.24

t4.11

f'.U

,,,_,,

287

$17

214

S58

423

297

H7

444

"529

282

357

441

533

ess

2!2

329

418

1514

82.2

74)

220

1.05 3!.6"

21

1.20 4'..0"

24

55

94

1~7

212

288

378

476

588

711

848

1.35 4'-6"

27

60

•oe

~~

238

324

423

535

661

800

852

734 801

889

10.58

871

1183

1066

l289

i

--- . I .SO 5'-0"

29

66

~te

184

264

380

470

51!5 854

1·6&- !5'-8"

32

'73

!29

202

291

I

396

511

1. 80 1'-0

35

78

• 4~

220

317

[

432

564

714

..

...

2.10 7'-D"'

4!

93

! 6e

2157

370

!504

4158

833

1028

1244

1481

2 .4(1 8'-Ci'

-47

106

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2H

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sn.

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331

476

648

846

107!

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1804

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367

529

720

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1190 ' 148e

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282

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635

884

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2133

2838

82

185

329

514

740

1008

1316

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2058

2481

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2350

2844

1114

2!42

2Q44

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155!5 4l10

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3.60 12' -0" ~-·

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94

212

376

588

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5 .40 ll'..o"

!06

238

423

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1269

6 .00 20'-0

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39

"'"

.0

CAPACITY

OF

OF

TANK

2'-0"

a•. o•. 2'- ... 31

0

-

0,

LEMe·TM

WIDTH

3' • 6"

2'-6" 3'-d' :S!.I" 4'·0" 4'- fll' 5'-.0"

a.t2 37.40

........

WATER TANJN SIAME'..sJ:! CDNNECTJON t=~ liE gy r-:liZE OEPAfl.iMENT

PIN\SKeP A.OOJit. '--------

,..

r~--. ..........

e

~

HOSE ~~) FIRF.: SXTINGULUU:Ff lN.

CABlNE,- Ft>R U~ SY pure DJ:PARrME • , NT.. \

The cbew;k valve closest to the &iamese In use opens and the check valves at the tank closes to prevent the Wl!Jter from rising in the tank to no avail.

TANK

CHEC.W VALVE. GLOSS POSITION

~1-l~K

VALVE OPeN PO S')TION

~

After the engines are disconnected from the Siamese, the water between the siamese and · the adjacent check valve drains out through the ball drip. The overhead tank is considered a most dependable source, but it sometimes requires a height that is architecturally undesirable. In this case upfeed fire pumps operating automatically to deliver water to higher stories from lower suction reserve tanks may be used. Another alternate in this case is a pneumatic tank used to deliver water by the power of the air that is compressed in the upper portion of the tank. The water zones as shown in the Figure of Hot and cold water Zoning are also generally followed in planning for fire protection. Fire standpipes, and their hoses are usually located at or near fire stairs from which personnel or Fire Fighters can approach a Fire.

B. SPRINKLERS Automatic sprinkler systems consist of a horizontal pattern of pipes placed near the ceilings of industrial buildings, warehouses JtQr88, theatres, and other st(_uctures where the Fire hazard requires their use. These pipes are provided with outlets and sprinkler heads so constr~cted that temPeratures of 135-to 160°F--(55°to.Jo°Cf'ceiSius Wiil them open automatically and emit a series of fine water sprays.

cause·

to

Two Systems of Sprinklers: 1. Wet Pi~ System -ordinarily with water constantly filling both mains and distribution pipes. 2. Dry Pipe Systsm -gene_r.ally confined to unheated buildings. There is no water in the distributing pipes of the dry-pipe system except during a fire. Remote valves, may be actuated by sensitive elements to admit water to sprinklers heads.

·sprinkler Heads-These are of the quanzoid bulb type. The bulb is transparent and contains a colored liquid. At 136°F the bulb breaks and releases a water stream.

Two Types:

1. Upright- This type is used above piping when piping is exposed. It is safer against damage by workers.

:HEAT SEN.Stn'-l't: BR'EA KABLE BUl-B

1

1

r 2. Pendent- This type projects through a finished ceiling when piping is concealed.

Spacing of Sprinkler Heads Is governed by several factors: a. Type of occupancy and total area. b. Fire rating of the building 11 or 2 hrsl. c. Construction of the Ceiling. d. Spacing of Joists The coverage of one sprinkler head varies from about 20 sq. m. (200 sq. ft.) per sprinkler for light hazard occupancy (like hospital, residences) to about 9 or 10 sq. m. {90 sq. ft.} for extra hazard conditions (like chemical, woodworking, aircraft hangars) Nozzles are set about 8 to 12 feet 2.40 m to 3.60 apart on the supply pipes that, in turn, are spaced about 10 to 14ft. apart (3.00-4.20 ml and are usually run at right angles exposed beams or panels. Special Installation Requirements: a. At least one fire department connection on each frontage. b. A master alarm valve control for all water supplies other than the department connections. .c .. Special fire walls between protected areas and unprotected areas. d ..Sloping waterproof floors with drains or scuppers to carry away waste water.

50

! t I +

l

3.oo

REFLECTED SPRINKLER PLAN

51

NOTES

STORM WATER SYSTEM REASONS FOR DRAINAGt:

Rainwater collecting on roofs, if not diverted, will run down walls and can cause wall and window leaks, spill on people who are ap- ... preaching entry doors, cause settlement by washing the soil away from under foundations, subject basement walls to unnecessary groundwater pressure and possible leakage, and erode surrounding ground, often disfiguring landscap~d areas.

For buildings and houses with flat roofs, leaders can be interior and concealed by the structure or partitions. Sloping roofs usually require gutters and leaders. Functionally, they can be omitted sometimes in low, basementless, one-story structures with wide overhanging roofs. A gri)vel-filled trench skirting the perimeter and directly below the edge of the eaves catches the water flowing off the roof.

I

I

I

FL.AT

RooF

PlTCHE:O

ROOF

Reasons for keeping paved areas clear of water are obvious. Puddles are avoided and contiguous areas of earth and grass are not subjected . to erosion and a soft saturated condition. Areas to be · drained - including roofs, balconies, terraces, and pavements-are usually connected into a storm drainage system and the water discharged to a stream, dry well, nearby gravel bed, recharge basin, or storm sewer.

54

NO

WITH GUTTER BUT WITHOUr

GUTTER

LEADER

GRAVEL F ILLED TRENCH WHEN SOIL 15 AB.SORPTIVE

PeRFO~TED

PIPE IS USED vv;.tEN THE SOIL

I.S NOT PERMEABLE. AND NEEDS

Glil"AYEL

...:~~m•f-t ------~t~RATED

PREVENTION OF WATER E NTERING THE ~seMt=NT WITHOUT use: OF ANY WATERPROOFING.

PI

STORM DRAIN This is that portion of the plumbing system which cpnveys rain or storrr water to a SUitable terminal. This is usually discharged into a street gutter conveyed by a public drain system and carried to some natural drainage terminal such as lakes or rivers.

55

Three Locations:

OUTSIDe

tNSICE

... .

OVeRHEAD

SIZE OF A STORM DRAIN

The following factors should be considered when determining the size ·of a storm drain . 1. Gauging the rainfall, constant, short duration or heavy shower.

2. The varying roof area and its slope including the dist k•lagrams.

Tht.S a:m~ttd W.dS'te IS

ttum

G1ffeh

Landfall .

~d fa-

.s:a mtar.y

Once a landfill has been compacted and covered the land cannot be used to build homes or other buildings because of the danger of heavy objects sinlTOPPER

~OM6JNA i10N

SEPARATE FOR 13UILT IN t:OJJNTE.RS

TYPES:

1. Washer- type faucet

AN6LE. VALVE/

2. Cartridge- faucet

SUPPLY PIPE

3. Diaphragm faucet

ASSEMSl.Y LAVAlORY

LAVATORY FITTINGS (millimeters)

~

t..l IYI

SUPP1.Y

ASSEM6LY. - IOmm A'fltjt IQI~. - Whffl ttaNJ... • ln~ 10 mm M.l~ ntREA.DeP .

• ESeutdl£on ~ lu~

P TRAP ASSEMBLY 3L mm P 1'21\P WITf-t

~

LLEANOUT

P.O PUJG WITH CH.A\ IN AND RUBBeR STOPPER CHFI'OME PLATED F"INISH .

159

A..elU-

ns.tr.

TO CLOSE DAAIN

PULL UP

ORA IN PLUN~ER

ANO l.EVER A$~MBLY

Fa'· UP ,..._ ORAlN BOOY

HOW A TYPICAL LAVATORY WJTH A POP UP OMJN or.eRA115.

HOW A TYPICAL LAVATORY FAUCET WITH POP-UP DRAlN OA!RA~$. THE LSFT COUPLING ATTACHEDTO~E PIVOT ROD MUST 5E l.OOSENeD TO RE:MOVe THE S~R.

TYPES 160

a- WALL.· ~

CARMELA f'F-()()10

CARMELA PF-()011

Wall-hung lavatory with fitting ledge for 102 or 204 holes or with PF 9671 Floor pe-

Recommended for Expensive suites Master's Toilet

destal or Trap cover

Philstimdard Avalon

Saniwares

161

. 5 0~

MELISSA LAV.

Model PF 1008 Self rimming Oval shaped Lav. with front Overflow for bu11t-in installation.

Recommended for Master's Toilet Hotel Rooms Lobby Toilets Philstandard Ovalyn Avalon

162

Saniwares Mellissa Katrina

rr4. ·

SOB

\

!

I h:z;o---.f

~3-4-.S--Jj"

SABRINA Model PF - 1005 Wall-hung lavatory with rear Overflow and cast -in soap dishes pocket hanger and integral China brackets.

i

l I i

~

DIANA Model 1006 Wall-Hung lavatory Recommended for Boy's Room - Sabrina G1rl's Room - Diana Philstandard - Saniwares New Comrade - Sabrina Copacabana - Diana

163

VENTURA

PF 1002 Wall-hung lavatory with rear Overflow and cast in soap dishes- pocket hanger w ith integral China brackets Recommended for Guest Rooms Other Rooms Low budget toilets

164

SYLVANA

PF 1003 Same specifications as Ventura. Philstandard Laverne American

- Saniwares -Ventura -Sylvana

f

0

*

(,8

0

'

©

~

()

U)

REGINA Model PF 1007 Wall-hung Lavatory with Minor back skirt hanger and 10 mm Chain stay hole.

Recommended tor low budgeted rooms

Philstandard Granada

Saniwares REGINA

165 .

BIDET A fixtures that appears like a water closet, since a person sits down on it. But it is designed as a combination lavatory which can plug t he drain and collect Hot and Cold water, with an inverted water sprayer to clean the most delicate and well-guarded parts of the body.

CONTESSA PF 5106 FLUSHING RIM AND SPRAY Suitable for Expensive Master;s Toilet

166

Philstandard Saniwares

- Luxette - Contessa

URINAL

I

r--~ I I

I

0

COMMODORE

PF 6600 WaU-hung washout Urinal with flushing rim and integral trap - 19 mm0 top spud.

ADMIRAL PF 6610 Wall-hung washout urinal with extended shields and integral flush spreader concealed wall-hanger pockets 19 mm0 top spud. Philstandard Washbrook Mural

- Saniwares - Admiral - Commodore

For M en's Toilet Suitahle for Hotels and Offices .

1G7

BATHTUBS Tubs are now designed not only for one person but large enough to accomodate couple bathing together. Some one-person bath tubs are equipped with seats, shelves for soap and shampoo with non-skid surfaces. Others have built-in water pressure pipes and sprayers for soothing the muscle pains.

NIPPLE. FOR SPRAY ,\-lo>E CONNECT10N ,_?

STUD

RUBBER -71

l:.LOSED OPeN

GAS.KJ:T.

/e

9/1" L.~

NUT

6~

STOP FOR Pf..lJ6 PROPS TO C.L05E DRAIN ~TRAINE~

~ c::.o PPISR A~PTCR "-+--1~ G.OPPF..R EL.BO\N ~-+-,ri'--~U M

TRAP

TYPICAL TUB FIITINGS

168

SHOWER VALVES, HEADS AND TUB FIXTURE ARRANGEMENTS

, l

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170

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BATHROOM BASICS

SOAP HOLDER

ROLL PAPER HOLDER

TOWEL RAIL BRACKET

cs,___---2J SHOWER CURTAIN ROD

·r=:rRs ·T AID

TOOTH BRUSH MEDICINE CABINET

AND TUMBLER HOLDER

171

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173

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174

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MOSQUITOES-CONTROL METHODS CONTROL METHODS AGAINST THE MOSQUITO Malaria control involves a complex organization requiring the services of physicians who are malariologists, entomologists who obtain information of the vectors and their habits, publichealth nurses who make contacts with the infected persons, and the public in general, is required. Not the least important is the work of the sanitary engineer and sanitarian in controlling the mosquito vector. ... Mosquito control is applied against the aquatic forms by means of drainage, filling, and the use of oil and other Larvicidal agents. These procedures may be grouped under the term "Larvicidal" methods. Other methods, which we may call "adulticidal" methods, are directed against the mature winged mosquito and include the use of sprays under various circumstances and mosquito proofing of occupied buildings.

LARVICIDAL METHODS THE FIELD FOR DRAINAGE Drainage improvement includes installation of open ditches, subsurface drains, vertical drains, filling low areas, the cleaning and draining of natural streams, and control of impounding reservoirs. In tidal areas it may also include construction of dykes and tide gates. Since the malaria mosquito breeds only in waters containing vegetation, it is obvious that elimination of such waters by drainage or otherwise will prevent the production of anophelines. Drainage frequently makes it possible to eliminate permanently some large breeding area as a swamp or many small temporary or permanent pools. However, drainage is costly and therefore it cannot be justified unless it will protect a large number of people.

DITCHING The first step in drainage is to make a tentative layout of the system of ditches. If the pro· blem is to drain a swampy area formed by seepage at the bottom of a hill, the main ditch should parallel the bottom of the hill and the deep enough to intersect all the ground-water flow before it appears on the ground surface. Flat swampy areas and ponds will require a main ditch leading from the deepest point of the area. The main ditch should always be dug first and drainage allowed to occur. After a few days the lateral ditches may be dug, and it may be discovered that not so m~ny will be required as was first supposed. Frequently they will be smaller ditches connecting holes with the main ditch.

178

Ditches should have clean sides sloped as steeply as the earth or other material will permit. The bottoms should be as narrow as possible to confine the stream. Wide ditches are undesirable as they permit pools of water to stand and breed mosquitoes. Where a very wide ditch is necessary, this danger may be eliminated by constructing a small ditch in the bottom of the large one so that the small flows wil be concentrated and kept moving. Sharp bends should be avoided when making changes of difecUon, and branch ditches should join the main ditch at acute angles or with a curve. The grade of an unlined ditch should be great enough to give a cleaning velocity but not so great that erosion will occur. A grade or fall of 0.05 foot per 100 feet is the minimum (approx. 1.5 em or .015 m per 31 m) for an unlined ditch, while 0.6 to 0.8 foot per 100 feet is the maximum (approx. 0.18 m to 0.24 m or 24 em per 31 m is the maximum}. Side slopes of earth ditches are usually 1 horizontal to 1 venicat in firm loam or sand clay. In soft loose soil it should be 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical. In hard rocky material it may be steeper than 1 to 1.

FILliNG Areas that cannot be drained can sometimes be economically and adequately kept from breeding mosquitoes by filling. This may be done with shovels if the hole is small, with scrapers if the hole is larger and if there is earth available nearby, Large fills along water fronts • may be done with hydraulic dredges. In some cases it is possible to fill low areas on the outskirts of towns with rubbish. This, if properly done, is satisfactory, but care should be taken that cans, buckets, and other containers are covered with earth, ashes, cinders, or sawdust so that they will not hold water and breed mosquitoes or cause other nuisances. Sanitary fill differs from ordinary dumping in that the material is adequately covered with earth at the end of the working day. If possible, sites should be chosen so that the prevailing winds will carry occasional odors away from built-up areas. Generally it is believed that odors will be unnoticeable more than 300 feet from the dumping area. Low areas such as ravines, abandoned borrow pits, and swamps, are particulary suitable provided the fill will not obstruct natural surface drainage. Springs are also to be avoided. Water that d~ains through the fill will. of course, show considerable pollution and effect adversely near-by bathing beaches and water courses.

OIL AS A LARVICIDE

The larvae and pupae of the common varieties of mosquitoes are air breathers and must come to the water surface to renew their air supply by means of their breathing tubes. Oil when applied to the water surface forms a film over the water surface, and some of it will enter the breathing tubes. The oils used have a poisoning effect rather than mere clogging or choking. Experiments have shown that if the larvae once obtain a dose of kerosene and then are removed to clear water they will die in about 15 minutes, practically the same length of time as reQuired to kill those remaining beneath a kerosene film. With the heavier crude oils 3 hours may be required before· the larvae die. Pupae seem to be somewhat more resistant than larvae.

179

OILS UIED KetOMNA Is a vttV tlpid destrovor of thelitvat. It alto has the advantage of good spreading tbilltv ovet thlt watttt surface, ·Itt dllddvanttgel 1r1 higher COlt compared with some other olli; QUIOlt Wflpotatlon from tnt 8utfaoe t)f the wttet, particularly In hot weather; end a lack of cotor which makM It dlffloult for tht oiler to be certain that a complete film has been

pllU)IKJ

~

thO Wltet.

Ctude lind fuol oils vary eomewhl!t In toxic: power 1nd tpreading ability. The latter quality is u~tually the governing factor. Proper spr.adlng can be obtained by diluting tha heavy oil with a suffioltnt amount of ketosette. Tlw crude oils have the advantage of being easily inspected for continuous film and in addition Will remain On the water surface for several days thereby Increasing the Intervals required betWeen application&. It Is oftlfn l)ostlble to obtain from ger1ges west• oil Which has been drained from crankcases and 11 therefore a mixture of lubri~ting oil, kerosene and gasoline. Its efficiency is not so great as that of the lighter crude oils, it being somewhat deficient in spreading and toxic power. Objections are sometimes raised to the oiling of some waters, such as ornamental ponds and areas where fish and water fowl are raised or encouraged to congregate.

APPLICATION Oil is applied by means of spraying apparatus that will produce an even thin film over the water surface. The knapsack spray can is widely used. It holds about 5 gallons of oil and is strapped to the back of the laborer. It has a pump located in the can which is operated by a lever to force the oil through a flexible hose to a nozzle. The amount of oil require will depend upon conditions. If the oil spreads well and there are no obstractions, it is possible to cover a 1/2 hectare of water surface with 10 gallons (38 liters) of oil, but in actual practice losses cause by vegetation and uneven application figures of 20 to 60 gallons of oil (76 to 2281iters) of oil per 1/2 hectare of water surface covered. The amount of oil applied by one man in an 8-hour day will also be variable but should be within the limits of 40 to 80 gallons (152 to 3041iters) per day with knapsack sprayers. In large bodies of water, oiling is necessary· only along the edge or in patches of vegetation where the larvae are protected from wave action and natural enemies. In ornamental pools where there may be objection to use of heavy oils, kerosene will be useful and will not be injurious to vegetation. Oiling should be done at close enough intervals to prevent emergence of a crop of mosquitos.

180

RODENT CONTROL RODENTS AND PUBLIC HEALTH

«•

Rats and other rodents are I"8S8fYYirs number of important diaeases. End6n'llc or Murine Typhus fever and plaque are ~r•••.a.d from domestic rats and other rodent• to man by fleas. Ratbite f ever is transnctl8d bv baa ot rata and mice to man . Well's dis&ald ot infectious jaundice may be contracted by eecmg food contaminated by the urine of rats.

GENERAL METHODS OF CONTROL The chief means of rodent control are through I'M\nl enemies, by poiSoning, trapping, fumigation, viruses, ratproofing, and elimination of food, if poasible coordinated Into organized community campaigns. To these has recet•ttv been added the use of DDT as a means of killing the rats f leas which are the vehicles oM infection. This, however, Is not rodent control. Natural enemies of rodents, among which mB'f be counted cats, dogs, snakes, and birds of prey, m ice, will not usually p~ove suffic:ienttr effective to exterminate these pests from a given area without human aid.

1. POISONING In general, poison has proved one of the most effective methods of destroying rats, where it can be used without danger to man or domestic animals. The poisons commonly used in the past were arsenic, strychnine, phosphorus, red squill and barium carbonate. Of these f ive poisons, powdered barium carbonate is generally found the most satisfactory for ord inary use. It is odorless and tasteless, and its action is slow enough to allow rats to leave a building in search of water before they die. Meats, vegetables, fruits and cereals or meal are recommended as baits, and are mixed with barium carbonate in about the proportion of 1 part poison to 4 parts of the bait, divided into portions the size of a walnut. Untaken baits should be removed the following morning, as they will sour and cause an acid condition which results in a taste so bitter than the rats will not take them.

2. TRAPPING This is an effective method of freeing premises from rats when properly done. Among the many traps on the market advertised for this purpose, the simple inexpensive "snap" or " guillotine" trap is usually found best adapted for all - round usage. Cage traps are sometimes used if it is desired to capture rats alive for inspectionaf purposes in regard to their fleas. Among the baits found effective for use in traps are cheese, bread, raw and cooked meats, fish, apples or vegetables. Traps should be set in runways, behind boxes and cans, along walts, and in any sheltered ~where rat is liketv to enter in order to hide. Traps placed in the open are not generalty so effectNe as thole placed in the manner mentioned above, as rats usually seek sheltered places wtae conc:aalment is easy. The tfaps may be concealed · or camouflaged with leaves, ~of grass or hay, or scraps of paper. For good restuls ·plenty.of traps are necessary. A dozen or more trapS for a heavily infested dwelling and 50 to

181

100 or more for a large building or farm. The trapping campaign must be short and decisive, or the rats become wary and avoid the traps.

3. FUMIGATION This is the application of disinfectants in gaseous form, although the meaning of the term has been extended to include use of gas as an insecticide. Fumigation affects surfaces only and will not exercise any germicidal effect within fabrics. For buildings, the safest and most effective method in general usage is fumigation by sulphur dioxide. A drawback to the use of fumigants in buildings is the possibility of unpleasant odors resulting from dead rats in the walls. Approximately fumigation is the use of calcium cyanide, which is sold under the name of Cyanogas. When exposed for the atmosphere it slowly gives off hydrocyanic acid gas which will spread through any enclosed space. The poison can be obtained in granular or powdered form, and it can be sprayed into burrows by means of a sprayer. Old vacant houses have been deratted by using an average of about 5 pounds per house. Houses so treated should be tightly closed, with door and window cracks sealed with paper, for at least 4 hours. Doors and windows may then be opened without danger to neighbors, but the house should not be occupied for 24 hours, and bedding, clothing, etc. should be aired. During actual applications the workman should use a gas mask.

4. RATPROOFING Rats tend to breed and increase in numbers up to the food supply available for them. Trapping and other measures, therefore, unless carried on continuously, are of only temporary benefit unless the rats are starved out by being excluded from food. The rat proofing of buildings is, therefore, the most effective means of rat control. It is a simple matter to make buildings of rat proof construction and an ordinance requiring such construction, properly enforced, will. in the course of time, result in a practi~ally rat-free city. Buildings in which food is handled or stored should have floors of rat proof material or of concrete not less than 8 em. or 3 inches thick, in addition to the top dre~ing and the floor must rest directly upon the ground or filling of earth, cinders, etc. The floor must be sealed into walls surrounding it, and the walls must be of ratproof material or of concrete, stove, or brick laid in cement mortar, and not less than 6 inches thick. To prevent burrowing beneath, this wall must extend at least 60 em. into the ground to a horizontal offset of 30 em or 12 inches, and must extend at least 0.30 em or 1 foot above the floor. Other buildings lacking cellars must be rat proofed by elevating on pillars at least 45 em or 18 inches above the ground and the ground surface beneath kept free of rubbish or other ratharboring material or a curtain wall may b~ constructed at least 10 em or 4 inches thick and extending at least 0.60 m or 2 feet into the ground, with a 30 em. or 12 inch horizontal offset, at the margin of the ground area of the building such a wall may have ventilation openings with gratings having a 1 em or 3/8 inch openings or hardware cloth of 1 em or 3/8 inch openings with wire not less than 12 gauge thickness. In all classes of buildings all unnecessary spaces and holes, ventilators, and openings other than doors and windows must be closed. Spaces between inner and outer walls are required to be closed with cement mortar or ratproof material, and such closing material must extend for at least 30 em or 1 foot above the floor level. Cellar and basement walls must also be of materials as specified above but not less than 23 em or 9 inches thick with no openings except for doors, windows, ventilators, or plumbing, and these must be protected as specified below. Cellar and basement floors must be of the specified wall material, be at least 3 inc.hes thick, and be sealed to the walls.

182

~'----r-......----------VElz."fiCAL.

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-

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~-- -- ~PlATE

.----PIER

In this figure, when buildings are supported on posts or piers, they are made ratproof by raising them 0.45 m or 18 inches or more above ground l.evel and by placing concrete between inner and outer walls above sill.

5. RAT STOPPAGE This is a method applicable to all buildings, especially old ones. It is a modified method of the orthodox ratproofing procedu re. It consists of closing all the openings of the outside walls and the roof of a building or block of buildings through which rats may enter. It is accomplished in part by sealing with bricks or Portland cement mortar all holes or cracks in foundation, walls, or around pipes passing through walls. Holes in wood floors or walls are stopped with sheet metal. The lower edges of doors, the door casings, and thresholds are covered with 24-gauge gatvanized sheet iron. Preferably this should be " channeled" or bent around the edge of the door. The channels or plates at the vertical edges should extend at least 15 em or 6 inches above the door bottom. Cellar and basement windows and other w indows or ventilators, both cellar and roof, allowing access by rats from the ground, roof, or trees are protected with galvaniz~ 16-gauge metal screen of 1 em or 3/ 8-inch or smaller mesh securely fastened.

183

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Metal guards or other means are used to prevent rats from climbing pipes, rain spouts, or wires and using them as a means of entrance. Sheet aluminum is not satisfactory for stopping rats as they are able to gnaw through it. Attention should be given to points where plumbing and other pipes pass through walls. If openings have been left, they should be filled with good concrete mortar or covered with metal plates. If the foundations are less than 60 em or 24 inches deep, a curtain wall is installed outside and in contact with the original ..._.,an to a depth of at least 60 em or 24-inches with a 12-inch (0.30) horizontal extension as shown in the figures below. The curtain wall may be of good concrete, 3 to 4 inches thick (0.08 to 0.10 ml or of 24-gauge galvanized metal.

184

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Floor and Foundation construction of a new building without a basement. This type of construction should be use~ for building where food will be stored.

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_ _CoNC I:tETE FLOOR. t .SL.AB ON FILL)

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300

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Old building made ratproof by placing curtain walt around old foundation.

185

After all the vents have been stopped, trapping, poisoning, or fumigation should be used to kill the rats already within the building. These measures should proceed for about 6 weeks and should be accompanied by precautions to exclude rats from food inside the building. Maintenance of the rat stoppages will be required oUhey are to retain their efficiency.

PEST CONTROL What You Should Know (by Carol Duval, source, Reader's Digest 1988) Insect pests have plagued mankind since the dawn of history. Until recently, efforts to control them met with little success. Most of the insecticides used liberally only a generation ago, such as arsenic and cyanide, endangered the people and pets they were intended to protect. More recently, however, newly developed insecticides and increased scientific knowledge of pest physiology and behavior have enabled us to control pests much more effectively with less-toxic chemicals. Many modern insecticides are safe for householders to use. Here are some hints to get the most out of the products you choose. But remember, all pesticides can be dangerous. The key to safety is correct use. Always carefully read and follow the instructions on the label.

ANTS Although they do little damage, ants can carry disease, and some species give painful bites or stings. For effective tong-term control, first locate their nesting sites by following ant trails. Saturate the nests, usually found in the garden, with liquid insecti~ides containing chlorpyrifos or diazinon. Use a surface spray on all paths the ants can use to reach their food sources. Ants usually enter over windowsills, door jambs, under skirting boards or through cracks and crevices in walls. Treating only the paths already in use isn't sufficient, as ants will quickly find new routes. Insecticidal dusts can be used instead near electric wiring or in inaccessible spots, such as behind the fridge or in the cavities of walls.

To prevent reinfestation, remove all the food sources you can. Wipe kitchen benches and sweep floors regularly, wash dishes and utensils immediately after use, and dispose of opeOed soft-drink cans.

186

SILVERFISH These nocturnal animals eat almost anvthing that contains glue, paste. starch or sugar, including fabrics and paper. They can live in any dark and relatively undisturbed spot, but are ~articularly common in ceiling cavities. Store books and papers in light. airy conditions to prevent damage. If you discover a silverfish infestation. spray surfaces over which the insects travel, such as wardrobe sides and bookcases. Ousts can be used in ceiling voids and in places where wet surface sprays might cause damage, such as around valuable books. Space ·sprays can be used as a backup treatment. But remember that inhaling such sprays can be dangerous; leave the house for four hours after use.

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BEDBUGS Although they do not damage household goods or carry serious diseases, bedbugs can keep you awake all night and itchy all day. To eradicate these pests, first try to discover their davtime hiding places. The likeliest spots are in the seams and under the buttons of mattresses. but they also inhabit cracks and crevices in skirting boards and architraves, furniture, picture frames and shelves. Thoroughly clean and vaccum infested rooms, then apply a surface spray to all harborage areas, and around bed frames, skirting boards and furniture to prevent further infestation. If the problem is severe. spray mattresses with a pyrethrin-based insecticide, but air them for at least four hours before reuse. For fast. effective results, use a space spray as well. Before spraying. open all wardrobe doors and remove mattresses from beds to maximize exposure to the spray.

187

COCKROACHES Only a few of the couple. of thousand cockroach species infest homes. The commonest pest varieties in Asia are the German cockroach (pale brown, up to 2/3 Inch long) and the American cockroach (a reddish-brown insect between one and two inches long}. All species hide by day in warm, dark spots. The German cockroach can often be found beneath the sink, behind the stove, fridge, dishwasher and near the hot-water heater. The American species usually prefers subfloor areas, grease traps, drains and rubbish dumps. At night, cockroaches seek food and water, carrying germs from garbage and sewage to food. Perhaps the most despised of household pests, cockroaches are also among--the hardest to control. Absolute cleanliness is essential in cockroach prevention and eradication. Clean all dirty dishes and utensils immediately after meals (don't forget pets' dishes); store food in sealed containers or the refrigerator; keep garbage in a tightly closed bin; r&gu Ia rly wipe benches, cupboard shelves and the spaces near the stove and fridge to remove food particles and grease. The most effective insecticides against cockroaches are surface sprays and dusts, used where the insects hide or walk. Before using surface sprays inside cupboards, remove all food and utensils; never spray bench tops or areas where food is prepared. In rarely disturbed spots or spaces where spraying is awkward, such as inside wall cavities, use a light application of dust. Cockroach baits and traps are of limited use. Cockroaches are sensitive to the smell of many insecticides, so don't use more than therecommended amounts. The pests will avoid treated areas if alternatives are available, so make sure you treat all possible hiding paces. Keeping treated areas free of dirt and grease will also maximize the amount of poison the cockroaches pick up. If you don't follow these rules, a few cockroaches are likely to survive your attacks; their offspring may be more resistant genetically to the chemicals you used, and thus harder than ever to eradicate. To prevent reinfestation, fill in all cracks and crevices, particularly in warm places such as around hot-water pipes.

CLOTHES MOTHS Clothes moths lay their eggs in dark, undisturbed areas on clothing, carpets and blankets. Since the developing larvae prefer materials of animal origin such as wool, silk and fur, increasing use of synthetic materials has lessened the damage these moths cause. However, many modern fabrics contain at least a proportion of animal fibers or carry residues of perspiration or spilled food, and are thus susceptible to attack.

W8

Moths will not attack clothes regularly exposed to light and air. To safeguard garmer~ts you won't wear for months, clean them thoroughly and then wrap them tightly in plastic. Clothing already infested should be placed in a tightly sealed black plastic bag and left in direct sunlight for about three hours to kill any larvae. For further protection, use an insecticide that gives off toxic vapors such as naphthalene balls or flakes or dichlorvos-impregnated resin strips. Hang mothball containers or pest strips in cupboards where the vapors will build up and penetrate atl stored articles. To ensure complete eradication, vacuum all carpets and apply surface spray to all possible feeding sites, such as cupboards, carpets and the folds of upholstery.

CARPET BEETLES • Like clothes moths, these breed in quiet, protected places among clothing, beneath furniture, around carpet edges and in the crevices of upholstery. The larvae eat materials of animal origin and seeds, pollen, nectar, grains and cereals, leaving sandlike droppings, and small castoff skins. To avoid carpet-beetle infestation, protect furniture, stored clothing and blankets as for clothes moths. If carpet beetles infest rugs or carpets, shake or vacuum the affected items to remove eggs and spray with a surface insecticide. To check that the insecticide won't stain your carpet, first spray a spot normally hidden from view. Also apply insecticide to cracks and cervices along skirting boards, under furniture and inside cupboards. Regularly check all stored food, disposing of any that is infested.

FLEAS Fleas in a house usually arrive on a dog or cat. They lay their eggs in the animal's fur or bedding. The eggs hatch out as larvae, which feed on organic debris such as dead skin flakes in carpets or between floorboards. When the larvae grow into adult fleas, they hop back on to your pet, or infest places like the creases of upholstery. From here they go to work on you. 1H9

The key to flea eradication is control of the larvae. First, thoroughly vacuum your carpet to remove as many· eggs as possible and to pull the pile upright so th~t insecticide can penetrate it fully. Vacuum your pet's bedding and places where it sleeps, then incinerate the vacuum dust and treat the vacuum bag with insecticidal spray. Vacuum or sweep and wash uncarpeted areas thoroughly. Next, treat all floors, soft furniture and the pet's bedding with a surface spray to destroy larvae. (Always spot-test to check that the spray won't stain.) Wash your pet with an anti-flea shampoo and, for long-term protection, attach an insecticidal collar. Regular sweeping and vacuuming should prevent reinfestation of fleas.

DO PESTICIDES POISON PEOPLE? Any substance that will kill an insect can be dangerous to humans. In sufficient quantity, some can be lethal. When properly used, however, pesticides are not dangerous. Important safety rules to remember are: 1. Follow the directions included with the product you have chosen. 2. If you use a spray, cover all food utensils as well as surfaces where food is prepared· or served. 3. If you spray or dust for any length of time, wear protective gloves. Always make sure you wash thoroughly after using any insecticide.

PROFESSIONAL PEST CONTROL If you find you can't control pests yourself, consult the experts. How can you tell if you're getting skilled service? Says Stephen K. H. lp, deputY managing director of Flick Pest Con· trol Limited and president of the Hong Kong Pest Control Association: "A good pest-contol serviceman does a thorough survey of the client's premises, which may include the roof, ceiling and every room so that he will know where and how to apply the chemicals." As well as chemical treatments, a reputable company should offer what professionals call "integrated pest management" - a program including hygiene hints, pest-proofing (locating and mending pest-entry points, such as holes in the roof and gaps around pipes), furniture and carpet treatment protection and follow-up services. Ask whether these services are included in the quoted price. If they are, you should get the treatment best suited to your requirements- as. well as your money's woah.

190

APPENDICES:

_ M ETRICATION

120 2

212~

BOILS

LOOt

90 80 70 f ohre nheit l 4 0

50

40 30 20

10

·slF

WATER

0°C

f re ezes

-10 -20

-3o

40

-5o

Temp. at -40°F and -40°C: 15 the same

·so

CONVERSION, FAHRENHEIT DEGREES TO CELSIUS DEGREES.

9 )( °C 5

------- + 32 FORMULA

oc = ---g5 (°F - 32) --

RULES AND GUIDES FOR USAGE OF Sl EXAMPLES OF Sl DERIVED UNITS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THE BASE UNITS AND OTHER UN.I TS

Quantity

Description

Expressed in terms of other Units

Expressed in terms of Base or Supplementary Units

area

square metre

m2

volume

cubic metre

m3

speed-linear

metre per

second -angular

m /s

radian per second

rad/s

metre per second squared

m/s2

radian per second squared

rad / s2

wave number •

1 per metre

m-1

density, mass density

kilogram per cubic metre

kg/ m3

concentration (amount of substance)

mole per cubic metre

specific volume

cubic metre per kilogram

m3/kg

luminance

candela per square metre

cd/ m2

acceleration -Linear -angular

mol / m3

dynamic viscosity

pascal second

moment of force surface tension

Pa.s

m-1.kg .s-2

newton metre

N.m

m2.kg.s - 2

newton per metre

N/m

kg.s- 2

1./>J® m2

kg.s- 2

J/K

m2.kg .s- 2. K -1

J/(kg.K)

m2.kg.s- 2.K-1

J/kg

m2.s - 2

heat flu x density, irradiance

water per square metre

heat capacity, entropy

joule per kelvin

specific heat capacity, specific entropy

joule per kilogram kelvin

specific energy

joule per kilogram

19:~

thermal conductivity

watt per metre kelvin

W/(m.K)

m.kg.s-3.K-1

energy density

Joule per cubic metre

J/rrtJ

m-l.kg.s-2

electric field strength

Volet per metre

V/m

m.kg.s-3.A-1

electric charge density

coulomb per cubic meter

C/m3

m-l.s.A

electric flux density

coulomb per square metre

Clm2

m-2.s.A

permittivity

farad per metre

F/m

m-l.kg. -1.S4.A2

current density

ampere per square metre

A.m-2

magnetic field strength

ampere per metre

A.mt

permeability

henry per metre

H/m

m.kg.s-2.A-

solar energy

Joule per mole

J/mol

m2kg.s-2.mol-1

molar entropy solar heat capacity

Joule per mole kelvin

J(moi.K)

m2.kg.s-2.K -l.mol-1

watt per steradian

W/sr

m2.kg.s-3 .sr-1

• radiant intensity

* The wave number is the reciprocal of the wave length, expressed in metres, of an electromagnetic radiation. NOTE: The values: of certain so-called dimension less quantities, such as refractice: index, relative permeability or relative permeability are expressed by pure numbers.

194

MOW TO CONVERT COMMON MEASUREMENTS FROM ENGLtSH TO METRIC UNITS FOR ORDINARY USE TO MEASURE

English Units TAKE THE NUMBER OF

Length

inches (in) inches (in) inches (in)

feet

(ft)

(ft) feet yards {yd) miles (mi)

Area

square square square square square

inches (in2) feet (ft2) feet (ft2) yards (yd2) mil es (m2)

MULTIPLY BYl

25.4* 2.54* 0.025 0 ..305

30.48* 0.914 1.009 6.45 929.0 0.093 0.84

2.59

cubic inches (in3) cubic feet (ft3) cubic yards (yci3)

16.39

Volume Liquids)

fluid ounces (fl.oz.) pints (pt)

29.57

u.s.

quarts (gtl gallons (gal)

English

fluid ounces (fl.oz.) pints (pt) quartz (qt) gallons (gal)

Mass or

ounces (oz) pounds (lb) short tons (s.t.) (2000 lb) long tons (l. t.)

Volume (solids)

Weight A voir dupois (16 oz 1 lb)

0.028 0.765

Metric Units EQUALS THE NUMBER IN millimetres (mm)2 centimetres (em) metres (m) metres (m) centimeters (em) metres (m) kilometres (km)

..

square centimetres (cm2) square centimeters (cm2) square metres (m2) square metres (m2) square kHornetres fkm2) cubic centimeters (cm3) cubic metres (M3) cubic metres (m3)

0.47

millilitres (ml) litres (L)

0.95 3.79

litres (L) Litres (Ll

28.41 0.57 1.14 4.55 28.35 453.6 907.18 0.907 1,01 6.05 1.016

millilitres (mil litres (l) litres (L) litres (L) grams (g) grams (g) kilograms (kg) tonnes (f) kilograms (kg) tonnes (t)

Troy (12 troy ounces• 1 lb; for jewelers)

ounces loz)

Temperature

degrees Fahrenheit (°F)

Time

Same units are used in both the Metric and English systems: second (s), minute (min) and hour (hl.

Speed or Velocity

miles per hour (mph) feet per second (f/s) knots

Frequency (Radio, FM,AM, TV, etc.)

pounds (lbs)

cycle per second (c/s)

31.104 373.341

grams (g)2 grams (g)

5/9 (after sub-degress Celsius (°C)

1.609 0.305 1

kilometers per hour (km/hl metre per second (m/s)

hertz (hz)

195

Power

horsepower (hpJ

Electric

ampere (A) (Some unit in both Metric and English systems)

0.746

kilowatt (kw)

Current Energy

British Thermal Unit (BTU) calories, int'l table (cal. ITI calories, thermo-chemicai

1.055

kilo joule (kjl

4.187

joules (J)

4.184

joules (J)

pound-force (lbf) kilogram-force. (kgf)

4.448 9.007

newton IN) newton IN) ....

Pressure or Stress

pound per square inch (psi)

6.895

kilo pascal (kPa)

Density

pound per cubic inch (lb/in3)

leal.) Force

27.600

grams per cubic centimetre (g'cm)

1 Last figure was. rounded out, for ordinary uses, except those ma.r ked* which are exact.

2 The letter and figures enclosed in parentheses under this tolumn. are the symbols of the

measurement units. Examples of use: 25.4 mm, 9m2, 32°C, 110 km/h, 7 g/