62093788 Educational Planning and Curriculum Development

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Educational Planning and Curriculum Development Introduction to curriculum development The word curriculum derives from the Latin currere meaning ‘to run’. This implies that one of the functions of a curriculum is to provide a template or design which enables learning to take place. A curriculum is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a programme and can be seen as one part of a curriculum. Difference between curriculum and syllabus

Education Curriculum Syllabus Content

Types of curriculum  The formal curriculum: what the institution plans and organizes to teach 

The informal curriculum: what the students learn from a variety of sources and interactions while taking part in the ‘extra‐curricular’ activities at the institution



The hidden curriculum: what the students learn but the institution did not set out to teach. Much of this refers to the aspects like ‘caught not taught’.

Some definitions Albert Oliver (1977): curriculum is “the educational program of the school” and divided into four basic elements: 1) program of studies, 2) program of experiences, 3) program of service, 4) hidden curriculum. Bell (1971): the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills, and attitudes made available to students through a variety of arrangements during the time they are at school, college, or university. Harnack (1968): The curriculum embodies all the teaching‐learning experiences guided and directed by the school.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) Ralph Tyler (1957): The curriculum is all of the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school to attain its educational goals. David G. Armstrong (1989): "is a master plan for selecting content and organizing learning experiences for the purpose of changing and developing learners' behaviors and insights." Bringing all these points together, the curriculum is viewed as a composite whole including the learner, the teacher, teaching and learning methodologies, anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs and outcomes possible within a learning institution. Curriculum definitions fit into 5 categories. 1. Curriculum as a product ‐ program, document, electronic media, or multimedia 2. Curriculum as a program of study ‐ usually courses offered, curriculum sequences of study in standards as benchmarks, gateways, 3. Curriculum as intended learnings ‐ goals, content, concepts, generalizations, outcomes 4. Curriculum as experiences of the learner ‐ activities, planned and unplanned. 5. Hidden curriculum ‐ what students learn that isn't planned (also called unofficial or counter) Curriculum as PRODUCT Advantages  can be described in concrete terms and definite ways  provides direction for planning and development by producing a document

Disadvantages limits curriculum to specific programs and courses described in those documents  assumes that all possible courses can be described in such documents  separates processes of learning from what is to be learned

Curriculum as PROGRAM Advantages  easily described in concrete terms  recognize learning takes place in many different settings in school



Curriculum as INTENDED learnings Advantages  curriculum becomes a concept rather than a product  more manageable focus by limited scope







Disadvantages view that all students' learning is contained in programs programs imply that what is described, is what students will actually learn

Disadvantages Difficult to classify exact intended learnings Difficult to define how to achieve and why it needs to be achieved

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) Curriculum as EXPERIENCES of the learner Advantages  focuses on learning and the  learner, rather than teaching   includes all experiences planned and unplanned  can allow for broader experiences  can be more meaningful learning if it relates to student interests, needs, or if students help select meaningful learning activities,  can be greater retention of learning

Disadvantages more abstract and complex  makes curriculum so comprehensive that it cannot be described in simple terms or short phrases

Elements of curriculum The curriculum has four elements that are in constant interaction:  purpose (goals and objectives)  content or subject matter  methods or learning experiences  evaluation Fig: Interaction between different elements of curriculum

Purpose (Goals and objectives)

Methods or learning experiences

Content (subject to be studied)

Evaluation (Performance Measurement)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Concept of educational Planning  







Whatever educational planning is, it is certainly not a miracle drug for ailing educational systems.  Educational planning, in its broadest generic sense, is the application of rational, systematic analysis to the process of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in responding to the needs and goals of students and society. Educational planning is ideologically neutral. Its methodologies are sufficiently flexible and adaptable to fit situations that differ widely in ideology, level of development, and governmental form. Its basic logic, concepts, and principles are universally applicable, but the practical methods for applying them may range from the crude and simple to the highly sophisticated, depending on the circumstances. It is therefore wrong to conceive of educational planning as offering a rigid, monolithic formula that must be imposed uniformly on all situations.

Principles of Educational planning Educational planning should be based on following core principles. 







Defined range View i. It should have a short‐range (one or two years), a middle‐range (four to five years) and a long‐range perspective (ten to fifteen years). ii. Obviously its vision will grow less precise the farther ahead it looks. But considering the long ‘lead time’ required to increase educational capacity and to enlarge educational output, long range perspective should also be considered. For example, for the production of doctors or engineers, or even of elementary school teachers; it is necessary to plan years ahead. Educational planning should be comprehensive. i. It should embrace the whole educational system in a single vision to ensure the harmonious evolution of its various parts. ii. Moreover, it should try to extend its vision to important types of non‐ formal education and training to ensure their effective integration with formal education and with the priority needs and goals of society. Educational planning should be integrated with the plans of broader economic and social development. i. If education is to contribute most effectively to individual and national development, and to make the best use of scarce resources, it cannot go its own way, ignoring the realities of the world around it. Educational planning should be an integral part of educational management. i. To be effective, the planning process must be closely tied to the processes of decision‐ making and operations

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) 

Educational planning must be concerned with the Qualitative aspects of educational development, not merely with quantitative expansion

Educational Planning spiral

Steps of Curriculum Development 

 etermine and agree the educational or professional context in which

the programme is to be developed and delivered  efine the needs of the learners in line with the requirements of professional bodies  etermine the aims and broad learning outcomes of the programme  Identify ideas and constraints  Agree the broad structure and framework of the programme, the main areas of teaching and learning, the sequence of the main topics and the key assessments  Allocate the detailed development of each topic or course area in terms of defining objectives and learning outcomes to individuals or teams  Channel and direct teams to develop coherent programmes which have defined learning outcomes, timetables, content, appropriate teaching, learning and assessment methods and which utilise relevant and available learning resources  Implement and refine the programme  Agree an appropriate and deliverable evaluation strategy  Review and revise the course in line with feedback – has it met the identified needs of the learners and other stakeholders?

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Determinants of curricular trends Technology has had a tremendous impact on society. Educational curriculums must keep up with the pace so that future generations will benefit and continue developing technological innovations. The concept of knowledge has changed from having information in the brain, to "having access to information about a particular topic and knowing how to use it". Hence, the change in trends of curriculum is determined by a number of factors that can be broadly classified as the extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Extrinsic Factors Political  From defining goals, interpreting curricular materials to approving examination systems, politics affects curriculum development.  How politics influences curriculum design and development starts with funding.  Both private and public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building and maintaining facilities and equipment.  All aspects of curriculum depend on local, national and international political standards. Economic  Curriculum developed for in‐house training in corporations focuses on educating employees for promotions that bring better returns in profits.  Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students contributing to the country's economy with global competition abilities in technical fields. Technological  The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level of learning.  Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and learning experiences among students. Diversity (Socio‐cultural and religious)  Religion, culture and social groups affects curriculum.  Affected by forces like conflicts, concepts of justice and equity, inclusiveness, ethics etc. Learning Theories (Philosophical) Both child and adult learning theories influence curriculum development. Intrinsic Factors  Acceptance of the curriculum by teachers, students and administrators of the academic institutions  Sound organizational policy, flexibility, financial stability, administrative capacity



Managerial aspects of the institution (leadership, communication, coordination, motivation, staffing, budgeting etc).

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) 

Organizational environment (physical infrastructures, safety, peace, harmony, innovative environment for students, flexible laws and orders

Principles of curriculum design 1. Principle of Utility: It should be useful in solving problems and facing situations in life. 2. Principle of flexibility: It must be capable of accommodating the changes in the child's diverse interest, inclinations & accordance with social requirements. 3. Principle of child‐centeredness: The selection of content has to be in keeping with the child interests and abilities. 4. Principle of life‐centeredness: To enable as individual to function efficiently & face the challenges in life. Experiences should achieve the physical, mental, social & emotional development. 5. Principle of community‐centeredness: The needs, problems of the community should be the focus development of social values & spirit of inquiry. 6. Principle of correlation:‐They should be viewed as an integrated whole bringing about the development. 7. Principle of activity‐centeredness: Learning through purposeful activity and actual life experiences makes learning process interesting and enjoyable. 8. Principle for the use of leisure: The use of leisure in an appropriate manner develops creativity, aesthetic sense and vocational skills. 9. Principle of development of culture and civilization: The pupil should have the knowledge of their culture and civilization. 10. Principle of need based activity: It is to cater to the needs of society & provide the manpower for social and economic development. 11. Principle of value: For the inculcation of values like social justice, equality of opportunity, equality of sexes, social values and democratic values. 12. Conservation principles: Conservations of cultural heritage, monuments, natural resources, wildlife should be inculcated. 13. Principle of creativity: It should stimulate and develop the creative abilities of the pupils. 14. Principle of harmony: Formal & Informal education, general, liberal and vocational education, individual and social aims should be skillfully interwoven into a harmonious whole paving the way for individual development & social upliftment.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Advantages and disadvantages of curriculum Advantages  Makes learning specific, hence easy to learn  Makes learning systemic and sequential  Makes learning measurable, evaluative and concrete  Saves time and resources to conduct educational activity  Helps achieve goals and objectives if planned and implemented correctly  National and international recognition

Disadvantages  Society always changing, so difficult to make changes in curriculum accordingly from time to time  Needs intensive work to develop a good curriculum. Hence, development of effective curriculum requires high cost  Makes learning specific, hence high chance of many relevant contents to be missed out.  Can’t include all learning theories  Curriculum made at one setting may not be applicable in other settings  Curriculum change requires intense, tedious processes  Curriculum development highly influenced by political factors. Hence, challenge to make it unbiased

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Types of curriculum models/ approaches

The different models of curriculum designs are given below :  Content oriented  Behavioristic  Process oriented  Competency based  Flexner model  The 'SPICES' model of curriculum design  PRISMS model

Content oriented  Ancient model of curriculum design  Mastery of subject matter is central task  Standards are set for o Subject matter covered o Learner’s mastery on the content  A textbook is the primary instructional tool  Breadth of the subject centered curriculum is determined by the number of subjects taught  Each subject has three characteristics: o Content o Its intellectual discipline

o

Pattern for organizing the content

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Process oriented curriculum  This design focuses on personal attributes and skills of the individual learner.  These may include such aspects as:  working well with others,  effective leadership,  knowing how to take and follow directions,  communicating effectively,  making accurate observations,  learning independently,  making decisions,  making good judgments,  inventing,  forecasting,  planning,  monitoring the effects of one's own activities,  taking correction action when necessary,  creating, initiating,  developing a sound value system,  having self‐confidence and being sensitive to others Characteristics of Process oriented curriculum  The development of skills and traits that will serve the learner for a lifetime processes  There is a higher degree of carry‐over into everyday living experiences than in other designs  Better balance between affective and cognitive considerations.  The library can provide materials, resources and services promoting independent learning and creativity.  This curriculum design suffers from a difficulty in assessing learning outcomes due to subjective judgments  Parents may be skeptical as more focus is on the process rather than the content

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Fig: Process oriented curriculum

Competency based curriculum

‘COMPETENCY’ is the word used normally to describe a set of related skills. 

The aim of the competency based curriculum is to: o make students self‐motivated, robust and life‐ long learners o strengthen the learning culture in the school o improve results

Six priority areas for a competency‐based curriculum in pu blic health are  cultural competency,  health promotion skills,  leadership development,  program management,  data analysis, and  community organizing (Joint Council of Governmental Public Health Agencies, 1995)

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Fig: Competency based curriculum design Characteristics of competency based curriculums  Competencies are more highlighted than objectives  Outcomes are more highlighted than objectives  Learner activities will be based on performance of learner and accomplishment of criteria;  Teaching activities are learner centered;  Formative evaluation is necessary. Steps of competency based curriculum design 1. Conduct needs assessment  What learners need to learn  Program requirements, board certification requirements and/or specialty, society, etc. determine much of the content students need to learn on a particular subject

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH) 2. Identify competencies addressed  cultural competency,  health promotion skills, leadership development,  program management,  data analysis,  community organizing 3. Write goals and objectives in terms of competencies The goals and objectives help to:  Provide an instructional roadmap  Provide clarity about the educational program to learners, teachers and external stakeholders  Encourage higher order learning  Determine the assessment method 4. Determine teaching methods  Didactic conferences,  Clinical exposure,  Case based teaching,  Role modeling,  Journal Club,  Mentoring,  Simulation,  Individual or group projects,  Research projects etc. 5. Determine assessment methods  to evaluate the student’s performance  Better to use multiple methods 6. Determine program improvement methods  Student evaluations of the study  Faculty evaluations of the study

 Students’ attainment of the specific goals and objectives of educational experience

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Behavioristic approach to curriculum design 

The nature of a person’s thinking can be affected through a variety of rewards and consequences.  The aim for education through behaviorism is to develop appropriate behaviors in the classroom setting that are conducive to learning.  Behaviorism refers more to conditioning the learner to be ready to learn and not so much educating.  Step by step conditioning programs are used to achieve the desired behavior and rewards are used to motivate.  Learners receive simple forms of motivation such as verbal praise, smiles, a touch on the shoulder, and candy.  Extrinsic rewards are followed by the intrinsic rewards  The role of the teacher as a behaviorist is a conditioner.  If students can change through their own thinking, they will begin to become confident and believe in themselves more.

Fig: Behavioristic model of curriculum design Summary of the Behavioristic model of curriculum design ASPECTs Contributors View of the learning process Locus of learning

EXPLANATION Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner Change in the behavior guides learning

Stimuli in external environment Purpose in education Produce behavioral change in desired direction Educator's role Arranges environment to elicit desired response, facilitates student centered learning Manifestations Sustainable learning, development of positive attitude and skills, leadership development, entrepreneurship

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

SPICES model of curriculum design Harden et al published an article in 1984 which was a seminal one in medical education.

 It described six dimensions around which a medical curriculum could be organised.  Each of the dimensions could be regarded as a continuum.  Thus a medical curriculum could be located somewhere along the dimensions of: o Student–centred o Problem– based o Integrated o Community– based o Electives o Systematic

Trends in Medical Education (Before and after SPICES model) Flexner (1910) model (This was the model before SPICES)  Teacher centred  Knowledge giving  Discipline led  Hospital oriented  Standard programme  Opportunistic (apprenticeship) Harden et al (1984) The SPICES model  Student‐ centred  Problem based  Integrated  Community oriented  Electives (+ core)  Systematic

Bligh et al (2001) PRISMS (This model came after the SPICES model)  Practice based linked with professional development  Relevant to students and communities  Inter‐professional and interdisciplinary  Shorter courses taught in smaller units  Multisite locations  Symbiotic (organic whole)

Raj K. subedi (BPH, MPH)

Description of the SPICES model The purposes of the SPICES model are:  to review an existing curriculum to see where improvements can be made  to develop a new curriculum from scratch  to tackle specific questions or issues relating to a curriculum  to help decide on what sort of teaching methods to use on a course  decide what format the assessment should take Student Centered  Most of the emphasis is on the learner  Increases learner motivation  Prepares learners for lifelong self directed education Problem based  Helps develop problem solving skills  Active participation of the learner  Helps deal with an overcrowded curriculum; highlights concepts rather than knowledge Integrated  Reduces fragmentation of courses  Promotes staff communication and collaboration as departments are being integrated  Holistic approach to learning Community oriented  Direct contact with the community the learners are being taught to serve  See a wide variety of conditions at a wide variety of stages  Learners learn about the social and economic aspect of illness Electives  Allows curricular flexibility  Elective +Core  Enables learners to explore further interests in more details; matching to the learner’s needs

Systematic  Teaching is structured and organized  Teaching is sequential  learner can become competent and confident with the least waste of time and resources  Easy for accreditation and validation

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Factors influencing curriculum design, level of evaluation and corrective action  Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21st century learners in both organized academic settings and corporation learning centers.  Blueprinting curriculum development requires selecting learning goals, designing knowledge delivery models and creating assessment methods for progress.  Political, economic, technological, socio‐cultural, religious, philosophical (learning theories) and environmental factors affect curriculum design.  Factors influencing the curriculum design, evaluation and corrective action can be better illustrated by analyzing the factors affecting each level of curriculum design, evaluation and corrective action 1. Determining health need of society. 2. Working hypothesis 3. Define educational objective. 4. Develop teaching programme. 5. Observe and record about behavior of trainees.  Cognitive  Affective  Psychomotor 6. Evaluation and analysis 7. Corrective action based on manipulative variables:  Teaching  Examination technique  Budget  Environment ‐ student  Health  Situation 8. Objective revise 9. Hypothesis revise

1. Determining health need of the society  Health need of the society affects curriculum development  The need assessment is also

influenced by many factors.  Some factors are related to the society and some are related to those who assess the needs  The political forces also influence the need assessment

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)  Different health needs/gap o Number of health service providers o Morbidity/disability o Mortality o Number and type of Health institutions o Quality of existing health services o Adequacy of drugs and diagnostic equipments o Quality of service providers o Health professionals practice and conduct o Cost of health services o Geographical accessibility o Peoples’ participation in Health Service Management o Information management system etc. Factors influencing need assessment  Society related factors influencing need assessment o Socio‐economic status of people (education, income etc) o Religion o Tradition o Taboos o Availability of other basic facilities o Trust on health system, past experiences o Political forces within society, formal & informal leaders o Burden of diseases o Population density and distribution  Factors related to those who assess the needs o Educational status of those involved in need assessment o Communication and coordination skills o Language o Financial capacity o Degree of obligation, Motivation o Volume of assigned responsibility o Complexity o Methodology o Technology o Time o Vested interest/ hidden agenda

 Political forces influencing need assessment o Donor interest and influence o Political stability of the nation o Priority by nation

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) o Political ideology and commitment o Country’s economic status

2. Working Hypothesis  A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research.  It may not be directly tested but provides useful guidance and agreeable directions.  May not have concrete mathematical and scientific basis but can provide ideas, information as well as qualitative contents required for curriculum design.  a working hypothesis is often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research  Initial course design is usually framed as working hypothesis which would be tested in practice and then remodeled according to the students response.  Setting working hypothesis discourages putting the ceiling on learning process and facilitates the redesigning of the curricular elements as per the feedback from the different stakeholders.  Characteristics of working hypothesis o Makes learning flexible o Helps inclusion of qualitative aspects of learning o Saves resources for further researches o Complements scientific and quantitative assertions o Acts as a pivotal feature in the process of inquiry o Provides provisional alertness for errors in correlation and causation o Useful during budgetary limitations o Easy to modify and change  Factors influencing working hypothesis o Learning theories o Technological advancement, globalization o Political situation of the country o Donors interest o Resources o Need of the society o Motivation, leadership, communication, coordination and communication o Knowledge, attitude and skills of people involved in curriculum design etc.

3. Define Educational objectives Educational objectives are the statement of what learners are intended to (after the specific session or/and the program of study): o Know (cognitive) o Think, believe (affective) o Do (psychomotor)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) Two types o Course or session instructional objective (after the specific session or course) o Program learning objective (after the completion of the program of study)  Course or session instructional objectives: o

Statements of what specific teachers or instructors intend for students to know, think and do after the completion of the course or session

 Program learning objectives: o

o

Statements of what the entire faculty, college or the university believes the students will be able to know, think and do after completion of the entire program of study. They are broader than the course or session objectives

Why educational objectives??  To help curriculum planning, analysis and renewal  Easy to get feedback  Encourages organized learning  Gives measurable indicators  Standardization of the course and program of study Writing educational objectives  Use verbs like recall, illustrate, demonstrate, generate etc. based on different domains of learning process  Use the format : Who…What behavior….under what condition… how well???  Examples o After the completion of the course (condition), the students (who) will be able to demonstrate (what behavior) the water purification by SODIS method correctly (how well). Factors influencing the formation of educational objectives  Interest of teacher, university, donor etc.  Technology  Budget  Security  Time  Relevance to current needs of the society and country  Level of the program of study (eg. Basic, intermediate, advanced)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

4. Develop teaching programs  There was a time when a university was almost solely responsible for the content of its courses and the curriculum was largely defined by a syllabus that was little more than a list of the content topics that were to be dealt with by means of the lecture programme.  Nowadays the explosion in knowledge, coupled with the demands of various stakeholders, places tremendous pressures on decisions about the content of the curriculum.  There are very real tensions between the wishes of the teachers who deliver the curriculum to preserve and even increase the subject content of their course and the many ‘external’ stakeholders who want space for the development of general skills that have a strong vocational relevance.  There are pressures from professional/vocational bodies suggesting important ‘core’ areas of knowledge (content) that should be included in typical courses of study in the subject. What is teaching program??? The teaching program which is a blend of  curriculum content,  Methodology  philosophical foundation and  Resources Good teaching program should follow the key principles of  Usability  Feasibility Factors affecting development of teaching program Several curriculum players affect the development of teaching program  Government (Department of Education)  Textbook publishers  Professional bodies (Recruiting agencies)  School, college and university  Teachers  Students  Donors Besides the curriculum players, the other forces affecting the development of the teaching program are:  Current needs of the society and country

 Change in concepts of learning (learning theories)  Globalization  Financial capacity  Time

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)  Researches  Competence of curriculum developers  Level of program of study

5. Observe and Record about the behavior of trainees Observing and recording the behavior of trainees:  Measure how well the students master on the contents of the teaching program  How the students feel, believe and value about the teaching program  How skilled the students have become on acquiring the teaching program Usefulness of observing and recording the behavior of trainees..  Finding current gaps in teaching program  Evaluation and analysis of performance  Providing feedback to the curriculum developers  Further planning and redesigning the curriculum Levels of observing and recording the behavior of trainees  Cognitive (knowledge)  Affective (attitude)  Psychomotor (motor skills) Factors affecting the observing and recording the behavior of trainees  Time  Competency of the teacher  Teaching learning environment  Budget  Type and level of the course or program of study etc.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning domains  Knowledge is not power unless it is acted upon.  The concept of learning has changed from merely knowing to knowing, developing attitude and applying in life processes.  A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities: o Cognitive: Mental skills (Knowledge) o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Cognitive domain It further includes six domains like knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and ,evaluation

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) o

o

o

o

o

o

Knowledge o Recalling specific and general items of information and also information about methods, processes and patterns o Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states. Comprehension o Recognition of items of information settings similar to but different from those in which they were first encountered. o Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates. Application o Explaining previously unseen data or events by applying knowledge from other situations o Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. Analysis o Breaking down blocks of information into elements for the purpose of clarification. o Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. Synthesis o Combining elements to form coherent units of information. o Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes. Evaluation o Making judgment about the value of information, materials or methods for given purposes o Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective domain The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as o

feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) Affective domains are further divided into five levels: Receiving: o o

Sensitivity to certain stimuli and a willingness to receive or attend to them. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding: o o

Involvement in a subject or activity or event to the extent of seeking it out, working with it or engaging in it. Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Valuing: o o

Commitment to or conviction in certain goals, ideas or beliefs Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Organisation: o

o

Organisation of values into a system, awareness of relevance of and relations between appropriate values and the establishment of dominant personal values. Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.

Characterisation by a Value Complex: o o

Integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes into a total philosophy of world view. Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor domain The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor‐skill areas. o Development of these skills requires practice o measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. o It talks about the third level of performance with the help of physical movement when the o

o

cognitive and affective levels have already met. It goes beyond the classroom setting and focuses on ability to apply the learnt things in practical life.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) o The learner has reached the level to perform in front of other novice learners. o Hence, the student has reached the level in which he is mentally prepared to act physically. o Hence, the learner is able to use sensory cues (signals) to guide motor activity which gradually extends up to the level in which he can finally become used to it and further can develop new movement patterns. Detail of the domain The different categories of the psychomotor domain from simple to complex level are given below:

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

1. Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. Also called the selection step a. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects. Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. a. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers. Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. a. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. a. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. Complex Overt Response: a. The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. b. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. c. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. d. The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc. Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. a. Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills. a. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

6. Analysis and Evaluation Evaluation is a systematic way of learning from experience and using the lesson learnt to improve current activities and promote better planning by careful selection of alternatives for future action ‐WHO o o o

o

Analysis is a part of evaluation. In the above definition of evaluation given by WHO, analysis is the systematic way of learning from experiences. Thus analysis helps identify the current gaps in teaching programme whereas evaluation is analysis+ what can be done to overcome the current gaps appropriately for future action Thus evaluation is the process of o Determining the appropriateness of program planning (diagnostic), o Assessing the degree of effectiveness and progress of programme implementation (formative), o Measuring the final achievement of the program (summative), and finally suggesting appropriate measures for corrective action

6.1. Levels of evaluation o Diagnostic evaluation o Formative evaluation o Summative evaluation 6.1.1.Diagnostic evaluation  Done at beginning of program.  Also called input evaluation  Done to know if proper steps are followed in o need assessment, o working hypothesis, o setting objectives, o Selecting content o selecting the appropriate methods and resources 6.1.2. Formative evaluation o Done in the middle of evaluation o Also called progress evaluation

o

o

Done to know if proper steps are followed in o Delivering the content o Using the selected methods and resources o Observing and recording the behavior of trainees Also recommends the ways and means to improve learning procedures

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) 6.1.3. Summative evaluation o Done at the end of the programme o Also called achievement evaluation o Done to analyze: o Success of the programme as a whole. E.g. Development in knowledge, attitude and skills of students after overall programme, Change in the morbidity and mortality rate, Improvement of socioeconomic status of people o Provides appropriate feedback for redesigning the curriculum

Criteria for evaluation (as recommended by WHO) o Adequacy o Relevancy (as per the needs) o Efficiency o Appropriateness (techniques, procedures) Methods of evaluation o Interview o Observation o Review of records and reports o Meeting and discussion Process of evaluation ‐(R.F Mager) o Formulating the objectives of evaluation o Determining appropriate techniques and tools o Collecting data and information using determined techniques and tools o Analyzing and interpreting the collected data and information o Preparing evaluation report and recommend to concerned authority for necessary action Factors influencing analysis and evaluation o Resource factors (Man, material, money, time, technology) o Political factors (instability, bureaucracy) o Performance and achievement of students o Impact of overall program on society o Ability of the analysts and evaluators

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

7. Corrective action based on manipulative variables Manipulative variables o Manipulative means skillful at influencing sb or forcing sb to do what you want, often in an unfair way, by editing, redesigning etc. o So manipulative variables are at risk of being used in an unfair way that may hinder the effectiveness of teaching programme o Hence corrective action needs to be done based on manipulative variables for effective teaching learning activities. Some manipulative variables  Teaching  Examination technique  Budget  Environment – student(setting)  Health (degree of concern)  Situation (situation of college (HR), university (concern), society (needs, pressure), job opportunities (filtering), political situation, trend across universities) Factors affecting the corrective action based on manipulative variables:  Interest, level of participation, pressure and feedback from the students  Cognitive, affective and psychomotor level of the students  Researches related to HR issues, school health etc.  Pressure from parents, society, university  Competition

8. Objective Revise 1. Objectives are the statement of what learners are intended to (after the specific session or/and the program of study):  Know (cognitive)  Think, believe (affective)  Do (psychomotor) 2. Two types  Course or session instructional objective (after the specific

session or course)  Program learning objective (after the completion of the program of study)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) 3. Objective Revision is hence the Revision of the statements of what the learners are expected to do after completion of the session, course or the overall program 4. Objective revision is one of the steps in corrective action in curriculum design in which change or modification is done as per the :  Analysis and evaluation processes.  Corrective action based on manipulative variables  Change in the concepts and theories of learning 5. Suppose, the corrective action is done in the examination technique as follows: E.g. let us suppose that,  Previously it was subjective questions in which students had to explain about domains of learning and now, it is multiple choice questions in which students have to identify which behavior falls under what domain of learning.  Hence the previous objective and revised objective will have different expectations from the students…

9. (Working) Hypothesis Revise  Initial course design is usually framed as working hypothesis which would be tested in practice and then remodeled according to the students response.  Hence revision of working hypothesis can be done as they are flexible and were just the draft hypothesis previously when they were initially designed. Why revision of hypothesis??  To avoid errors and fulfill gaps in the current hypothesis  To make curriculum more stable and functional  To facilitate the learning process,  to revise the contents as per the change in the needs of the students, society and country  To obey the diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation procedures Factors affecting revision of working hypothesis  Change in the needs  Change in learning theories  Researches  Resources  Findings from the evaluation processes

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Curriculum change  



The development in the field of education is possible by the gradual improvement and advancement i.e. change Curriculum also needs to change over certain period of time to comply the trend in the field of education so as to meet the requirement of students, colleges, university, recruiting agencies and the society Curriculum change is hence essential and equally challenging that requires careful procedures starting from reviewing and revising the educational objectives to the evaluation of the outcomes of education.

Steps of curriculum change 1. Objectives of education 2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum  Achievement (examination performance, proficiency in competency to serve society )  Student as learner (interview, meetings and discussions)  Curriculum problem (inappropriate depth and breadth, less adaptable, less significant and less applicable etc.) 3. Selection of curriculum content and experience (keeping following things in consideration)  Rational selection  Problem establishing criteria (i.e. problem settling criteria)  Significance  Depth and breadth  Adaptability  Appropriate need and interest of trainees 4. Organization of curriculum experiences and learning 5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

1. Objectives of education:  organized education contain varied possibilities for learning, whether or not the persons involved in planning the curriculum content take them into account in making decisions.  Unfortunately, the possibilities for negative learning are also available like:  Inadequate good feelings to self and others  Mechanical responses without complete understanding  Over‐dependence  Jumping to conclusions without much thought or evidence etc.  Hence, clarity of objectives is one of the most important aspects in designing the curriculum.  So, during the curriculum change process, the objectives should be reviewed and revised keeping the following things in consideration:  the acquisition of desirable learning should not be placed to chance  We shouldn’t over‐emphasize certain learning in ways that leads to less emphasis on desirable learning  We should equally be alert on potential negative learning  Thus, objectives should be reviewed and revised to make  a balance between Cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning  a balance between Course or session objectives and overall program objectives

2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum  Achievement (examination performance, proficiency in competency to serve society)  Student as learner (interview, meetings and discussions)  Curriculum problem (inappropriate depth and breadth, less adaptable, less significant and less applicable etc.)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

2.1. achievement The diagnosis can be done in different ways. Achievement is one of them.The Academic performance of the students as well as their practical skills can be evaluated in order to make new curriculum experience with the aim of developing curriculum experience to improve performance  The diagnosis in the achievement is done to evaluate the following:  The examination performance of the students (Written and verbal examinations)  Proficiency in competencies to serve the society  Evaluation of performance in the professional organizations by measuring competencies (direct measurement)  Feedback from the recruiting agencies, community people etc (indirect measurement)

2.2. Student as learner  The students can also be asked whether or not they have experienced the positive learning.  The diagnosis of “student as learner” is done because of the following reasons:  There may be negative learning experiences like less feeling of good to self and others, mechanical responses without complete understanding, abuse and unnecessary pressure, less support from the curriculum implementers etc.  To assess the motivation level of students and their involvement in curriculum experience. The different techniques to diagnose learning experience by students can be done by:  Review meeting  Interview  Discussions  Seminars etc.

2.3. Curriculum problem  Inappropriate depth and breadth  The contents are analyzed how deep the contents have gone into and how wide have they reached.  Depth is diagnosed to analyze the content adequacy or sufficiency  Breadth is diagnosed to analyze content linkage to other disciplines

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)  Less adaptable  The contents and teaching methodologies are diagnosed to evaluate whether or not the curriculum experiences can be internally accepted by the students to make it an integral part of their life and whether or not the students can adapt the curriculum experiences.  Also takes into account the adaptability in terms of sociocultural determinants, legal provisions, choice and interest etc  Less significant  Whether or not the curriculum experiences are as per the need of the students, society  Whether or not the contents are valid and reliable  Less applicable  Whether or not the learning experiences are possible in real life situations i.e. volume and complexity  Whether or not the learnt things can really be translated into behaviors i.e. feasibility

3. Selection of curriculum content and experience  While content is the “meat” of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning experiences planned for the students as the “heart” of the plan (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).  The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum.  Curriculum experience is also called the learning experience  Tyler used the term “learning experience” in his model of curriculum design  It is the instructional component of the curriculum in which the students, teachers and content interact among each other  Hence curriculum experience includes the following:  Methods (the lecture method, small group discussion, role‐playing, fieldwork)  learning activities (answering questions, solving problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing games )  Use of resources (whiteboards, markers, charts, LCD, OHP etc.)  The curriculum experience is selected in such a way that it meets the

newly refined and designed objectives of education (Rational selection)

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)  Rational selection is done for both contents as well as experiences  The rational selection of contents is done on the basis of problem establishing criteria like:  Significance  Depth and breadth  Adaptability  Appropriate need and interest of trainees

 Rational selection of curriculum experiences is done by:  Proper selection of teaching methodology as per the content  Proper selection of activities as per the methodology  Proper selection of the resources for carrying out activities  Rational selection helps for mutual interaction between the teacher, student and content  The selection is influenced by: budget, time, competency to use resources, technological advancement etc.

4. Organizing curriculum experiences and learning After having decided on the content and curriculum experiences, the next step is to organise them in a form that will facilitate learning.

Principles of Content Organisation The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998): Scope When deciding about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful:    

The usefulness of the content selected. whether the content caters to diverse student abilities if the amount of content selected can be covered in the specified period of time if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) Sequence Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among sections of the curriculum). The following are some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998, Taba, 1962, Bruner, 1960). a) Simple to complex – content is organised going from simple subordinate components to complex components depicting interrelationships among components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content. b) Spiral ‐ In a ‘spiral curriculum’, concepts may be introduced on a simple level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and application later on (Bruner, 1960) c) Prerequisites – it works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood. d) Whole to part – content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the connections between the parts. e) Chronology – this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history, political science and world events. f) Vertical organisation ‐ This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later. g) Horizontal organisation ‐ It involves how skills and content that are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political and economic point of view. Integration Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas are brought together in such a way to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge. Example of the integrated curriculum includes science‐technology‐society. In the science‐technology‐ society (STS) curriculum, science is combined with social sciences in attempting to solve practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local community. Continuity Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner progresses through the grades. For example, students in the primary grades are taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the

succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the curriculum.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

Criteria for organizing learning experiences: Domains of learning: Methods and materials should be organized in such a way that it meets the objectives in different levels in sequence i.e. from cognitive, affective to psychomotor. For example, lecture method ‐ group discussion ‐ demonstration Feasibility: The learning experiences should also be organized in such a way that they can be carried out in sequence with time, available facilities and expertise of teachers. They are prioritized accordingly in which some learning experiences may be omitted and some may be repeatedly used in sequence. Complexity: The simple methods and materials are selected first which are followed by more and more complex methods and materials to enhance sequential learning.

5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum  When the new draft curriculum has been formed during the curriculum change process, the evaluation of outcomes of the curriculum is necessary before making it accepted, accredited and stable.  The outcomes of curriculum are evaluated by the summative evaluation. Two levels:  to know if learners achieved the objectives  whether the programme produced the desired outcomes. Some questions that can be used while evaluating the outcomes of curriculum: 1) Have the competencies developed in students as per the set objectives after the completion of the program of study? 2) Has the curriculum been applicable in real life situations? 3) Has the lack of human resources in the society been overcome? 4) Are the people benefitted by the given curriculum? To what extent? 5) Has the given curriculum been successful in obeying the socio‐cultural norms and values? Etc.

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH) Methods of evaluation:  Questionnaire survey  Key informant interviews  Focus group discussions  Observations  Case study  Review of records and reports Process of evaluation:  Formulating the objectives of evaluation  Determining appropriate techniques and tools  Collecting data and information using determined techniques and tools  Analyzing and interpreting the collected data and information  Preparing evaluation report and recommend to concerned authority for necessary action