422 Theory

Chapter Two

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS: WHAT IS THEORY?

hat  W hat

is Communication?

Definition: ³The process through which messages,  both intentional and unintentional, create meaning´ (Metts, 2004, p. 5). y  Aspects: y

 

Dialectical nature Strategic and Consequential Ù Ù Ù

Perceptual consequences Behavioral consequences Relational consequences

What happens on a first date that will lead people to go on a second date? What leads one broadcasting  agency to become successful in a market?

How can a student be successful?

What would make employees in a given organization more productive?

hat  W hat

is Theory?

Naïve or ³lay´ theories« y There is no single ³correct´ definition of  theory  y Definitions depend on assumptions and needs/goals of theorist y But all agree that theory if fundamentally an abstraction y

Theory is not behavior but an abstract representation of behavior

Metaphors might help« Theories are a Reduct uction of  details to patterns of associations  A map  A fishing fishing net Spectacles

Difference between naïve theories and scientific theories y

y

Both lay theories and scientific theories function to organize information, describe phenomena, explain how communication works, and sometimes predict future occurrences. However, the important difference between lay  theories and scientific theories is that scholars must be able to argue for the validity validi ty (truth or correctness) of their theories²they do this empirically, statistically, and/or logically 

More Formal Definitions of Theory?

 Abstractions of the social world «that explain how, when, or why something happens, and exist at varying levels of  generality (Miller, 2005) y A description of concepts and  specifications of the relationships between or among these concepts (Metts, 2004, p. 9) y

hat  W hat y

Theories Are Not

Theories should be distinguished from hypotheses, typologies, taxonomies, and models. Hypothesis: A single statement about the relationship Hypothesis:  between two concepts (e.g., types of immediacy   Typology : Thematic categories (e.g., cues in the classroom or types of power)  Taxonomy : Categories that are arranged hierarchically  (types of animals) odels:: usually concerned with processes; draw on  Models typologies, taxonomies, and theories but describe without predicting or explaining. Ex.: the stages of relationship development and deterioration 

hat  W hat  A hypothesis y  A model y  A taxonomy  y  A paradigm y

Compliance Gaining Strategies REWARD APPEALS 1. Ingratiation 2. Promise 3. Debt 4. Esteem 5. Allurement PUNISHMENT APPEALS«etc.

a theory is not As depth of self-disclosure increases, relationships will grow

hat  W hat

is this?

hat  W hat

is this?

hat  W hat y

is this?

The more people from groups that do not like each other have contact or talk with each other, the more they will grow to like each other. (Contact  more Intergroup liking)

hat  W hat

are the ³parts´ of a theory?

Miller (2005):

(1) description of phenomena, y (2) relationships among these phenomena, ³storyline´ that y (3) an underlying ³storyline´ describes mechanisms mechanisms at work, and y (4) links between the abstract theory  and observed phenomena y

First²some review!

hat  W hat

are the ³parts´ of a theory?

Metts (2004):

(1) concepts y (2) relationships among these concepts y

ropositions OR Other statements

P

ropositions

yP

Temporal  Correlational  Causal 

 What does a theory do? (Metts, 2004, p. 14)

Function Organize

Describe Explain Predict

What the Theory Does

Functions of theories y

To provide answers to interesting questions and/or solutions to important problems Theories address empirical problems in  which something about the observed world is puzzling  Theories address conceptual problems in  which there are inconsistencies within a theory  or with other theories  Theories address practical problems of daily  life 

How are theories developed? Deductive approach to theory building:  Abstract theories are developed early in process, then tested with empirical observations y Inductive approach to theory building: Theoretical abstractions abstractions are grounded on extensive empirical observation y

 Actual practice

Deductive

Inductive

Inductive

Deductive

How can I tell if a theory is good? Metts y

Utility  y

y

scientific & practical

Scope 

Breadth (range of  applicability)

 Parsimony  y Heurism y Falsifiability 

Miller (Ch. 3; p. 44)

 Accuracy (entails

y

falsifiability) y

Consistency  (internal and external)

Scope y Simple (Parsimony) y Fruitful (Heurism) y

Paradigms & Theories

uhn uhn on Paradigms y Paradigms > Theories y The Paradox of Paradigms y Revolution versus accumulation y K 

Paradigm

shift as ³Revolution´

Normal Science Anomalies

´Revolutionµ Crisis

Paradigms Paradigm

& Theories

Paradigm

Theory  Type

Theory

Paradigm

Theory  Type

Theory

Theory  Type

Theory

Metatheoretical Commitments y

Metatheory : ³theory about theory´ -philosophical philosophical commitments

Metatheoretical commitments define different approaches to theory  development and research practices y Three important aspects of metatheory  are ontology ontology,, epistemology epistemology,, and axiology y

Ontology: The Nature of the Social  W orld orld y

y

y

Realist stance: stance: The social world is seen as

consisting of real entities, independent of an individual¶s perception Nominalist stance: stance: The social world consists of names and labels we use to structure reality  Social constructionist stance: stance:  W e create the social world through symbols and interaction  but it then becomes a ³reality´ constraining our behavior

These positions are on a continuum Realist

Social

Nominalist

Constructionist

Where

do you fall on this continuum?

Epistemology: The creation and growth Epistemology: of knowledge (Table 2.1, p. 29) Objectivist stance: stance: Causal explanations of the social world are developed through separation of  knower and known and use of the scientific method (observation, (observation, search for regularities in  behavior;  behavior; generalizab generalizable le knowledge) knowledge) y Subjectivist stance: stance: Emergent and local understandings of the social world are developed through situated knowledge and reports of  cultural insiders²researcher often becomes part of the group y Intersubje Intersubjectiv ctivist ist stance«? stance«? y

Paradigms:

Burrell & Morgan¶s View 

Burrell and Morgan outline sociological theories, many of which also appear in communication research, on two continua. continua, rather than simple y These are continua, categories (though (though they do inform Miller¶s discussion). y The two are as follows: y

1) Ontology/Epistemolo O ntology/Epistemology gy (x-axis)  2) Axiology (y axis) 

The Subjective-Objective Dimension Ontology/ Epistemology

Subjective

Objective

(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

The Subjective-Objective Dimension The

subjectivist approach to social science

The

objectivist approach to social science

Nominalism

ontology

Realism

Voluntarism

human nature

Determinism

Anti-positivism

epistemology

Positivism

Ideographic

methodology

Nomothetic

(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

Scientific key words CauseEffect, influence, affect, affect, lead to y Factors, variables y Predict y Generalizable y Analytic/reductionistic y Quantitative (or qualitative) y

Humanistic key words Contextual y Interpretive y Social construction y Holistic y Subjective y Qualitative (usually) y

 Axiology: The role of values in theory  development Most theorists theorists now reject the idea that tha t  values can be totally eliminated from the research process y Three positions are still evident: y

 values only play play a role role in parts parts of the the research process  values permeate permeate the resear research ch process process should direct direct the researc research h process process  values should 

Rephrased as questions:

Can research be value-free? y Should research be value-free? y W hat hat do you think? y

The Social Change/Status Quo Dimension Radical Social Change

Axiology

Regulation/Status Quo/Observation (Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

Critical key words Power (struggles, etc.) y Production and reproduction of social structures (like sexism, racism, classism) Empowerment, emancipation, y Empowerment, resistance y Social relations y Ideology, hegemony  y Social change y NOTE: May be qualitative or  quantitative y

 A very important note: C ritical ritical theory, at least in communication, is not a question of  method or ontological/epistemological assumptions, but of the purpose of research: y Study 1: Does exposure to pornography lead men to see women in more objectified terms? y Study 2: In what ways does the movie, Thelma and   Louise provide new (and empowering) narratives for  women¶s relationships?

Three (socially constructed) paradigmsnin

communication! RADICAL CHANGE

CRITICAL: Social change OBJECTIVE

SUBJECTIVE HUMANISTIC: Observe/ Interpret

SCIENTIFIC: Predict/ Control

REGULATION

(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 22)

Building Communication Theory Chapter 3

Two debates in ³Communicati ³Communication´ on´ 1977: Laws, Rules Systems y 1983: Scientific, Humanistic, Critical y Today¶s debates? hinking Communication y 1989:  Ret  hat would you find at a communication y  W hat conference today? hat do you find in the School of  y  W hat Communication at Illinois State University? y