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ATTRACTIVENESS OF SHAPE AND MAKING OF CONCRETE Jun Yamazaki Nihon University Kanda Surugadai, Tokyo, JAPAN SUMMARY Compressive strength was selected as the origin of the attractiveness of concrete. The bridges in recent two decades built in our country were presented and related to the manners in which they resist design forces. For the ground of bridge construction, the economics growth is continuing low, some of public works plans are frozen and investment in road construction has been reduced due to split in opinion on vision of infrastructure. In spite of seemingly unfavorable ground, numbers of bridges of the new types and greater scales emerged, showing imaginative efforts of public owners and construction industry. Visits of the members of the fib for participation to the first fib congress 2002 Osaka gave unusually lively international exchange. This must have added to the vigor of bridge and concrete engineers of our country. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Attractiveness of concrete Everybody is familiar with concrete in day to day life. Human sense is attracted to the texture, shape, mass and making of concrete structures. Attractive characteristics of concrete to the ordinary people, designers, architects, engineers, students, youngsters, researchers, businessmen and builders are versatile. In this paper the shape and mass of recent concrete structures are watched. Mostly bridges are mentioned and only a few buildings are referred due to writer’s limitation in the knowledge of architecture. Compressive strength capability is selected as a major element of attractiveness. Versatile shapes created by designers and engineers cited herein are all attributed to the compressive strength capability of concrete. The creativity and mechanics logic utilized to create civil and architecture structures are sustained through the decades across the boarders and the generations. In that argument, concrete cemented peoples together as well as structure components, which is also an attractive character of concrete and ethos of fib. 1.2

Compressive strength capability and enhancement by prestress

The higher the compressive strength, the slimmer the structure shapes can be. The prestress introduces pre-compression which can compensate for tensile stress occurring due to design loads, and hence, prestress enhances capability of concrete, i.e., the invention of prestress has given the concrete capability to resist both compression and tension. 1.3

Member forces and structural types that concrete is suited

Thus, concrete is used in the structural members subject to any member forces, compression, tension, shear, flexure and torsion. Logically, concrete is used in the most structure types, i.e., arches, columns, beams, tension and compression chords in trusses, tension members like

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suspension cables, and straight horizontal girder subject mainly in compression in cable stayed bridges. 2. VARIOUS SHAPES OF STRUCTURE 2.1 Slim shaping and gain in room Slim shaping of infrastructures gives more room to the activity space and serves to make human lives more attractive. A slim pedestrian bridge is in the serenity of a gentle living environment in a northern town of Sakata embraced in farmland. Fig.1. Another slim concrete pedestrian bridge provides an aerial passage in a business quarter clammed with electronics shops of Akihabara. Fig. 2.

Fig.1, 2

Fig. 1

Sakata Mirai

Fig. 2

Akihabara square

Both bridges have the shapes much slimmer than common concrete bridges due to a very high strength of the concrete, in the range of about 150 N/mm2 and 200 N/mm2. Sakata Mirai (Future) bridge is the first bridge in our country which is made of the ultra high strength concrete referred the reactive powder compound, PRC, with steel fibers. The material is a product of France known as Ductal, and used under license agreement. The characteristic strength used for design was 180 N/mm2. For the first construction in our country, an advisory board was created being participated by representatives from universities, government, prefecture and city governments, public third sector, highway public corporation, construction companies, design consultants and materials and products manufacturers. [1]. The pedestrian bridge of Akihabara square uses a very high strength concrete created by a domestic construction company. It incorporates the silica-fume, does not contain steel fibers and is cured in ambient temperature. The characteristic strength used for design was 120 N/mm2. Studies were made to identify and improve autogenous shrinkage of the magnitude about 600 millionth inherent to very low water to cement ratio in guard against time dependent prestress loss. [2,3]. 2.2 Arch As a typical structural member resisting in compression the arch is frequently and fondly selected. Fujikawa,[4], Beppu Myouban, and Ikeda-Hesokko, are large-scale arches. The span lengths and the years completed are 265m (2004), 235m (1989) and 200m (2000).

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Beppu Myouban bridge had to span a long distance over a hot spa resort (onsen), the photo shows an outdoor bath pool and the looks of the bridge had to be pleasant for the people residing and visiting in the view to the sea. Because of poor ground bearing capacity spreading the footings and additional horizontal resistance against horizontal thrust was necessary. Against sulfate attack the resin mortal layer was attached to the surface in contact with the ground. [5,6].

Fig. 3

Fijikawa

Fig. 4

Beppu-Myouban

Ikeda bridge in Tokushima is 5 span continuous deck stiffened arch. The maximum span length is 200m (2000). The depth of stiffening girder and that of arch rib was 4m and 1.25m respectively. Seismic resistance was verified by assuring the response curvature at arch springing is smaller than the ultimate curvature capacity when subjected to the ground surface acceleration record at Kobe marine meteorology observatory during the earthquake 1995 with peak acceleration of 0.88g. [7,8].

Fig. 5 Ikeda-Hesokko

Fig. 6 Balanced cantilever construction

Balanced cantilever construction method was employed for Ikeda bridge. For Beppu Myouban bridge the backstays were connected to relatively heavy foundation during free cantilever construction. The center portion of arch was built around the Melan member of steel truss type, which was lifted vertically. For Chamagawa bridge on Kobe-Naruto route of Honshu-Shikoku Crossing, 103m (1997),

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backstays were ground anchored, and the entire arch ring was built by free cantilever construction. [9].

Fig.7

Melan member of truss type

Fig.8

Chammagawa, Ground anchored backstays

Kashirajima bridge in Okayama prefecture spans 218m (2003) of the waters of the inland sea of Seto. Prefecture governments face constant overdue obligation to provide passage for the people living in islands who suffer from usual wants and fatal threats in case of emergency. The arch ribs are of steel and concrete composite section. The steel girders are cantilevered first and later wrapped into concrete. To close the mid-span space, a Melan member of steel girder type, 130m in length, was hoisted by a crane ship of 13000KN lifting capacity. [10,11].

Fig. 9 Kashirajima

Fig. 10 Melan member of girder type

Arch is used also for a long bridge with short repetitive spans. Haebaru bridge in Okinawa is 828m in length consisting of 18 spans each being 39m in length (1996). The design base shear factor due to earthquake design force was 0.17. The zone factor was 0.7 and dynamic magnification was 1.25. The rank of seismic hazard is relatively low in Okinawa. The natural period of the bridge was computed to be about 1.30 seconds in longitudinal direction, and that in transverse direction was about 0.75 seconds. [12].

Fig. 11

Haebaru

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2.3 Vertical construction High piers have been built. Height of the pier of Washimi bridge (2001) is 118m and that of Shibakawa viaduct in Shizuoka is 83m (2004). For Washimi pier the characteristic strength of concrete is 50N/mm2 and that for reinforcing bars is 685 N/mm2. Use of the higher strength materials made reduction in cross sectional area of the pier as compared to the case where concrete and steel strengths were 30 and 345 N/mm2. That resulted in increase in natural period from 2.1 second to 2.6 second. [13].

Fig. 12

Washimi bridge and high piers utilizing high strength concrete and steel

For Shibakawa piers, the steel tubular columns are wrapped around by strands for prestressing steel and are incased in concrete. [14].

Fig. 13

Shibakawa viaduct and composite high piers

The same type of the composite pier was used for Miyakodagawa bridge in Shizuoka, of which, the height of the pier was 56m (2001). [15,16].

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Fig. 14

Miyakodagawa bridge and composite high piers

The piers that continue to the pylons of the cabled stayed Egypt-Japan Friendship bridge over Suez canal, is 154m high (2001), and built by slip-form method. [17,18].

Fig. 15 Egypt (Suez), high piers

Fig. 16

Ikara bridge and high pylons

2.4 Cable stayed bridge and the role of the girder in taking compression Ikara bridge has the span length maximum in our country at 260m (1996). [19]. Ohshiba bridge in Hiroshima prefecture with a center span of 210m (1997) has the edge girders of which the depth is 1.0m. This depth is very small for cable stayed bridge in our country. [20]. Worldwide, Evripos bridge in Greece designed by Prof. Jorg Schlaich with a span 214m has girder of which the depth is 0.45m. [54]. Diepoldsau bridge in Switzerland designed by Prof. Rene Walther with a span 97m has a girder of which the depth is 0.55m. [60].

Fig. 17 Oshiba bridge and slender deck

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Hence, it is seen that the girder of cable stayed bridge is a compression member. The flexural rigidity is not an indispensable requirement for the girder. Even the thin girders are capable to withstand high compression of horizontal component of tension in stay cables. The compressive capability of concrete is seen to be very high since a cross sectional area is much smaller as compared to that of the girder bridge of the same span. 2.5 Corrugated steel web and its suitability to the girders of cable stayed bridges The forgiveness to compression makes the corrugated steel webs logically suitable element for the girder of cable stayed bridge. Yahagigawa bridge has cantilever length of 166m (2005). A single plane stays support the road deck that carry 6 traffic lanes. The depth of the girder is 6m on support at pylon and 4m elsewhere. Its resistance against buckling due to diagonal compression due to shear in the girder has been studied by analysis and load tests. The bridge is now a gateway to the Aichi Eco Expo. [21,22,23].

Fig.18

Yahagigawa bridge which incorporates girders with corrugated steel webs

The corrugated steel webs are logically suitable structure elements for the girders in any structure type where longitudinal prestressing is applied. Shimoda bridge has the longest span length in our country, 130m (2002). [24].

Fig. 19 Corrugated steel web, forced to buckle in diagonal compression due to shear

Fig. 20

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2.6 Bridge with extradosed prestressing cables St. Remy de Maurienne bridge in France has extradosed cables continuous between two ends of two spans continuous girder with a single center pylon. Its low profiled pylons and stays should provide the passers an open feeling visibility.

Fig. 21 Extradosed prestressing of St. Remy de Maurienne of France, Open feeling visibility Whereas, another structural configuration of multiple straight cables as depicted by Mathivat was accepted fondly in our country, maybe partly due because that structure configuration is conveniently built by the free cantilever construction method which is extensively common in our bridge construction industry. Odawara bridge is the first of its kind in our country and its center span length is 122m (1994). [25].

Fig.22

Free cantilever construction, and, Extradosed prestressing of Odawara bridge

Fig.23

Mandaue-Mactan, Philippines

The span length of Mandaue-Mactan bridge in Philippines reached 185m (1999). [26]. As the span lengths become larger, it became logical to reduce the dead load of the girder. The center portion of the span has been made of steel girders in several bridges. For Palau-Japan friendship bridge, 247m (2001) span of which the central portion of the girder is 82m in length, and was lifted from a barge. The depth of the concrete girder at the pylon is 7m. [27,28]. Kiso-gawa bridge and connecting Ibi-gawa bridge also have mid-span portions of steel girders. The span length is 271.5m for Ibi and 275m for Kiso (2001). A single plane stays carry a road deck 28m in width. The depth of the girder at piers is 7m. The continuous girder is supported on base isolating rubber type bearings. [29,30,31].

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Fig. 24 Palau, mid span section is of steel

Fig. 25

Kiso-gawa and Ibi-gawa

The longest span of genuinely concrete girder bridge with extradosed prestressing in our country is 200m of Sannohe Boukyou bridge in Aomori prefecture (2004). [32].

Fig. 26

San-nohe boukyou

Smaller bridges also adopt extradosed prestressing. Choujaga bridge in Sado island of Niigata prefecture has center span length of 90m(2002).A box section is protected with polymer coating materials. [33].

Fig. 27 Chouja-ga Shin Meisei bridge in Nagoya city has a refined shape of deck. A trapezoidal section is composed of precast central cores which are connected longitudinally first, and then the both sides of the core box are joined by the wing elements composed of deck slab and an inclined web. The effective deck width varies between 18.6m and 22.6m, and the span length is 122m (2004). [33,34].

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Fig.28

Shin-meisei bridge, Nogoya

The sub-structuring division of the total structure into smaller elements requires sophistication and elaboration in design and construction than the case where the segmentation of the girders is in transverse plane only. Nonetheless, successful sub-division of the members into small elements opens a chance to utilize the precast concrete elements fabricated in the precasting plants. The legal limit of the weight on public roads in our country is 300 kN. For construction near residential or commercial areas the smaller and lighter concrete segments are more conveniently handled by smaller construction equipments.

Fig. 29

Shin-meisei, smaller precast elements and construction sequence

To the same end but a different way of sub-structuring was invented for Kamikazue and Anjo viaducts in Aichi prefecture. The deck which carries 3 traffic lanes is composed of two separate boxes, of which the sides of the upper flanges are jointed by lapping the loop reinforcement. A thorough verification of static and fatigue strength of the joints was performed. [36].

Fig. 30

Kamikazue and Anjo viaduct, with smaller precast elements joined longitudinally

For Shikari bridge in Hokkaido 70% of the cables is straight stay cables and 30% continuous cables. Span length is 140m (2000). Shikari bridge has a relatively low profile of extradosed cables. It appears as though the external tendons are slightly projected above the top surface

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of the girder. The builders of this bridge refer this bridge in Japanese terminology meaning “ bridge with tendons of large eccentricities”. The term suggests that extradosed prestressing tendons are a variation of classic prestressed concrete internal tendons in the girders.

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

Shikari

Strait stay cables and continuous cables of large eccentricities

2.7 Girder bridge

Fig.33

Eshima

Eshima bridge in Shimane prefecture has a center span length 250m (2004). It is a rigid frame structure with a hinge at span centers and similar to a classic structure type such as the ones created by Finsterwalder in 1950’s. The depth of the girder is 15.5m at supports. [37]. 2.8 Truss bridges Yamakuragawa railway bridge in Niigata prefecture has steel truss diagonals and concrete top and bottom chord, and prestressed by internal tendons in the bottom chords. The span length is 51.8m (2003). [38]. The steel diagonals are not directly connected but compression force and tension force are transferred to horizontal concrete chord by bond between steel diagonals and concrete. To each end of the tension diagonals a steel box is welded. The ends of compression diagonals are encased in the steel boxes without contact. The perforations on the box walls allow concrete to fill in. [39]. This type of connection was invented by the contractor and used for Kinokawa road bridge in Wakayama prefecture also, as a value engineering alternative. [40]. Fig. 34 Yamakuragawa

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Fig. 36 Steel box encasing an end of compression diagonals Fig. 35

Kinokawa

Kaman-tani bridge in Tokushima prefecture has concrete truss diagonals and prestressed with external tendons. The span length is 51.7m (2004). The truss unit consisting of top chord, bottom chord, compression and tension diagonals, is prefabricated. [41].

Fig. 37 Kaman-tani

Fig.38 Truss panel units

2.9 Stress ribbon, Decked stress ribbon bridge and Curved chord truss bridge The term stress ribbon is after Finsterwalder, and a number of bridges of this type have been built in our country. Umenoki-Todoro park bridge in Kumamoto has 105m span (1989). [42]. Kikko bridge in Aoyama Kohgen golf club is a three-directional structure. The length of the three branches is about 45m (1991). [43].

Fig. 39 Umenoki – Todoro

Fig. 40 Kikko, three directional

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The innovators of Nozomi bridge in Gifu refer this type of structure in Japanese term meaning “Decked stress ribbon bridge in which the top part is separated from the bottom part at bridge ends”. The stress ribbon is built first. On top of it the struts and top deck are built. Eight tendons (primary tendons) are used in the stress ribbon, and additional six tendons (secondary tendons) are attached and are self anchored to the bridge ends. The ground anchors of primary tendons stay in place. The span length is 90m (2003). [44],[45],[46].

Fig. 41

Nozomi bridge, decked stress ribbon

Ganmon bridge in Ishikawa prefecture and Seiun bridge in Tokushima prefecture are developed by the same contractor. The type of these bridges is referred as “curved chord truss bridge” by the innovators. The stress ribbon bridge is first built. Then diagonal struts and top deck are built on top of the stress ribbon. Finally the tensile force in the stress ribbon is transferred to the entire structure to make a self anchored system. This type of bridge does not rely on the ground anchor after completion. The span of Ganmon bridge is 37m (2001) and that of Seiun bridge is 93.8m (2004). [47],[48],[49].

Fig. 42

Ganmon, stress ribbon, self anchored

Fig.43 Sei-un, similar type

2.10 Construction method to keep environment attractive Environmental protection during construction is strictly enforced. Hamayuu bridge crosses Hamana lake in Shizuoka prefecture. The lake is rich in fish resources. The surface of the lake had to be protected. The bridge is 790m long and has 9 spans (2003). In usual situation the free cantilever construction method using the form travelers would be employed, and a temporary platform parallel to the bridge will be built in the water. In stead, a girder in a form similar to the erection girder which passes above the bridge was used during construction. The girder provides a guide of the mobile carts for personnel and materials transportation. This construction method was proposed by the contractor to the public owner as a value engineering alternative.

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Fig. 44 Hamana-ko

Fig. 45

Hamayuu bridge, a temporary girder for transporting personnel and materials during construction, for environment protection

2.11 Buildings: pleasant and safe Precast and prestressed concrete is used for condominiums. “Ance for Decse” is the name which the developer created in the hope that the building be durable so that the ancestors affection of giving last long to the descendents.

Fig. 46 Condominium of quality and long life, lasting from “Ancestors to Descendents” Karato fish market in Shimonoseki of Yamaguchi prefecture is built with precast and prestressed members and external prestressing. This structural scheme gives a large space. Even though the shape of precast element is functional in resisting the forces, it gives artistically pleasing appearance when assembled into the ceiling.[50].

Fig. 47

Karato fish wholesale market

Fig. 48

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2.12 Seismic safety of the buildings The office building of Nada ward office of Kobe city was destroyed by Hansin Awaji great earthquake in 1995. A floor at about the mid-height of the building was smashed. The new building uses precast and prestressed concrete members with base isolation.

Fig. 49

Reconstructed Nada ward office of Kobe, precast prestressed and base isolated

2.13 Seismic safety of the road and rail bridges and viaducts In Niigata (Chuetsu area) earthquake 2004 the peak ground surface acceleration in some of the observation places exceeded 1500gals. A more accurate assessment is not available to the writer to date. For a continuous girder bridge the movable metal shoes were broken but the superstructure could stay in place. It may have been mostly because the dominant shaking was in the direction of the axis of the bridge, and the parapet backed by in-filled earth stopped the longitudinal movement of the girder. A common structure type of viaduct for Joetsu Shinkansen (the maximum speed between Tokyo and Niigata is 230 km/h) is reinforced concrete frame. Derailment occurred even though structural damages to the viaduct were moderate. Challenge continues to assure safety of the public transportation.

Fig. 50

A common highway bridge

Fig. 51

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3. CONCLUSIONS In view of the examples of construction presented the following was concluded. 1. Examples of the shapes of concrete structures were presented, and some thoughts were given to their relationship to the compressive strength capability of concrete. 2. Even in the decade (1995 – 2005) of freeze of construction schedule for roads and cut of public works investment, numbers of bridges emerged with the shapes with progressive ideas backed by logic of mechanics, durability and safety. 3. Regional public bureaus of state or autonomy as well as railroads and highway public corporations have been instrumental to realization of imaginative design and construction methods. Regional public bureaus are providing, through road and bridge construction, rescue to the needs of inhabitants in islands and mountainous regions suffering from wants in commodity, human communications and fatal threats in case of emergency. Japan Highway Public Corporations have succeeded in realizing numbers of bridges with progressive ideas, through technology innovations, overcoming the problems of budget cut due to split in opinion on construction of the second life line between Tokyo, Aichi industrial area, and Kansai area, in guard against great earthquakes. 4. Large scale bridges surpassing the records of various categories of the structure type, or shape, are: Arch (Fujikawa, 265m), Deck stiffened arch (Ikeda-Hesokko, 200m), Composite arch (Kashirajima 218m), Cable stayed with girder incorporating corrugated web (Yahagigawa, cantilever portion 166m), Extradosed prestress with steel girder in midspan portion (Kisogawa, Ibigawa, 275m, Palau 247m), Girder with corrugated webs (Shimoda, 130m), Extradosed prestressing (San-nohe Boukyou, 200m), Girder (Eshima, 250m), Hybrid truss for railroads (Yamakuragawa, 51m), road (Kinokawa, 85m), Stress ribbon (Umenoki-Todoro, pedestrian, 104m), Deck stiffend stress ribbon, Self-ancored (Seiun 93m), Half-self-anchored (Nozomi), High piers, with high strength materials (Washimi, 118m), with hybrid (Shibakawa, 83m). 5. Challenges were not only for large scale constructions. Engineers’ expertise is also exercised including that for medium to small scale structures. Developments in several categories are noted. 6. Slim shaping of the structures reduced the bulk and mass of the structure effecting sparing use of materials, reducing disturbance of natural environment during construction. For example, Shibakawa viaduct. 7. Transparency of the concrete structures allows the view through the structure by adopting the common truss and an exotic truss utilizing the stress ribbon for the bottom chord which have elegant catenary shape. For example, Kinokawa, Yamakuragawa, and Kaman-tani of the trusses with constant depth, and Nozomi, Ganmon, and Seiun with the catenary shaped bottom chord. 8. Reducing the size of precast elements through sophistication of design, manufacture and construction procedures allows higher utilization of plant productivity, transportation into densely populated areas in urbanity and soothing environmental impacts during construction. For example, Shin-meisei, Kamikazue and Anjo. 9. Hybrid arches are finding increasing usage, incorporating steel skeletal structure which advances by free cantilever construction, later to be wrapped in concrete. Example, Kashirajima. 10. One effective form of maintaining competence and transparency in conducting public works was effected by inviting world eminent engineers as well as domestic engineers and academics representing all conceivable sectors of construction technology of the bridge projects reported herein.

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11. The imaginative improvements probably owe great deal to the prevailing construction schemes characterized by use of segmental and cantilever construction and external prestressing. The fundamentals and previous successful applications are well documented for those key technologies, among which are literature by Muller [53], Combault [60] and Virlogeux [56]. 12. In ideals conceiving, target focusing and methods creating by contemporary engineers when striving for realization of bridge projects, the works and words of predecessors gave encouragement, in particular, of those who visited our country and gave lectures, among the names of whom are, including the ones already mentioned herewith, Muller [56], Leonhardt [55], Virlogeux [59], Walther [60], Combault [52], Schlaich (Whose works were compiled by Holgate) [54], Troyano [58], Strasky [57], Astiz [51], and, those whom we know only by their works and writing, Freyssinet [53], Finsterwalder, and others whom we know by the literature. 13. Therefore, the attractiveness of concrete is to drive engineers to attain the better, and that has been sustained through generations and across the man-made boarders. 4.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The owners, designers and contractors of the bridges and buildings reported herein are gratefully acknowledged for trying and realizing the better structures and making valued information available. To the members of fib who visited our country to give lectures, to fulfill their professional duties, or, on the occasions of the congress, for your interests, guidance, discussions, arguments and even disagreement on various bridge construction projects, in common pursuit of better engineering, through the years since the inception of this federation, your associations have been always stimulating and enjoyable. Mr. Kazuo Otsuka of Kajima Corporation, and Mr. Nobuyoshi Wada of Retec Engineering Co. taught me on the subject of this report and always share their engineering experiences and expertise. Mr. Keiji Yamazaki of Kajima Corporation helped me with gathering references. To all of them the writer is sincerely indebted. 5. REFERENCES Abbreviations for fib documents; NR: National Report for Congresses, Proc., fib2002 Osaka: First fib Congress, page numbers in the condensed papers in Vols. 1 and 2, serial within in each session only, S1, etc, is session number. [ 1 ] Tanaka, Y., Musha, H., Ootake, A., Shimoyama, Y., and O. Kaneko (2002), “Design and Construction of Sakata Mirai Footbridge Using Reactive Powder Concrete,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 103-104. [ 2 ] Kita, S., Okamoto, H., Ichinomiya, T., and K. Suzuki (2003) , “Planning and Design of a Pedestrian Bridge Made of Low-Shrinkage Ultra-High-Strength Concrete,” Proc., The 12th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2003, pp. 75-78. (in Japanese) [ 3 ] Takeda, K., Yanai, S., Watanabe, T., and T. Ichinomiya (2003) , “Controlling Method for Autogenous Shrinkage of Ultra-High-Strength Concrete,” Proc., Annual Meeting, Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 25, 2003. (in Japanese) [ 4 ] Fukunaga, Y., Ichihashi, T., Osada, K., and M. Sadamitsu (2002), “Planning and Design of the New Tomei Expressway Fijikawa Bridge,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 33-34. [ 5 ] Wada (1989), “Reinforced Concrete Fixed Arch Bridge, - Beppu Myoban - ,” NR FIP1990 Hamburg, pp. 5-8

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[ 6 ] Ito, Y., Ichinose, H., Sakae, K., and N. Wada (1989) , “Design and Construction of Beppu (Tentative Name) Bridge ,” Journal of Prestressed Concrete, Japan, JPCEA, Vol. 31, No.5, Sept., 1989, pp. 43-56. (in Japanese) [ 7 ] Ando, H., Shoda, K., and A. Nakamura (2002), “Long Span Deck Stiffened Concrete Arch Bridge, - Ikeda Hesokko Ohashi - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp.97-100. [ 8 ] Ando, H., Mochizuki, H., Suzuki, K., and Y. Kogure (2002), “Aethetic Design of Long Span Arch Bridge - The Ikeda Hesokko Ohashi Bridge - ,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 31-32. [ 9 ] Kawado, A., Yoshii, M., Okawa, M., and I. Oda (1997) , “Design and Construction of the Chamagawa Bridge , “ Bridge and Foundation Engineering, Kensetsu Tosho, Oct., 1997, pp. 9-16. (in Japanese) [10] Nakamura, A., Sugita, K., Yamawaki, M., and T. Aramaki (2002), “Design and Construction of the Kashirajima Bridge,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 31-32. [11] Hoaki, J., Ito, T., Aramaki, T., and A. Nakamura (2003) , “The Single Lift Erection Method and Construction of the Melan Section Applied to Kashirajima Bridge ,” Proc., The 12th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2003, pp.245-248. (in Japanese) [12] Hirose, I., Ijuuin, H., Toshinobu, A., and Y. Sakai (1998), “Multi Span Reinforced Concrete Bridge, - Haebaru Viaduct - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 103-106. [13] Ashizuka, K., Ichinomiya, T., and R. Amano (2002), “Prestressed Concrete Bridge with High Pier, -Washimi Bridge- ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 37-40. [14] Fukunaga, Y., Osada, K., Nakajima, T., and M. Nishisu (2002), “Design and Experimental Research of Prestressed Concrete Box Girder Bridge Supported Cantilevering Deck Slab with Inclined Struts”, Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 101-102. [15] Terada, N., and T. Kato (2002), “Prestressed Concrete Extradosed Bridge, Miyakodagawa Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp.153-156. [16] Terada, N., Mochizuki, T., Komai, K., and S. Nakamura (2002), “The Design and Construction of the Miyakodagawa Bridge in the 2nd Tomei Expressway,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp.13-14. [17] Kamisakoda, K., Fouad, A., Shaker, S., and N. Ishitate (2002), “Construction of the Japan-Egypt Friendship Bridge Pylons,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 29-30. [18] Foud, A., Shaker, S., Ishitate, N., and K. Kamisakoda (2002), “Japan-Egypt Friendship Bridge- ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp.133-136. [19] Maeda, T., and K. Kamisakoda (1998), “Five-Span Cable Stayed Continuous Prestressed Concrete Stayed Bridge (writer’s note, cable stayed spans are only middle three spans), Ikara Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 119-122. [20] Morimitsu, T., Ide, K., Noborita, H., and T. Yamamoto (2002), “A Cable Stayed Bridge with a Slender Segmental Concrete Superstructure, - Oshiba Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 121-124. [21] Terada, N., Kamihigashi, Y., Yamamoto, T., and G. Okuyama (2004) , “Design of Yahagi Bridge ,” Journal of Prestressed Concrete, Japan, JPCEA, Vol. 46, No. 5, Sep., 2004, pp. 14-22. (in Japanese) [22] Ikeda, H., Ashiduka K., Okimi, Y., Ymamoto, and T., Ichinomiya, T., M. Kano (2002), “A Study on Design Method of Shear Buckling and Bending Moment for Prestressed Concrete Bridges with Corrugated Steel Webs,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 61-63. [23] Kadotani, T., Aoki, K., Shoji, A., and T. Yoshikawa (2002), “A Study of the Ultimate Strength of Prestressed Concrete Bridges with Corrugated Steel Plate Webs with an Entirely External Cable Structures,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp.63-64. [24] Azeta, M., Hirayama, K., Ohtsuka, K., and K. Ohnuma (2003) , “Design and Construction of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Using Corrugated Steel Webs - Shimoda

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Bridge - ,” Concrete Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 , JCI, Jan, 2003. (in Japanese) [25] Ogawa, A., Kasuga, A., and H. Okamoto (1998), “Prestressed Concrete Extradosed Bridge, - Odawara Blueway Bridge - ,” NR FIP 1998 Amsterdam, pp. 47-50. [26] Kimishima, M., Maeda, H., and K. Yamazaki (2002), “Extradosed Prestressed Concrete Bridge in the Philippines, - Second Mandaue-Mactan Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp.145-148. [27] Oda, I., Oshima, H., Kashiwamura, T., and N. Suzuki (2002), “Design and Construction of Japan-Palau Friendship Bridge,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 39-40. [28] Oshima, H., Suzuki, N., Kashiwamura, T., and I. Oda (2002), “3-Span Hybrid Extra-dosed Bridge, - Japan Palau Friendship Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 141-144. [29] Ikeda, H., Nakamura, K., Nakasu, M, and S. Ikeda (2002), “Construction of the Superstructures of Kiso and Ibi River Bridges,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 9-10. [30] Ikeda, H., Nakamura, K., Nakasu, M., and S. Ikeda (2002), “PC-Steel Composite, Continuous and Extradosed Bridges - Kiso and Ibi River Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp.137-140. [31] Nakasu, M., Yanaka, M., Yamanobe, S., and H. Okamoto (2002), “Aseismic Behavior Assessment of A Long Span Composite Extradosed Bridge (Kiso River Bridge) ,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 131-132. [32] Kudoh, H., Ono, H., Matsumoto, K., and T. Tamura (2004) , “Construction of Sannohe Boukyou Bridge ,” Proc., The 13th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2004, pp.5-8. (in Japanese) [33] Shirakawa, H., Nakamura, M., Yokoo, H., and T., Kajiwara (2001) , “-Sado Island Beltway- A Construction of an Isolated Regional Road Bridge, Fukaura (Tentatice Name) Bridge,” Proc., The 11th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2001, pp.495-500. (in Japanese) [33] Mizuno, K., Iida, J., Nakayama, H., Wakasa, T., and A. Kasuga (2002), “Design and Construction of Shin-Meisei Bridge - ,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 137-138 [34] Mori, N., Nakayama, H., Suzuki, M., Yamada, S., Kasuga, A., and K. Mizuno (2003) , “Design and Construction of Shin-Meisei Bridge,” Bridge and Foundation Engineering, Kensetsu Tosho, Apr., 2003, pp. 2-9. (in Japanese) [35] Suzuki, Y., Sakai, H., Kutsuna, Y., and K. Uehira (2002) , “Planning and Design for Fabrication in the Shop of Precast Segmental PC Box Girder Bridge for the Kamikazue and Anjo Viaducts on the New Tomei Expressway ,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 13-14.. [36] Sasaki, H., Ikeda, T., and T. Ichinomiya (2002), “Prestressed Concrete Extradosed Bridge, - Shikari Ohashi Bridge -,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 149-152. [37] Ito, Y., Saimoto, M., and K. Taniguchi (2004) , “Construction of Eshima Oohashi ,” Proc., The 13th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2004, pp.353-356. (in Japanese) [38] Ishida, K., Kido, M., Koyama, Y., and H. Ohkubo (2004) , “Design and Construction of Yamakuragawa Bridge in Uetsu Line - The PC Through Girder with Steel Pipe Truss Webs and Open Slab ,” Journal of Prestressed Concrete, Japan, JPCEA, Vol. 46, No. 2, Mar., 2004, pp. 56-63. (in Japanese) [39] Minami H., Yamamura, M., Taira, Y., and K. Furuichi (2002), “Design of the Kinokawa Viaduct Composite Truss Bridge,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 83-84. [40] Furuichi, K., Taira, Y., Masumoto, K., and M. Yamamura (2002), “Fatigue Tests of a New Joint in Composite Bridge Using Diagonal Composite Bridge Using Diagonal Steel Truss Web,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 117-118. [41] Oosugi, T., Yamazaki, K., Yamamoto, M., and Y. Katsuragi (2004) , “Design and

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Manufacture of KAMAGATANI Bridge ,” Proc., The 13th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2004, pp.59-62. (in Japanese) [42] Arai, H., and T. Yamamoto (1989), “Prestressed Concrete Stress Ribbon Bridge, Umenoki Todoro Bridge - ,” NR FIP 1994 Washington, D.C., pp. 13-16. [43] Arai, H., and Y. Ota (1991), “Prestressed Concrete Stress Ribbon Bridge, - Kikko Bridge - ,” NR FIP 1994 Washington, D.C., pp. 1-4. [44] Machi, T., Yanai, H., Nikaidou, T., and T, Kumagai (2002), “Design and Construction of the Stress Ribbon Bridge with External Tendons,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 41-42. [45] Kumagai, T., Tsunomot, M., and T. Machi (2002), “Stress-Ribbon Bridge with External Tendons, - Morino-Wakuwaku Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp.169-172. [46] Yoshikawa, T., Miura, H., Kamiya, Y., and M. Tsunomoto (2003) , “Design of Hybrid Stress Ribbon Deck Bridge Considered Dismantling and Reusing ,” Proc., The 12th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2003, pp.617-620. (in Japanese) [47] Komatsubara, T., Miyazaki, M., Kondo, S., and K. Itoh (2002), “Prestressed Concrete Curved Chord Truss Bridge, - Ganmon Bridge - ,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 185-188. [48] Kondoh, S., Komatsubara, T., Kumagai, S., and S. Ikeda (2002), “Construction of Curved Cord Truss Bridge Using Stress Ribbon Erection Method,” Proc., fib2002 Osaka, S1, pp. 39-40. [49] Kuwano, M., Noritsune, A., Yamasaki, K., and K. Saito (2003) , “Design and Construction of the Seiun Bridge ,” Proc., The 12th Symposium on Developments in Prestressed Concrete, JPCEA, 2003, pp.385-388. (in Japanese) [50] Saito, M., Hasegawa, K., and Wu Yunhuan (2002), “The Precast-Prestressed (PcaPC) Structure with Cable Stayed + BSS System, -The New Karato Wholesale Market -,” NR fib2002 Osaka, pp. 21-24. LITERATURE: [51] Astiz, M.A., (2002): Bridge Design and Mechanics: Still a Durable Relationship in the XXI Century?, Proc. fib Osaka Congress 2002, Oct., Vol.1, Primary session, pp.51-66. [52] Combault, J., (2004) : Precast Concrete Segments for Bridges, Fabrication and Assembly - Fundamental Details, Proc., fib Symposium 2004 Delhi, Vol.2 (Keynotes), pp. 17-40. [53] Fernandez Ordonez, J.A.(2000) :Eugene Freyssinet, Translation by Ikeda, S. et. al, Kensetsu Tosho, May, 537 p., (in Japanese) [54] Holgate, A., (1997) : The work of Jorg Schlaich and his team, Edition Axel Menges. [55] Leonhardt,F. (1994) :Brucken - Bridges, Aesthetics and Design, 4 Aufl., Deutsche Verlags - Anstalt. [56] Muller, J. (1988) : Construction of the Long Key bridge, PCI Journal, Nov.-Dec., 1980. [57] Strasky, J., (2002): The Power of Prestressing, Proc. fib Osaka Congress 2002, Oct., Plenary session, pp.69-88. [58] Troyano,L.F., (2003): Bridge engineering, A global perspective, Thomas Telford. [59] Virlogeux,M. (1993) : La conception et la construction des ponts a precontrainte exterieure au beton, La Precontrainte Exterieure, AFPC, ITBTP, SETRA, Editeur SEBTP, janvier , pp.4-119. [60] Walther, R., (1988): Cable Stayed Bridge with Slender Deck, Report No 81.11.03, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology -Lausanne-, Prestressed and Concrete Institute -IBAP, Sept.,157p.

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