210624142-Facade-Notes
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE PART II
BRITISH STANDARDS PART III
AMERICAN STANDARDS ANNEX
DESIGN AIDES 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
DISCLAIMER This compendium of international building codes and standards for façade construction is compiled as private property for the purposes of personal notes only. The compiler does not claim ownership specifically where data or content is referenced to a source. If this façade notes reaches the hands of another person aside from the compiler, it should not be distributed, copied or published in any form or manner. If information contained in this notes are used as reference, the compiler does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information nor its usefulness in achieving any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of these notes. The compiler will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on information in these notes.
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA PE Board Examination Topnotcher, 2
nd
Place │1998
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering - Saint Louis University │1993 – 1998 Master of Science in Structural Engineering - University of the Philippines │1999 – 2001 ______________________ Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist –
Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –
Structural Engineer - LINDNER-SCHMIDLIN, Switzerland │2008 – 2014 Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN TSK, Switzerland │2006 – 2008 Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN LLC, Dubai │2005 – 2006 Façade Engineer - ARUP, Singapore │2004 – 2005 Structural Engineer - United Reliance Engineering Pte. Ltd., Singapore │2001 – 2004 Civil Engineering Instructor - Mapua Institute of Technology, Philippines │2001 – 2001 Design Engineer - Sumitomo Construction Co. Ltd., Philippines │1999 – 2001
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents I-1
LOADS
5
1.1
Dead load (D)
5
1.2
Imposed/live load, (L)
6
1.3
Snow load (S)
12
1.4
Wind load (W)
14
1.5
Load combinations
25
I-2
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
26
2.1
Deflection limits
26
2.2
Structure tolerance
27
I-3
DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING
31
3.1
Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile)
31
3.2
Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications
32
I-4
STEEL DESIGN
33
4.1
Properties of steel
33
4.2
Properties of stainless steel
35
4.3
Resistance of steel cross-sections
36
4.4
Sheets as diaphragms
39
4.5
Cold-formed members
40
I-5
ALUMINIUM DESIGN
41
5.1
Properties of aluminium structures
41
5.2
Definitions
42
5.3
Protection at metal-to-metal contacts
43
5.4
Cross-sectional properties
44
5.5
Resistance of aluminium cross-sections
47
5.6
Cold formed members
50
I-6
CONCRETE DESIGN
51
6.1
Properties of concrete
51
6.2
Concrete design
52
6.3
Anchorage design
52
I-7
TIMBER DESIGN
53
7.1
Strength grade
53
7.2
Service class
54
7.3
Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL
55
I-8
GLASS DESIGN
59
8.1
Properties
59
8.2
Glass sizes
59
8.3
Glass holes
59
8.4
Structural design of glass
60
PART 1 EUROCODE
3
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
4
8.5
Glass stress and deflection
64
8.6
Climatic effects
67
8.7
Structural silicone glazing (SSG)
69
8.8
Safety glass TRAV Requirements
71
8.9
Glass fins
73
I-9
STONE DESIGN
75
9.1
Properties
75
I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING
77
10.1 Testing overview
77
10.2 Weather performance tests
78
10.3 Impact resistance tests
82
10.4 Glass safety tests
84
10.5 Fire classification
85
I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
86
11.1 Bolted connections
86
11.2 Pin connections
93
11.3 Tapping screws and rivets
94
11.4 Stud welds
97
11.5 Weld
98
11.6 Plate bracket resistance
103
11.7 Anchors in Concrete
104
I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS
105
12.1 Thermal Performance
105
12.2 Acoustic Performance
105
12.3 Fire Performance
105
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
I-1 LOADS 1.1
Dead load (D)
Density of materials Group Material Metal
EN 1991-1-1:2010, Table A.3 Density, γ [kg/m³]
Group
Material
Concrete
Normal weight
Aluminium
2 700
Bronze
8 450
Light weight
Copper
9 100
Heavy weight
Iron, cast
7 400
Iron, wrought
7 750
Natural Stone
Density, γ [kg/m³] 2 450 900 – 2 000 > 2 000
Granite
2 750 – 3 000
Basalt, diorite, gabbro
2 750 – 3 150
Lead
11 600
Tachylyte
Steel
7 850
Sandstone, gray wacke
2 100 – 2 750
Stainless Steel
7 850
Dense limestone
2 000 – 2 950
Zinc
7 340
Slate
Glass
Glass (annealed)
2 500
Plastic
ETFE film
Insulation
FRC
Aggregates
Light weight
2 650
2 850 900 – 2 000
-
Normal weight
2 000 – 3 050
PVC-U 250
1 400
Heavy weight
> 3 050
Terra Cotta
2 100
Sand
1 400 – 1 950
Gravel & sand
1 500 – 2 000
Rockwool (Loose)
25
Rockwool (Medium)
51
Rockwool (Dense)
70
GRC
PART 1 EUROCODE
2 680
Wood
Timber
350 – 1 100
Plywood
500 – 700
Particle board
700 – 1 200
Fibre board
800 – 1 000
5
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.2
Imposed/live load, (L)
1.2.1 Occupancy live load, LV Imposed load balconies including floors and stairs Load Description
EN 1991-1-1:2010 EN 1991-1-1 UK NA Table 6.2 Table NA.3 qk [kN/m²]
A Domestic and residential activities
Qk [kN]
qk
Qk
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
A4 Billiard, snooker rooms
2.0
2.7
A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units
2.5
2.0
3.0
2.0*
4.0
2.0
2.5
2.7
3.0
2.7
2.0
3.0
2.5
4.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.6
3.0
2.7
C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
3.0
4.5
C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
3.0
4.0
C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to crowds
4.0
4.5
5.0
4.5
C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to crowds
4.0
4.0
C36 Light duty walkways- access for one person, width ≤ 600 mm
3.0
2.0
C37 General duty walkways- regular two-way pedestrian traffic
5.0
3.6
C38 Heavy duty walkways- high density pedestrian traffic incl. escape routes
7.5
4.5
5.0
3.6
5.0
7.0
5.0
3.6
7.5
4.5
4.0
3.6
A1/A2 Single family dwelling units incl. communal areas A3 Hotels, motels, hospital wards, toilet areas
A6 Balconies in hostel, guests house, residential club
1.5 – 2.0
2.5 – 4.0
2.0 – 3.0
2.0 – 3.0
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels B Offices
B1 General use above ground level
C1 Areas with tables
C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes and restaurants
B2 Ground level or below
C12 Reading rooms with no book storage
2.0 – 3.0
2.0 – 3.0
1.5 – 4.5
3.0 – 4.0
C13 Classrooms C2 C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating Areas with C22 Places of worship fixed seats C3 Areas without obstacles for moving people
C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to wheeled vehicles, including trolleys
C4 Physical activities
C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages C42 Drill halls and drill rooms
C5 C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars Susceptible and places of worship to large C52 Stages in public assembly areas crowds D D1 General retail shops Shopping/ D2 Department stores Retail areas Note: * Concentrated at the outer edge
6
3.0 – 4.0 2.5 – 7.0(4.0)
3.0 – 5.0
4.0 – 7.0
4.5 – 5.0
3.5 – 7.0
5.0 – 7.5
3.5 – 4.5
4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0(4.0) 4.0 – 5.0
3.5 – 7.0
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
1.2.2 Barrier loads, LH Claddings shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic values of the line load qk acting at the height of the partition wall or parapets but not higher than 1.20 m Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets, qk [kN/m] Category
Sub-category examples
EN 1991-1-1:2010 EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.12
A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including stairs, landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges Domestic and residential activities of roofs [see (vii)] (ii) Residential areas not covered by (i) B and C1 Offices areas
(iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and institutional buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including stairs
0.36
0.20 - 1.0 (0.5)
(iv) Restaurants and cafes
D
E Storage and industrial areas
0.74 0.8 – 1.0
0.74
1.5 1.5 3.0 3.0 – 5.0
(xi) Grandstands and stadia (See requirements of appropriate certifying authority)
-
(xii) Industrial; and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) and (xiv)
0.74
(xiii) Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and storage buildings except designated escape routes
0.8 – 2.0
(xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm wide F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges of roofs Garages and vehicle traffic areas (xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles
PART 1 EUROCODE
0.74
1.5
(viii) All retail areas
C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to Areas susceptible to sunken areas large crowds (x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping malls, assembly areas, studios Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to sunken areas
0.74
1.5
C2, C3 & C4 (v) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, Areas where people balustrade or parapet may congregate (vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps (vii) External balconies and edges of roofs Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to basement/sunken areas
UK NA Table NA.8
0.36 0.22 1.5
See Annex B See Annex B
7
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.2.3 Maintainance load, LM Roof live load
Roofs shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic uniformly distributed load qk and concentrated load Qk acting independently. EN 1991-1-1:2010
Imposed loads on roofs H Roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair
I Roofs accessible by occupants
EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.10 2
qk,[kN/m ]
Qk,[kN]
0 – 1.0 (0.4)
0.9 – 1.5 (1.0)
UK NA Table NA.7 2
Slope, α
qk,[kN/m ]
α ≤ 30˚
0.6
30˚ < α < 60˚
0.6[(60-α)/30]
α > 60˚
0
Qk,[kN]
0.90
Consider appropriate imposed loads according to categories A to D
• Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1 2
Working personnel, staff and visitors, with hand tools or other small site equipment shall be min. 1.0 kN/m . • Roof other than those with roof sheeting – EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.4.2 (4) Roofs, other than those with roof sheeting, should be designed to resist 1,5 kN on an area based on a 50 mm sided square. Roof elements with a profiled or discontinuously laid surface, should be designed so that the concentrated load Qk acts over the effective area provided by load spreading arrangements.
8
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
BMU Loading • Definition acc. to EN 1808:1999 1 – Trolley unit 2 – Monorail track 3 – Traversing trolley 4 – Single point suspended platform 5 – Carriage 6 – Fixed davit 7 – Counterweight suspension beam 8 – Suspended platform 9 – Parapet clamp 10 – Suspended chair EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.3.3
Wind loads Description Normal operation (25mph)
Wind speed
Wind pressure
11.2 m/s
0.08 kN/m
Unrestrained (H ≤ 40 m) Restrained (H > 40 m)
Impact energy**
0.29 kN
280 N·m or J
0.46 kN
690 N·m or J
1.00 kN
1400 N·m or J
2 2
14 m/s
0.125 kN/m
20 m/s
2
0.25 kN/m
Wind load for 3m long BMU*
Notes: * The exposed area of one person standing on a work platform behind 2 an imperforate section of fencing 1 m high is 0,35 m with the centre of area 2 1,45 m above the platform floor. The full area of one person is 0,7 m with the centre of area 1,0 m above the platform floor. ** Impact energy of the suspended platform when allowed to be drawn or sucked from façade by negative gust wind pressures acting on the suspended platform, and then released to impact into façade. • Minimum restraint force EN 1808 Cl. 6.7: The mullion guide and anchor points shall be adequately attached to the building and capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them with the platform in any position. The members linking the platform to the mullions or anchor points shall be capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them. For the calculation, the minimum value of the effort applied to the restraint system shall be 1 kN. • Restraint system EN 1808 Cl. 7.7.3: The lowest restraint point shall not be more than 40 m above the lowest working level. The distance between restraints above 40 m shall not exceed 20 m. 1 – Anchor point 2 – Member linking the platform to the anchor point 3 – Suspension wire ropes EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.2.1.1
Allowable stresses Condition
Load case
Allowable Allowable yield stress, breaking stress, σE/νE σR/νR
1
In service conditions, SAE with RL affected by wind.
Fy/1.5
2
Occasional conditions (e.g. static and dynamic tests, tripping of overload detection device)
Fy /1.33
3
Extreme conditions (e.g. operation of secondary device, out-of-service wind)
PART 1 EUROCODE
Fy
Fu /4.0 Fu /2.2 Fu /1.5
9
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height
EN 795:1997 Cl. 5
Anchor Devices Class
Diagram
Class A1 - Vertical, horizontal and inclined surface anchor devices
Static load
Dynamic test
10 kN [4.3.1.1]
1 – Structural anchors 2 – Anchor point
Class A2 - Inclined roof anchor devices
10 kN [4.3.1.2]
1 – Structural anchors 2 – Anchor point
Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices
100 kg mass at a maximum of 300 mm horizontal eccentricity from the anchor point to freely fall at a height of 2500 ± 50 mm.
10 kN [4.3.2]
1 – Anchor point
Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line
6 kN [5.3.4.1]
1 – Structure 2 – Extremity structural anchor 3 – Intermediate structural anchor 4 – Anchor line 5 – Mobile anchor point
Class D - Horizontal rigid anchor lines 1 – Anchor rail 2 – Mobile anchor point
100 kg mass at a maximum of 300 mm horizontal eccentricity from the anchor point to freely fall Dynamic performance test: at a height to provide sufficient fall energy to develop at least 6 kN.
One person: 10 kN Multiple person: 10 kN + 1 kN for each additional person. [4.3.4]
Class E - Dead weight anchors 1 – Anchor point
10
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
Temporary Edge Protection EN 13374:2004
Temporary edge protection Class
Inclination
Verification Static loads:
A
< 10°
B
10° - 30°
C
30° - 60°
Pendulum test: ≤ 200mm: 1100 J > 200mm: 500 J
- Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under horizontal loads FT1 & FT2 for boards and FH1 for posts - No material failure under vertical load FD (γF = 1.0) - No material failure under horizontal loads FH1 & FH2 (γF = 1.5)
All components are capable of resisting 30 kg upward force
Rolling Test: - 75 kg roller - Impact points (worst location): midspan and post
Sample of temporary edge protections
Class A Static load
Class B & C
Class C
Pendulum Test
Rolling Test
PART 1 EUROCODE
11
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.3
Snow load (S) Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to EN 1991-1-3 Cl. 5. EN 1991-1-3:2003
Snow load on monopitch roof Action
Values
Notes
Clause
Data
Z A Characteristic snow load, Sk: Region
Zone Site altitude, [m]
Fig. C.1 through C1.13
UK [NA.2.8]
Sk
0.1Z + 0.2 + ( A − 100 ) 525
Characteristic snow load on ground, 2 [kN/m ]
Table C.1
2 Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 ) 1 + ( A 728 )
Roof Shape coefficient
Canopy Shape coefficient
Central East
2 ( 0.264 Z + 0.002 ) 1 + ( A 256 )
Central West
0.164 Z − 0.082 + A 966
α Case (i): Undrifted load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ1 = 0.8 b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: 60 − α µ1 = 0.8 30 c) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0 Case (ii): Drifted load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: α µ2 = 0.8 + 0.8 30 b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: µ2 = 1.6 c) α > 60˚ µ2 = --
Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2 (a) Flat or monopitch roof – undrifted & drifted load Table 5.2
b1 b2 h b1 ≤ 5m or { b1 > 5m; h ≤ 1m}: ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 5.0}
Width of canopy projection Width of abutting taller building Differential height
(b) Duopitch Roof – undrifted (case i) and drifted load (cases ii & iii) Fig. 5.3 Table 5.2
5.3.6
Fig. B3 B4 (d) B4 (c)
b1 > 5m: ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 8.0} b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:
Fig. B2 B3 (3)
60 − α µ3 = min { 2h S k , 2bmax l s , 8.0} 30
Snow load
12
Case (i) Undrifted snow load s = Ce · µ1 · sk Case (ii) Drifted snow load s = Ce · µ2 · sk case (iii) Exceptional snow drift s = µ3 · sk
Table B1
2
Characteristic snow load, [kN/m ] Exposure coefficient, Ce: Topography Ce Windswept 0.8 Normal 1.0 Sheltered 1.2
5.2 (3)P Table 5.1
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Figure 1.3-1 Characteristic ground snow load map
PART 1 EUROCODE
LOADS
Fig. NA.1 UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003
13
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.4
Wind load (W)
1.4.1 Relevant dimensions For low-rise buildings (h/d ≤ 0.25), according to EN 1991-1-4, Table 7.1 the effect of building plan dimension is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face when the inwind depth “d” is the longer dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatively assumed unity.
1.4.2 Directional factor, cdir Directional factor, cdir EN 1991-1-4 Direction cdir 1.0
EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause 4.2 0° 0.78
30° 0.73
60° 0.73
90° 0.74
UK NA [Table NA.1] 120° 150° 180° 210° 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93
240° 1.00
270° 0.99
300° 0.91
330° 0.82
1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason These factors provide the 0.02 probability of exceedence for the period given. Seasonal factor, cseason EN 1991-1-4 Months January February March April May June July August 1.0 September October November December January February March
1 month 0.98 0.83 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.66 0.62 0.71 0.82 0.82 0.88 0.94 0.98 0.83 0.82
2 months
EN 1991-1-4:2005 clause 4.2 UK NA [Table NA.2] 4 months 6 months
0.98 0.86
0.98 0.87
0.83
0.83
0.75
0.76
0.71 0.67
0.84
0.73 0.83
0.71
0.86
0.82
0.90
0.85 0.89
0.96 1.00
0.95
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98 0.86
1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob The basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure determined using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic values having annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years). EN 1991-1-4:2005 Cl. 4.2 UK NA [NA.2.8]
Probability factor EN 1991-1-4 Probability of exceeding a given R-return period wind speed in L years Probability factor
-
c prob =
1 − 0.2 × ln − ln ( 1 − p ) = 1 − 0.2 × ln − ln ( 1 − 1 50 )
Return periods for climatic actions Duration Target return period Probability of exceeding in any one year, p of execution L ≤ 3 days 2 years 0.40 ≤ 1 month 3.5 years 0.25 ≤ 3 months 5 years 0.18 ≤ 1 year 10 years 0.10 > 1 year 50 years 0.02 14
p = 1 − (1 − 1 R)
Probability factor cprob 0.7982 0.8376 0.8622 0.9025 1.0
R L
1 − 0.2 × ln − ln ( 1 − p ) 1.3343
EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1 Wind load Rec. basic value vb’ = cprob · vb 0.64·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.70·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.74·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.81·qp qp -
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
1.4.5 Calculating peak velocity pressure Wind load calculation for EU Action Values Data Factors
EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause
Notes
Fundamental value of basic wind velocity (10 min. 4.2 (1)P mean), [m/s] cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-] c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-] vb,0
ρ = 1.25 kg/m3
Air density
Basic velocity pressure
vb = cprob · cseason · cdir · vb,0 qb = ½ρ·vb2
Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 2 Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ]
Peak velocity pressure
z ce(z) qp(z) = ce(z)·qb
Height considered above terrain, [m] [See Figure 1.4-1] Exposure factor, [-] 2 Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] Land category: Land Category 0 Sea or coastal area I Flat country without obstacles II Farmland with boundary hedges III Suburban or industrial areas IV Densely built-up urban areas
Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z)
PART 1 EUROCODE
4.5 (1) 7.2.2 Fig. 4.2 4.5 (1)
EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2
15
LOADS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]
16
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Wind load calculation for UK Action Values Data
LOADS
Notes
UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause
Basic wind velocity (10 min. mean), [m/s]
Fig. NA.1
10 calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A ⋅ z vb,0 = vb,map · calt cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4]
Altitude factor for z ≥ 10 m., [-] Fundamental value of basic wind velocity, [m/s] Directional factor, [-] Seasonal factor, [-] Probability factor, [-]
NA.2.5
vb = cseason · cdir · cprob · vb,0
Basic wind velocity, [m/s]
4.2 (2)P
qb = 0.613 · vb2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ] ρ = 1.226 kg/m
vb,map
[see Figure 1.4-3] 0.2
Factors Basic velocity pressure
Displacement h have = 15 m height x - for Town values of hdis: terrain (IV)
2
(if no available data)
hdis (lesser of) x ≤ 2have
3
4.2 (2)P
4.5(1)P
Building height, [m] Average height of neighbouring structures, [m] Site horizontal distance to other structures, [m] Effective height, [m]
A.5 (1)
Exposure factor, [-]
Fig. NA.7
0.8have; 0.6h
2have < x < 6have 1.2have – 0.2x; 0.6h 0 x ≥ 6have
Orography is not significant
ce(z)
[see Figure 1.4-4]
a) Country terrain (I & II) qp = ce(z) · qb b) Town terrain (III & IV) ce,T [see Figure 1.4-5] qp = ce(z) · ce,T · qb
co(z) = vm/vmf Orography is significant z ≤ 50 m
2
Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]
NA.2.17
Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, [-]
Fig. NA.8
Orography factor, [-]
A.3
2
co( z ) + 0.6 q p = ce( z ) ⋅ qb 1.6 z > 50 m cr(z) a) Country terrain (I & II) vm = co(z) · cr(z) · vb b) Town terrain (III & IV) cr,T vm = co(z) · cr(z) · cr,T · vb
Iv(z)flat I v(z) =
(
I v ( z ) flat co( z )
q p = 1 + 3I v( z )
PART 1 EUROCODE
)
2
⋅ 0.613 ⋅ v m 2
2
Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]
NA.2.17
Roughness factor, [-]
Fig. NA.3
Mean wind velocity, [m/s]
NA.2.11
Roughness correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.4 Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-]
Fig. NA.5
Turbulence intensity factor, [-]
NA.2.16 3
Peak velocity pressure for ρ = 1.226 kg/m , 2 [kN/m ]
NA.2.17
17
LOADS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.4.6 Factors and coefficients Figure 1.4-3 UK Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]
18
UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.1
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7
Figure 1.4-5 Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, ce,T
UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.8
2
5
5
20
30
50 70
Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z)
PART 1 EUROCODE
19
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements
The coefficients may be applied to non-vertical walls within ±15° of vertical acc. to UK NA.2.27. Characteristic wind load for walls of rectangular plan buildings Action
Values
Data
Notes
e = min{b; 2h} gap values of Cpe: Side wall Zone A
Clause
Building height, crosswind breadth, inwind depth, [m] Slenderness ratio, [-]
h, b, d h/d
External pressure coefficient
UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.2
Isolated
Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5 Gap to adjacent building, [m] External pressure coeff. for isolated & funnelling, [-] Table 7.1 NA.2.27 Funnelling
≤ 1m² > 1m² b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b -1.4 -1.2 - 1.6
B
-1.1
-0.8
- 0.9
C
-0.5
-0.5
- 0.9
Table 7.1
Windward wall D
h/d ≤ 0.25 +1.0 +0.7
h/d > 0.25 +1.0 +0.8
Leeward wall E Internal pressure coeff. Net wind Pressure
h/d ≤ 0.25 - 0.30
1 ≥ h/d > 0.25 - 0.5
h/d >1 - 0.7
cpi(+) = +0.2 cpi(–) = –0.3 Zones A, B, C & E: w = qp [cpe – cpi(+)] Zone D: w = qp [cpe – cpi(–)]
Internal pressure coeff. for uniformly distributed opening, [-] 2
7.2.9 5.2
Maximum net wind suction, [kN/m ] 2
Maximum net wind pressure, [kN/m ]
1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.10
Walls with more than one skin Action
Values
Data
µ = (area of opening)/(area of skin)
Case 1:
Permeable outside skin, µo ≥ 0.001: w+ = qp (2/3·Cpe+); w– = qp (1/3†·Cpe–) Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi)
Case 2:
Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe) Impermeable more rigid inside skin, µi > µo w = qp (Cpe – Cpi)
Case 3:
Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Permeable inside skin, µi ≥ 0.001: w = qp (1/3·Cpi)
Case 4:
Impermeable more rigid outside skin, µo > µi: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: w=0
Note: 20
†
Notes
Clause
Permeability of a skin
7.2.10
Applicable when extremities of the layer between skins are closed
7.2.10
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
2/3 according to CWCT 2.2.5.1.
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
1.4.9 Wind load for walls of rectangular plan building in London Wind Load in London Building height LONDON [m] Low-rise bldg. 10 Intermediate 25 Medium-rise 50 High-rise 100 Skyscraper 200
Pressure [kN/m²] 0,89 1,15 1,31 1,43 1,57
Isolated [kN/m²] Local Suction -1,16 -0,77 -1,50 -1,00 -1,71 -1,14 -1,87 -1,25 -2,05 -1,37
Funnelling [kN/m²] Local Suction -1,39 -0,85 -1,81 -1,10 -2,05 -1,25 -2,24 -1,37 -2,46 -1,51
200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120
Building Height [m]
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Wind Load [kN/m²]
PART 1 EUROCODE
21
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.4.10
Wind load on free-standing walls EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4
Wind load on free-standing walls Action Data Pressure coefficients
Values h, L φ
Net pressure coefficients
22
7.4.2 Fig. 7.20
)
Corner fins: cp,net = 2.0 Series of fins: x ψs cp,net = max{ψs·cp; 0.4}
Net pressure coefficient [-] Dist. of sheltering upwind fin ≥ h, [m] Shelter factor, [-] Net pressure coefficient [-]
[BRE NJCook cl. 20.8.3] 7.4.2 Fig. 7.20
w = cp,net · qp
EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3
Values h b zg values of cf: zg ≥ h/4 zg < h/4
Net pressure
Fig. 7.19
)
Wind load on signboards Data
Fig. 7.19 7.4 (1) Table 7.9
(
Action
Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Solidity ratio, [-]
φ = 1.0 φ = 0.8 Without return corners* Cp3 Cp5 Cp10 L/h ≤ 3 L/h = 5 L/h ≥ 10 2.3 2.9 3.4 A 1.4 1.8 2.1 B 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.7 C 1.2 D With return corners ≥ h 2.1 A 1.8 B 1.2 1.4 C 1.2 D * Intermediate values of Cp L c p5 − c p 3 3 < L/h < 5 c p5 − 5 − h 2 L c p10 − c p5 5 < L/h < 10 c p10 − 10 − h 5 φ < 0.8: Treat as plane lattices acc. to 7.11
Net pressures
Clause
values of Cp: Zone
(
Fin features
Notes
Notes
Clause
Height of signboard, [m] Width of signboard, [m] Separation height of signboard from ground, [m]
Fig. 7.21 7.4 (1) Fig 7.21
cf = 1.8 b/h ≤ 1 cf = 1.8 Treat at parapet b/h > 1 acc. to 7.4.1
w = cf · q p
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.4.11
LOADS
Wind load on long elements EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.6, 7.7 & 7.8
Design wind loads on long elements Action Data Force coefficient
Values b, d, L φ values of cf,0: Structural (sharp edge)
Notes
Clause
Width, depth and length of element, [m] Solidity ratio, [-]
Fig. 7.23
Force coefficients, [-]
7.6 Fig. 7.23 7.7
cf,0 = 2.0
Circular
cf,0 = 1.0
Rectangular
See Fig. 7.23
Square
cf,0 = 2.1
Fig. 7.28
Reduction factor for square sections with radius: Reduced force coefficient, [-] ψr Fig. 7.24
End-effect Free-end polygon & sharp edged reduction factorsections: a) L < 15 m λ = 2·L/b or 70(lesser of) b) L ≥ 50 m λ = 1.4·L/b or 70(lesser of) Free-end circular sections & Ends connected to structure: a) L < 15 m λ = L/b or 70(lesser of) b) L ≥ 50 m λ = 0.7·L/b or 70(lesser of) values of cf,0: Structural, λ = min polygon & {2L/b;70} Free-end lattice Abutted ends
Circular
cf,0 = 1.0
Any section
See Fig. 7.23
Effective slenderness ratio, [-]
Table 7.16
Fig. 7.36
End-effect factor, [-]
ψλ Net pressure
w = cf,0 · ψλ · qp
PART 1 EUROCODE
Net wind pressure
23
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.4.12
Wind load on parapet attached to curtain wall
δC
δC max, wparapet
C
a
min, wparapet B
min, wcw
L
max, wcw
A
Case-1: max, wparapet = Cp,A·qs min, wcw = [Cpe,E – Cpi(-)]·qs Case-2: min, wparapet = Cp,D·qs max, wcw = [Cpe,A – Cpi(+)]·qs
24
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.5
LOADS
Load combinations
1.5.1 Faming member design The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered for characteristic serviceability evaluations. EN 1990:2005 6.5.3
Vertical facades Serviceability
Ultimate limit state
Description
Occupancy
CO100: D
CO200: 1.35D
Dead incl. member self-weight
all
CO101: D + W p
CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p
Dead + wind pressure
all
CO102: D + W s + 0.7L
CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.7·1.5L
Dead + wind suction + imposed
all
CO103: D + L + *0.6W s
CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L + *0.6·1.5W s
Dead + imposed + wind suction
all
Note: *0.5W s acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1 EN 1990:2005 6.5.3
Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing Serviceability
Ultimate limit state
Description
Occupancy
CO100: D
CO200: 1.35D
Dead incl. member self-weight
all
CO101: D + W p + **0.7S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + **0.7·1.5·S D + W p + 0.7SA
Dead + wind downforce + snow Dead + wind downforce + snow drift
all
CO102: D + S + *0.6W p
CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + *0.6·1.5W p D + SA + 0.7W p
Dead + snow + wind downforce Dead + snow drift + wind downforce
all
CO103: D + W s
CO203: D + 1.5W s
Dead + wind uplift
all
CO104: D + L
CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L
Dead + imposed
H
Note: *0.5W p for UK NA:2005 Table NA.A1.1 **0.7S for H >1000m a.s.l; 0.5S for H ≤ 1000m a.s.l.
1.5.2 Glass design TRAV:2003 4.2
Vertical facades Serviceability
Description
Single glass CO301: D + W + 0.5L
Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO302: D + L + 0.5W
Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
Multiple glazing CO311: D + W + 0.5L
Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO312: D + L + 0.5W
Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO313: D + W p + Hw
Dead + wind pressure + winter climate
CO314: D + W s + Hw
Dead + wind suction + winter climate
CO315: D + L + Hw
Dead + imposed + winter climate
CO316: D + W p + Hs
Dead + wind pressure + summer climate
CO317: D + W s + Hs
Dead + wind suction + summer climate
PART 1 EUROCODE
25
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.1
Deflection limits EN 1990:2002 cl. 3.4, states that serviceability requirements are agreed for each individual project.
2.1.1 Primary Structure
EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004
Steel and Concrete design Component
Deflection
Steel Vertical EN 1993-1-1 deflection
Horizontal deflection
Concrete Vertical EN 1992-1-1 deflection
EN
UK NA
Carrying brittle finish
-
L/360
Other beams
-
L/200
Cantilevers
-
L/180
Tops of columns in single-storey buildings except portal frames
-
H/300
In each storey of a building with more than one storey
-
Hi/300
Beam, slab or cantilever under quasi-permanent loads
span/250
-
Deflection after construction to prevent damage to adjacent parts of the structure under quasi-permanent loads
span/500
-
Description
EN 1995-1-1:2004
Timber design EN 1995-1-1 Table 7.2 Instantaneous, winst
Net final, wnet,fin = winst + wcreep - wcamber
UK NA:2008 Table NA.5 Final, wfin = winst + wcreep
Net final, wnet,fin = winst + wcreep - wcamber No plaster*
With plaster*
Simple beam
L/300 to L/500
L/250 to L/350
L/150 to L/300
L/150
L/250
Cantilever
L/150 to L/250
L/125 to L/175
L/75 to L/150
L/75
L/125
Note: * Roof or floor members with or without a plastered or plasterboard ceiling.
2.1.2 Facade EN 13830:2003
Curtain wall Component
Limit
Frontal deflection under wind load
L/200 or 15mm
4.1; EN 13116:’01, 4.3.1
Horizontal framing under vertical loads
L/500 or 3mm
4.2
26
Clause
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 2.2
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
Structure tolerance
2.2.1 Concrete Structures ‘Permitted deviation’ is the permitted algebraic differences between the limits of size and the corresponding reference size (unless ± is stated). See EN 13670:2009 cl. 3.13, also ISO 1803:1997 cl. 3.8. The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. A recommended value when applying the box principle is ± 20 mm. EN 13670:2009
Tolerances Structure
Type
Base Plan section supports Foundations
Vertical section
Columns and Verticality by storey walls
Description
Permitted Deviation [mm]
Clause
Position in plan of a base support relative to the secondary lines
∆ = ± 25
G.10.3.a
Position in vertical direction of a base support relative to the secondary level
∆ = ± 20
G.10.3.b
Inclination of a column or wall at any level
h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.4.a h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
Offset between floors
Deviation between centrelines at floor level
Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or floors wall between adjacent storey levels
PART 1 EUROCODE
∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30
10.4.b
∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30
10.4.c
h in mm
27
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS Inclination
Beams and slabs
28
Location of any column, wall or floor edge, at any storey level from any vertical plane through its intended design centre at base level
∑ hi
; 50 200 n
∆ = min
10.4.d
H in metres
Position on plan of a column Position in plane of a column relative to the secondary lines
∆ = ± 25
G.10.4.a
Position on plan of a wall
Position in plane of a wall relative to the secondary line
∆ = ± 25
G.10.4.b
Distance apart
Free space between adjacent columns or walls
∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 60
G.10.4.c
Location of beam to column connection
Measured relative to the column
∆ = ± max {b 30;20}
10.5.a
Bearing
Position of bearing axis support
∆ = ± max {l 20;15}
10.5.b
Straightness of beam
Horizontal straightness of beams
∆ = ± max {l 600;20}
G.10.5.a
Distance apart
Between adjacent beams, measured at corresponding points
∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 40
G.10.5.b
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Sections
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
Inclination of beam or slab
Difference in level across a beam or slab at corresponding points in any direction
∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 )
G.10.5.c
Level of adjacent beams
Measured at corresponding points
∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 )
G.10.5.d
Level per storey
Level of adjacent floors at supports
∆ = ± 20
G.10.5.e
Level
Level of floors measured relative to the intended design level at the reference level
Cross-section dimension of elements
Tolerance Class 1
H ≤ 20m : ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.f H > 20m : ∆ = ± 0.5(H+20) ≤ 50
H in metres
l ≤ 150
400 22 β ε ( ) ( β ε )2
(yo /yc)σ
Table 6.3 (a) singly-reinforced
(b) doubly-reinforced Fig. 6.2
Reinforced: ce = 3 t c t ⋅ c
Fig. 6.4
1 1 + 0.1 ( ce t − 1 )
2
(a) Uniform thickness (b) Non-uniform thickness Reinforced outstand
Classification of cross-section part: Class Local buckling factor β ≤ 3 ε 1 ρc = 1.0 2 3 < β ≤ 4.5ε 3 4.5 < β ≤ 6ε 10 24 ρc = – 4β > 6 ( β ε ) ( β ε )2 t eff = ρ c ⋅ t 44
6.1.4.4 Table 6.2
Outstand Unreinforced: a) yc is free-end/toe η = 1.0 b) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc ≥ –1.0 η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc ) c) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc < –1.0 η = 0.8 1 − ( yo yc )
η =
Table 3.2
6.1.4.4 Table 6.2 Table 6.3
Effective thickness [mm]
6.1.5
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM DESIGN
5.4.2 Local buckling The table below is a guide for minimum thickness for a class 3 cross-section part and prevent local buckling. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4 Internal
Non-welded aluminium profile Class 3 minimum thickness Outstand peak comp. @ toe peak comp. @ root
ε O0 · · · O1 η = 0.7+0.3(yo/yc) = 1,0 0,8 6060
6063
O2 0,7
O3 0,6
O5 0,4
I0 1,0
I1 0,8
I2 0,7
I3 0,6
I5 0,4
T5 (t ≤ 5) B
1,44
b/7,2
b/9
b/10,3
b/12
b/18
b/26
b/32,5
b/37,1
b/43,3
b/65
T6 (t ≤ 15) A
1,34
b/8
b/10
b/11,5
b/13,4
b/20
b/29,4
b/36,7
b/42
b/49
b/73,5
T66 (t > 3) A
1,29
b/7,7
b/9,7
b/11,1
b/12,9
b/19,4
b/28,4
b/35,5
b/40,6
b/47,3
b/71
T5 (t > 3) B
1,51
b/7,5
b/9,4
b/10,8
b/12,6
b/18,8
b/27,1
b/33,9
b/38,8
b/45,2
b/67,8
T6 (t ≤ 25) A
1,25
b/7,5
b/9,4
b/10,7
b/12,5
b/18,8
b/27,5
b/34,4
b/39,3
b/45,8
b/68,8
Local buckling factor for class 4 cross-section part
PART 1 EUROCODE
EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4
45
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.4.3 Effective section properties of thermally separated profiles
EN 14024:2004 Annex C
Effective properties of thermally broken profiles Action Data
Values
Notes 4
Area and moment of inertia of inner profile [mm,mm ] Distance of inner profile centroid to inner edge [mm] 4 Area and moment of inertia of outer profile [mm,mm ] Distance of outer profile centroid to outer edge [mm] Modulus of elasticity of the profiles [N/mm²] Length of member [mm]
A1, I1 a1,i A2, I2 a2,o E L c=
Centroid distances
Clause
∆F ∆δ ⋅ L
z = A1 ⋅ a1,i + A2 ( h − a 2 ,o ) a1 = z − a1,i
( A1 + A2 )
Elasticity constant determined from test [N/mm/mm]
5.4.3
Location of centroid [mm]
Annex C
a 2 = h − z − a 2 ,o
Moments of intertia
ν =
A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 Is
C =
I ef
Effect of elastic connection [-]
Partial solution constant [-]
π 2 +λ2 1 −ν = Is 1 −ν ⋅ C
We,2 =
4
Effective moment of inertia [mm ] 1
C ( a1 + a1,i ) Is
+
( 1 − C ) a1,i
C ( a 2 + a 2 ,o )
+
3
Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
I1 + I 2
1 Is
46
4
λ2
We,1 =
Annex C
Compound part of the rigid moment of inertia [mm ]
c ⋅ a 2 L2 E ⋅ I s ⋅ν ( 1 − ν )
λ=
Section modulus
4
Rigid moment of inertia [mm ]
I s = I 1 +I 2 +A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2
3
Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
( 1 − C ) a 2 ,o I1 + I 2
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.5
ALUMINIUM DESIGN
Resistance of aluminium cross-sections
5.5.1 Partial safety factors EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 6.1
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states Part
Example
EN 1999
UK NA
Resistance of member to instability
Bending and overall yielding
γM1 = 1.1
γM1 = 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture
Local capacity in net tension
γM2 = 1.25
γM2 = 1.25
EN 1999-1-1 clause 1,1,2(1) The following design applies to material thickness not less than 0.6mm, steel bolts not less than 5mm, rivets and tapping screws not less than 4.2mm.
5.5.2 General cross-sections EN 1999-1-1:2007
Design resistance of aluminium structures Mode Shear
Values
Notes
Av, Ae Utilization grade: VEd ≤ 1.0 VRd
Shear area and effective shear area [mm ] E γ U= k F Rk γ M
General, hw/tw < 39ε: VRd = Av 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 values of Av: Av = 0.8· Ae Solid bar Av = 0.6· Ae Round tubes
Design shear resistance for sections containing shear webs [kN]
Torsional shear TRd = ( I t c ) Bending
Clause 2
6.2.7 Design torsional shear resistance [kN]
3 ⋅ f o γ M1 ≥ TEd
3
Elastic modulus of the gross section [mm ] 6.2.5 Elastic modulus of the net section allowing for 3 holes and reduced thickness of ρu,haz [mm ]
Wel Wnet Pure bending: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd
}
Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c,Rd = α Wel f o γ M1
General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M u,Rd = W net f u γ M2
Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]
values of α: α = W pl Wel Class 1 & 2 Class 3 & 4 α = 1.0 Lateral-torsional buckling: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M b ,Rd
Shape factor [-] Table 6.4 Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd
where: M cr = π EI z GI t L
Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m] Slenderness [-]
λ LT = α Wel , y f o M cr 2
φ LT = 0.5 1 + α LT ( λ LT − λ0 ,LT ) + λ LT Initial sway inperfection [-]
χ LT =
1
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 values of αLT & λ0,LT:
≤ 1.0
Class 1 & 2
α LT = 0.1 λ0 ,LT = 0.6
Class 3 & 4
α LT = 0.2 λ0 ,LT = 0.4
PART 1 EUROCODE
6.2.6 (A.1)
Reduction factor for buckling [-]
6.3.2.1 6.3.2.1 I.1 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.1
Imperfection factor [-] Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]
6.3.2.1
47
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM DESIGN
EN 1999-1-1:2007
Design resistance of aluminium structures Mode Tension
Values
Notes
Clause 2
Gross section area [mm ] 2 Net section area [mm ] Effective area based on the reduced thickness of 2 ρu,haz [mm ]
Ag Anet Aeff Basis: N Ed ≤ 1.0 N t ,Rd
6.2.3
Where:
{
N t,Rd = min N o ,Rd ; N u ,Rd
Compression
}
Design tension resistance [kN]
N o,Rd = Ag f o γ M1
General yielding along the member [kN]
N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2
Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
N u,Rd = Aeff f u γ M2
Local failure at a section with holes [kN] 2
Net section area [mm ] Effective area based on the reduced thickness of 2 ρu,haz [mm ]
Anet Aeff Local squashing N Ed ≤ 1.0 N c ,Rd
{
N c,Rd = min N c ,Rd ; N u ,Rd
}
N c,Rd = Aeff f o γ M1
Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
Flexural buckling, λ > λo : N Ed ≤ 1.0 N b ,Rd
6.3.1.1 Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding [kN]
N b,Rd = χ Aeff f o γ M1
a) Doubly symmetrical cross-sections: π EI y π EI z ; N cr,z = N cr,y = 2 2 ( kz L) ky L
λ =
Elastic critical force [kN]
)
N cr
φ = 0.5 1 + α ( λ − λo ) + λ 2 1
I.3 Slenderness [-]
Aeff f o
χ =
Design tension resistance [kN] General yielding along the member [kN]
N u,Rd = Anet f u γ M2
(
Initial sway inperfection [-] Reduction factor for buckling [-]
≤ 1.0
values of α & λ0: α = 0.2 Class A
α = 0.32
λo = 0.0
6.3.1.2
Table 6.8
Imperfection factor [-]
λo = 0.1
6.3.1.2
6.3.1.2
φ + φ2 − λ 2 values of k: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Class B
6.2.4
Table 6.6
Limit of the horizontal plateau [-] See section 5.1 for buckling class
Torsional-flexural buckling, λ T > λo : See I.3& I.4
48
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM DESIGN EN 1999-1-1:2007
Combined stresses Mode
Values
Notes
Bending and high shear
General: M Ed ≤ 1.0 f o,V ⋅ M Rd
6.2.8
For VEd > VRd/2: 2 2V f o,V = f o 1 − Ed 1 − VRd Bending and tension
Clause
Moment resistance reduction factor [-] (6.38)
General: M y,Ed M z,Ed N Ed + ≤ 1.0 + N Rd M y,Rd M z,Rd
Interaction formula (conservative)
6.2.9.1
Hollow sections: N Ed N Rd
M y,Ed + M y,Rd
1.3
1.7
1.7
M z,Ed + M z,Rd
M z,Ed + M z,Rd
0.6
(6.43)
≤ 1.0
Solid sections: N Ed N Rd
Bending and compression buckling
M y,Ed + M y,Rd
2.0
1.7
1.7
0.6
(6.43)
≤ 1.0
General: Major axis (y-axis) bending:
6.3.3.1 Interaction formula (conservative)
0.8
N Ed M y,Ed ≤ 1.0 + N b,y,Rd M y,Rd Minor axis (z-axis) bending: 0.8
0.8
N Ed M z,Ed + N b,z,Rd M z,Rd Hollow sections:
M y,Ed + M y,Rd
N Ed N b,Rd
0.8
(6.60) ≤ 1.0
1.7
M z,Ed + M z,Rd
1.7
0.6
(6.62) ≤ 1.0
Solid sections: N Ed N Rd
Lateral-torsional General: buckling N Ed N b,z,Rd
PART 1 EUROCODE
M y,Ed + M y,Rd
2.0
(6.59)
1.7
M z,Ed + M z,Rd
1.7
(6.61)
0.6
≤ 1.0
6.3.3.2 0.8
M y,Ed + M b,Rd
1.0
M z,Ed + M z,Rd
0.8
≤ 1.0
Interaction formula (conservative)
(6.63)
49
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.6
Cold formed members
5.6.1 Effective widths EN 1999-1-4:2007
Panel edge stiffeners Action Data
Single edge fold
Values
λ p ≅ 1.052
bp t
⋅
fo Ekσ
b p = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t ) kσ = 4.0
ρ=
λ p − 0.22 λp
beff = ρ
2
≤ 1.0
bp
3003
5005A
Clause
Plate slenderness [-]
5.5.2
Buckling factor for uniform comp., ψ = 1.0 [-]
Table 5.3;
Reduction factor for plate buckling [-]
5.5.2
Effective width [mm]
2 Alloy
1050A
Notes
Approx. beff
2 O/H111 112t − 2783 t b p
H14
58t − 742 t 2 b p
O/H111
42t − 795 t 2 b p
H14
23t − 242 t 2 b p
O/H111
42t − 795 t 2 b p
H14
24t − 253 t 2 b p
EN 1993-1-4 Table 4.2
c p = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) kσ = 0.5
ρ= ceff
λ p − 0.188 2
Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
Alloy 1050A
3003
5005A Double edge fold
4.4
≤ 1.0
λp = ρ ⋅cp Approx. ceff
O/H111
40t − 297 t 2 c p
H14
20t − 79 t 2 c p
O/H111
30t − 170 t 2 c p
H14
17 t − 52 t 2 c p
O/H111
30t − 170 t 2 c p
H14
17 t − 54 t 2 c p
Effective return depth [mm]
EN 1993-1-4 Table 4.2
d p = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) kσ = 0.43
ρ=
λ p − 0.188 λp
2
d eff = ρ ⋅ d p
≤ 1.0
Table 4.2
Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-]
4.4 Table 4.2
Effective lip [mm]
50
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONCRETE DESIGN
I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN 6.1
Properties of concrete EN 1992-1-1:2004 Cl. 3.1.3
Material constants Form
Density, γ [kN/m³]
Normal Lightweight Heavy weight
Unit weight, ρ Modulus of elasticity, Ecm [kg/m³] 2 [N/mm ]
24.0
2 450
8.8 – 19.6
900 – 2 000
> 19.6
> 2 000
22 ( f cm 10 )
Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+)ν] 2 [N/mm ]
Poisson’s ratio, ν [-]
≈ 21 000
0.20*
0.3
Coef. of linear thermal exp., α [/˚C] -6
10·10
Note: * Uncracked. 0 for cracked. Concrete Strength Class Strength Characteristic Characteristic Class cylinder cube strength strength fck fck,cube [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
Mean cylinder strength fcm [N/mm²]
Mean tensile strength fctm [N/mm²]
EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 3.1 Characteristic Characteristic Mean tensile tensile modulus of strength strength elasticity fctk,0.05 fctk,0.95 Ecm [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
C12/15
12
15
20
1.6
1.1
2.0
27 000
C16/20
16
20
24
1.9
1.3
2.5
29 000
C20/25
20
25
28
2.2
1.5
2.9
30 000
C25/30
25
30
33
2.6
1.8
3.3
31 000
C30/37
30
37
38
2.9
2.0
3.8
33 000
C35/45
35
45
43
3.2
2.2
4.2
34 000
C40/50
40
50
48
3.5
2.5
4.6
35 000
C45/55
45
55
53
3.8
2.7
4.9
36 000
C50/60
50
60
58
4.1
2.9
5.3
37 000
C55/67
55
67
63
4.2
3.0
5.5
38 000
C60/75
60
75
68
4.4
3.1
5.7
39 000
C70/85
70
85
78
4.6
3.2
6.0
41 000
C80/95
80
95
88
4.8
3.4
6.3
42 000
C90/105
90
105
98
5.0
3.5
6.6
44 000
PART 1 EUROCODE
51
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONCRETE DESIGN 6.2
Concrete design EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 2.1N
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states Design Situations
Concrete
Steel
Prestressing steel
Persistent and Transient
γC = 1.5
γS = 1.15
γS = 1.15
Accidental
γC = 1.2
γS = 1.0
γS = 1.0
6.3
Anchorage design EN 1992-1-1:2004
Tension anchorage Type Bond strength
Action
f ctd = α ct ⋅ f ctk ,0.05 γ C
α ct = 1.0 f bd = 2.25 ⋅ η1 ⋅ η 2 ⋅ f ctd
Anchorage length
lb,rqd =
F π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd
cd = min {a 2; c; c1 }
Bent bars: lb,eq = α 1 ⋅ lb ,rqd
Notes
Clause
Design tensile strength [N/mm²]
3.1.6
Long-term and load application effects [-] Ultimate bond stress for ribbed bars [N/mm²] Coefficients, η η1 = 1.0 Good bond condition
3.1.6
Others & built in slip-form
η1 = 0.7
Ø ≤ 32 mm
η 2 = 1.0
Ø > 32 mm
η 2 = 1.32 − φ 100
8.4.2
8.4.3
Basic anchorage length [mm] Ø ≤ 16mm : r ≥ 4Ø Ø > 16mm : r ≥ 7Ø
Edge distance and spacing
8.4.4
Design anchorage length [mm] Table 8.2
Effect of the form of bars, α1: α 1 = 1.0 cd < 3Ø
α 1 = 0.7
cd ≥ 3Ø
Straight bars: lb,eq = α 2 ⋅ lb ,rqd
α 2 = 1 − 0.15 ( cd − φ ) φ U bars: lb,eq = 0.7 ⋅ lb ,rqd
Design resistance
Tension Fbt,Rd = π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd ⋅ lb ,eq α
Design bonding tensile resistance [N]
8.4.3
Bearing shear
Fbv,Rd = φ 2 52
f yk γ s ⋅ f ck γ c Design bearing shear resistance [N]
8.6
PART 1 EUROCODE
TIMBER DESIGN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
I-7 TIMBER DESIGN 7.1
Strength grade
7.1.1 Solid timber A timber population may be assigned to a strength class if its characteristic values of bending strength and density equal or exceed the values for that strength class, and its characteristic mean modulus of elasticity in bending equals or exceeds 95 % of the value for that strength class. Strength grading of solid timber can be achieved in one of two ways: Visual method: EN 14081-1. Machine method: EN 14081-1, EN 14081-2, EN 14081-3 & EN 14081-4. The characteristic values are defined as the population 5th-percentile values obtained from the results of tests with a duration of approximately 5 min at the equilibrium moisture content of the test pieces relating to a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. Timber strength class – Characteristic values Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2
[kg/m³] ρk Softwood (Conifer)
Tension
EN 338:2009 Table 1 Compression Shear
2
[N/mm ]
[N/mm ]
ρmean
E0,mean
E0,05
E90,mean
Gmean
fmean,k*
ft,0,k*
ft,90,k
1.2ρk
-
0.67E0,m
E0,m/30
E0,m/16
-
0.6fm,k
0.4
fc,0,k
fc,90,k
5fm,k0.45 0.007ρk
fv,k -
C14
290
350
7 000
4 700
230
440
14
8
0.4
16
2.0
3.0
C16
310
370
8 000
5 400
270
500
16
10
0.4
17
2.2
3.2
C18
320
380
9 000
6 000
300
560
18
11
0.4
18
2.2
3.4
C20
330
390
9 500
6 400
320
590
20
12
0.4
19
2.3
3.6
C22
340
410
10 000
6 700
330
630
22
13
0.4
20
2.4
3.8
C24
350
420
11 000
7 400
370
690
24
14
0.4
21
2.5
4
C27
370
450
11 500
7 700
380
720
27
16
0.4
22
2.6
4
C30
380
460
12 000
8 000
400
750
30
18
0.4
23
2.7
4
C35
400
480
13 000
8 700
430
810
35
21
0.4
25
2.8
4
C40
420
500
14 000
9 400
470
880
40
24
0.4
26
2.9
4
C45
440
520
15 000
10 000
500
940
45
27
0.4
27
3.1
4
C50
460
550
16 000
10 700
530
1000
50
30
0.4
29
3.2
4
1.2ρk
-
0.84E0,m
E0,m/15
E0,m/16
-
0.6fm,k
0.6
Hardwood (Deciduous)
5fm,k0.45 0.015ρk
-
D18
475
570
9500
8000
630
590
18
11
0,6
18
7.5
3.4
D24
485
580
10000
8500
670
620
24
14
0,6
21
7.8
4
D30
530
640
11000
9200
730
690
30
18
0,6
23
8.0
4
D35
540
650
12000
10100
800
750
35
21
0,6
25
8.1
4
D40
550
660
13000
10900
860
810
40
24
0,6
26
8.3
4
D50
620
750
14000
11800
930
880
50
30
0,6
29
9.3
4
D60
700
840
17000
14300
1130
1060
60
36
0,6
32
10.5
4.5
D70
900
1080
20000
16800
1330
1250
70
42
0,6
34
13.5
5
Note: * For rectangular solid timber, the reference depth in bending or width (max. dim.) in tension is 150 mm. For depths in bending or widths in tension less than 150 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased by the factor k h , given in section 0. B
B
PART 1 EUROCODE
53
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
TIMBER DESIGN 7.1.2 Glulam
A glued laminated member can be assigned to one of the strength classes if its characteristic bending strength and modulus of elasticity, derived from tests in accordance with EN 408 and EN 1193, equal or exceed the values for that strength class. It is assumed that bending specimens have a depth h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. It is assumed that tension specimens have a width h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. If the cross-section dimensions are lower than these reference values, the test results shall be multiplied by: b k size = 150
0 ,05
h 600
0 ,1
EN 1194:1999 Tables 1, 2 & A.1
Glulam strength class – Characteristic values Strength class
Density
Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2
[kg/m³] ρg,k Homogene 1.1ρl,k ous
Tension
Compression
Shear
2
[N/mm ]
[N/mm ] *
E0,g,mean
E0,g,0.05
E90,g,m
Gg,mean
fm,g,k*
ft,0,g,k
ft,90,g,k
fc,0,g,k
fc,90,g,k
fv,g,k
1.05E0,l,m
0.85E0,l,m
0.035E0,l,m
0.065E0,l,m
7.0 + 1.15ft,0,l,k
5.0 + 0.8ft,0,l,k
0.2 + 0.015ft,0,l,k
7.2ft,0,l,k0.45
0.7ft,0,l,k0.45
0.32ft,0,l,k0.8
GL 24h
380
11 600
9 400
390
720
24
16.5
0.4
24
2.7
2.7
GL 28h
410
12 600
10 200
420
780
28
19.5
0.45
26.5
3.0
3.2
GL 32h
430
13 700
11 100
460
850
32
22.5
0.5
29
3.3
3.8
GL 36h
450
14 700
11 900
490
910
36
26
0.6
31
3.6
4.3
1.05E0,l,m
0.85E0,l,m
0.7ft,0,l,k0.45
0.32ft,0,l,k0.8
Combined 1.1ρl,k
0.035E0,l,m
0.065E0,l,m
7.0 + 1.15ft,0,l,k
5.0 + 0.8ft,0,l,k
0.2 + 0.015ft,0,l,k
7.2ft,0,l,k0.45
GL 24c
350
11 600
9 400
320
590
24
14
0.35
21
2.4
2.2
GL 28c
380
12 600
10 200
390
720
28
16.5
0.4
24
2.7
2.7
GL 32c
410
13 700
11 100
420
780
32
19.5
0.45
26.5
3.0
3.2
GL 36c
430
14 700
11 900
460
850
36
22.5
0.5
29
3.3
3.8
Note: * For rectangular glued laminated timber, the reference depth in bending or width in tension is 600 mm. For depths in bending or widths in tension less than 600 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased by the factor k h , given in section 0. B
7.2
B
Service class The service class system is mainly aimed at assigning strength values and for calculating deformations under defined environmental conditions.
Service classes EN 1995-1-1:2008 Cl. 2.3.1.3 Service Examples EMC = Maximum equilibrium Characterised by moisture content class acc. to UK NA Table NA.2 corresponding to a temperature of 20°C… moisture content for most softwoods
54
1
Warm roofs, intermediate floors, internal walls
…and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65 % for few weeks per year
≤ 12 %
2
Cold roofs, ground floors, external walls, external member protected from weather
…and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 85 % for few weeks per year
≤ 20 %
3
External member fully exposed
Conditions leading to higher moisture contents than service class 2
> 20 %
PART 1 EUROCODE
TIMBER DESIGN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 7.3
Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL
7.3.1 Serviceability EN 1995-1-1:2008
Deflection Mode Stiffness*
Deflection
Values
Notes
Clause
E mean Gmean
Modulus of elasticity [N/mm²]
u fin = u fin,G + u fin,Q1 + + u fin,Qi
Total final deformation [mm]
2.3.2.2
Modulus of rigidity [N/mm²] 2.2.3
where:
(
u fin,G = uinst,G 1 + k def
)
Final deformation due to permanent action [mm]
( ) = uinst,Qi (ψ 0 ,i + ψ 2 ,i kdef )
u fin,Q1 = uinst,Q1 1 + ψ 2 ,1 kdef
Final deformation due to leading variable action [mm]
u fin,Qi
Final deformation due to accompanying variable action
Deformation factor, kdef Service Material class 1 Solid, Gluelam 2 and LVL 3
[mm] Table 3.2
Deformation modification factor
kdef 0.6 0.8 2.0
Note: * The moduli given in clause 2.3.2.2 are used only for structure with different materials (i.e. different creep).
7.3.2 Ultimate limit state EN 1995-1-1:2008
Timber design Mode Stiffness Resistance
Values Ed =
E mean
γM
Rd = k mod
; Gd =
Gmean
γM
Rk
γM Material safety factor, γM: Material Solid timber Glued laminated timber Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) Connections
γM 1.3 1.25 1.2 1.3
Notes
Clause
Mean value of modulus of elasticity & shear modulus
2.4.1
Design resistance
2.4.3
Material factor
Table 2.3
Table 3.1
Modification factor, kmod: Load-duration class
Example
Permanent: > 10 yrs Long term: 0.5-10 yrs Medium: 1 wk-6 mos Short term: < 1 wk Instantaneous
self-weight storage imposed floor snow, aintenance wind, impact, explosion
PART 1 EUROCODE
kmod Service class 1&2 3 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.55 0.8 0.65 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.9
55
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
TIMBER DESIGN
EN 1995-1-1:2008
Timber design Mode Tension
Values
Notes Design tension resistance [N]
N t,Rd = A· f t ,d
Parallel to grain f t ,0 ,k
f t ,0 ,d = k h ⋅ k mod
γM
Depth factor, kh: Material Criteria
kh
Solid
h < 150 mm
( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3
Glulam
h < 600 mm
( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1
LVL
L ≠ 3000 mm
( 3000 l ) s 2 ≤ 1.1
Perpendicular to grain f t ,90 ,k f t ,90 ,d = k mod γM Compression
Criteria for design tension stress parallel 6.1.2 2 to grain[N/mm ] 3.2, Depth factor: 3.3, 3.4 h = maximum dimension
Criteria for design tension stress parallel 2 to grain [N/mm ]
6.1.3
Design compression resistance [N]
N c,Rd = A· f c ,d
Parallel to grain f c ,0 ,d = k mod
Clause
Criteria for design compression stress 2 parallel to grain[N/mm ]
f c ,0 ,k
γM Perpendicular to grain f c,90,d = kc,90 ⋅ f c ,90 ,d Load direction factor, kc,90: Support
Criteria for design compression stress 2 parallel to grain [N/mm ] kc,90 ≤ 4.0
l h 1+ End, a ≤ h/3 2.38 − 250 12l
Intermit End, a >h/3 tent Internal Continu h ≤ 2.5b ous & discrete support h > 2.5b
6.1.4
Splitting and comp. deformation factor
6.1.5
1.0 l h 2.38 − 250 1 + 6l
Fig. 6.2
l lef 2.38 − 250 l lef l
;l 1.6m
Impact load
Overhead glazing
2
TRAV:2003 cl. 6.4.4
Annealed
18 12 22.5 20.7 13.8 80 ‡ Annealed Laminated 22.5 15 (25) 28.1 25.8 17.25(28.8) 80 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120 Float Heat strengthened Toughened with frits 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120 Toughened 50 50 62.5 57.5 57.5 170 Annealed 10 8 12.5 11.5 9.2 Cast Toughened 37 37 46.2 42.5 42.5 † Note: Allowable stresses, for checking under combined wind and climatic loading, can be increased by 15% in 2 general and 25% for float glass for vertical glazing having a surface area of up to 1.6m . ‡ Value in bracket is for the upper ply of the laminated lower pane at the event of upper pane breakage.
8.4.2 Design according to DIN 18008: Limit state design (LRFD) Leichtbau und Glasbau S-5-01/2007
Glass design acc. to DIN 18008 Mode
Values
Design
Clause
σ Ed ≤ σ Rd σ Ed { Fd } =
Resistance
Notes
2
∑ γ G ; j Gk ; j + γ Q ;1Qk ;1 + ∑ γ Q ;iψ 0 ;1Qk ;i
Design stress, [N/mm ]
Annealed glass (AN): k ⋅f σ Rd = mod k γM Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG): f σ Rd = k γM
2
Design stress resistance, [N/mm ] values of kmod & γM: Short-term load (wind) Medium and long-term load (dead, snow, climatic load)
kmod = 0.7
γ
kmod = 0.4
γ
Design stress resistance under load combination 2
Characteristic bending tensile stress, 2 fk [N/mm ]
No short-duration load
General
Four-side supported vertical glass
Annealed
45
10
17.5
28.64
Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit
45
30
30
40.91
Heat strengthened
70
46.67
46.67
63.64
Toughened with ceramic frit
75
50
50
68.18
Toughened
120
80
80
109.10
Annealed, edge under tension
36
8.8
15.4
-
Annealed
45
11
19.25
31.5
Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit
45
33
33
45
Heat strengthened
70
51.33
51.33
70
Toughened with ceramic frit
75
55
55
75
Toughened
120
88
88
120
Laminated
Monlithic
Float glass
60
Design stress resistance, fRd [N/mm ] With short-duration load
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
8.4.3 Design acc. to prEN 13474 prEN 13474-1:1999
Glass design to Eurocode Mode Design Resistance
Values
σ ef,k ≤ f g,d [ULS] or
Notes
Clause
Calculated unfactored stresses [N/mm²]
f g,d [SLS] FS
fg,k = 45 N/mm2 k A = A0.04 Annealed glass (AN): k mod ⋅ f g,k ⋅ γ n ; γn = 1.0 f g,d = γ mkA Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG): f b,k − f g,k kmod ⋅ f g,k f g,d = + γ γv γ m k A n values of kmod: Duration of load Load Short wind Medium snow, climate Permanent Selfweight, altitude
Generic strength of glass Size factor
6.3.1 6.3.5 2
Design stress resistance, [N/mm ] 6.3.6 National partial safety factor Table A.1
Modification factor according to the duration of the dominant action Table 6 kmod 0.72 0.36 0.27 Table 5
values of γm: γm Glass
All ULS 1.8 1.8 2.3 2.3 2.3 3.2 1.8 1.8
Float and sheet Enamelled float Patterned Enamelled patterned Polished wired Patterned wired Borosilicate glass Glass ceramics values of fb,k:
SLS 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8 1.0 1.0
Heat strengthened 70 45 55 45 -
Glass Float and sheet Enamelled float Patterned Enamelled patterned Borosilicate glass
γv Heat strengthened, thermally toughened ULS SLS 2.3 1.5 2.3 1.5 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.3 1.5 -
Chemically strengthened ULS SLS 2.3 1.5 3.0 2.0 -
Thermally toughened 120 75 90 75 120
Chemically strengthened 150 150 -
Table 4
2
Allowable stress for panes up to 4.0 m area (kA = 1.057). prEN 13474-2:2000 Table 2 2 Allowable stress for uniformly distributed load, fg,d [N/mm ]* Glass Short duration loads Medium duration Permanent loads (Wind) (Snow, climate) (Selfweight, altitude) Type Process ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS Annealed (AN) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5 Heat strengthened (HS) 27.9 47.3 19.4 32.0 17.3 28.2 Float and sheet Thermally toughened (FT) 49.6 80.7 41.1 65.3 39.0 61.5 Chemically strengthened (CS) 62.7 100.7 54.2 85.3 52.0 81.5 Heat strengthened (HS) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5 Enamelled Thermally toughened (FT) 30.1 50.7 21.6 35.3 19.4 31.5 Note: * SLS values have to be reduced by appropriate safety factors.
PART 1 EUROCODE
61
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 8.4.4 Design of single glass
prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Design of Single Glass Action
Values
Notes
Clause
Data
a, b Fd, Fk
Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm] 2 Design and characteristic load, [kN/m ]
Monolithic
hef,σ = hef,w = h
Effective glass thickness, [mm]
Laminated Shear transfer coefficient, Γ =0: glass h3
∑ i
hef ,σ j = hef ,w =
i
hj 3
Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of individual pane, [mm] Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation, [mm]
∑ hi 3
Table F.1 F.2
i
Laminated Short duration loads, Γ =1: hef,σ = hef,w = Σ(hi) safety glass Other loads, Γ =0:
Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of individual pane, [mm]
∑ hi 3 i
hef ,σ j = hef ,w =
hj 3
Effective glass thickness with full composite action, [mm]
Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation, [mm]
∑ hi 3 i
Load combinations** Ultimate limit state
Serviceability limit state
Table F.1 F.2
Allowable stress criteria
Vertical glazing 1.5W
W
1. 5(W + 0.7L)
(W + 0.7L)
1.5L
L
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
Sloped glazing 1.35D
D
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (permanent )
1.35D + 1.5(S + *0.6Wp)
D + (S + *0.6Wp)
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (medium duration)
1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.5S)
D + (Wp + 0.5S)
1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.7L)
D + (Wp + 0.7L)
1.35D + 1.5(L + *0.6Wp)
D + (L + *0.6Wp)
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
D + 1.5Ws D + Ws Note: **Load combinations are according to EN 1990. Factors in prEN 13474 are according to the obsolete draft ENV 1991-1. *0.5W p acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1
62
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
8.4.5 Design of IGU prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Design of Insulated Glass Unit Action Data Insulating glass
Values
Notes Glass thickness, [mm]
h1, h2
δ1 = δ2 =
Clause
h1
3
h1 + h2 3
Stiffness of outer pane 1, [-]
h2 3
Stiffness of inner pane 2, [-]
3
h1 3 + h2 3
s ⋅ h1 3 h2 3 a* = 28.9 k h 3 + h 3 2 5 1 1 φ= 4 a 1+ a*
(
Vertical glazing Ultimate limit state
)
8.3.1
0.25
Characteristic length of the unit, [mm]
8.3.2
Insulating unit factor, [-]
Serviceability limit state
Allowable stress criteria Remarks
Design of outer pane 1: 1.5Wp(δ1+φδ2)
Wp(δ1+φδ2) - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5Ws(δ1+φδ2)
Ws(δ1+φδ2) + φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5[Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0.7L]
[Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5L
L - φ(pH +0.9pC)
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration ) Live load on outer pane
Design of inner pane 2: 1.5Wp(1-φ)δ2
Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 + φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5Ws(1-φ)δ2
Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5[Ws(1-φ)δ2 + 0.7L]
[Ws(1-φ)δ2 +0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
Live load on inner pane L - φ(pH +0.9pC) Note: Net wind load is assumed acting on the outer pane only (i.e., including internal pressure). Sloped glazing Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress 1.5L
Design of outer pane 1: 1.35D1(δ1+φδ2) +1.35D2(1-φ)δ1
D1(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (permanent )
[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1
(D1+S+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (medium)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1
(D1+Wp+0.5S)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1
(D1+Wp+0.7L)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1
(D1+L+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
(D1+1.5Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + 1.35D2(1-φ)δ1
(D1+Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (short)
Design of inner pane 2: 1.35D1(1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)
D1(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+S+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2 +D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC) [1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)
(D1+Wp+0.5S)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)] (1-φ)δ2 +1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)
(D1+Wp+0.7L)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)
[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)
(D1+L+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)
(D1+1.5Ws) (1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)
(D1+Ws)(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
PART 1 EUROCODE
f g ,d (permanent ) f g ,d (medium)
f g ,d (short)
63
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 8.5
Glass stress and deflection prEN 13474-2:2000
Calculation of glass stress and deflection and cavity volume change Action
Values
Notes
Clause
Data
a, b Fd
Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm] 2 Design load, [kN/m ]
Stress and deflection
λ = a/b
Aspect ratio, [-]
a 4 Fd p* = hef 4 E
σ max = k1 σ ef = k 2
hef ,σ
2
a2
w max = k 4 V = k5
Normalised load, [-]
a2
hef ,σ
B.1
2
Fd
a4 hef ,w
Fd
3
a 5 b Fd hef ,w 3 E
Fd E
2
Maximum tensile stress, [N/mm ] 2
Effective glass stress, [N/mm ]
Maximum glass deflection, [mm] 3
Insulating glass change of cavity volume, [mm ]
8.5.1 Coefficients for two-edge supported rectangular glass k1 = 0.75 k2 = 0.699 k4 = 0.148
8.5.2 Coefficients for three-edge supported rectangular glass
64
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
8.5.3 Coefficients for four-edge supported rectangular glass The coefficients in the table below are valid for a Poisson number in the range 0.20 to 0.24. For small deflections (linear theory) the values for p* = 0 apply. Figure 8.5-1 Calculation of maximum stress, k1
prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.1
Figure 8.5-2 Calculation of effective stress, k2
prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.2
PART 1 EUROCODE
65
GLASS DESIGN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Figure 8.5-3 Calculation of maximum deflection, k4
prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.3
Figure 8.5-4 Calculation of volume change, k5
prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.4
66
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 8.6
GLASS DESIGN
Climatic effects
8.6.1 IGU Internal actions TRLV:2006
Insulating glass Action Data
Isochoric pressure
Values
Notes
Clause 2
Wind load [kN/m ] Thermal unit pressure Temperature difference from glass production to site [°K] Altitude unit pressure Altitude difference from glass production to site [m] Glass production altitudes: Producer Location Altitude Sunglass (Guardian) Villafranca, Italy + 20 m Polypane (Guardian) Temse, Belgium + 23 m Interpane (AGC) Lauenförde, GErmany + 98 m Schöllglas Nossen, Germany + 273 m
W c1 = 0.34 kPa/°K ∆T c2 = 0.012 kPa/m ∆H
p0 = c1 ⋅ ∆T − ∆ pmet + c2 ⋅ ∆ H
TRLV:2006 Table 1 & Annex B1
Recommended isochoric pressure Condition
Site
Production
Temp. pmet Temp. pmet 2 2 [°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ] Summer
Winter
101
103
∆pmet 2 [kN/m ]
∆H [m]
+20
-2
+600
+16.0
Glass absorptance ≤ 30%
+39
30% < absorptance ≤ 50%
+48
+29
+19.0
absorptance > 50%
+57
+38
+22.0
Internal sunscreen (ventilated)
+48
+29
+19.0
Internal sunscreen (non-ventilated)
+57
+38
+22.0
Shadow box panel
+74
+55
+28.0
Heated building
+2
Unheated building
-10
103
+19
∆T [°C]
Isochore pressure p0 2 [kN/m ]
+27
99
Site
+4
-37
-300
-16.0 -20.0
prEN 13474-1:1999 Table 1 & Table B.1
Recommended isochoric pressure* Condition
-25
2
Production
Temp. Met. pressure Temp. Met. Pressure 2 2 [°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ]
∆T [°C]
Climatic Altitude action pH,0 [kN/m ] action Site altitude Site altitude pC,0 ∆pmet 2 2 ≤ 400m ≤ 700m [kN/m ] [kN/m ]
Summer
+45
100
+18
103
+27
-3
+12.0
+3.6
+8.4
Winter
+3
104
+30
98
-27
+6
-15.0
-3.6
-8.4
Note: *These recommendations can be used when exact values of internal loads cannot be determined provided that: 1) The IGU is manufactured from clear glass or has an overall absorptance not exceeding 35%; 2) Heat build up by other structure elements or sun protection devices is prevented; and 3) If the altitude of the place of production (final sealing) is unknown.
PART 1 EUROCODE
67
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 8.6.2 Thermal stress/shock
Glass can break as a result of excessive thermal stress. Thermally induced stress within a pane of glass results from a temperature differential between two areas of the pane. For instance, in hot weather, the centre of the glass warms up faster than the edge, because the edge is within the glazing rebate and shaded from direct solar radiation. Assuming the area of glass within the frame is insignificant compared with that exposed to solar radiation, as the centre of the pane expands due to the increase in temperature, the edge will be forced to expand by a similar amount inducing a tensile stress. Thermal induced stress Action
Values
Notes
Data
L E α ∆T
Glass original length [mm] 2 Glass modulus of elasticity [N/mm ] Glass coefficient of thermal expansion [-] Temperature difference between the edge and centre of the pane [°K]
Thermal stress
∆L = α ·L·∆T σT = (∆L/L)·E
Expansion of glass [mm] 2 Induced stress [N/mm ]
68
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 8.7
GLASS DESIGN
Structural silicone glazing (SSG) ETAG 002-1:2001
Properties of structural sealant Sealant
Elastic Shear modulus* modulus* E0 2 [N/mm ]
Structural Two- Sika SG 500 glazing part DC 993 One- Sika SG 20 part DC 995 Sika SG 18
1.05
G0 2 [N/mm ]
Allow. strain ε [%]
Short term load Tension, † σdes 2 [kN/m ]
Shear, Γdes 2 [kN/m ]
Long term load, γc = 10 Tension, σ∞ 2 [kN/m ]
Shear, Γ∞ 2 [kN/m ]
140
105
14
10.5
0.47
10
140
110
14
11.0
0.35
12.5
170
128
17
12.8
170
95
17
9.5
140
101
14
10.1
150
83
15
8.3
15 12.5
DC 895 Insulating Two- Sika IG 25 glass part Sika IG 25H DC 3362 One- Sika IG 16 part DC 3793 Note: * Modulus tangential to the origin. † Design stress is based on the Ru,5 value with a safety factor of 6. The Ru,5 value is the probability at 75% that 95% of the population will have a breaking strength above this value.
8.7.1 Types of SSG Type 1: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The structural seal transfers all other actions. Devices are used to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure. Type II: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The structural seal transfers all other actions and no devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure. Type III: The structural seal transfers all actions including the self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and thence to the structure. Devices are used to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure. Type IV: The structural seal transfers all actions, including self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and thence to the structure. No devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure. EN 13022-1:2006 Retaining devices may be required by national regulations. SSGS types III & IV may be forbidden by national regulation for laminated glass and laminated safety glass. ETAG 002-1:2001 Types III and IV SSGS are only applicable for single glass units. For insulating glass units or laminated glass, each pane of glass must be supported (type I or II).
PART 1 EUROCODE
69
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 8.7.2 Structural silicone design (ASD)
ETAG 002-1:2001
Structural glazing Action Data
Values
Notes
Clause
Glass width and height [m] 2 Unit weight of glass [kN/m ] 2 Wind load [kN/m ] Allowable strain [%]
b, h γg W ε
Types I, II & III Structural bite Supported min {b; h} ⋅ W ≥ 6mm hc ≥ system 2σ
Structural bite, minimum [mm]
A2.3.1
Expansion length [mm]
A2.3.2
des
Sealant thickness 1 2 S = b + 4h 2 2 ∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0 S values of α & ∆T: Tf,g – T0 [°C] α Condition [/°K] ETAG SIKA
(
)
-6
Alu.
24·10
Steel
12·10
S/S
16·10
Glass
9·10
(
)
Internal
55 - 20
Exposed
80 - 20
60
-6
Clear
55 - 20
30
100 - 20
-
Opaque ∆ ⋅ G e ≥ min S ; Γ des
∆S 2ε + ε
2
; 6mm
IGU hermetic seal* min {b; h} ⋅ W r ≥ ⋅ β ≥ 6mm 2 σ des values of β: Glass thickness β do ≤ di do ≤ di Type IV Unsupported system
Sealant thickness 1 2 S = b + h2 2 ∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0 S ∆ ⋅ G e ≥ min S ; Γ des
Relationship
Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]
Seal height in non-stepped IGU [mm]
A2.3.4
Structural bite, minimum [mm]
A2.4.3
Expansion length [mm]
A2.4.2
0.5 1.0
Structural bite b ⋅γ g ≥ 6mm hc ,min = 2 Γ∞
(
4.4.4.1 Coefficient of thermal expansion of frame and glass Temperature difference
-6 -6
Differential expansion [mm]
)
(
)
; 6mm 2ε + ε
∆S
Differential expansion [mm] Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]
A2.4.1
2
e ≤ hc ≤ 3 ⋅ e
A2.3.3
Note: * For small units or non-rectangular shapes climatical effects must be taken into account.
70
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 8.8
GLASS DESIGN
Safety glass TRAV Requirements
8.8.1 Categories [TRAV:2003 cl.6.2.2 & Appendix A] Category A (VSG or ESG) Pendulum height = 900mm
Impact area
Category C1 (VSG or ESG) Pendulum height = 450mm
Category B (VSG only) Pendulum height = 700mm
Category C2 (VSG or ESG) Pendulum height = 450mm
Category C3 (VSG or ESG)
8.8.2 Balustrade construction (Category B) Handrail design features Cl. 5.5.1 - The continuous handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner that, should a glass panel fracture, the handrail will remain in position and will not fail if the design load is applied across the resulting gap, transferring the loads to adjacent glass panes, end posts or anchorage to building. -
Handrail with structural or non-structural capping integrated with structural U-profile
-
Prevent glass-to-metal contact by inserting u-profile non-flammable elastomeric strip (distance 200 to 300 mm)
-
Filler in the gap between the handrail u-profile and glass shall be sealant in accordance with DIN 18545-2 Group E
-
Glass rebate in the u-profile ≥ 15 mm
Support design features -
Clamping height ≥ 100 mm
-
Clamping steel plate ≥ 12 mm
-
Clamping fastener spacing ≤ 300 mm
-
Setting block at the bottom of glass
-
Bush sleeve around fasteners
-
Glass holes (25 to 35 mm) centred to the clamping plate
-
Non-compressible elastomer filler along the glass-to-metal contacts
-
The clamping may also be rigidly fixed to the supporting structure.
PART 1 EUROCODE
71
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 8.8.3 Balustrades - Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies
Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/100 or 15 mm, whichever is smaller in relation to TRLV:2006. Glass design tensile stress resistances in accordance with DIN 18008. Barrier loads are combined with half wind loads in accordance with TRAV:2003 cl. 4.2. TRAV:2003
Maximum cantilever height of barrier [m] Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load) Glass
0.8
Barrier[kN/m] Wind [kN/m²] ≤ 0.8
≤ 1.4
1.0 ≤ 2.0
≤ 0.8
≤ 1.4
2.0 ≤ 2.0
≤ 0.8
≤ 1.4
3.0 ≤ 2.0
≤ 0.8
≤ 1.4
≤ 2.0
Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 12.76 mm 6/0.76/6
HS FT
0.70 0.65 0.70 0.70
0.59 0.69
0.57 0.63
0.52 0.63
0.48 0.63
17.52 mm 8/1.52/8
AN HS FT
0.27 0.26 0.89 0.89 " "
0.25 0.88 "
0.21 0.81 "
0.21 0.81 "
0.20 0.79 0.80
21.52 mm 10/1.52/10
AN HS FT
0.44 0.41 1.14 1.13 " "
0.38 1.13 "
0.34 1.04 "
0.33 1.03 "
0.75 1.03 "
0.72 0.77
0.67 0.76
0.64 0.76
25.52 mm 12/1.52/12
AN HS FT
0.66 0.59 1.39 1.38 " "
0.54 1.37 "
0.52 1.27 "
0.48 1.26 "
0.45 1.25 "
0.24 0.94 "
0.24 0.93 "
0.23 0.93 "
0.66 0.79
0.63 0.79
0.60 0.78
31.52 mm 15/1.52/15
AN HS FT
1.08 0.92 1.78 1.76 " "
0.82 1.74 "
0.86 1.62 "
0.76 1.61 "
0.69 1.60 "
0.39 1.20 "
0.38 1.20 "
0.37 1.19 "
0.25 1.01 “
0.25 1.01 “
0.24 1.00 “
Laminated glass with Sentryglas interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 17.52 mm 8/1.52/8
AN HS FT
0.55 0.51 1.19 1.18 " "
0.48 1.18 “
0.45 1.11 "
0.43 1.10 "
0.41 1.09 1.10
0.23 0.78 0.88
0.22 0.74 0.88
0.22 0.71 0.88
0.54 0.77
0.52 0.77
0.51 0.76
21.52 mm 10/1.52/10
AN HS FT
0.79 0.72 1.46 1.45 " "
0.67 1.44 "
0.67 1.36 "
0.62 1.35 "
0.58 1.35 "
0.35 1.08 “
0.34 1.07 1.08
0.34 1.01 1.08
0.23 0.80 0.94
0.22 0.77 0.94
0.22 0.75 0.94
22.28 mm 10/2.28/10
AN HS FT
0.84 0.76 1.51 1.50 " "
0.70 1.49 ”
0.71 1.41 "
0.65 1.40 "
0.61 1.39 "
0.37 1.12 “
0.36 1.11 “
0.35 1.07 1.11
0.24 0.85 0.97
0.23 0.82 0.97
0.23 0.80 0.97
25.52 mm 12/1.52/12
AN HS FT
1.06 0.95 1.73 1.72 " "
0.87 1.71 "
0.91 1.61 "
0.83 1.60 "
0.77 1.59 "
0.50 1.28 "
0.48 1.28 "
0.47 1.28 “
0.33 1.11 1.12
0.33 1.06 1.12
0.32 1.02 1.12
26.28 mm) 12/2.28/12
AN HS FT
1.11 0.99 1.78 1.77 " "
0.90 1.75 "
0.95 1.66 "
0.87 1.65 "
0.80 1.64 "
0.52 1.32 "
0.51 1.32 "
0.49 1.31 “
0.34 1.15 “
0.34 1.12 1.15
0.33 1.07 1.15
31.52 mm 15/1.52/15
AN HS FT
1.50 1.30 2.14 2.12 " "
1.18 2.10 "
1.30 1.99 "
1.16 1.93 "
1.07 1.93 "
0.75 1.59 "
0.72 1.58 "
0.69 1.58 “
0.51 1.39 “
0.50 1.39 “
0.49 1.38 “
31.52 mm 15/2.28/15
AN HS FT
1.55 1.35 2.18 2.16 " "
1.22 2.14 "
1.35 2.03 "
1.20 2.02 "
1.11 2.00 "
0.78 1.62 "
0.75 1.61 "
0.71 1.61 “
0.53 1.41 “
0.52 1.41 “
0.51 1.41 “
Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Temperature is limited to 30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load. 72
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 8.9
GLASS DESIGN
Glass fins
8.9.1 Glass fin design Structural Glass Fins – Dr. -Ing. Tobias Holberndt Action
Values
Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006 Notes
Clause
Data
H d t = tef,w E, G fg,k
Glass fin unsupported span [mm] Glass fin depth [mm] Glass fin effective thickness [mm] Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²] Glass fin characteristic resistance [N/mm²]
Criteria
My,d M y ,d
Design bending moment [kN·m] ≤ 1.0
M b ,Rd
Buckling reduction factor
Criteria
Wel , y = t ⋅ d 2 6
Elastic section modulus of glass fin [mm³]
M el , y = Wel , y ⋅ f g ,k
Bending moment resistance [kN·m] Moment of inertia about strong axis [mm ]
dt t t 1 − 0.63 + 0.052 5 3 d d 3
IT =
5
χ = E ⋅ d 3t 3
(5.4) 4
I z = d ⋅ t 3 12
Reduction factor
(5.2) (5.1)
( 192 H
2
G ⋅ IT
4
Torsional inertia [mm ]
(3.5) (4.2)
)
Wind pressure (-h/2) 50
Length or width [mm]
Tolerance
L or b < 600
± 1 mm
L or b ≥ 600
± 1.5 mm
L or b < 600
± 2 mm
L or b ≥ 600
± 3 mm
Reference Table 1
Table 2
Note: * Sawn edge thickness
PART 1 EUROCODE
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL TESTING
I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.1 Testing overview 10.1.1
Curtain walling product standard [EN 13830] BBSEN 13830:2003 Cl. 5.2.3
Curtain wall tests No Test
Test/calculation method
Requirement/classification
2
1 Resistance to wind load Pressure [kN/m ] [EN 12179]
-
[EN 13116]
2
2 Dead load
Unit weight [kN/m ][EN 1991-1-1] -
3 Resistance against impact
Internal, [EN 12600] cl.5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 [EN 14019] (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950) drop height [mm]
4
External, drop height [mm]
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950)
5 Air permeability
Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12153]
A1 A2 A3 A4 AE (150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)
[EN 12152]
6 Watertightness
Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12155]
R4 R5 R6 R7 RE (150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)
[EN 12154]
7 Airborne sound insulation Rw [dB]
[EN ISO 140-3] 2
[EN ISO 717-1]
8 Thermal transmittance
UCW [W/m K]
[EN 13947]
-
9 Fire resistance
E [min]
[EN 13501-2]
E15 E30 E60 E90
10 Integrity and insulation
EI [min]
11 Equipotentiality
Ω
EI15 EI30 EI60 EI90 [EN 13830] A
12 Resistance to horizontal Force at height loads [kN @ m]
10.1.2
-
[EN 1991-1-1] -
Windows and doors performance tests EN 14351-1:2005
Door and window tests Test
Test/calculation method Window
Resistance to wind load Reaction to fire External fire performance
External pedestrian door
Requirement/classification Window
EN 12211
External pedestrian door EN 12210
EN 13501-1
-
EN 13501-1
-
EN 1187
-
EN 13501-5
-
Watertightness
EN 1027
EN 12208
Impact resistance
EN 13049
EN 13049
Resistance to static torsion
EN 14609
EN 948
-
Acoustic performance
EN ISO 140-3; EN ISO 717-1
-
Thermal transmittance
EN ISO 10077-1; EN ISO 12567
-
EN 1026
EN 12207
Air permeability Operating forces Mechanical strength Bullet resistance Explosion resistance Resistance to repeated opening and closing Burglar resistance
PART 1 EUROCODE
EN 12046-1
EN 12046-2
EN 13115
EN 12217
EN 14608
EN 947; EN 948; EN 949; EN 950
EN 13115
EN 1192
EN 1523
EN 1522
EN 13124-1; EN 13124-2
EN 13123-1; EN 13123-2
EN 1191
EN 12400
EN 1628; EN 1629; EN 1630
EN 1627 77
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.2 Weather performance tests 10.2.1
Weather performance test sequence [EN 13830]
Weather resistance tests are interdependent on each other. The following groups of tests carried out in sequence shall be considered as a single weather test. All tests shall be carried out strictly in sequence, as follows Weather resistance sequence of testing Test
Purpose
BBSEN 13830:2003 cl. 5.2.3 Test method
Requirement/ Classification
a
Air permeability
for classification
EN 12153
EN 12152
b
Watertightness under static pressure
for classification
EN 12155
EN 12154
c
Resistance to wind load
serviceability
EN 12179
EN 13116
d
Air permeability
repeat to confirm wind resistance classification
EN 12153
EN 12152
e
Watertightness
repeat to confirm wind resistance classification
EN 12155
EN 12154
f
Resistance to wind load
increased wind resistance test - safety
EN 12179
EN 13116
Note: Where specifically required, an additional supplementary watertightness test under dynamic wind conditions can be carried out, in accordance with ENV 13050, on completion of test sequence a) to e). No test in the sequence shall be carried out unless all previous tests have been passed to the acceptance criteria.
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PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 10.2.2
CURTAIN WALL TESTING
Air permeability [EN 12153:2000]
BBSEN 12152:2002 Tables 1 & 2
Air permeability class Based on overall area [A]
Air permeability Maximum test pressure class Pmax [Pa]
Based on fixed joint length [L]
Air permeability 3 2 Q/A [m /h/m ]
Maximum test pressure Pmax [Pa]
Air permeability 3 Q/L [m /h/m]
A1
150
1.5
150
0.5
A2
300
1.5
300
0.5
A3
450
1.5
450
0.5
A4
600
1.5
600
0.5
AE
> 600
1.5
> 600
0.5
3
2
Note: Specimens which leak air > 1.5 m /h/m at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified. 3 2 Specimens which leak air < 1.5 m /h/m at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional).
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.2.3
Watertightness [EN 12155:2000]
BBSEN EN 12154:2000 Tables 1 & 2
Water tightness Class
Maximum test pressure Pmax [Pa]
R4
150
0/15; 50/15; 100/5; 150/5
2
R5
300
(as in R4); 300/5
2
R6
450
(as in R5); 450/5
2
R7
600
(as in R6); 600/5
2
RE xxx
> 600
(as in R7); +150 Pa steps for 5 minutes duration
2
Pressure steps and test duration P/T [Pascal/minutes]
Water spray rate 2 [li/min/m ]
Note: Specimens with water leakage at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified. Specimens without water leakage at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional). For class RE xxx the exceptional test pressure should be taken as a minimum of 0.25 of the design wind pressure (where design wind pressure is > 2400 Pa) 80
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 10.2.4
CURTAIN WALL TESTING
Resistance to wind load [EN 12179:2000]
BBSEN EN 13116:2001 Cl. 4
Resistance to wind load Performance under
Requirements
Design load The frontal deflection shall not exceed 1/200 of the span of the framing member, measured - both positive and between points of structural support, or 15 mm whichever is less negative pressure The frontal deflection shall be temporary deformation only, and shall recover after the removal of load by a minimum of 95% within a time period of 1 h. Frontal displacement of fixings of framing members at their connections to the building structure or other structural components shall be limited to less than 1 mm and this shall be allowed as residual deformation. This limit shall be taken from an assessed neutral position. The positive difference between the air permeability measured at maximum pressure in the first 3 2 3 and second tests, should not differ by more than 0.3 m /h/m (0.3 m /h/m length of joint). Increased load No permanent damage shall occur to framing members, infil panels, opening units, fasteners or - both positive and anchors. negative pressure Panels, glazing beads and decorative capping pieces shall remain securely held and gaskets shall not be displaced. If a pane of glass breaks during the increased load test, then it may be replaced and the test continued only if, following close examination, the cause of breakage is not attributable to any fault in the glazing technique or the supporting frame.
PART 1 EUROCODE
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.3 Impact resistance tests 10.3.1
Framing - Impact resistance [EN 14019:2004]
Its criteria is targeted to safety in use and integrity of curtain wall in the event of sudden impact forces on the curtain wall surfaces. It applies to those areas of curtain walling which face onto areas of human activity, either internally or externally and takes account of accidental impacts brought on by people going about their normal daily activities and impacts brought about by equipment and similar devices for maintenance, cleaning, repair and similar occasional activities. The specimen shall be tested in accordance with EN 13049 with one impact for any single position. Impact loads normal to the plane of the curtain wall are to be applied in the following positions: 1. Centre mullion height between fixings (external only). 2. Centre width (external, internal at sill height). 3. Crossing mullion and transoms. 4. Centre of spandrel unit. Glass products used as or incorporated in infill components shall be assessed in accordance with EN 12600. BBSEN EN 14019 :2004 Tables 1 & 2
Impact classification Internal impact
External impact
Class
Drop height [mm]
Class
I0
Not applicable
E0
I1
200
E1
I2
300
E2
I3
450
E3
I4
700
E4
I5
950
E5
10.3.2
Requirements
Drop height [mm] Not applicable The curtain wall shall safely absorb the impact loads and shall retain its integrity in fulfilling the following criteria : 200 a) no parts shall fall down; b) any holing shall not occur; 300 c) any breakage shall not occur; 450 d) any infilling panel shall remain in its position and come off only when removed; 700 e) any permanent deformation of curtain wall component shall 950 be accepted.
Windows - Soft and heavy body impact resistance [EN 13049]
The test applies to all infill of whatever materials including glass. It is intended to assess the interactions between all components of a window with particular regard to safety in use. The impactor as specified in EN 12600 shall be mounted on a horizontal or vertical axis, as best befits the requirements of access to the impact point. Tests shall be performed separately, one impact on each test specimen. Select, e.g. by means of pre-tests or calculations, the most dangerous impact point to strike the following: the centre of the infill or a corner of the infill or the centre of the longest edge of the largest area of the infill. BBSEN EN 13049:2003 Table 1
Impact level/drop heights Class
Drop height [mm]
1
200
2
300
3
450
4
700
5
950
82
Requirements a) Any opening shall not allow the ellipsoid, as specified in ENV 1630, to pass; b) The impact shall not detach or dislodge any casement or sash of the test specimen nor disconnect any hardware or infill retaining components, nor shall any of its composite parts become dislodged or shattered in a dangerous manner; c) The mass of any dislodged part shall not exceed 50 g.
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 10.3.3
CURTAIN WALL TESTING
Glass - Pendulum impact test [EN 12600:2002]
The test shall be carried out at each drop height on four pieces 876mm×1938mm of identical structure and the same nominal thickness. For asymmetric materials that are intended for installation where the risk of impact is from both sides, carry out the test on both sides. Performance classification: Classification α (β) Φ α - highest drop height class at which the product either did not break or broke in accordance with a) or b) of clause 4 requirements β - mode of breakage; Φ - highest drop height class at which the product either did not break or when broke, broke in accordance with a) of clause 4 requirements. When a glass product breaks at a drop height of 190 mm and the breakage is not in accordance with a) of clause 4 requirements then the value of Φ quoted shall be zero. BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Table 1, Cl. 4 & 6.2
Drop height class Class
Drop height [mm]
3
190
2
450
1
1200
Clause 4 Requirements Each test piece shall either not break or shall break as defined in one of the following ways: a) Numerous cracks appear, but no shear or opening is allowed within the test piece through which a 76 mm diameter sphere can pass when a maximum force of 25 N is applied (Annex A). Additionally, if particles are detached from the test piece up to 3 min 2 after impact, they shall, in total, weigh no more than a mass equivalent to 10 000 mm of the original test piece. The largest single particle shall weigh less than the mass equivalent 2 to 4 400 mm of the original test piece; b) Disintegration occurs and the 10 largest crack-free particles* collected within 3 min after impact and weighed, all together, within 5 min of impact shall weigh no more than the mass equivalent to 6 500 mm² of the original test piece.
Note: *The particles shall be selected only from the portion of the original test piece exposed in the test frame. Only the exposed area of any particle retained in the test frame shall be taken into account in determining the mass equivalent. BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Cl. 6.3; Annex C
Mode of breakage Type Mode of breakage
Typical breakage
A
Numerous cracks appear forming - Annealed glass (EN 572-1) separate fragments with sharp edges, - Heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 1863-1) some of which are large - Chemically strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 12337-1)
B
Numerous cracks appear, but the fragments hold together and do not separate
- Laminated safety glass (EN ISO 12543-1) - Wired glass (EN 572-1), polished wired glass (EN 572-3) - Film backed annealed glass
C
Disintegration occurs, leading to a large number of small particles that are relatively harmless
- Thermally toughened soda lime silicate safety glass (EN 12150-1)
• Sphere penetration test [EN 12600] The probe assembly has a 76 ± 1 mm diameter sphere with a force measuring device. It is pushed horizontally into any opening formed in the test piece. The weakest point of resistance shall be selected. The requirement is to achieve a maximum force of 25 N without penetration by the sphere.
PART 1 EUROCODE
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.4 Glass safety tests
EN 12600 :2002 & EN 356:2000
Sample glass classifications Laminated glass (PVB)
EN 12600 (Impact safety)
EN 356 (Manual Attack)
Class*
Drop height [mm]
Class
33.1 = 6.38mm 44.1 = 8.38mm
2(B)2
450
-
55.1 = 10.38mm
1(B)1
1200
-
Height [mm]
Number of throws**
33.2 = 6.76mm
P1A
1500
3
44.2 = 8.76mm 55.2 = 10.76mm 66.2 = 12.76mm 88.2 = 16.76mm
P2A
3000
3
44.4 = 9.52mm 66.4 = 13.52mm
P4A
9000
3
44.6 = 10.28mm 66.6 = 14.28mm
P5A
9000
9
Tempered glass
Class
4, 6 & 8 mm
1(C)2
Drop height [mm] 450
10 & 12 mm 1(C)1 1200 Note: * See section 10.3 for classification to EN 12600
** Test with steel ball of 4.1 kg. EN 12600:2002 & EN 356:2000
Safety and burglar resistance Resistance to impact (EN 12600)
Resistance to manual attack (EN 356)
Class
Glass type
Drop height [mm]
Class
Test method
Drop height [mm]
No. of drops
1A1
Monolithic annealed
1200
P1A
1500
3
450
P2A
3000
3
190
P3A
6000
3
1200
P4A
9000
3
450
P5A
Steel ball 4.11 kg dropped to form an equilateral triangle
9000
3×3
190
Class
Test method
No. of hits
1200
P6B
30 to 50 hits (axe)
450
P7B
Hammer and axe impacts
190
P8B
2A2 3A3 1B1 2B2
Laminated annealed
3B3 1C1 2C2
Monolithic tempered
3C3
51 to 70 hits (axe) ≥ 71 hits (axe) EN 1063:2000
Bullet and explosion resistance Resistance to bullet attack (EN 1063) Class
Firearm type
BR1
Resistance to explosion No. of impacts
Class
Pressure [kPa]
Duration [ms]
Rifle – 0.22 LR
3
ER1
50 to 100
20
BR2
Handgun – 9mm Luger
3
ER2
100 to 150
20
BR3
Handgun – 0.357 Rem. Magnum
3
ER3
150 to 200
20
BR4
Handgun – 0.44 Rem. Magnum
3
ER4
200 to 250
20
BR5
Rifle – 5.56 ×45
3
BR6
Rifle – 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 175mm)
3
BR7
Rifle - 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 254mm)
3
SG1
Shotgun – Cal. 12/70
1
SG2
Shotgun – Cal. 12/70
3
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PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL TESTING
10.5 Fire classification ∆T, ∆m, tf – Temperature rise [K], mass loss [%] and duration of sustained flaming [s], respectively PCS - gross calorific potential [MJ/kg or MJ/m²] FIGRA - fire growth rate index used for classification purposes [W/s] LFS – lateral fire spread [m] THR - total heat release during the evaluation period [MJ] Fs – Fire spread during the evaluation [mm] SMOGRA – smoke growth rate [m²/s²] TSP - total smoke production during the evaluation period [m²] EN 13501-1:2007 Table 1 Additional classification (EN 13823:2010)
Classes of reaction to fire performance Class A1
A2
B
Test methods
Classification criteria
-
∆T ≤ 50 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 % & tf ≤ 20 s
-
-
-
-
abce
ad
EN ISO 1716 &
PCS ≤ 3,0 MJ/kg & 2 bc PCS ≤ 4,0 MJ/m
EN 13823
FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; LFS < edge of specimen & THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ
EN 13823 &
FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; LFS < edge of specimen & THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ
EN ISO 11925-2 : Exposure = 30 s
Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s
EN 13823 &
FIGRA ≤ 250 W/s ; LFS < edge of specimen & THR600s ≤ 15 MJ
EN ISO 11925-2 : Exposure = 30 s
Fs ≤ 150mm within 60 s
EN 13823 &
FIGRA ≤ 750 W/s i
Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s
i
Fs ≤ 150 mm within 20 s
EN ISO 11925-2 : Exposure = 30 s E
-
PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ/kg 2 d PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ/m
i
D
;&
EN ISO 1716 a
EN ISO 11925-2 : Exposure = 15 s
Flaming droplets/particles -
∆T ≤ 30 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 %; & tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)
EN ISO 1182 or
f
-
EN ISO 1182 &
i
C
Smoke production
d0 = s1 = 2 2 SMOGRA ≤ 30m /s & No flaming droplets/ 2 TSP600s ≤ 50m particles within 600 s; s2 = d1 = 2 2 SMOGRA ≤ 180m /s & no flaming droplets/ 2 TSP600s ≤ 200m particles persisting longer than 10 s within s3 = not s1 or s2 600 s; g
d2 = not d0 or d1.
-
h
F
No performance determined For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products. b For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products. c Alternatively, any external non-substantial component having a PCS ≤ 2,0 MJ/m2, provided that the product satisfies the following criteria of EN 13823: FIGRA ≤ 20 W/s, and LFS < edge of specimen, and THR600s ≤ 4,0 MJ, and s1, and d0. d For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products. e For the product as a whole. f In the last phase of the development of the test procedure, modifications of the smoke measurement system have been introduced, the effect of which needs further investigation. This may result in a modification of the limit values and/or parameters for the evaluation of the smoke production. g Ignition of the paper in EN ISO 11925-2 results in a d2 classification h Pass = no ignition of the paper (no classification); Fail = ignition of the paper (d2 classification). i Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product, edge flame attack. a
PART 1 EUROCODE
85
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1 Bolted connections 11.1.1
Properties of bolts
Characteristic values of fasteners Grade Steel
Yield strength, 2 fyb [N/mm ]
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.1, EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.2 Tensile strength, Min. clear thread protrusion* 2 fub [N/mm ] [pitch]
4.6
240
400
1
4.8
320
400
1
5.6
300
500
1
5.8
400
500
1
6.8
480
600
1
8.8
640
800
3
10.9
900
1000
5
50
210
500
1
70
450
700
1
80
600
800
1
Austhenitic A1, A2, A4
Note: *DIN 78 requires 2P. EN ISO 724:1993
Metric screw threads Height of fundamental triangle 3 P ≈ 0.866254P 2
H = P sin(60°) =
Basic minor diameter d 1 = D1 = d −
5 5 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P 4 8
Basic pitch diameter d 2 = D2 = d −
3 3 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P 4 8
Nominal stress area (EN ISO 898-1) 2 π d 2 +d 3 As =
4
2
≈ 0.7854 ( d − 0.938194 P )
2
where: d3 = d1 −
Size
1 H ≈ d – 1.2269P 6
Pitch
Major Minor Pitch diameter diameter diameter P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm]
Nominal stress area 2 As [mm ]
M4
0.70
4.0
3.242
3.545
8.78
M5
0.80
5.0
4.134
4.480
14.18
M6
1.00
6.0
4.917
5.350
20.12
M8
1.25
8.0
6.647
7.188
36.61
M10
1.50
10.0
8.376
9.026
57.99
M12
1.75
12.0
10.106
10.863
84.27
M16
2.00
16.0
13.835
14.701
156.67
M20
2.50
20.0
17.294
18.376
244.79
M24
3.00
24.0
20.752
22.051
352.50
M30
3.50
30.0
26.211
27.727
560.59
M36
4.00
36.0
31.670
33.402
816.72
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PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 11.1.2
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Nominal clearances for fasteners
Nominal clearances give the diameter of the hole when added to the diameter of the bolt. Nominal clearances [mm]
EN 1090-2:2008 Table 11
Nominal bolt or pin diameter, d [mm]
M12
M16
M20
M24
≥ M27
Normal round holes
1*
2
2
2
3
Oversized round holes
3
4
4
6
8
Short slotted holes (on the length)
4
6
6
8
10
Long slotted holes (on the length)
1.5 d
Note: *M12 and M14 bolts may also be used in 2 mm clearance holes provided that the design resistance of the bolt group based on bearing is greater or equal to the design resistance of the bolt group based on bolt shear. In addition for class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9 bolts the design shear resistance Fv,Rd should be taken as 0,85 times the value given in Table 3.4.
11.1.3
Minimum distances EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.2
Minimum distances Minimum
Normal hole
Slotted hole
11.1.4
Maximum Steel or Aluminium exposed
Aluminium not exposed to weather
Edge distance
// to load
e1 ≥ 1.2d0
4t + 40
max{12t; 150}
⊥ to load
e2 ≥ 1.2d0
4t + 40
max{12t; 150}
Spacing
// to load
p1 ≥ 2.2d0
min{14t; 200}
min{21t; 300}
⊥ to load
p2 ≥ 2.4d0
min{14t; 200}
min{14t; 200}
Edge distance
// to load
e3 ≥ 1.5d0
⊥ to load
e4 ≥ 1.5d0
Spacing
// to load
p3 ≥ 2.0d0
⊥ to load
p4 ≥ 2.0d0
Washers
Generally, washers are not required for use with non-preloaded round holes. The use of washers can reduce local damage to metal coatings (washer to be placed under nut or bolt head, whichever is rotated) Plate washers shall be used for connections with long slotted and oversized holes. They shall not be thinner than 4 mm Taper washers shall be used if the surface is at an angle to a plane perpendicular to the bolt axis of more than 1/20 (d≤20mm) or 1/30 (d>20mm) Washers acc to EN 14399-5 (plain) shall only be used under nuts Washers acc to EN 14399-6 (chamfered) shall be used under heads of preloaded bolts and positioned with the chamfer towards the bolt head. For preloaded 8.8 bolts a plain washer (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under the bolt head or the nut, whichever is to be rotated For preloaded 10.9 bolts plain washers (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under both the bolt head and the nut
PART 1 EUROCODE
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1.5
Bolt design
Design resistance for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or tension EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4 and EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Design resistance of fasteners Mode
Values
Data
d P A As fub
Shear
Notes
Clause
Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm] Pitch of thread [mm] 2 Cross-sectional area of the fastener [mm ] 2 Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ] 2 Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
a) rivets and shear through shank of bolts: Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f ub 1.25 b) shear through thread of bolts: Fv,Rd = α v ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25
Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Reduction factor or packing: β p = 9d 8d + 3t p ≤ 1.0
(
)
3.6.1 (12)
values of αv: 0.6 class 4.6, 5.6 & 8.8 class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 10.9, 0.5 stainless steel & aluminium Bearing
Fb,Rd = α b ⋅ k1 ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25
t k 2 Single lap joints: Fb,Rd ≤ 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 t´ = t −
Reduction factor slot holes βR: 1.0 Nominal size hole Oversized holes 0.8 0.8 0.65
Short slot, axis ⊥ to load Long slot, axis ⊥ to load [EN 1999-1-1] Slotted holes [EN 1993-1-8]
0.6 values of αb: f e1 , ub or 1.0 3d 0 fu
p1 1 f − , ub or 1.0 3d 0 4 f u values of k1: e 2.8 2 − 1.7 or 2.5 d0 1.4
Tension
p2 − 1.7 or 2.5 d0
Interaction
edge bolts: e2 < 1.5d0 inner bolts: p2 < 3d0
Ft,Ed
Slot holes: Short: length ≤ 1.5d0 Long: 1.5d0 < length ≤ 2.5d0:
Fig. 3.1
values of αb for slot holes: e3 + d 2 end bolts: 3 ( d + 1) ( e3 + d 2 ) < 3 ( d+1 ) p3 + d 1 − 3 ( d + 1) 4
inner bolts: ( p3 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
values of k1 for slot holes: edge bolts: e +d 2 2.8 4 − 1.7 ( e4 + d 2 ) < 1.5 ( d+1 ) d+1 inner bolts: p +d 1.4 4 − 1.7 ( p4 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 ) d +1 Tension resistance [N]
rivets countersunk steel bolts steel bolts aluminium bolts
F p,Rd = 0.6 π ⋅ d m ⋅ t p ⋅ f u 1.25
1.4Ft,Rd 88
inner bolts: p1 < 3d0
Ft,Rd = k 2 ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25
values of k2: 0.60 0.63 0.90 0.50 Punching
end bolts: e1 < 3d0
Bearing resistance of connected part [N] Thickness of the connected part [mm] For countersunk head screws, the effective thickness should have a reduction of half the countersinking. Limiting bearing resistance for single lap joint with 3.6.1 (10) only one bolt row [N] Fig. 3.3
+
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
≤ 1.0
Punching shear resistance [N] Combined tension & shear
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 11.1.6
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Design slip resistance
Slip resistant bolts using 8.8 or 10.9 Action Values
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.9.1 Clause
Notes
Data
d n As fub
Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm] Number of friction surfaces [-] 2 Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ] 2 Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
Preload force
F p,C = 0.7 As ⋅ f ub
Preloading force [kN]
3.9.1 (2)
values of Fp,C [kN]: Grade M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36 8.8 47 88 137 198 314 458 10.9 59 110 173 247 393 572
SlipDesign slip-resistance [kN] Fs,Rd = k s ⋅ n ⋅ µ ⋅ F p,C 1.25 resistance values of k : s 1.0 Normal holes 0.85 Oversized holes 0.85 Short slot, axis ⊥ to load 0.76 Short slot, axis // to load 0.70 Long slot, axis ⊥ to load 0.63 Long slot, axis // to load values of slip factor, µ: µ Class of friction surface 0.5 A – surfaces blasted with shot or grit with
3.9.1 (1) Table 3.6
Table 3.7
loose rust removed, not pitted
0.3
B – Surfaces blasted with shot or grit: a) spray-metallized with an alu. or zinc based product; b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a thickness of 50 µm to 80 µm C – Surfaces cleaned by wire-brushing or
0.2
D – Surfaces as rolled
0.4
Combined tension and shear
11.1.7
flame cleaning, with loose rust removed
(
Fs,Rd = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed
)
Design slip-resistance at ultimate [kN]
1.25
(
Fs,Rd,ser = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed ,ser
)
1.0
3.9.2 (1)
Design slip-resistance at serviceability [kN]
Thread pull-out
Thread stripping resistance (Simplified) Action Values
Thickness of screw thread engagement [mm] 2 Yield strength of bolt [N/mm ] 2 Yield strength of threaded part [N/mm ]
Data
t fyB fyM
Strip-off diameter
α M = β B f uB
Resistance
( β B f uB + β M f uM )
d τ = d 2 +(α M − 0.5 ) 3P ≤ d values of βB: 0.5574 4.6
0.5774 values of βM: 0.58 0.77 0.44
8.8, 10.9 & Stainless steel Steel Stainless steel Aluminium
Fo,Rd = α M β M π d τ t ⋅ f uM 1.25
PART 1 EUROCODE
Notes
Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005 Clause
Material factor for threaded part [-]
Dose
Strip-off diameter [mm] Shear stress factor for screw [-]
Shear stress factor for threaded part [-]
Schwarz Dose
Pull-out resistance of screw [kN]
Dose
89
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1.8
Bolt design tables EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Shear resistance of bolts Fv,Rd = αv·As·fub/1.25 [kN] Thread
Stainless steel
Shank
As [mm2] A [mm2]
A2-70
A2-80
4.6
8.8
10.9
700
800
400
800
1000
2
fub [N/mm ] 0.5
αv
Steel
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
M4
8.78
12.57
2.46
4.22
2.81
4.83
1.69
2.41
3.37
4.83
3.51
6.03
M5
14.18
19.63
3.97
6.60
4.54
7.54
2.72
3.77
5.45
7.54
5.67
9.42
M6
20.12
28.27
5.63
9.50
6.44
10.86
3.86
5.43
7.73
10.86
8.05
13.57
M8
36.61
50.27
10.25
16.89
11.72
19.30
7.03
9.65
14.06
19.30
14.64
24.13
M10
57.99
78.54
16.24
26.39
18.56
30.16
11.13
15.08
22.27
30.16
23.20
37.70
M12
84.27
113.1
23.60
38.00
26.97
43.43
16.18
21.72
32.36
43.43
33.71
54.29
M16
156.7
201.1
43.88
67.56
50.14
77.21
30.09
38.60
60.17
77.21
62.68
96.51
M20
244.8
314.2
68.54
105.56
78.34
120.64
47.00
60.32
94.00
120.64
97.92
150.80
M24
352.5
452.4
98.70
152.00
112.80
173.72
67.68
86.86
135.36
173.72
141.00
217.15
M30
560.6
706.9
156.97
237.50
179.39
271.43
107.64
135.72
215.27
271.43
224.24
339.29
Note: Values in black are for shear through threaded part; values in gray are for shear through shank
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Tension resistance of bolts Ft,Rd = k2·As·fub/1.25 [kN] Stainless steel As [mm2] fub [N/mm2] k2
Steel
A2-70
A2-80
4.6
8.8
10.9
700
800
400
800
1000
0.9
0.63
0.9
0.63
0.9
0.63
0.9
0.63
0.9
0.63
M4
8.78
4.43
3.10
5.06
3.54
2.53
1.77
5.06
3.54
6.32
4.43
M5
14.18
7.15
5.00
8.17
5.72
4.08
2.86
8.17
5.72
10.21
7.15
M6
20.12
10.14
7.10
11.59
8.11
5.79
4.06
11.59
8.11
14.49
10.14
M8
36.61
18.45
12.92
21.09
14.76
10.54
7.38
21.09
14.76
26.36
18.45
M10
57.99
29.23
20.46
33.40
23.38
16.70
11.69
33.40
23.38
41.75
29.23
M12
84.27
42.47
29.73
48.54
33.98
24.27
16.99
48.54
33.98
60.67
42.47
M16
156.7
78.96
55.27
90.24
63.17
45.12
31.58
90.24
63.17
112.80
78.96
M20
244.8
123.37
86.36
141.00
98.70
70.50
49.35
141.00
98.70
176.25
123.37
M24
352.5
177.66
124.36
203.04
142.13
101.52
71.06
203.04
142.13
253.80
177.66
M30
560.6
282.54
197.78
322.90
226.03
161.45
113.01
322.90
226.03
403.62
282.54
Note: Values in black are for hexagonal and socket head bolts; values in gray are for countersunk head bolts
90
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Moment resistance of bolts Mpl,Rd = d13/6·fyb/1.25 [N·m] Steel fasteners d1 [mm]
W el [mm3]
fyb [N/mm2]
A2-70
A2-80
4.6
8.8
10.9
450.0
600.0
240.0
640.0
900.0
M4
3.24
5.67
2.04
2.72
1.09
2.90
4.08
M5
4.12
11.7
4.20
5.59
2.24
5.97
8.39
M6
4.92
19.8
7.15
9.53
3.81
10.16
14.29
M8
6.65
49.0
17.64
23.53
9.41
25.09
35.29
M10
8.38
98.1
35.31
47.08
18.83
50.22
70.62
M12
10.11
172.2
62.00
82.67
33.07
88.18
124.00
M16
13.84
441.8
159.06
212.08
84.83
226.22
318.12
M20
17.29
861.5
310.12
413.50
165.40
441.07
620.25
M24
20.75
1489.0
536.05
714.73
285.89
762.38
1072.10
M30
26.21
3000.9
1080.32
1440.43
576.17
1536.45
2160.64
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.6.1(10)
Bearing resistance of bolts on single lap joint per mm Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per (t) Aluminium EN AW-5005
EN AW-5754
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 fu [N/mm 2]
Stainless steel
Steel
6060
6005A
6082
1.4301
1.4401
S235
S275
S355
T6
T6
T6
-
-
-
-
-
100
145
190
240
170
260
290
540
530
360
430
510
M4
0.480
0.696
0.912
1.152
0.816
1.248
1.392
2.592
2.544
1.728
2.064
2.448
M5
0.600
0.870
1.140
1.440
1.020
1.560
1.740
3.240
3.180
2.160
2.580
3.060
M6
0.720
1.044
1.368
1.728
1.224
1.872
2.088
3.888
3.816
2.592
3.096
3.672
M8
0.960
1.392
1.824
2.304
1.632
2.496
2.784
5.184
5.088
3.456
4.128
4.896
M10
1.200
1.740
2.280
2.880
2.040
3.120
3.480
6.480
6.360
4.320
5.160
6.120
M12
1.440
2.088
2.736
3.456
2.448
3.744
4.176
7.776
7.632
5.184
6.192
7.344
M16
1.920
2.784
3.648
4.608
3.264
4.992
5.568
10.368
10.176
6.912
8.256
9.792
M20
2.400
3.480
4.560
5.760
4.080
6.240
6.960
12.960
12.720
8.640
10.320
12.240
M24
2.880
4.176
5.472
6.912
4.896
7.488
8.352
15.552
15.264
10.368
12.384
14.688
M30
3.600
5.220
6.840
8.640
6.120
9.360
10.440
19.440
19.080
12.960
15.480
18.360
PART 1 EUROCODE
91
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Punching-shear resistance Fp,Rd = 0.6π·dm·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per tp dm [mm]
Aluminium EN AW-5005
EN AW-5754
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 2
Stainless steel
Steel
6060
6005A
6082
1.4301
1.4401
S235
S275
S355
T6
T6
T6
-
-
-
-
-
fu [kN/cm ]
10.0
14.5
19.0
24.0
17.0
26.0
29.0
54.0
53.0
36.0
43.0
51.0
M4
7
1.056
1.531
2.006
2.533
1.794
2.744
3.061
5.700
5.595
3.800
4.539
5.383
M5
8
1.206
1.749
2.292
2.895
2.051
3.137
3.498
6.514
6.394
4.343
5.187
6.152
M6
10
1.508
2.187
2.865
3.619
2.564
3.921
4.373
8.143
7.992
5.429
6.484
7.691
M8
13
1.960
2.843
3.725
4.705
3.333
5.097
5.685
10.586
10.390
7.057
8.430
9.998
M10
17
2.564
3.717
4.871
6.152
4.358
6.665
7.434
13.843
13.587
9.229
11.023
13.074
M12
19
2.865
4.154
5.444
6.876
4.871
7.449
8.309
15.472
15.185
10.314
12.320
14.612
M16
24
3.619
5.248
6.876
8.686
6.152
9.410
10.495
19.543
19.181
13.029
15.562
18.457
M20
30
4.524
6.560
8.595
10.857
7.691
11.762
13.119
24.429
23.977
16.286
19.453
23.072
Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005
Thread pull-out resistance per (t) Fo,Rd ≈ αM·βM·π·d2·fuM/1.25 [kN/mm] per t d2 [mm]
αM = βBfyB/(βBfyB+βMfyM) A2-70 screw
P
fuB [N/mm2]
700 0.5774
βB Threaded
EN AW-5005
Temper
EN AW-5754
O/H111 H14/H24 O/H111 H24/H34 2
6060
6005A
1.4301
1.4401
S235
S275
S355
T6
T6
-
-
-
-
-
fuM [N/mm ]
100
145
190
240
170
250
520
530
360
430
510
βM
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.77
0.77
0.58
0.58
0.58
αM
0.90
0.86
0.83
0.79
0.84
0.79
0.50
0.50
0.66
0.62
0.58
M4
3.55 0.70
0.399
0.552
0.687
0.821
0.628
0.846
1.794
1.808
1.293
1.430
1.562
M5
4.48 0.80
0.499
0.690
0.859
1.028
0.786
1.060
2.266
2.285
1.627
1.800
1.969
M6
5.35 1.00
0.598
0.828
1.031
1.233
0.943
1.270
2.707
2.728
1.947
2.153
2.354
M8
7.19 1.25
0.798
1.104
1.375
1.646
1.258
1.697
3.636
3.666
2.607
2.886
3.158
M10
9.03 1.50
0.997
1.381
1.720
2.059
1.574
2.123
4.566
4.603
3.266
3.618
3.961
M12
10.86 1.75
1.197
1.657
2.065
2.473
1.889
2.549
5.495
5.540
3.926
4.350
4.764
M16
14.70 2.00
1.596
2.210
2.758
3.307
2.521
3.410
7.436
7.499
5.278
5.857
6.426
M20
18.38 2.50
1.995
2.763
3.447
4.134
3.151
4.263
9.295
9.373
6.597
7.322
8.032
M24
22.05 3.00
2.393
3.315
4.136
4.960
3.781
5.115
11.153
11.248
7.917
8.786
9.638
M30
27.73 3.50
2.992
4.145
5.174
6.208
4.729
6.402
14.024
14.143
9.928
11.026
12.104
92
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
11.2 Pin connections Pin connections with no rotation may be designed as single bolted connections. Design resistance of pin connections
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.10, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.13
Mode
Values
Data
d A Wel fup fy
Diameter of pin [mm] 2 Cross-sectional area of pin [mm ] 3 Elastic section modulus of pin cross-section [mm ] 2 Tensile strength of pin [N/mm ] Lower of the yield strengths of the pin and the 2 connected part [N/mm ]
Shear
Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f up 1.25
Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Bearing
Notes
Permanent pin: Fb,Rd = 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0
Clause
Bearing resistance of the connection [N]
Replaceable pin: Fb,Rd,ser = 0.6 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0 ≥ Fb,Ed,ser Bending
t + 4e + 2t 2 M Ed = FEd ⋅ 1 8
Permanent pin: M Rd = 1.5 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0
Design bending moment in pin [N·mm]
Fig. 3.11
Bending resistance of pin [N·mm]
Replaceable pin: M Rd,ser = 0.8 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 ≥ M Ed,ser
Interaction
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
2
M + Ed M Rd
Design of pin ended members Mode Given thickness
Given geometry
Values
≤ 1.0
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.9, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.12 Notes
a ≥
FEd ⋅ γ M 1 2d 0 + 2 t ⋅ fy 3
c ≥
FEd ⋅ γ M 1 d 0 + 2 t ⋅ fy 3
t ≥ 0.7 ≥
Combined shear & bending
2
1.0FEd fy
Clause Table 3.9
Table 3.9
d0 2.5
PART 1 EUROCODE
93
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.3 Tapping screws and rivets Spaced thread Size
Tensile Plastic section Tightening tourque Stress area modulus 2 3 3 [N·m] As [mm ] W pl = d1 /6 [mm ]
P [mm]
Major diameter dmin [mm]
Thread root diameter d1,min [mm]
Shank area 2 Ab [mm ]
ST 3.5
1.3
3.35
2.51
4.95
4.95
2.64
2.7
ST 3.9
1.3
3.73
2.77
6.03
6.03
3.54
3.4
ST 4.2
1.4
4.04
2.95
6.83
6.83
4.28
4.4
ST 4.8
1.6
4.62
3.43
9.24
9.24
6.73
6.3
ST 5.5
1.8
5.28
3.99
12.50
12.50
10.59
10.0
ST 6.3
1.8
6.03
4.70
17.35
17.35
17.30
13.6
11.3.1
Pitch
Minimum distances EN 1993-1-3 :2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-4:2007 Fig. 8.1
Minimum distances Steel sheet (EN 1993-1-3)
Aluminium sheet (EN 1999-1-4)
Screw
Rivets
Screw & rivet
Edge e1, // to load distance e2, ⊥ to load
3d
1.5d
2d or 20mm
1.5d
1.5d
1.5d or 10mm
Spacing p1, // to load
3d
3d
4d or 30mm
3d
3d
2d or 20mm
p2, ⊥ to load
11.3.2
Design resistance of self-tapping screws
Design resistance of self-tapping screws Mode Material
EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2
Net section
by test
-
Fv,Rd = As 380 1.25
tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.43d Fb,Rd = 3.2 t d f u ,min 1.25 Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25
- fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2; - d ≥ 5.5mm
tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25
Tension Pull-through (punching)
Conditions
Self-tapping screws to EN ISO 1479, 1481 or ISO 7049 Self-drilling screws to EN ISO 15480 or 15481
-
Shear Bearing
EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.3
by test
Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25
-
Ft,Rd = As 560 1.25
-
Steel or stainless steel washer: F p,Rd = 6.1 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25
F p,Rd = 0.5 d w t f u 1.25
Aluminium washer: F p,Rd = 4.88 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25 tsup < P: Pull-out (thread strip) Fo,Rd = 0.45 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25 tsup ≥ P: Fo,Rd = 0.65 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25 Combined
Ft,Ed 1.4Ft,Rd
94
+
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
≤ 1.0 &
Fo,Rd = 0.95 d t sup 3 f u ,sup 1.25
Ft,Ed
{
min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd
}
+
Fv,Ed
{
min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd
}
- fu ≤ 260 N/mm2; - t ≤ 1.5mm; - dw ≥ 14 mm; tw ≥ 1 mm
- fu ≤ 260 N/mm2; - d = 6.3 mm; - tsup >6 mm; fu,sup > 250 N/mm2 - tsup >5 mm; fu,sup > 400 N/mm2
≤ 1.0
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
EN 1090-3:2008 Table E.1
Diameter of predrilled holes [mm] Substructure thickness t [mm]
Aluminium
Steel
≤ 3.0
>3≤4
> 4.0
ST 6.3
3.3
3.5
4.1
11.3.3
Screw design tables
≤ 0.75 > 0.75 ≤ 1.5 > 1.5 ≤ 3.0 > 3 ≤ 5.0 > 5.0 ≤ 7.0 3.3
3.5
4.1
4.8
5.5
6.0
EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3
Shear, tension and moment resistance of screws Screw
> 7.0
As
Wpl
Fv,Rd = As·380/1.25
Ft,Rd = As·560/1.25
MRd = W pl·450/1.25
[mm 2]
[mm 3]
[kN]
[kN]
[kN·mm]
ST 2.9
3.40
1.50
1.03
1.52
0.54
ST 3.5
4.95
2.64
1.50
2.22
0.95
ST 3.9
6.03
3.54
1.83
2.70
1.27
ST 4.2
6.83
4.28
2.08
3.06
1.54
ST 4.8
9.24
6.73
2.81
4.14
2.42
ST 5.5
12.50
10.59
3.80
5.60
3.81
ST 6.3
17.35
17.30
5.27
7.77
6.23
EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3.2.1
Bearing resistance of screws per mm Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm]
Screw
1050
5005
5754
6060
6005A
6082
1.4301 1.4401
S235
S355
O/H111
H14
O/H111
H14
O/H111
H14
T6
T6
T6
-
-
-
-
fu [N/mm ]
65
100
100
145
190
240
170
260
290
540
530
360
510
ST 4.2
0.328
0.504
0.504
0.731
0.958
1.210
0.857
1.310
1.462
2.722
2.671
1.814
2.570
ST 4.8
0.374
0.576
0.576
0.835
1.094
1.382
0.979
1.498
1.670
3.110
3.053
2.074
2.938
ST 5.5
0.429
0.660
0.660
0.957
1.254
1.584
1.122
1.716
1.914
3.564
3.498
2.376
3.366
ST 6.3
0.491
0.756
0.756
1.096
1.436
1.814
1.285
1.966
2.192
4.082
4.007
2.722
3.856
2
PART 1 EUROCODE
95
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.3.4
Resistance of rivets
Design resistance of blind rivets Mode
EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2
Material
-
Shear
Fv,Rd = Anet ⋅ f u 1.25
Bearing
EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.2
EN ISO 15973, 15974, 15977, 15978, 15981 &15982 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2; - 2.6mm ≤ d ≤ 6.4mm
Fv,Rd = 38 d 2 1.25
tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.34d
tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
Fb,Rd = 3.6 d t min 3 f u ,min 1.25
Otherwise: Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
≤ e1 1.2 t f u /1.25 Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25
Net section
Conditions
Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25
Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25
Tension
by test
Ft,Rd = 47 d 2 1.25
-
Pull-through (punching)
by test
F p,Rd = 2.35 α E t f o 1.25
- fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2; - t ≤ 1.5mm; - dw ≥ 9.5mm
Pull-out (Slip through)
by test
Steel sheet: Fo,Rd = 0.47 d t sup f y 1.25
- fy ≤ 350 N/mm2; - tsup ≤ 6mm
Aluminium sheet: Fo,Rd = 0.20 d t sup f o 1.25 Combined
Ft,Ed 1.4Ft,Rd
+
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
≤ 1.0 ;
Ft,Ed
{
min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd
}
+
Fv,Ed
{
min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd
}
≤ 1.0
(Goebel) ISO 14589
Breaking load of blind rivets Type
Open
Material Ø3.0 Ø3.2
Ø4.0
Ø5.0 Ø4.8
Ø6.0 Ø6.4
Ø3.0 Ø3.2
Ø4.0
Ø5.0 Ø4.8
Ø6.0 Ø6.4
AlMg2.5 / Alu
0.67
1.025
1.42
-
0.535
0.845
1.15
-
AlMg5 / A2
0.87
1.6
2.5
3.9
0.68
1.2
2.0
3.0
ISO 15983
A2 / A2 (A4 / A4)
2.0
3.8
6.5
8.85
1.6
3.1
5.0
6.5
ISO 15979
Steel / Steel
1.125
1.99
3.255
5.0
0.915
1.55
2.575
4.0
AlMg5 / A2
0.98
1.6
2.25
-
0.76
1.2
1.7
-
ISO 15984
A2 / A2
2.0
3.8
6.5
-
1.6
3.1
5.0
-
ISO 15980
Steel/Steel
1.125
1.99
3.255
-
0.95
1.55
2.575
-
ISO 15975
Al99.5 / Alu
0.49
0.82
1.12
-
0.45
0.58
0.9
-
AlMg5 / A2
1.245
2.24
3.1
-
1.07
1.7
2.2
-
ISO 15981
-
-
96
Shear, Fv [kN]
Sleeve/Mandrel
-
Closed
Tension, Ft [kN]
ISO 16586
A2 / C1(S/S)
2.5
4.0
5.5
8.7
2.0
3.0
4.5
6.8
ISO 15976
Steel / Steel
2.2
2.5
3.8
-
1.6
2.3
2.9
-
-
Al99.5 / Alu
0.49
0.82
1.12
-
0.45
0.58
0.9
-
-
AlMg5 / A2
1.245
2.24
3.1
-
1.07
1.7
2.2
-
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
P 15
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
PS 45
PS 25
EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.2.2.1
Blind nut bearing resistance per mm Rivet
Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm] 1050
5005
5754
6060
6005A
6082
1.4301 1.4401
S235
S355
Ø
O/H111
H14
O/H111
H14
O/H111
H14
T6
T6
T6
-
-
-
-
fu [N/mm 2]
65
100
100
145
190
240
170
260
290
540
530
360
510
4.0
0.312
0.480
0.480
0.696
0.912
1.152
0.816
1.248
1.392
2.592
2.544
1.728
2.448
4.8
0.374
0.576
0.576
0.835
1.094
1.382
0.979
1.498
1.670
3.110
3.053
2.074
2.938
5.0
0.390
0.600
0.600
0.870
1.140
1.440
1.020
1.560
1.740
3.240
3.180
2.160
3.060
6.0
0.468
0.720
0.720
1.044
1.368
1.728
1.224
1.872
2.088
3.888
3.816
2.592
3.672
6.4
0.499
0.768
0.768
1.114
1.459
1.843
1.306
1.997
2.227
4.147
4.070
2.765
3.917
11.4 Stud welds ISO/TR 15608:2000
Suitability of base and stud materials Stud Material
Steel
Stainless steel Copper Aluminium
Group 1 – 6, 11.1
Group 8
Group 31 - 37 Group 21, 22 Pure copper and lead-free copper alloys
Aluminium* (1xxx, 3xxx & 5xxx)
a
b
-
b
b
b
-
a
b
a
b
-
A2-50
b
b
a
b
-
CuZn37(CW508L)
b
b
b
a
-
EN AW-1050A
-
-
-
-
b
EN AW-5754
-
-
-
-
a
Grade
Steel (≤ 0.35% C)
Galvanised Austenitic steel (≤ 25µm) stainless steel
S235
a
b
4.8
a
1.4301
Note: * Pure aluminium and non-heat treatable alloys. a: very suitable b: weldable to a certain extent -: not suitable for welding
PART 1 EUROCODE
97
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.5 Weld 11.5.1
Weld Symbols to EN 22553:1994 (ISO 2553:1992) (Arrow side)
1 – weld size (a) throat (z) nominal 2 – weld symbol (fillet) 3 – supplementary symbol (concave face) 4 – number of welds × length of each weld 5 – symbol for staggered intermittent weld 6 – weld spacing 7 – welding process reference
(Other side)
98
8 – weld class
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Weld examples – hollow sections
PART 1 EUROCODE
99
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS Weld examples – full penetration butt welds
100
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 1011-11998
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 11.5.2
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Design resistance of welds for steel design
Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of : •
12×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in compression or shear.
•
16×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in tension. EN 1993-1-1:2005 4.5
Design resistance of steel welds Type
Action
Directional method
Notes
Nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined 4.5.3.2 Factored normal stress in-plane , perpendicular and parallel to the throat, 2 respectively [N/mm ] Fig. 4.5
fu σ⊥, τ⊥, τ∥
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2
(
)
Interaction
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2
≤
Simplified method
s l a = 0.707·z
Fw,Rd = l ⋅
fu 1.25 β w
fu 3 1.25 β w
a
⋅
values of βw: class S235 S275 S355 S420 & S460
11.5.3
Clause
βw 0.8 0.85 0.9 1.0
Size of fillet weld [mm] Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm] Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm]
4.5.1 Fig. 4.3
Design weld resistance [N]
4.5.3.3
Correlation factor [-]
Table 4.1
Design resistance of welds for aluminium design
Clause 1.1.2 (1): Welded components shall not have thickness less than 1.5mm. EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.3
Design resistance of aluminium fillet welds Type Directional method
Interaction
Simplified method
Action
Notes
Table 8.8 Characteristic strength of weld metal, [N/mm ] 2 Factored normal stress in the plane of the throat, [N/mm ] 8.6.3.3 2 Factored shear stress perpendicular to the throat, [N/mm ] Factored normal stress parallel to the Fig. 8.18 2 throat [N/mm ]
fw σ⊥ τ⊥ τ∥
(
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2
) fw 1.25
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2
≤
values of γMw: EN 1999-1-1 UK NA
γMw = 1.35 γMw = 1.35
s l a = 0.707·z a) Longitudinal load f a ⋅ w Fw,Rd = l ⋅ 0.7 γ Mw b)Transverse load f a ⋅ w Fw,Rd = l ⋅ 0.85 γ Mw
Size of fillet weld [mm] Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm] Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm] Design weld resistance [N] Fig. 8.19 & 8.20
a) Longitudinal load
PART 1 EUROCODE
Clause 2
b) Transverse load 101
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS Design resistance of fillet and butt welds in HAZ Type Directional method
Action
Notes Characteristic strength of welded parts [N/mm ] Reduction factor for HAZ [-] 2 Design normal stress perpendicular to weld axis [N/mm ] 2 Design shear stress parallel to weld axis [N/mm ]
σhaz τhaz
Fillet weld
check F & T
Butt weld
check T
102
Clause 2
fu ρu,haz
σ haz 2 +3τ haz 2 ≤
EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.4 Table 8.8 8.6.3.3
f u ⋅ ρ u ,haz
γ Mw F = HAZ in the fusion boundary T = HAZ in toe of the weld, full cross-section
Fig. 8.21
Fig. 8.21
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
11.6 Plate bracket resistance Plate bracket resistance Plate Properties EN AW-6005A T6 t
b
[mm] [mm]
A
I 2
[mm ]
4
[mm ]
EN 1993-1:2005; EN 1999-1:2007 S235 S355
EN AW-6082 T6
NRd
VRd
MRd
NRd
VRd
MRd
NRd
VRd
MRd
NRd
VRd
MRd
[kN]
[kN]
[kN·mm]
[kN]
[kN]
[kN·mm]
[kN]
[kN]
[kN·mm]
[kN]
[kN]
[kN·mm]
10
200 2000 1667 363.6 168.0
909.1 472.7 218.3 1181.8 470.0 217.1 1175.0
670.0 309.5 1675.0
10
225 2250 1875 409.1 189.0 1022.7 531.8 245.6 1329.5 528.8 244.2 1321.9
753.8 348.1 1884.4
12
200 2400 2400 436.4 201.5 1309.1 567.3 262.0 1701.8 564.0 260.5 1692.0
804.0 371.4 2412.0
12
225 2700 2700 490.9 226.7 1472.7 638.2 294.8 1914.5 634.5 293.1 1903.5
904.5 417.8 2713.5
12
250 3000 3000 545.5 251.9 1636.4 709.1 327.5 2127.3 705.0 325.6 2115.0 1005.0 464.2 3015.0
12
275 3300 3300 600.0 277.1 1800.0 780.0 360.3 2340.0 775.5 358.2 2326.5 1105.5 510.6 3316.5
15
225 3375 4219 613.6 283.4 2301.1 797.7 368.5 2991.5 793.1 366.3 2974.2 1130.6 522.2 4239.8
15
250 3750 4688 681.8 314.9 2556.8 886.4 409.4 3323.9 881.3 407.0 3304.7 1256.3 580.2 4710.9
15
275 4125 5156 750.0 346.4 2812.5 975.0 450.3 3656.3 969.4 447.7 3635.2 1381.9 638.3 5182.0
15
300 4500 5625 818.2 377.9 3068.2 1063.6 491.3 3988.6 1057.5 488.4 3965.6 1507.5 696.3 5653.1
15
325 4875 6094 886.4 409.4 3323.9 1152.3 532.2 4321.0 1145.6 529.1 4296.1 1633.1 754.3 6124.2
15
350 5250 6563 954.5 440.9 3579.5 1240.9 573.2 4653.4 1233.8 569.8 4626.6 1758.8 812.3 6595.3
PART 1 EUROCODE
103
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.7 Anchors in Concrete Design resistance of metal anchors (Method A) Type
Action
Steel
Tension γ Ms =
1.2 f yk f uk
≥ 1.4
N Rd ,s = As f uk γ Ms
Shear
ETAG 001:2010 Annex C
Notes
Clause
Material partial safety factor [-]
3.2.2.2
Design tensile resistance of metal anchor [kN]
5.2.2.2
Condition fuk ≤ 800 N/mm² 1.0 Material partial safety factor [-] ≥ 1.25 and f yk f uk fyk/fuk ≤ 0.8 fuk > 800 N/mm² 1.5 or fyk/fuk > 0.8 a) No lever arm, mortar thickness ≤ d/2: Design tensile resistance of metal anchor [kN] γMs
V Rd ,s = 0.5 As f uk γ Ms
b) With lever-arm: l = a 3 + e1
(
M Rk ,s = 1.2Wel f uk 1 − N Sd / N Rd ,s V Rd ,s = α M M Rk ,s
)
l
3.2.2.2
5.2.3.2
Lever arm [mm]
4.2.2.4
Bending moment resistance [N·m]
5.2.3.2
Design shear resistance of metal anchor [kN]
Fixture restraint, αM: αM Fixture Rotation Free 1.0 Fixed 2.0 Concrete: Tension
Material partial safety factor (low installation safety) 3.2.2.1
γ Mc = 2.1
Pull-out failure (concentric load): 0 1.5 N Rk ,c = 7.2 f ck ,cube hef
Ac ,N
Char. res. of single anchor in cracked concrete [kN] 5.2.2.4 Actual total area of concrete cone 1:1.5 slope [mm²]
Ac0,N = 9hef 2
Concrete cone area for single anchor [mm²]
ψ s ,N = 0.7 + 0.2 c hef ≤ 1.0
Edge distance factor [-] Shell spalling factor [-]
ψ re ,N = 0.5 + hef 200 ≤ 1.0 Ac ,N
N Rd ,c =
0 ⋅ψ s ,N ⋅ψ re ,N ⋅ N Rk ,c γ Mc
Ac0,N
Design pull-out resistance (cracked concrete) [kN]
Splitting failure: hef ≤ h/2 to avoid splitting failure Concrete: Shear
γ Mc = 1.5
5.2.2.6 Material partial safety factor
3.2.2.1
Pry-out failure for hef ≥ 60mm. [kN]
5.2.3.3
Pry-out failure: V Rd ,cp = 2 ⋅ N Rk ,c γ Mc
Pry-out failure (concentric load):
(
α = 0.1 l f c1 0 V Rd ,c
α
)
0.5
= 1.7 d hef
β
; β = 0.1 ( d c1 )0.2 f ck ,cube c1
1.5
Concrete cone area for single anchor [mm²]
Ac0,V = 4.5c1 2
Actual total area of concrete cone 1:1.5 slope [mm²] Edge distance factor [-]
Ac ,V
ψ s ,V = 0.7 + 0.3 c2 c1 ≤ 1.0
Member thickness factor [-]
ψ h,V = 1.5c1 h ≥ 1.0 V Rd ,c =
Concrete: Combined 104
Ac ,V Ac0,V
0 ⋅ψ s ,V ⋅ψ h ,V ⋅ V Rk ,c γ Mc
(NSd/NRd,s) 2 + (VSd/VRd,s)2 ≤ 1.0 NSd/NRd,c)
1.5
+ (VSd/VRd,c)
1.5
lf is the effective anchor depth for shear [-] 2.4 Char. res. of single anchor in cracked concrete [kN] 5.2.3.4
≤ 1.0
Design pry-out resistance (cracked concrete) [kN] Steel failure interaction
5.2.4
Concrete failure interaction
PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
BUILDING PHYSICS
I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS 12.1 Thermal Performance 12.1.1
Thermal transmittance (U-value)
EN ISO 10077-2 – Software validation CWCT - Guidance EN ISO 12631 – Calculation EN ISO 10211-1 – Linear and/or point thermal transmittance Part L2A cl. 4.12 & 5.1 to 5.8 – developing construction details
12.1.2
Condensation
EN ISO 13788 – Boundary conditions CWCT – Guidance EN 15927 – External conditions
12.1.3
Solar and light performance
EN 410 – Method Part L – G-values ASTM C 1649 & C1650 – Colour in reflection and transmission CIE technical report 130/1998 – Measurements of reflectance and transmission
12.2 Acoustic Performance 12.2.1
Airborne sound insulation
EN ISO 10140 – Min. sound reduction indices
12.2.2
Vertical flanking sound
EN ISO 10848 – Laboratory measurement EN ISO 717-1 – Weighted average
12.2.3
Horizontal flanking sound
EN ISO 10848 – Laboratory measurement EN ISO 717-1 – Weighted average
12.2.4
Noise control
EN 61672-1 – Sound level meters
12.3 Fire Performance Part B – Materials
12.3.1
Fire and smoke stopping
Part B – Materials BS 476-20,22 – Fire stop EN 12101-1 – Fire stop
12.3.2
Fire rating
PART 1 EUROCODE
105
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART II BRITISH STANDARDS 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents II-1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
5
1.1
Materials for patent glazing construction
5
1.2
Corrosion
6
1.3
Corrosion protection
7
II-2 LOADS
9
2.1
Definitions
9
2.2
Dead load (D)
9
2.3
Imposed load (L)
10
2.4
Snow load (S)
12
2.5
Wind load (W)
14
2.6
Thermal load (T)
24
2.7
Seismic load (E)
25
2.8
Blast load, BL
25
2.9
Load combinations
26
II-3 SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
27
3.1
Deflection
27
3.2
Common structural movements
28
3.1
Cutain wall accommodation of structural movements
29
3.2
Structural tolerance
32
II-4 STEEL DESIGN
39
4.1
Properties of steel
39
4.2
Steel mullion moment of inertia
40
4.3
Steel transom moment of inertia
41
II-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN
43
5.1
Properties of aluminium structures
43
5.2
Minimum profile thickness to prevent local buckling
44
5.3
Aluminium mullion moment of inertia
46
5.4
Aluminium transom moment of inertia
47
II-6 GLASS DESIGN
49
6.1
Properties of glass
49
6.2
Structural sealant glazing (SSG)
49
6.3
Overhead glazing
49
6.4
Safety glass
49
6.5
Balustrades
50
6.6
Glass fins
52
II-7 STONE DESIGN
55
7.1
Properties
55
7.2
Design of thin stone for cladding
56
BRITISH STANDARDS
3
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
4
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
II-8 CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS
57
8.1
CWCT test methods for building envelopes
57
8.2
Impact Resistance of Wall Components [BS 8200]
58
8.3
Windows and Vents
59
II-9 RAINSCREEN CLADDING
61
9.1
Pressure-equalised system
61
9.2
Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)
61
9.3
Subframes
61
II-10 ROOFS
62
10.1 Minimum Slope of Roofs and their Gutters [BS 6229 Cl. 7.3]
62
II-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
63
11.1 Fastening bolts and screws
63
11.2 Weld
66
11.3 Guide to welding
68
11.4 Bracket
70
BRITISH STANDARDS
Structural Engineer’s Façade Notes
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
II-1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1.1
Materials for patent glazing construction Patent glazing are self-draining and ventilated system of dry glazing that does not rely entirely for its watertightness upon external glazing seals.
Materials for patent glazing construction Material Use Material Aluminium
Architectural Extrusion, bars & rods members (e.g. mullion, transom, fin, beam, capping, etc.)
- 6060 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997 - 6063 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997
Structural members Extrusion, (e.g. Backet, sword, bars & rods crimping angle, glass support, etc.)
- 6005A, 6061, 6082 or 7020 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997
Flashing
Site formed sheets
- 1050 O/H111 to BS EN 485-2:2007
Preformed sheets
- 1200, 3103, 5005 or 5251 to BS EN 485-2:2007
Fasteners Steel
Grade & treatment
BS 5516-1:2004 Finish - Anodised to BS 3987 - Liquid organic coated to BS 4842 - Polyester powder coating to BS 6496
Bolt or screw - 5056A H4 to BS 1473
Structural members Hot rolled sections
- S355 to BS EN 10025-2:2004
Hot rolled hollow sections
- S355 orS460 to BS EN 10210:2006
Plates & Flats
Hot rolled
- S235or S355 to BS EN 10025-2:2004 - S460 to BS EN 10137-1:1996
Sheets for cold bending
Hot rolled
- DD11 to BS EN 10111:2008 ???
- Hot dipped galvanized to BS EN ISO 1461 - Zinc sprayed to BS EN 22063 - Organic coated to BS 6497
Cold formed - D01 to BS EN 10130:2006 ???
Fasteners
Bolt or screw - Gr. 4.6, 8.8 or 10.9 to BS 4190 - HSFG to BS 4395
Fasteners
Bolt or screw - A2 or A4 to BS EN 3506
- Electroplating with zinc or cadmium to BS 3382 - Chromate passivated and sealed to BS 6338
Stainless steel
BRITISH STANDARDS
5
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1.2
Corrosion
1.2.1 Bimetallic/glavanic corrosion When two different metals are in electrical contact and are also bridged by water containing an electrolyte (e.g. water containing salt, acid, combustion product), current flows through the solution from the anodic or baser metal to the cathodic or nobler metal. As a result, the nobler metal tends to be protected, but the base metal may suffer great corrosion. CWCT TN 24:2000
Bimetallic corrosion Electro negative, anodic, baser, active
Zinc Aluminium Steel Cast irons Cast irons (austenitic) Stainless steel
Electro positive, cathodic, nobler, passive
Industrial/urban
Marine
Rural
Industrial/urban
Marine
Rural
Industrial/urban
Marine
Rural
Industrial/urban
Marine
0
Rural
Aluminium
Marine
░
BS PD 6484:1979 Cast irons Stainless steel* (austenitic or nickel cast iron)
Industrial/urban
░
Cast irons
Rural
Industrial/urban
Zinc
coupled with…
Steels (carbon and low alloy)
Marine
Rural
Bimetallic corrosion of metals in contact Corrosion of… Zinc Aluminium
░
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
░
░
░
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
░
░
░
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0-1
░
░
░
0
0
0
0
1
-
0
0-1
1
░
░
░
-
(0)
-
0
0
(1)
░
░
░
0-1 0-1
Steels (carbon and low alloy)
0-1
1
1-2
1
1
3
Cast irons
0-1
1
1-2
0
1
2
Cast irons (austenitic)
0-1
1
1-2
1
(2)
Stainless steel
0-1
0-1 0-1
0
1
0-1 0-1 2
(3) (0-1) (0-1) (0-2) 2
1
-
2-3 0-1
1-2 1-2
Key 0 - Metal will suffer either no bimetallic corrosion, or at most only very slightly, usually tolerable in service. 1 - Metal will suffer slight or moderate bimetallic corrosion which may be tolerable in some circumstances. 2 - Metal may suffer fairly severe bimetallic corrosion and protective measures will usually be necessary 3 - Metal may suffer severe bimetallic corrosion and contact should be avoided. () Ratings in brackets are based on very limited evidences and hence are less certain. * Effect depends on relative areas. If the area of the stainless steel is small in relation to that of the coupled metal there may be considerable extra corrosion.
6
BRITISH STANDARDS
Structural Engineer’s Façade Notes
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
1.2.2 Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion occurs in crevices and recesses, or under deposits of dirt or corrosion products, where there is localised depletion of dissolved oxygen. Such conditions can initiate corrosion of some normally resistant metals (e.g. aluminium and stainless steel) by preventing the formation of the natural protective oxide film. Crevice corrosion can be particularly damaging as it is both localised and likely to occur for relatively long periods as by its nature it takes place at locations that do not dry out rapidly. Surfaces located below projections are not rainwashed, enabling dirt to accumulate and moisture to be retained at the metal surface, underneath which crevice corrosion can begin. Water can also become trapped at many details and interfaces, for example: Between lap joints of sheeting, or between sheets and support rails, Between bolted plates and underneath bolt heads, Where sheets project into gutters, Within small welding imperfections or furrows across the surface of polished metal panels. Crevice corrosion may be prevented by using non-absorbent gaskets, by removing accumulated deposits frequently and avoiding details that trap water.
1.2.3 Pitting corrosion Pitting corrosion is another form of very localised corrosion in which small anodic areas in contact with large cathodic areas corrode to form pits or holes. They ordinarily penetrate from the top of a horizontal surface downwards in a nearly vertical direction. A pit may be initiated by a localised surface defect such as a scratch or a slight variation in material composition. In steel it is an extremely insidious type of corrosion, often going undetected as the volume of corrosion product is small. In aluminium the volume of corrosion product is very much greater than the volume of the pit. The corrosion reaction can therefore be inhibited by selfsealing of the pit.
1.3
Corrosion protection
1.3.1 Zinc coating
BRITISH STANDARDS
7
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
II-2 LOADS 2.1
Definitions IRATA
Definition of loading capacities Category Load/strength Ultimate limit state (factored loads)
Tensile strength
Definition the force required (usually minimum or average) to a member to the point where it breaks
Characteristic strength value of the strength below which only 5% of all test results would be expected (probability) to fail
Service load (non-factored loads)
Devices with counter-mass
2.2
Yield strength
The load at which a member experiences a specified amount of permanent deformation
Proof load
the greatest load applied without straining it beyond the elastic limit (no evidence of deformation)
Rated capacity
the minimum load a complete assembly can withstand before failure in a laboratory pull test when the product is NEW
Breaking load
the lowest breaking force when tested to destruction
Working load limit (WLL)
the maximum load, specified by the manufacturer following an assessment by a competent person, authorized to support when the product is new and when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the member
Safe working load (SWL)
the breaking load divided by an appropriate factor of safety (usually ≥ 2.0) giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried. No additional safety factors required. Ceased to be used in American, ISO and European standards because of legal implications.
Maximum rated load
maximum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
Minimum rated load
minimum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
Dead load (D)
2.2.1 Permanent attachements Typical loads supported from internal surfaces Fixtures
Description
Cupboard
Well loaded, 1.2 x 0.7 x 0.3 m
Washbasin Bookshelves
BRITISH STANDARDS
BS 8200:1985 Table 5 Load 2.5 kN 1.5 kN
Per meter of shelf
0.60 kN/m
Per square metre of wall face
2.0 kN/m
2
9
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 2.3
Imposed load (L)
2.3.1 Occupancy live load Vertical load Internal ledges and framing members shall carry a vertical load of 1.0 kN or a distributed load of 0.6 kN/m², whichever is onerous, according to CWCT Cl. 2.3.3. & BS 6399-1 Cl. 10.
Barrier loads Horizontal loads applied either as a line acting at a height 1100mm above the finished internal floor level, or a distributed or point load on infill panels below this level. BS 6399-1:1996 Table 4
Minimum horizontal loads on barriers Occupancy
Specific use
Horizontal Uniform Infill load, ILQ Line load, ILL 2 [kN/m ] [kN/m]
A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one single family dwelling including stairs, landings, etc. but Domestic and residential activities excluding external balconies and edges of roofs (see C3 ix)
Point load, ILP [kN]*
0.36
0.5
0.25
0.74
1.0
0.5
B and E (v) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and institutional buildings also industrial and Offices and work areas not included storage buildings except as given above elsewhere including storage areas
0.74
1.0
0.5
C (vi) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of Areas where people the barrier, balustrade or parapet may congregate
1.5
1.5
1.5
C1/C2 (vii) Restaurants and bars Areas with tables or fixed seating
1.5
1.5
1.5
C3 (ix) External balconies and edges of roofs. Areas without Footways and pavements within building obstacles for curtilage adjacent to basement/sunken areas moving people and not susceptible to overcrowding
0.74
1.0
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
(ii) Other residential, (but also see C)
D Retail areas
(xiii) All retail areas including public areas of banks/building societies or betting shops. For areas where overcrowding may occur, see C5
Note: * Clause 5.1.3: When used for the calculation of local effects such as crushing and punching, the concentrated loads should be assumed to act at a position and over an area of application appropriate to their cause. Where this cannot be foreseen, a square contact area with a 50 mm side should be assumed. Minimum barrier heights
BS 6180:1999 Table 1
Use
Position
Single family dwelling
Barriers in front of a window
800
Stairs, landings, ramps, edges of internal floors
900
External balconies, juliet balconies, edges of roofs
1100
Barriers in front of a window, balconies and stands, etc. having fixed seating within 530mm of the barrier
800
Stairs
900
All other uses
Other positions including juliet balconies 10
Height [mm]
1 100
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
Balcony live load BS 6399-1:1986 Table 1
Minimum Imposed Load on Balconies Load
Description
A Domestic and residential activities
B, C and E Offices and work areas not included elsewhere, areas where people may congregate, including storage areas
Uniformly distributed load, 2 [kN/m ]
Concentrated Load, [kN]
Single dwelling units
1.5
1.4
Guests houses, clubs
3.0
1.5kN/m on outer edge
Hotels and motels
4.0
1.5kN/m on outer edge
Balconies
4.0
1.5kN/m on outer edge
2.3.2 Roof live load BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4
Minimum Imposed Roof Loads Live Load
Description
Roof with access
Slope, α
Load
Uniformly distributed load
-
1.5 kN/m
Concentrated load
-
1.8 kN
α ≤ 30˚
0.6 kN/m
Roof with no access Uniformly distributed load
Reference 2
2
30˚ < α < 60˚
0.6[(60-α)/30] kN/m
60˚ < α
0
-
0.9 kN
Concentrated load
BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4.2
BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4.3.1 2
Note: “access” means access in addition to that necessary for cleaning and repair. “no access” means access for cleaning and repair only.
2.3.3 Maintainance load Other Loads Live Load
Description
Maintenance crew
Man leaning against the wall
0.4 kN
BS 8200:1985 Cl. 6.5
Man on ladder
0.5 kN
BS 8200:1985 Cl. 6.5
0.5 kN
CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.3
Cradle/Man/Ladder Horizontal load on square of 100mm sides 1
On Patent glazing
Perpendicular to Sloping patent glazing Horizontal load on Vertical patent glazing
Industrial type flooring/walkways
Load
0.695 kN · cos(α)
Reference
BS 5516-1:2004 Ann. D
0.172 kN
Occasional access - inspection or maintenance by one person
1.5 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
Light duty – regular one way pedestrian
3.0 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
General duty – regular two way pedestrian
5.0 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
Heavy duty – high density pedestrian
7.5 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*
BS4592-0:2006 Table 1
1
Note: Maintenance load should never be carried directly by the infilling (glass or panel). See BS 5516-1:2004 Annex D * Concentraled load over an area of 300mm × 300mm.
BRITISH STANDARDS
11
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 2.4
Snow load (S) Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to BS 6399-3 Cl. 5. BS6399-3:1988
Snow load calculation Action Data
Site snow load
Roof Shape coefficient
Values
Notes
Clause 2
α
Basic snow load, [kN/m ] Site altitude, [m] Angle of pitch of roof, [˚]
S alt = 0.1S b + 0.09
Altitude correction, [kN/m ]
A - 100 S o = S b + S alt 100
Altitude correction, [kN/m ]
Sb A
Case-1: Uniform Load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ1 = 0.8 b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: 60 - α µ1 = 0.8 30 c) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0
Figure 1 6.2 7.2.2 2
6.2
2
6.2
(a) Flat or Monopitch Roof
(b) Duopitch Roof Figure 2 Figure 3(a)
Case-2: Asymmetric Load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 15˚: µ1 = 0 b) 15˚ < α ≤ 30˚: α - 15 µ1 = 0.8 + 0.4 15 c) 30˚ < α < 60˚: 60 - α µ1 = 1.2 30 d) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0 Canopy Shape Coefficient
Figure 3(b)
Width of canopy projection Width of abutting taller building Differential height
b1 b2 ho1 Case-1: b1 ≤ 5 m ls1 = 5ho1 or b1 (lesser) µ1 =
7.4.5 7.4.5 7.4.5 Figure 2 Figure 9
2h o1 2b or or 5 (least) So l s1
Case-2: b1 > 5 m ls1 = 5ho1 or b1 or 15m (least) µ1 =
Design snow load
12
2h o1 2b or or 8 (least) So l s1
S d = µ1 ⋅ S 0
Figure 6
2
Design snow load, [kN/m ]
5
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Basic snow load on the ground, Sb in kN/m
BRITISH STANDARDS
LOADS 2
BS 6399-3 Fig. 1
13
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 2.5
Wind load (W)
2.5.1 Minimum wind load 2
CWCT 2.2.4 Table 2.1: the minimum wind load for design should be 0.80 kN/m .
2.5.2 Relevant dimensions in BS 6399-2:1997 For low-rise buildings (H < D), according to Table 5, the effect of building plan dimension is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face (front) when the inwind depth “D” is the shorter dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatibely assumed at unity. However, for high-rise buildings (H ≥ D), according to section 2.4.1.4, funnelling is more critical when the crosswind breadth “B” is the smaller dimension.
2.5.3 Horizontal zoning CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.2.3: Under normal circumstances there shall be no horizontal zoning of wind pressure to give lower design loads on the envelope nearer the ground. CWCT TN4:2000: For tall buildings the wind load at the top will be greater than that near ground level due to the increase in wind speed with height. BRE Digest 436 states that this variation in pressure with height only applies to the positive wind pressure on the windward face and is not applicable to suction loads on the side and rear faces.
2.5.4 Probability factor The wind map in BS 6399 gives wind speeds that has an annual risk of being exceeded of Q = 0.02 (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years). To vary the basic wind speed for other such annual probabilities the basic wind speed should be multiplied by: Sp =
5-ln[-ln(1-Q)] 5-ln[-ln(0.98)]
- Probability factor
where: R
1 L Q = 1- 1- R
- Risk of exceedence of a given R-return period wind speed in L years
Examples:
14
Sp = 0.749; Q = 0.632
- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 1 year
Sp = 0.905; Q = 0.096
- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 10 years
Sp = 1.000; Q = 0.02
- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 50 years
Sp = 1.010; Q = 0.0167
- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 60 years
Sp = 1.048; Q = 0.0083
- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 120 years
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
2.5.5 Calculating dynamic pressure Below is an outline to calculate the dynamic pressure for buildings qs, using standard method Wind load calculation Action Values Data
Notes
Vb
∆s Factors
Site Wind speed Data
Determine Effective height
BS6 399-2 :1997 Clause
Sa = 1 + 0.001∆s Sd = 1.00 (conservatively) Ss = 1.00 (for permanent buildings) Sp = 1.00 (for normal applications) Vs = Vb · Sa · Sd · Ss · Sp H Hr Ho Xo a) for Xo ≤ 2Ho, greater of: He = Hr - 0.8Ho He = 0.4Hr
Basic wind speed, Figure 6 [m/s] Site altitude above mean sea level, [m]
2.2.1 2.2.2.2
Altitude factor, [-] Directional factor, Table 3 [-] Seasonal factor, Table Annex D.1 [-] Probability factor, Annex D.1 [-]
2.2.2.3 2.2.2.4 2.2.2.5
Site wind speed, [m/s]
2.2.2.1
Building height, [m] Reference height for coefficient definition, [m] Obstruction height, [m] Upwind space, [m] Effective height, [m]
1.7.3.1 1.7.3.3 1.7.3.3 1.7.3.4 1.7.3.2
b) for 2Ho < Xo < 6Ho, greater of: He = Hr - 1.2Ho + 0.2Xo He = 0.4Hr; c) for Xo ≥ 6Ho He = Hr Standard Method
a) for He ≤ 20 m Sb
Terrain and building factor, Table 4 [-]
2.2.3.3
Effective wind speed, [m/s]
2.2.3.1
b) for He ≤ 100 m Sb Ve = Vs · Sb Directional Method
c) for He > 100m Site in country: Sc Fetch factor, Table 22 [-] St Turbulence factor, Table 22 [-] Sh = 0.0 (conservatively) Topograhic increment, [-] gt = 3.44 (for cladding & their fixing) Gust peak factor, [-] Sb = Sc[1+ Sh + (gt · St)] Site in town: Sc·Tc St·Tt Sh = 0.0 (conservatively) gt = 3.44 (for cladding & their fixing)
Effective wind speed
Terrain and building factor, [-] Fetch factor, Table 22 & 23 [-] Turbulence factor, Table 22 & 23 [-] Topograhic increment, [-] Gust peak factor, [-]
Sb = Sc·Tc [1+ Sh + (gt · St·Tt)]
Terrain and building factor, [-]
Ve = Vs · Sb
Effective wind speed, [m/s]
3.2.3.3.4 3.2.3.3.3 3.2.3.2.2
3.2.3.3.4 3.2.3.3.3 3.2.3.2.3 2.2.3.1
Pressure
qs = 0.613 Ve
BRITISH STANDARDS
2
2
Dynamic pressure, [N/m ]
2.1.2
15
LOADS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
2.5.6 Factors and coefficients Basic wind speed, Vb in UK
BS 6399-2:1997 Fig. 6
16
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS BS 6399-2:1997 Table 4
Terrain and building factor, Sb for He < 20m 1.9 Country: ≤ 10km from sea 1.8
Country: 50km from sea Country: ≥ 100km from sea
Terrain & bulding factor, Sb
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4 Town: ≤ 10km from sea
1.3 Town: 50km from sea 1.2 Town: ≥ 100km from sea
1.1
1.0 2
4
6
8
10 12 Effective height, H e [m]
14
16
18
20
BS 6399-2:1997 Table 4
Terrain and building factor, Sb for He ≥ 20m 2.10
2.05
Terrain & bulding factor, S b
2.00
1.95 Country/Town: ≤ 10km from sea 1.90
1.85
Country/Town: 50km from sea
1.80 Country/Town: ≥ 100km from sea 1.75
1.70 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Effective height, He [m]
BRITISH STANDARDS
17
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
BS 6399-2:1997 Table 22 & 23
Fetch factor, Sc and Adjusted, Sc·Tc 1.8
Country: ≤ 10km from sea
a) Country terrain: Fetch factor, S c b) Town Terrain: Adjusted fetch factor, S c ·T c
Country: 50km from sea 1.7
Country: ≥ 100km from sea
1.6
1.5
Town: ≤ 10km from sea
1.4
Town: 50km from sea 1.3
Town: ≥ 100km from sea 1.2 100
150
200 Effective height, He [m]
250
300
BS 6399-2:1997 Table 22 & 23
Turbulence factor, St and Adjusted, St·Tt 0.180
b) Town Terrain: Adjusted turbulence factor, S t·Tt
a) Country terrain: Turbulence factor, S t
Town: ≥ 100km from sea 0.160
Town: 50km from sea
Town: ≤ 10km from sea 0.140
0.120
0.100
Country: ≥ 100km from sea 0.080 Country: 50km from sea Country: ≤ 10km from sea 0.060 100
150
200
250
300
Effective height, H e [m]
18
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
2.5.7 Wind load on claddings BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.4
Design wind loads on vertical walls Action
Values
Data
Notes
Crosswind breadth and inwind depth of building, [m] 2.4.1.3 Slenderness ratio, [-] 2.4.1.2 Scaling length, [m] 2.4.1.1
B, D D/H b = lesser of B or 2H External pressure coefficients, Side wall
External Pressure Coefficient
Zone Isolated
Clause
External pressure coefficient [-]
Table 5
Internal pressure coefficient for enclosed building, Table 16 [-]
2.6.1
Funnelling
A
-1.3
b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b - 1.6
B
-0.8
- 0.9
C
-0.5
- 0.9
Windward wall D/H ≤ 1 1 < D/H < 4 D/H ≥ 4 0.85 0.85-12(D/H-1) 0.6 Leeward wall -0.5 Internal Pressure Coef. Net surface Pressure
Cpi(+) = +0.2 Cpi(-) = -0.3
2
Wind pressure on windward wall, [kN/m ] 2 Wind suction on leeward wall, [kN/m ]
Pw = qs [CpeW – Cpi(-)] PL = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] a) Zone A (local), 0.2b: PA = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] b) Zone B, b-0.2b: PB = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] c) Zone C, D-b: PC = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)]
2.1.3.3
Wind Load in London Building height [m] 10 25 50 100 200
LONDON Low-rise bldg. Intermediate Medium-rise High-rise Skyscraper
Pressure [kN/m²] 0.89 1.15 1.31 1.43 1.57
Isolated [kN/m²] Suction Local -0.77 -1.16 -1.00 -1.50 -1.14 -1.71 -1.25 -1.87 -1.37 -2.05
Funnelling [kN/m²] Suction Local -0.85 -1.39 -1.10 -1.81 -1.25 -2.05 -1.37 -2.24 -1.51 -2.46 Pressure
n Isolated-suctio
tion Funnelling-suc
Isolated-local
cal Funnelling-lo
Building Height [m]
200
150
100
50
0 -2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Wind Load [kN/m²]
2.5.8 Pressure on rainscreen acc. to CWCT:2005 Cl.2.2.5 Drained and ventilated envelope: q·Cpe Pressure-equalised rainscreen panel complying to CWCT Cl. 2.2.6: 2/3·q·Cpe
BRITISH STANDARDS
19
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 2.5.9 Wind load on long elements
BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.7
Design wind loads on long elements Action
Values
Notes
Clause
Data
B, L Circular section: Cp = 1.2 Sharp-edged sections: Cp = 2.0
Width and length of element, [m]
2.7.2.2 2.7.3 Table 20
Net Pressure Coefficient Reduction factor
Net Pressure
2.7.3 Fig. 25
a) for element with free ends effective = L/B b) for one end fixed to a plane effective = 2L/B c) for both ends fixed to opposite planes κ = 1.0
2.1.3.3
P = qs·Cp· κ
2.5.10 Wind load on free-standing solid wall and cladding fins BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.8.1
Design wind loads on free-standing solid walls Action
Values
Notes
Clause
Data
h, L Without return corners: Cp,A = 3.4; Cp,B = 2.1 CpC = 1.7; CpD = 1.2 With return corners ≥ h: Cp,A = 2.1; Cp,B = 1.8 CpC = 1.4; CpD = 1.2
Height and length of free-stand wall, [m]
Fig. 26
Net Pressure Coefficient
Reduction factors
a) for L/h ≤ 3 κ = 0.6 b) for 3 < L/h ≤ 5 κ = 0.6 + (L/h – 3)/20 c) for 5 < L/h ≤ 10 κ = 0.7 + (L/h – 5)/25 d) for 10 < L/h ≤ 15 κ = 0.9 + (L/h – 10)/50 e) for L/h > 15 κ = 1.0
Net Pressures a) Zone A (local), 0.3h: PA = qs·CpA· κ b) Zone B, 2h-0.3h: PB = qs·CpB· κ c) Zone C, 4h-2h: PC = qs·CpC· κ d) Zone D, L-4h: PD = qs·CpD· κ
Table 21
Table 21a
2.1.3.3
2.5.11 Wind load on sign boards Design wind loads on sign boards
BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.8.2
Action
Values
Clause
Data Net Pressure Coefficient
h, B Requirement: Gap ≥ h/2 Cp = 1.8
Fig. 28
Net Pressure
20
P = qs·Cp
2.8.2 2.1.3.3
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
2.5.12 Wind load on canopies attached to tall buildings [BRE NJ Cook]
BRITISH STANDARDS
21
LOADS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
2.5.13 Balconies and vertical Fin features [BRE NJ Cook]
22
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
2.5.14 Wind load on corner cladding The table below shows the combination of external pressure coefficients (Cpe) for every wind load direction. Directional wind method
BRITISH STANDARDS
BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 3
23
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 2.6
Thermal load (T) Material and components of the cladding shall be capable of accommodating stresses generated by differential temperatures.
2.6.1 Temperature difference for checking of cladding components CWCT:2005 Table 2.2, 2.3 & BRE Digest 228:1979 Table 2
Service temperature ranges in UK Exposure Material
Type
Summer
Winter
†
†
Daytime Difference, Approx. Night-time Difference Approx. , (base contraction maximum, (base 0˚C) expansion minimum, +40˚C) ∆L [mm/m] TS [˚C] ∆TW [˚C] ∆L [mm/m] TW [˚C] ∆TW [˚C] Exposed Glass on one side
Clear
+ 40
+ 40
+0.32
Coloured or solar control
+ 90
+ 90
+0.72
+ 50
+ 50
+1.15 (Al) +0.80 (Ss) +0.60 (St)
+ 65
+ 65
+1.49 (Al) +1.04 (Ss) +0.78 (St)
Lightweight(insulated) light colour
+ 60
+ 60
+1.38 (Al) +0.96 (Ss) +0.72 (St)
Lightweight(insulated) dark colour
+ 80
+ 80
+1.84 (Al) +1.28 (Ss) +0.96 (St)
Light colour
+ 50
+ 50
+1.15 (Al) +0.80 (Ss) +0.60 (St)
Dark colour
+ 65
+ 65
+1.49 (Al) +1.04 (Ss) +0.78 (St)
Concrete Light colour
+ 45
+ 45
+0.54
Dark colour
+ 60
+ 60
+0.72
Empty or out of use
+ 35
+ 35
Normal use
+ 30
+ 30
Cladding, Heavyweight, Walling, light colour and Roofing Heavyweight, dark colour
Fully Metal exposed
Internal
Building
- 25
- 65
-0.52
- 20
- 60
-1.38 (Al) -0.96 (Ss) -0.72 (St)
- 25
- 65
-1.49 (Al) -1.04 (Ss) -0.78 (St)
- 25
- 65
-1.49 (Al) -1.04 (Ss) -0.78 (St)
- 20
- 60
-0.72
-
-5
- 45
-
+0.24 (Gl) +0.69 (Al) +0.48 (Ss) +0.36 (St) +0.12(Wd)
+ 10
- 30
-0.24 (Gl) -0.69 (Al) -0.48 (Ss) -0.36 (St) -0.12(Wd)
†
Note: See CWCT 2.7.3 for expansion and contraction of components at the time of installation up to the normal use of structure.
24
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 2.7 Seismic load (E)
LOADS
Cladding elements shall be able to accommodate seismic movement of the main structure without falling away and damage. Non-structural cladding shall not be used to stiffen or restrain the free deformation of the main structure. Cladding fixings and connections shall be designed to sustain the intertial forces due to excitation of the cladding elements.
2.8
Blast load, BL Expert in the field of blast structures shall be sought where performance of cladding be considered under conditions of blast loading to determine the equivalent static loads derived from dynamic effects. Cladding elements shall be designed under the equivalent static loads without load factors and reduction of strength of the members by the code specified patial safety factors.
Minimum rebate depths recommended by the UK Ministry of Defence
IStructE:1999 Table 15.1
Glass span
Rebate
< 0.75 m
25 mm
0.75 m to 1.5 m
35 mm
> 1.5 m
min. bearing depth = 15mm + span/100 min. bearing depth = 20mm + span/100
Response of blast-resistant glazing to blast load BLAST PRESSURE
qz
qz qy
qy
REBOUND FORCE
BRITISH STANDARDS
25
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 2.9
Load combinations
2.9.1 Load combination for serviceability limit states The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered. BS EN 1990 + CWCT TU14:2009
Vertical facade Serviceability
Ultimate limit state
Description
CO100: D
CO200: 1.35D
Dead incl. member self-weight
all
CO101: D + W p
CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p
Dead + wind pressure
all
CO102: D + W s
CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s
Dead + wind suction
1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.5·1.5L
Occupancy
Dead + wind suction + imposed
CO103: D + L (+ 0.5W s)* CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L (+ 0.5·1.5W s)* Dead + imposed (+ wind suction)* 1.35D + 1.5L + 0.5·1.5W s
Dead + imposed + wind suction
others C others C
Note: *Common additional project requirement.
BS EN 1990 + CWCT TU14:2009
Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing Serviceability
Ultimate limit state
Description
CO100: D
CO200: 1.35D
Dead incl. member self-weight
all
CO101: D + W p + 0.6S
CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + 0.6·1.5·S
Dead + wind downforce + snow
all
D + W p + 0.6SA CO102: D + S + 0.6W p
CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + 0.6·1.5W p D + SA + 0.6W p
Occupancy
Dead + wind downforce + snow drift Dead + snow + wind downforce
all
Dead + snow drift + wind downforce
CO103: D + W s
CO203: D + 1.5W s
Dead + wind uplift
all
CO104: D + L
CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L
Dead + leading imposed
H
Overhead patent glazing
BS 5516-2 BBSBS 5516-2:2004 Annex E.5.1
Combinations
Description
CO100: 2.6D
Dead incl. member self-weight
all
CO101: 2.6(D + 0.6S) + W p
Dead + wind downforce + snow
all
CO102: 2.6(D + S) + 0.6W p
Dead + snow + wind downforce
all
CO103: D + W s
Dead + wind uplift
all
CO104: 2.6D + L
Dead + leading imposed/live
H
26
Occupancy
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
II-3 SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE 3.1
Deflection
Deflection limits Parts
Component
Description
Steel
Beams
Carrying brittle finish
L/360
Other beams
L/200
Cantilevers
L/180
Columns
Horizontal sway
H/300
Crane girders
Vertical deflection
Span/600
Horizontal deflection
Span/500
Aluminium Mullions & transoms under lateral loads
CWCT
Limit
Single glazed
L/175
Double glazed
L/250
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish
L/360
Cantilevers carrying floors
L/180
In-plane
Under dead and live load
Framing members generally
H ≤ 3000
[use EN13830]
Localised deflections: Four-side supported
H/200 or 15mm
3.5.2.2
H/300 + 5 [use BS8118]
H/250
Single glazed
L/125
3.5.2.4
Double glazed
L/175 or 15mm
3.5.2.5
2
Single glazed
Surfaces & framing members
Plasterboard or similar brittle materials
L/360 or 10mm
Natural stone units
L/360 or 3mm
Rainscreen panels
Aluminium, glass or steel
Double glazed
Stone or similar brittle material After one hour recovery
Support displacement Diff. peak positive and peak negative
Grating
BS 8118-1 Table 3.4
2.3.2.2
Localised deflections: Two-side supported
Residual deformation
BS 5950-1 Table 8
L/500 or 3mm
3000 < H < 7500 7500 < H
Patent Glazing
Reference
(L) /180 000
3.5.2.4
2
(L) /540 000 or 20mm 3.5.2.5
†
L/90
3.5.2.7
3.5.2.9
†
L/360
5%Def. or 1mm
3.5.2.11
2mm
3.5.2.12
Vertical and sloped glazing bars: (Two-edge systems)
Single glazed and coupled glazing
S2/180 000 or 50mm BS 5516-1 & 2
Insulating glass units
Vertical and sloped glazing bars: (Four-edge systems)
Single glazed and coupled glazing: S ≤ 3000mm
S2/540 000 or 20mm Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl. 7.6.1.2 S/125 Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl.
Single glazed and coupled glazing: S > 3000mm
7.6.1.3
S/250 + 12mm or 40mm
Insulating glass units
S/175 or 20mm
Point-supported
Between support points, L
L/200 or 20mm
Cl. 7.6.1.4
In-plane deflection
Not to reduce edge clearance between the member and the edge of the glazing or any part immediately below it by more than 25%
L/400 or 3mm
Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl. 7.6.2
L/200 or 10mm
BS 4592-0:’06 Cl. 5.2.2
Industrial type walkway Difference in level between loaded and neighbouring unloaded floor shall not exceed 4mm.
†
Note: Greater deflection may be allowable, according to Cl. 3.5.2.9.
BRITISH STANDARDS
27
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Deflection limits Parts
Component
Glass
Patent sloped glazing Centre of pane deflection
3.2
Description
Limit
Reference L/65
Deflection of edges
acc. to supports
Free-standing balustrade
Any part of barrier
25mm
Under imposed load
h/65 or 25mm
Balustrade
Infill panel
L/80 or 25mm
BS 5516-2 Cl. 7.4.1 BS 6180 Cl. 6.4.1
Common structural movements Building envelopes have to accommodate movement of their components and of the supporting structure, and to make this possible building structures have to be sufficiently stiff.
Source: Pell Frischmann CWCT TN 56:2007
Structural movements Movement Description Floor deflection
Column shortening
Sway
Vertical movement due to Concrete structure structure self weight, dead load and live load. Note: Differential floor live load Steel structure deflection is usually less. Shrinkage or elastic shortening Cladding installed almost of concrete columns. immediately after pouring of Note: Usually occurring first 6 concrete. months after pouring of concrete Cladding installed before shrinkage is complete Lateral movement due to wind Concrete structure load and earthquake Note: Short term stochastic reversible movements occurring Steel structure after cladding is installed
Settlement Heave caused by foundation movement 28
Type
Differential settlement between adjacent columns
Common values
Clause
δv ≤
BS 8110-2 3.2.1.2 L or 20mm 500
δv ≤
L 360
BS 5950-1 Table 8
δc ≤
H 2000
BS 8110-2 8.2
δc ≤
H 6000
CWCT TN 56
δh ≤
H 500
BS 8110-2 3.2.2.2
δh ≤
H 300
BS 5950-1 Table 8
δs ≤
L 500
CWCT TN 56
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 3.1
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
Cutain wall accommodation of structural movements
3.1.1 Stick System The ability of framing members in a stick curtain wall to move or deflect in-plane without contacting the glass is governed by the edge clearance between the glass and the frame. Stick system behaviour under structure movement Effect of floor deflection
Effect of sway
CWCT TN56:2007
Accomodation of structural movement Action
Values
Notes
Definition
a = tight size b = pane size c = edge distance d = opening size e = edge cover f = rebate depth
Differential live load deflection
∆δv(+) ∆δv(–)
Floor-to-floor expansion [mm] Floor-to-floor contraction [mm]
Mullion: spigot depth ≥ ∆δv(+)
Min. depth of spigot through mullion at movement joint, [mm]
expansion gap ≥ ∆δv(–)
Min. clear distance between mullions at movement joint, [mm]
Glass horizontal joint, ch: δD fh ≥ ∆δv(+) ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–)
Transom dead load deflection, [mm] Min. horizontal rebate depth controlled by expansion, [mm] Min. horizontal edge distance controlled by contraction, [mm]
†
Glass vertical joint, cv : L Span between columns, [mm] b, hg Width and height of glass, [mm] hg cv ≥ ∆δ v(+) 4 3L3 − 4 L ⋅ b 2 L Min. vertical edge distance controlled by vertical racking, [mm]
(
Sway
δh H Glass vertical joint, cv: hg † cv ≥ δ h H
)
Inter-storey drift due to building sway, [mm] Storey height, [mm] Min. vertical edge distance controlled by horizontal racking, [mm]
†
Note: For large cv requirements the glazing or panel will contact the frame at diagonally opposed corners and forced to rotate acting as a diagonal strut. The infill should be checked for induced stresses due to this.
BRITISH STANDARDS
29
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
3.1.2 Unitized system Unitized curtain wall elements accommodate movements at the split-mullion and split-transom joints. CWCT TN56:2007
CW Element Stack-joint movement accommodation Movement CW element
Remarks Fabrication tolerance
Instantaneous Structure self-weight Structure creep
a
Curtain wall DL
a,b
Finish DL
a
Slab creep Long-term
Live load
Before Notes: cladding a Every floor undergoes dead load and creep deformation installation at approximately the same rate except at ground floor and roof. b Every floor of completed CW element installation, the After levelling bolts are adjusted to zero out structure deflection cladding due to cladding weight. installation c Only differential deflection between adjacent floors are relevant to the curtain wall.
a
a
c
Slab creep
a
Column shortening/creep
i. Elements with spigot fixing Racking of unitised system with spigot fixing Under differential live load deflection
Under lateral sway (storey drift)
CW Element accomodation of structural movement Action
Values
Notes
∆δv(+) Differential ∆δv(–) live load deflection Stack joint, ch: δD ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–)
Floor-to-floor expansion [mm] Floor-to-floor contraction [mm]
coupling ≥ ∆δv(+) Saddle gasket, cg: L b δ c g ≥ v4 3L3 b − 4 Lb 3 L
(
Sway
Combined effect
cg 30
Transom dead load deflection, [mm] Clear space between any contacting material in the split transom stack joint, [mm] Depth of penetration of male split-transom profile’s leg into the female profile, [mm] Span between columns, [mm] Width of element, [mm] Minimum saddle gasket play, [mm]
)
Inter-storey drift due to building sway, [mm] Storey height, [mm] Height of element, [mm]
δh H h Saddle gasket, cg: b c g ≥ δh H cg ≥
CWCT TN56:2007
δv 4
Min. vertical edge distance controlled by horizontal racking, [mm]
( 3L b − 4 Lb ) + 12 δ 3
3
L 1 δv 3L3 b − 4 Lb 3 ≥ 2 L4
(
b H b + δh H
Full differential live load deflection + partial sway
h
)
Partial differential live load deflection + full sway
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
ii. Elements without spigot fixing Racking of unitised system without spigot fixing Under differential live load deflection
Under lateral sway (storey drift)
CW Element accomodation of structural movement Action
Values
∆δv(+) Differential ∆δv(–) live load deflection Stack joint, ch: δD ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–) coupling ≥ ∆δv(+) Mullion vertical joint, cv: L b hb 32h 2 cv,c ≥ δ v 4 b b ( L − b ) L 2 2 2hb ( L + 2b ) ( L − 2b ) cv ,e = δ v 1− 4 b L Sway
CWCT TN56:2007
Notes Floor-to-floor expansion [mm] Floor-to-floor contraction [mm] Transom dead load deflection, [mm] Clear space between any contacting material in the split transom stack joint, [mm] Depth of penetration of male split-transom profile’s leg into the female profile, [mm] Span between columns, [mm] Width of element, [mm] Height of split transom to bracket level, [mm] Minimum vertical joint clear gap for contraction, [mm] Maximum vertical joint expansion, [mm]
No concerns!
BRITISH STANDARDS
31
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
3.2
Structural tolerance
3.2.1 Concrete Structures The permitted deviation ∆ given here are generally twice the deviation, as the values are given as both plus and minus numbers, except where separate plus or minus values are given (NSCS Guidance section 10.1.). The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. Where it is applied to the whole building the tolerance is as given by Cl. 10.2.1; where it is applied to an individual element the tolerance is ± 20 mm. National Structural Concrete Specification, NSCS:2009
Tolerances Structure
Type
Description
Overall structure
Inclination
Location of any column, wall or floor edge, at any storey level from any vertical plane through its intended design centre at base level
Level
Base Plan section support Foundations
Vertical section
; 50 200 n H approx. ∆ 6 m 20 = ±10mm 10 m 30 = ±15mm 20 m 40 = ±20mm 30 m 50 = ±25mm
n 2 3 6 10
H
10.2.1
Intended plan position
∆ = 25
10.3.1
Supporting concrete superstructure
∆ = 20
10.3.2
Distance of centre of a bolt group from intended design position Location of bolt tip and protrusion
Preset bolts not prepared for Distance of centre of a bolt adjustment group from intended design position Location of bolt tip and protrusion
32
∆ = min
Clause
H ≤ 10m : ∆ = 15 Level of floors measured 10.2.2 relative to the intended 10m < H < 100m: ∆ = 0.5(H+20) design level at the reference H ≥ 100m : ∆ = 0.2(H+200) level H approx. ∆ 20 m 20 = ±10mm 60 m 40 = ±20mm 100 m 60 = ±30mm
Supporting steel superstructure Foundation Preset bolts prepared for bolts and adjustment similar inserts
Permitted deviation [mm]
∆ = −15/+5
∆ = 6
10.4.1
∆y , ∆z = 10 ∆ p = − 5/+25 ∆ = 3
10.4.2
∆y , ∆z = 3 ∆ p ,∆x = − 5/+45
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Elements - Position on plan Columns and walls
Verticality by storey
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE Position of the element centre line relative to the actual location of the element at the level below
Inclination of a column or wall at any level
∆ = 10
10.5.1
h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.5.2 h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
Offset between floors
Deviation between centrelines at floor level
Curvature between adjacent Curvature of an element floors between adjacent storey levels
∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 60;10} ≤ 20
10.5.3
h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.5.4 h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
Elements Beams and slabs
Level per storey
Level of adjacent floors at supports
∆ = 10
10.5.5
Distance apart
Between adjacent columns and walls
∆ = max {l 600;20} ≤ 40
10.5.6
Location of beam to column connection
Measured relative to the column
∆ = max {b 30;20}
10.6.1
∆ = max {l 20;15}
10.6.2
Position of bearing axis support
BRITISH STANDARDS
33
SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE
Section of elements
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ∆ = max {l 600;15}
10.6.3
∆ = max {l 600;20} ≤ 40
10.6.4
Difference in level across a beam or slab at corresponding points in any direction
∆ = 10 + l 500
10.6.5
Level of adjacent beams
Measured at corresponding points
∆ = 10 + l 500
10.6.6
Position of slab edge
Relative to actual slab edge position on the floor below
∆ = 10
10.6.7
Cross-section dimension of elements
Beams, slabs, columns and other elements covering length, breadth and depth
: ∆ = 10
10.7.1
Straightness of beam
Horizontal straightness
Distance apart
Between adjacent beams
Inclination of beam or slab
l ≤ 150
150 12.1: k L = 105 / (β ε)2
Effective thickness
t eff = k L × t
BRITISH STANDARDS
Slender element, critical to local buckling. Table K.1 Highly slender element, very critical to local buckling. Effective thickness, [mm]
4.3.4.1
45
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.3
Aluminium mullion moment of inertia Required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k) I ≥ qW,k×I* 4
- per split mullion
2
CWCT:2005 Cl. 3.5.2.2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load Aluminium mullion spacing, b [m]
δlimit,
Span, h [m]
[mm]
1.5
10.0
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.1
3.9
3.4
2.7
2.0
1.2
0.6
1.6
10.3
5.6
5.8
5.9
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.6
5.0
4.3
3.4
2.5
1.6
1.7
10.7
7.1
7.4
7.6
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.8
7.6
7.1
6.3
5.4
4.3
3.1
1.8
11.0
8.8
9.3
9.6
9.9
10.1
10.2
10.2
10.2
10.1
9.6
8.8
7.8
6.6
5.3
1.9
11.3
10.9
11.4
11.9
12.3
12.6
12.8
13.0
13.0
13.0
12.6
11.9
9.6
8.1
2.0
11.7
13.2
13.9
14.5
15.1
15.5
15.9
16.1
16.3
16.3
16.1
h15.5
10.9 14.5
13.2
11.6
2.1
12.0
15.8
16.7
17.5
18.2
18.8
19.3
19.7
20.0
20.2
20.2
19.7
18.8
17.5
15.8
2.2
12.3
18.8
19.9
20.9
21.8
22.6
23.3
23.9
24.3
24.6
24.9
24.6
23.9
22.6
20.9
2.3
12.7
22.0
23.4
24.7
25.8
26.8
27.7
28.5
29.1
29.6
30.2
30.2
29.6
28.5
26.8
2.4
13.0
25.7
27.3
28.9
30.3
31.5
32.7
33.7
34.5
35.2
36.1
36.5
36.1
35.2
33.7
2.5
13.3
29.8
31.7
33.5
35.2
36.7
38.1
39.4
40.5
41.4
42.8
43.5
43.5
42.8
2.6
13.7
34.2
36.5
38.6
40.6
42.5
44.2
45.8
47.1
48.3
50.2
51.4
51.71
51.4
2.7
14.0
39.1
41.7
44.3
46.6
48.8
50.9
52.8
54.5
56.0
58.4
60.1
60.9
60.9
60.1
2.8
14.3
44.4
47.5
50.4
53.2
55.8
58.2
60.4
62.5
64.3
67.4
69.7
71.0
71.5
71.0
2.9
14.7
50.2
53.7
57.1
60.3
63.3
66.1
68.8
71.2
73.4
77.3
80.2
82.1
83.1
83.1
3.0
15.0
56.5
60.5
64.3
68.0
71.5
74.8
77.9
80.7
83.4
88.0
91.7
94.3
95.9
96.4
3.1
15.3
63.3
67.8
72.2
76.3
80.3
84.1
87.7
91.0
94.2
99.7
104.1
107.5
109.8
111.0
3.2
15.7
70.6
75.7
80.6
85.3
89.9
94.2
98.3
102.2
105.8
112.3
117.7
121.9
125.0
126.9
3.3
16.0
78.4
84.1
89.7
95.0
100.2
105.1
109.8
114.2
118.4
125.9
132.3
137.5
141.4
144.1
3.4
16.3
86.8
93.2
99.4
105.4
111.2
116.7
122.0
127.1
131.9
140.5
148.0
154.3
159.2
162.7
3.5
16.7
95.8
102.9
109.9
116.6
123.0
129.2
135.2
140.9
146.3
156.3
165.0
172.3
178.3
182.8
3.6
17.0
105.4
113.3
121.0
128.4
135.6
142.6
149.3
155.7
161.8
173.1
183.1
191.7
198.8
204.4
3.7
17.3
115.7
124.4
132.8
141.1
149.1
156.8
164.3
171.4
178.3
191.1
202.4
212.4
220.8
227.6
3.8
17.7
126.5
136.1
145.4
154.6
163.4
172.0
180.3
188.2
195.9
210.2
223.1
234.5
244.2
252.3
3.9
18.0
138.1
148.6
158.8
168.9
178.6
188.1
197.2
206.1
214.6
230.6
245.1
258.0
269.2
278.8
4.0
18.3
150.3
161.8
173.0
184.0
194.7
205.1
215.2
225.0
234.4
252.2
268.4
283.0
295.9
306.9
4.1
18.7
163.2
175.7
188.0
200.0
211.8
223.2
234.3
245.0
255.4
275.1
293.2
309.5
324.1
336.8
4.2
19.0
176.9
190.5
203.9
217.0
229.8
242.3
254.4
266.2
277.6
299.3
319.4
337.6
354.0
368.5
4.3
19.3
191.3
206.1
220.6
234.8
248.8
262.4
275.7
288.6
301.1
324.9
347.1
367.4
385.7
402.0
4.4
19.7
206.4
222.5
238.2
253.7
268.8
283.6
298.1
312.1
325.8
351.9
376.3
398.7
419.2
437.5
4.5
20.0
222.4
239.7
256.7
273.5
289.9
305.9
321.6
336.9
351.8
380.4
407.1
431.8
454.4
474.9
4.6
20.3
239.1
257.8
276.2
294.3
312.0
329.4
346.4
363.0
379.2
410.3
439.5
466.6
491.6
514.3
4.7
20.7
256.7
276.8
296.6
316.1
335.3
354.0
372.4
390.4
408.0
441.7
473.5
503.2
530.7
555.8
4.8
21.0
275.1
296.7
318.0
339.0
359.6
379.9
399.7
419.1
438.1
474.7
509.2
541.6
571.7
599.4
4.9
21.3
294.4
317.6
340.5
363.0
385.2
406.9
428.3
449.2
469.7
509.2
546.7
581.9
614.8
645.2
5.0
21.7
314.6
339.4
363.9
388.1
411.9
435.2
458.2
480.7
502.8
545.4
585.9
624.1
659.9
693.1
5.1
22.0
335.6
362.2
388.4
414.3
439.8
464.8
489.5
513.7
537.4
583.2
626.9
668.3
707.2
743.4
5.2
22.3
357.6
386.0
414.0
441.7
468.9
495.7
522.1
548.0
573.5
622.8
669.8
714.5
756.6
795.9
5.3
22.7
380.6
410.8
440.7
470.2
499.3
528.0
556.2
583.9
611.2
664.0
714.6
762.7
808.2
850.8
5.4
23.0
404.5
436.7
468.5
500.0
531.0
561.6
591.7
621.3
650.5
707.1
761.3
813.0
862.0
908.1
5.5
23.3
429.4
463.6
497.5
531.0
564.0
596.6
628.7
660.3
691.4
751.9
810.0
865.5
918.1
967.9
5.6
23.7
455.3
491.7
527.6
563.2
598.3
633.0
667.2
700.9
734.0
798.6
860.7
920.1
976.6 1030.2
5.7
24.0
482.2
520.8
559.0
596.7
634.0
670.9
707.2
743.1
778.3
847.1
913.4
976.9 1037.5 1095.0
5.8
24.3
510.2
551.1
591.5
631.6
671.1
710.3
748.9
786.9
824.4
897.6
968.2 1036.0 1100.8 1162.5
5.9
24.7
539.2
582.5
625.3
667.7
709.7
751.1
792.1
832.4
872.3
950.0 1025.2 1097.4 1166.6 1232.6
6.0
25.0
569.4
615.1
660.4
705.2
749.6
793.5
836.9
879.7
921.9 1004.4 1084.3 1161.2 1235.0 1305.4
6.2
25.7
632.9
683.9
734.4
784.5
834.0
883.1
931.6
979.5 1026.8 1119.4 1209.2 1295.9 1379.4 1459.4
6.4
26.3
701.1
757.7
813.8
869.4
924.5
979.1 1033.1 1086.5 1139.3 1242.7 1343.3 1440.6 1534.5 1624.8
6.9
28.0
892.6
964.9 1036.8 1108.1 1178.9 1249.1 1318.6 1387.5 1455.7 1589.8 1720.6 1848.0 1971.6 2091.2
7.0
28.3
934.7 1010.5 1085.8 1160.6 1234.8 1308.4 1381.4 1453.7 1525.2 1666.1 1803.6 1937.7 2067.8 2193.9
46
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
b
2.8
3.0
b
41.4 50.2
2
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.4
ALUMINIUM DESIGN
Aluminium transom moment of inertia Required moment of inertia of sill-split transom per unit weight of glass infill (qd,k), I ≥ 2 qd,k ×I1* + I2* Assumptions:
0.8
0.2
1. Estimated transom self-weight, 5kg/m × L ×h
2. Glass dead load is located 150mm from end support. 4
2
CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.2.2
Minimum required moment of inertia, I* [cm ] per 0.5 kN/m 20mm glass weight Glass height, h [m]
Aluminium transom span, L [m] 1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
δlimit,
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
1.0
5.6
6.8
8.1
9.6
11.9
14.7
18.0
21.8
26.2
31.2
37.0
43.6
51.0
59.4
68.9
79.5
91.4 104.7 119.4
1.1
6.1
7.4
8.8
10.3
12.9
15.9
19.4
23.5
28.1
33.5
39.6
46.6
54.5
63.4
73.4
84.6
97.1 111.1 126.5
1.2
6.6
8.0
9.5
11.1
13.9
17.1
20.8
25.1
30.1
35.7
42.2
49.6
57.9
67.3
77.8
89.6 102.8 117.4 133.6
1.3
7.1
8.5
10.1
11.9
14.8
18.2
22.2
26.7
32.0
38.0
44.8
52.6
61.3
71.2
82.2
94.6 108.4 123.7 140.6
1.4
7.6
9.1
10.8
12.7
15.8
19.3
23.5
28.3
33.9
40.2
47.4
55.5
64.7
75.0
86.6
99.5 113.9 129.9 147.5
1.5
8.1
9.7
11.5
13.5
16.7
20.5
24.9
30.0
35.8
42.4
49.9
58.5
68.1
78.9
91.0 104.4 119.4 136.0 154.4
1.6
8.6
10.3
12.1
14.2
17.6
21.6
26.2
31.6
37.7
44.6
52.5
61.4
71.4
82.7
95.3 109.3 124.9 142.2 161.3
1.7
9.0
10.8
12.8
15.0
18.6
22.8
27.6
33.2
39.6
46.8
55.0
64.3
74.8
86.5
99.6 114.2 130.4 148.3 168.1
1.8
9.5
11.4
13.5
15.8
19.5
23.9
29.0
34.8
41.4
49.0
57.6
67.2
78.1
90.3 103.9 119.0 135.8 154.3 174.8
1.9
10.0
12.0
14.1
16.5
20.5
25.0
30.3
36.4
43.3
51.2
60.1
70.1
81.4
94.1 108.1 123.8 141.2 160.4 181.6
2.0
10.5
12.5
14.8
17.3
21.4
26.2
31.7
38.0
45.2
53.4
62.6
73.0
84.7
97.8 112.4 128.6 146.6 166.4 188.3
2.1
11.0
13.1
15.5
18.1
22.3
27.3
33.0
39.6
47.0
55.5
65.1
75.9
88.0 101.6 116.6 133.4 151.9 172.4 195.0
2.2
11.5
13.7
16.1
18.8
23.3
28.4
34.4
41.2
48.9
57.7
67.6
78.8
91.3 105.3 120.9 138.1 157.3 178.4 201.6
2.3
11.9
14.2
16.8
19.6
24.2
29.5
35.7
42.7
50.8
59.9
70.1
81.7
94.6 109.0 125.1 142.9 162.6 184.3 208.2
2.4
12.4
14.8
17.5
20.4
25.1
30.7
37.0
44.3
52.6
62.0
72.6
84.6
97.9 112.8 129.3 147.6 167.9 190.3 214.8
2.5
12.9
15.4
18.1
21.1
26.1
31.8
38.4
45.9
54.5
64.2
75.1
87.4 101.2 116.5 133.5 152.4 173.2 196.2 221.4
2.6
13.4
15.9
18.8
21.9
27.0
32.9
39.7
47.5
56.3
66.3
77.6
90.3 104.4 120.2 137.7 157.1 178.5 202.1 228.0
2.7
13.9
16.5
19.4
22.7
27.9
34.0
41.1
49.1
58.2
68.5
80.1
93.1 107.7 123.9 141.9 161.8 183.8 208.0 234.5
2.8
14.3
17.1
20.1
23.4
28.9
35.2
42.4
50.7
60.0
70.6
82.6
96.0 110.9 127.6 146.0 166.5 189.0 213.8 241.1
2.9
14.8
17.6
20.8
24.2
29.8
36.3
43.7
52.2
61.9
72.8
85.1
98.8 114.2 131.3 150.2 171.2 194.3 219.7 247.6
3.0
15.3
18.2
21.4
25.0
30.7
37.4
45.1
53.8
63.7
74.9
87.5 101.7 117.4 134.9 154.4 175.8 199.5 225.5 254.1
3.1
15.8
18.8
22.1
25.7
31.7
38.5
46.4
55.4
65.6
77.1
90.0 104.5 120.6 138.6 158.5 180.5 204.7 231.4 260.6
3.2
16.3
19.3
22.7
26.5
32.6
39.6
47.7
56.9
67.4
79.2
92.5 107.3 123.9 142.3 162.7 185.2 210.0 237.2 267.1
3.3
16.7
19.9
23.4
27.2
33.5
40.7
49.0
58.5
69.2
81.3
94.9 110.2 127.1 145.9 166.8 189.8 215.2 243.0 273.5
3.4
17.2
20.5
24.1
28.0
34.4
41.9
50.4
60.1
71.1
83.5
97.4 113.0 130.3 149.6 170.9 194.5 220.4 248.8 280.0
3.5
17.7
21.0
24.7
28.8
35.4
43.0
51.7
61.6
72.9
85.6
99.9 115.8 133.6 153.3 175.1 199.1 225.6 254.6 286.5
3.6
18.2
21.6
25.4
29.5
36.3
44.1
53.0
63.2
74.7
87.7 102.3 118.6 136.8 156.9 179.2 203.7 230.8 260.4 292.9
3.7
18.7
22.2
26.0
30.3
37.2
45.2
54.4
64.8
76.6
89.9 104.8 121.4 140.0 160.5 183.3 208.4 235.9 266.2 299.3
3.8
19.1
22.7
26.7
31.0
38.1
46.3
55.7
66.3
78.4
92.0 107.2 124.3 143.2 164.2 187.4 213.0 241.1 272.0 305.7
3.9
19.6
23.3
27.4
31.8
39.1
47.4
57.0
67.9
80.2
94.1 109.7 127.1 146.4 167.8 191.5 217.6 246.3 277.7 312.1
4.0
20.1
23.9
28.0
32.5
40.0
48.5
58.3
69.5
82.1
96.3 112.1 129.9 149.6 171.5 195.6 222.2 251.5 283.5 318.5
4.2
21.0
25.0
29.3
34.1
41.8
50.8
61.0
72.6
85.7 100.5 117.0 135.5 156.0 178.7 203.8 231.4 261.8 295.0 331.3
4.4
22.0
26.1
30.6
35.6
43.7
53.0
63.6
75.7
89.4 104.7 121.9 141.1 162.4 186.0 212.0 240.6 272.1 306.5 344.1
4.6
23.0
27.2
31.9
37.1
45.5
55.2
66.3
78.8
93.0 109.0 126.8 146.7 168.8 193.2 220.2 249.8 282.3 317.9 356.8
4.8
23.9
28.4
33.3
38.6
47.3
57.4
68.9
81.9
96.7 113.2 131.7 152.3 175.2 200.4 228.3 259.0 292.6 329.4 369.5
5.0
24.9
29.5
34.6
40.1
49.2
59.6
71.5
85.1 100.3 117.4 136.6 157.9 181.5 207.7 236.5 268.1 302.8 340.8 382.2
3.0
3.0
3.0
Additional moment of inertia for occupancy live load, I2*
Load 0.6 kN/m
9.6
12.3
15.3
18.8
24.4
31.1
39.1
48.5
59.5
72.4
1 kN
21.4
25.1
29.2
33.5
40.6
48.7
57.9
68.0
79.4
91.9 105.6 120.7 137.1 155.0 174.4 195.3 217.8 242.0 267.9
BRITISH STANDARDS
87.1 104.1 123.4 145.3 170.0 197.7 228.7 263.1 301.3
47
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
II-6 GLASS DESIGN 6.1
Properties of glass
Mechanical properties of glass Form Density, Unit weight, γ ρ [kN/m³] [kg/m³] All Note:
24.5 †
2 500
Young’s modulus, E 2 [N/mm ]
Modulus of rigidity, G 2 [N/mm ]
70 000
30 000
IStructE:1999 Table 2.2 Poisson’s Thermal ratio, ν coefficient, α [-] [/˚C] 0.22
†
-6
8·10
BS 6262, 5.5.5.
Toughened glass maximum ratio 7:1 acc. to BS 952-1:1995 cl. 4.1.1.
6.2
Structural sealant glazing (SSG) BS 6262-6:2005 cl.4.2.2: The glazing should be designed in such a way that the sealant is only subjected to short duration tensile forces, e.g. wind suction or live loads. Dead loads or sustained loads should be supported by other means, e.g. setting blocks to carry the glass weight. The design of the glazing should eliminate shear stresses on the structural sealant.
6.3
Overhead glazing CIRIA C632:2005 ‘Guidance for glazing at height’ cl. 2.4.1 states “sloping glazing…apply to glass at any angle to the vertical”. BS 5516-1 cl. 3.19 ‘sloping patent glazing having a slope of 75° or less from horizontal’. CWCT Standard for Slope Glazing Systems:1999 covers slope glazing whether used overhead as part of a roof or as a sloped façade. It includes all uses of glazing from horizontal to 15° from vertical. CWCT TU 10:2003 covers performance of glass in slope glazing systems that are between vertical and 15° of vertical. CWCT TN 68:2010 states ‘These definitions of vertical and sloping glazing differ from those used in BS 6262 and BS 5516 where vertical glazing is considered to include glazing up to 15º from true vertical. The distinction between vertical and sloping glazing in this Technical Note relates to the risk of glass falling from its frame after fracture. It is considered that gravity is likely to cause broken glass to fall at slopes within 15º of vertical.
6.4
Safety glass
Maximum area of Safety glass under imposed load
BRITISH STANDARDS
BS 6180:1999 Table 2
49
GLASS DESIGN 6.5
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Balustrades
6.5.1 Balustrade without handrail [BS 6180:2011 cl. 8.1.2] In the event that a free-standing barrier is supplied without a handrail, each panel should be able to withstand the appropriate design load. Any individual point that is damaged and unable to meet the criteria should be replaced with interim guarding awaiting immediate replacement.
6.5.2 Balustrade requiring handrail [BS 6180:2011 cl. 8.5.2] Handrail is required where the balustrade protects a difference in level greater than 600mm. The handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner that, should a glass panel fracture, the handrail will remain in position and will not fail if the design load is applied across the resulting gap.
50
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
6.5.3 Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/65 or 25 mm, whichever is smaller in acc. to BS 6180:2011 cl. 6.4.1. Glass stress is limited to the requirements of DIN. BS 6180:2011
Maximum height of barrier [m] (Max. wind load [kN/m²]) Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load) Glass Temper 0.36 kN/m 0.74 kN/m 1.5 kN/m
3.0 kN/m
10 mm
FT + frit FT
0.86 (1.1) "
0.60 (2.7) 0.60 (3.3)
0.33 (9.1) 0.42 (9.4)
12 mm
FT + frit FT
1.13 (0.8) "
0.79 (2.3) 0.79 (2.5)
0.47 (6.5) 0.55 (7.4)
15 mm / 16mm
FT + frit FT
1.44 (0.8) "
1.10 (1.8) "
0.74 (4.1) 0.77 (5.3)
0.37 (16.4) 0.54 (12.8)
19 mm / 20 mm
FT + frit FT
1.78 (0.8) "
1.57 (1.2) "
1.10 (2.9) 1.10 (4.9)
0.60 (10) 0.78 (9.8)
-
Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 12.76 mm (PVB) 6/0.76/6
AN HS FT
0.50 (1.4) 0.50 1.00 (0.9) 0.93 1.08 (0.8) 1.08
0.58 (3.4) 0.45 " 0.77
0.30 (10) 0.22 0.33 (12) 0.38
0.21 (30)
17.52 mm (PVB) 8/1.52/8
AN HS FT
0.95 (0.8) 0.95 1.41 (0.8) 1.41 " "
0.33 (4.4) 0.33 0.91 (2.1) 0.80 " 1.18
0.52 (6.2) 0.39 " 0.68
0.22 (28) 0.44 (11) 0.34
21.52 mm (PVB) 10/1.52/10
AN HS FT
1.19 (0.8) 1.19 1.74 (0.8) 1.74 " "
0.58 (2.5) 0.58 1.41 (1.4) 1.26 1.50 (1.2) 1.50
0.23 (13) 0.23 0.80 (4.5) 0.62 " 0.80
0.38 (15) 0.31 0.48 (17) 0.48
25.52 mm (PVB) 12/1.52/12
AN HS FT
1.44 (0.8) 1.44 1.99 (0.8) 1.99 " "
0.97 (1.5) 0.97 1.82 (1.0) 1.81 " 1.82
0.35 (8.6) 0.35 1.15 (3.4) 0.89 " 1.15
0.60 (10) 0.44 0.68 (11) 0.68
31.52 mm (PVB) 15/1.52/15
AN HS FT
1.82 (0.8) 1.82 2.36 (0.8) 2.36 " "
1.78 (0.8) 1.78 2.31 (0.8) 2.31 " "
0.59 (5.1) 0.59 1.72 (2.3) 1.40 " 1.72
0.26 (23) 0.26 1.11 (5.4) 0.70 1.26 (5.0) 1.19
Laminated glass with SGP interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 17.52 mm (SGP) 8/1.52/8
AN HS FT
1.12 (0.8) 1.06 1.67 (0.8) 1.41 " 1.67
0.68 (2.1) 0.51 1.39 (1.4) 0.80 " 1.38
0.32 (9.6) 0.25 0.97 (3.2) 0.39 0.97 (4.1) 0.68
0.50 (12) 0.68 (10) 0.34
21.52 mm (SGP) 10/1.52/10
AN HS FT
1.38 (0.8) 1.38 1.95 (0.8) 1.95 " "
1.03 (1.4) 0.81 1.80 (1.1) 1.26 " 1.80
0.50 (6.0) 0.39 1.33 (2.6) 0.62 1.33 (3.0) 1.06
0.23 (26) 0.76 (7.9) 0.31 0.93 (8.7) 0.53
22.28 mm (SGP) 10/2.28/10
AN HS FT
1.43 (0.8) 1.43 2.00 (0.8) 1.95 " 2.00
1.10 (1.3) 0.81 1.86 (0.8) 1.26 " 1.86
0.53 (5.7) 0.39 1.39 (2.5) 0.62 1.39 (2.9) 1.06
0.24 (25) 0.81 (7.4) 0.31 0.98 (8.2) 0.53
25.52 mm (SGP) 12/1.52/12
AN HS FT
1.64 (0.8) 1.64 2.21 (0.8) 2.21 " "
1.46 (1.0) 1.16 2.13 (0.8) 1.81 " 2.13
0.71 (4.2) 0.57 1.68 (2.3) 0.89 1.68 (2.4) 1.53
0.34 (17) 0.28 1.07 (5.6) 0.44 1.21 (6.6) 0.76
26.28 mm (SGP) 12/2.28/12
AN HS FT
1.69 (0.8) 1.69 2.26 (0.8) 2.26 " "
1.54 (0.8) 1.16 2.20 (0.9) 1.81 " 2.26
0.75 (4.0) 0.57 1.73 (2.2) 0.89 1.73 (2.3) 1.53
0.35 (17) 0.28 1.14 (5.2) 0.44 1.26 (6.4) 0.76
2.03 (0.8) 2.03 2.03 (0.8) 1.82 1.09 (2.7) 0.89 0.53 (11) 0.44 AN 2.59 (0.8) 2.59 2.59 (0.8) 2.59 2.08 (1.9) 1.40 1.64 (3.6) 0.70 HS " 2.08 1.65 (4.8) 1.20 FT " " " " Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Glass body temperature is max. 30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load. X Redundancy requirement BS 6180 cl. 8.1.2: In the event of a single ply of the laminate failing, the remaining element(s) of a toughened laminated design must be capable of withstanding the design loads (i.e., design barrier load or interim wind load of 0.80 kN/m²). Deflection is controlled by the full thickness. 31.52 mm (SGP) 15/1.52/15
BRITISH STANDARDS
51
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 6.6
Glass fins
6.6.1 Structural sealant for fins 2
BS6262-6:2005 Clause 5.3 consider 0.275 N/mm design stress for the sealant (i.e. FS = 3.0)
6.6.2 Design of glass fins IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)
Glass fin design Action Data
Criteria
Properties
Values
Notes
Clause
L d b E = 69 GPa; G = 28.3 GPa [Rec. to use ASTM E1300] σallow
Glass fin unsupported span [mm] Glass fin depth [mm] Glass fin effective thickness [mm] Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²] Glass allowable stress [N/mm²]
H2
Mx
Calculated bending moment [kN·m]
Mx ≤ 1.0 min { M c ; M b }
Criteria
I y = d ⋅ b 3 12
Moment of inertia about major axis [mm ]
J=
Critical buckling moment
Moment capacity
db 3 3
4
Torsional inertia [mm ]
No intermediate buckling restraint: Critical buckling moment [kN·m] Free end y-y axis rotation: 3.6 d EI y M cr = EI y GJ 1 − 0.7 L L GJ Fixed end y-y axis rotation: 6.1 d EI y M cr = EI y GJ 1 − 0.9 L L GJ Continuously restrained fin: π 2 d GJ M cr = EI y + 1.5 d L 2 Mc =
M b ,Rd
52
b 1 − 0.63 d
4
b⋅d2 ⋅ σ allow 6 = M CR 1.7
H2 H3 Table H2
H4
Bending capacity [kN·m] Buckling capacity [kN·m]
H1
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
6.6.3 Glass fin table Toughened Glass Fin (no int. buckling restraint) - Free end y-y axis rotation
IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)
18 16
14
12
10
8
6
4
BRITISH STANDARDS
53
GLASS DESIGN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Toughened Glass Fin (no int. buckling restraint) - Fixed end y-y axis rotation
IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)
18 16
14
12
10
8
6
4
54
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STONE DESIGN
II-7 STONE DESIGN 7.1
Properties
7.1.1 Guide range of properties Properties of stone (for guidance only) Stone Density Flexural strength 2 [kg/m³] [N/mm ]
Comp. strength 2 [N/mm ]
Elastic modulus 2 [N/mm ]
Thermal expansion -6 [10 /K]
CWCT:1997 Porosity [%]
Granite
2600 – 3000
8 – 20
120 – 240
30 – 70
8 – 10
0.4 – 2.3
Sandstone
2200 – 2700
2.5 – 15
30 – 200
5 – 20
7 – 12
0.5 – 35
Limestone (high)
2200 – 2900
6 – 15
55 – 180
7
3 – 10
0.5 – 35
2 – 10
10 – 90 30 – 60
3 – 15
0.6 – 2.3
Limestone (low) Marble
CWCT:1997
Suggested regime of durability tests Test
Reference
Petrographic description
ASTM C295
Water absorption
ASTM C295
Igneous Granite
Sedimentary Limestone
Sandstone
Metamorphic Marble
Slate
Porosity Saturation coefficient Acid immersion Salt crystalisation Freeze Thaw
DIN 52104
Wetting drying
BS 680
Thermal stability
BRITISH STANDARDS
55
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STONE DESIGN 7.2
Design of thin stone for cladding CWCT:1997
Statistical evaluation of the test result Action Data
Values
Measured values [N/mm ] Number of measured values [-]
s= ± V=
2
Mean value [N/mm ]
1 ∑ xi n i
∑ ( xi − x )
Clause 2
x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n x=
Method 1
Notes
2 2
Standard deviation [N/mm ]
n−1
Coefficient of variation [%]
100s
5.3.2.1
x
With aged-strength testing:
ASF = 1.4×FSF Values of variation factor, VF V [%] Granite Limestone Marble 0–5 2.0 3.0 2.5 5 – 10 2.5 3.5 3.0 10 – 20 3.0 4.0 3.5 > 20 3.5 4.5 4.0 Values of durability factor, DF Fraction of initial flexural strength* [%] 100% 75 – 95 60 – 75 < 60
5.3.2.1
Stone flexural safety factor [-]
FSF = VF×DF
DF 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8
Stone anchorage safety factor [-] Table 5.1
*Thermal cycling test (300 cycles) acc. to ASTM C 880: = (average after/average before) 100%
5.3.2.2
Without aged-strength testing: FSF Values of safety factor, FSF Granite Limestone 4.0 6.0 ASF = 1.4×FSF Method 2
56
FOS = K-factor Values of ks or K-factor n K-factor* 5 3.41 10 2.36 15 2.07 20 1.93 30 1.78 40 1.70 50 1.65 ∞ 1.645
Table 5.2
Stone flexural safety factor [-] Marble 5.0
Table 5.3
Stone anchorage safety factor [-] 5.3.3 *According to BS 2846: Part 3 and are specific to a confidence level of 95%.
Table 5.4
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS
II-8 CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS 8.1
CWCT test methods for building envelopes C CWCT:2005 cl. 8.12.2
Standard sequence A (test pressure less than 600 Pa) No. Test 1
Air permeability
2
Infiltration
Test method
Old method
EN 12153
BS 5368-1
Exfiltration
3
Water penetration Static
EN 12155
BS 5368-2
4
Wind resistance
Serviceability
EN 12179
BS 5368-3 BS 6375-1
5
Air permeability
Infiltration
6 7
Exfiltration Water penetration* Static
8
Hose test
AAMA 501.2 AAMA 501.2 CWCT TN 41
9
Wind resistance
Safety
EN 12179
BS 5368-3
10
Impact (optional)
Soft body
EN 12600
BS 8200
Hard body
BS 8200
BS 8200
11
Notes
Dismantling
Recommended for propriety envelope tests
Inspection
Note: * Additional spray bar test according to EN 13051 may be required by wetting the outer surface of the building envelope without pressure difference applied across. Meeting this requirement is not a substitute for any other tests. C CWCT:2005 cl. 8.12.2
Standard sequence B (test pressure ≥ 600 Pa) No. Test 1
Air permeability
2
Test method Infiltration
Old method
Notes
EN 12153
BS 5368-1 Not applicable to rainscreens with separate backing wall
Exfiltration
3
Water penetration Static
EN 12155
BS 5368-2 Not applicable to open jointed system
4
Wind resistance
Serviceability
EN 12179
BS 5368-3 BS 6375-1
5
Air permeability
Infiltration
6 7
See step 1 & 2
Exfiltration Water penetration* Static
8
Dynamic
9
Hose test
See step 3 EN 13050
AAMA 501.1
AAMA 501.2 AAMA 501.2 Not applicable to open jointed system CWCT TN 41
10
Wind resistance
Safety
EN 12179
BS 5368-3
11
Impact (optional)
Soft body
EN 12600
BS 8200
Hard body
BS 8200
BS 8200
12
Rainscreen tests
Additional
13
Dismantling
Inspection
Recommended for propriety envelope tests
Wind load test on panels
Note: * Additional spray bar test according to EN 13051 may be required by wetting the outer surface of the building envelope without pressure difference applied across. Meeting this requirement is not a substitute for any other tests.
BRITISH STANDARDS
57
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS 8.2
Impact Resistance of Wall Components [BS 8200] BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 2
Impacts on surfaces of the vertical enclosure to buildings Wall Description Category
Examples
A
Readily accessible to public and others with little incentive to exercise care. Prone to vandalism and abnormally rough use
External walls of housing and Zone of wall up public buildings in vandal prone to 1.5 m above areas pedestrian or floor level Walls adjacent to pedestrian thoroughfares or playing fields when not in category A
B
Readily accessible to public and others with little incentive to exercise care. Chances of accident occurring and of misuse
C
Accessible primarily to those with some incentive to exercise care. Some chance of accident occurring and of misuse
Walls adjacent to private open gardens. Back walls of balconies
D
Only accessible, but not near a common route, to those with high incentive to exercise care. Small chance of accident occurring or of misuse
Walls adjacent to small fenced decorative garden with no through paths
E
Above zone of normal impacts from people but liable 1.5 m to 6 m above pedestrian or floor level at to impacts from thrown or kicked objects location categories A and B
F
Above zone of normal impacts from people and not liable to impacts from thrown or kicked objects
Wall surfaces at higher positions than those defined in E above
Impact energy [N·m]: E = H×m×9.81m/sec2 where:
H = Height of fall [m] m = mass of impactor [kg] BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 3, 4
Test impact energy [Joules] Soft body impact
Category
Serviceability S1 A
Safety* S1
Hard body impact Serviceability H1
H2
Safety* H2
No test impact values are given. In each case the type and severity of vandalism needs to be carefully assessed and appropriate impact values determined.
B
120J
500J
-
10J
10J
C
120J
500J
6J
-
10J
D
Risk of impact is minimal and impact test values are therefore not appropriate.
E
120J
350J**
6J
-
10J
F
120J
350J**
3J
-
-
Note: *The wall should not have a reduced performance under impacts for safety. The results of tests should be defined as follows: Brittle materials: failure or no damage Other materials: damage to surface finish, indentation or no damage Where the damage is a dent, the depth of the dent should be quantified although the criterion for failure may be an aesthetic one only. The depth of indentation which is acceptable visually depends on the characteristics of the material, its finish and location. ** External surface only if access is required for cleaning and maintenance. Impactors Type Hard body Soft body
58
Description
BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 22 Diameter Approximate mass
H1
Steel ball
50 mm
0.5 kg
H2
Steel ball
62.5 mm
1.0 kg
S1
Canvas spherical/conical bag filled with 3 mm diameter glass spheres
400 mm
50 kg
Reference
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 8.3
CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS
Windows and Vents
8.3.1 Setting and location blocks Positions and number of setting and location blocks should be applied in accordance with BS 6262-0:1982. The materials used for setting and location blocks are the same. BS 6262-0:1982 Fig. 22
Setting and location block positions Window
Description 1
Window
Fixed light
Horizontal pivot
Fixed light (factory glazed)
Vertical pivot
Top hung
Vertical pivot (off centre)
Side hung or door
Vertical slider
Bottom hung
Horizontal slider
Tilt & Turn
Minimum position of blocks
Description
1
Note. The position of setting blocks for fixed lights should preferably be at quarter points but can be positioned as shown below. Minimum positions of blocks
BRITISH STANDARDS
59
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
RAINSCREEN CLADDING
II-9 RAINSCREEN CLADDING 9.1
Pressure-equalised system • Conditions for pressure-equalisation acc. to CWCT cl. 2.2.6.1
A > V/80 A = B×h+ H×v
- Area of vent
V = B×H×a
- Volume of cavity
Where:
B = Width of cladding panel H = height of cladding panel a = width of air-space v = Opening of vertical joint h = Opening of horizontal joint
• Conditions for pressure-equalisation acc. to DIN 18516-1 AF ≥ 0.75%·AW AF = Area of perimeter opening AW = Area of cladding panel
9.2
Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)
9.2.1 Glass fibre reinforced concrete (GRC/GFRC) 9.3
Subframes
9.3.1 Simplified rules for Z sheeting rail This section gives empirical rules for the design of certain commonly used members for which a full theoretical analysis may be impracticable or not justified. The design rules given in this section may be used as an alternative to the analytical methods. Members designed by a proven method need not conform to the empirical rules. The design rules in this section apply to all steels with a yield strength, Ys, of not less than 250 N/mm2. See Cl. 9.3 BS 5950-5. • The dimensions of a Z sheeting rail should be as follows: 100t ≥ overall depth ≥ L/45 Total width over both flanges ≥ L/60 Overall width of compression flange/thickness, B/t ≤ 35 Width of lip ≥ B/5 Where:
L is the span of the sheeting rail in millimetres (mm); B is the flange width in millimetres (mm); t is the thickness of the sheeting rail in millimetres (mm).
BRITISH STANDARDS
61
CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
II-10ROOFS 10.1 Minimum Slope of Roofs and their Gutters [BS 6229 Cl. 7.3] To ensure that the minimum finished falls listed in Table 6 are achieved, allowance should be made for deflection of the structural members and decking under dead and imposed loads and for construction tolerances. The falls assumed for design should, therefore, be steeper than the recommended finished falls. The design falls should be determined by considering the overall and local deflections, the direction of falls and the type of roof covering. In the absence of a detailed analysis, a fall of twice the minimum finished fall should be assumed for design purposes. Minimum Finished Falls
BS 6229:2003 Table 6
62
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
II-11CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1 Fastening bolts and screws Figure 11.1-1 Bolt symbols
11.1.1 Metric fasteners • Tensile area, Atb Thorough testing has shown that fasteners fail in tension at loads corresponding to those unthreaded parts with diameters approximately midway between their pitch diameters Dp and minor diameters Dmin. A tb = 0.7854 (D - 0.9743 ⋅ P) 2
- D p,min ≈ D maj - 0.9743 ⋅ P
• Shear area, Aesb The thread root area is the area of a circle with diameter equal to the basic minor diameter Droot. A esb = 0.7854 (D - 1.2269 ⋅ P) 2
- D root ≈ D maj - 1.2269 ⋅ P
Metric thread to ISO 724:1993 Size
Pitch
Major diameter P [mm] Dmaj [mm]
Pitch diameter Dp [mm]
Minor Thread root diameter diameter Dmin [mm] Droot [mm]
Shank area 2 Ab [mm ]
Tensile Thread root area area 2 2 Atb [mm ] Aes [mm ]
Section Modulus 3 Z [mm ]
M4
0.70
4.0
3.545
3.242
3.141
12.57
8.65
7.75
3.04
M5
0.80
5.0
4.480
4.134
4.019
19.63
13.99
12.68
6.37
M6
1.00
6.0
5.350
4.917
4.773
28.27
19.84
17.89
10.68
M8
1.25
8.0
7.188
6.647
6.466
50.27
36.13
32.84
26.54
M10
1.50
10.0
9.026
8.376
8.160
78.54
57.26
52.29
53.34
M12
1.75
12.0
10.863
10.106
9.853
113.10
83.24
76.25
93.91
M16
2.00
16.0
14.701
13.835
13.546
201.06
155.07
144.12
244.02
M20
2.50
20.0
18.376
17.294
16.933
314.16
242.30
225.19
476.65
M24
3.00
24.0
22.051
20.752
20.319
452.39
348.91
324.27
823.58
M30
3.50
30.0
27.727
26.211
25.706
706.86
555.30
518.98
1667.64
M36
4.00
36.0
33.402
31.670
31.093
1017.88
809.42
759.27
2951.13
M45
4.50
45.0
42.077
40.129
39.479
1590.43
1295.62
1224.11
6040.85
M52
5.00
52.0
48.752
46.587
45.866
2123.72
1744.44
1652.20
9472.67
M60
5.50
60.0
56.428
54.046
53.252
2827.43
2344.95
2227.22
14825.44
BRITISH STANDARDS
63
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1.2 Capacities of bolts and screws Capacities of metal fasteners BS 5950-1:2000
Capacity in Shear
Tension
Combined shear and tension Bearing
64
a) General Ps = A esb ×p s ≥ Fs b) Packing 4 t pa ≤ d 3 9d Ps = A esb ×p s × 8d+3t pa c) Large grip lengths: for Tg > 5d 8d Ps = A esb ×p s × 3d+Tg where: d = diameter of bolt tpa = total tickness of steel packing Tg = total tickness of connected plies Values of ps: ps = 160 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 ps = 375 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 ps = 400 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9 ps = 0.4×Ub for other grades
6.3.2.1
Pt = A tb ×p t ≥ Ft Values of pt: pt = 240 N/mm2 pt = 560 N/mm2 pt = 700 N/mm2 pt = 0.7×Ub ≤ Yb
6.3.4.3 Table 34
Fs F + t Ps Pt
≤ 1.4
BS 8118-1:1991
Clause
6.3.2.2
6.3.2.3
Table 30
for Grade 4.6 for Grade 8.8 for Grade 10.9 for other grades 6.3.4.4
a) Bearing of bolt 6.3.3.2 Pbb = d×t p ×p bb ≥ Fb 6.3.3.3 b) Bearing of connected part Pbs = k bs ×d×t p ×p bs ≤ 0.5×k bs ×e×t p ×p bs where: tp = thickness of connected part, or for countersunk bolts, thickness of part minus half the depth of countersinking e = edge distance in the direction of load Values of kbs: kbs = 1.0 for standard holes 6.3.3.3 kbs = 0.7 for short slot & oversized holes kbs = 0.5 for long slot & kidney-shaped Values of pbb: pbb = 460 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 pbb = 1000 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 Table 31 pbb = 1300 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9 pbb = 0.7× (Yb+Ub) for other grades Values of pbs: pbs = 460 N/mm2 for S275 pbs = 550 N/mm2 for S355 Table 32 pbs = 670 N/mm2 for S460 pbs = 0.67× (Ys+Us) for other steel grades
Clause
VRS = α s ×K1 ×A esb × p f γ m ≥ V Values of αs: αs = 0.6 for aluminium bolts or rivets αs = 0.33 for aluminium bolts or rivets with test values of shear strength αs = 0.7 for steel bolts or rivets Values of K1: K1 = 1.0 for rivets K1 = 0.95 for close tolerance bolts K1 = 0.85 for normal tolerance bolts Value of γm: γm = 1.2 Values of pf for steel fasteners: pf = min. yield stress for steel fasteners pf = 0.5(f0.2+fu) ≤ 1.2 f0.2 for stainless steel Values of pf for aluminium fasteners: pf = 165 N/mm2 for bolts (6082 T6) pf = 175 N/mm2 for bolts (6061 T8) pf = 175 N/mm2 for bolts (5056A H24) pf = 140 N/mm2 for rivets (5154A H22) pf = 165 N/mm2 for rivets (6082 T6) pf = 155 N/mm2 for rivets (5056A H22)
6.4.2
PRT = α×A tb × p f γ m ≥ P Values of α: αs = 0.6 for aluminium bolts αs = 1.0 for steel bolts or rivets Note: Use of aluminium rivets in tension is not recommended.
6.4.3
2
V P + P RT VRS
Table 3.3 6.4.1
Table 6.1
6.4.5
2
≤ 1.0
a) Bearing of fastener 6.4.4 B RF = d f ×t×2× p f γ m ≥ V b) Bearing of connected part B RP = d f ×t×c× p a γ m where: df = diameter of fastener t = thickness of connected part, or for countersunk bolts, thickness of part minus half the depth of countersinking Values of c: c=2 when df/t ≤ 10 c = 20t/df when 10 < df/t < 13 c = 1.5 when df/t ≥ 13 Values of pa: pa = 110 N/mm2 for conn. part (1200H14) pa = 155 N/mm2 for conn. part (6060 T6) pa = 177 N/mm2 for conn. part (6063 T6) pa = 225 N/mm2 for conn. part (6005AT6) pa = 285 N/mm2 for conn. part (6082 T6) pa = 0.5(f0.2+fu) ≤ 1.2 f0.2 for other parts
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Thread stipping resistance Action Values
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Notes
Dose & Schwarz Reference
Shear-tension coefficient
a) Fastener βB = 0.57 for aluminium b) Threaded part βM = 0.44 for aluminium βM = 0.58 for steel βM = 0.77 for stainless steel
Conservative values
Shear tension limit
a) Fastener τ mB = β B ×f uB γ m b) Threaded part τ mM = β M ×f uM γ m
where: Dose fuB = tensile strength of fastener fuM = tensile strength of threaded part γm = 1.2
αB = Strip-off diameter
Pull-out capacity
BRITISH STANDARDS
Schwarz
τ mM
(τ mB + τ mM )
d τ = D p +(0.5 − α B )
P ≤ D maj tan30°
FmB = α B × π×d τ ×t×τ mB 1.5
where: P = thread pitch of fastener Dp = pitch diameter of fastener Dmaj = major diameter of fastener
Dose
where: t = length of thread engagement
Dose
65
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.2 Weld 11.2.1 Capacity of welds for steel design
Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of : - 16×thickness of thinner parent material or 300mm if it is in compression or shear. - 24×thickness of thinner parent material or 300mm if it is in tension. BS 5950-1:2000
Capacity of steel welds Type Data
Action
Notes
σ1, τ1, τ2 FL FTx 2 + FTy 2
FT =
a = 0.70×size of weld pw py Fillet weld
Clause
Factored stresses, normal and shear perpendicular to, and 6.8.7.3 2 shear stress parallel to, throat section, respectively [N/mm ] Design longitudinal force per unit length [N/mm] 6.8.7.1 Design tangential force per unit length [N/mm] Table 37 Throat size of weld [mm] Design strength of weld material (see Error! Reference 2 source not found.) [N/mm ] 2 Design strength of parent material [N/mm ]
Simple method: 6.8.7.2
σ12 +τ12 +τ 2 2 ≤ p w
Directional method: 2
FL FT + PL PT where: PL = a ⋅ p w
2
Longitudinal shear capacity per unit length Transverse capacity per unit length
PT = K ⋅ PL F θ = 45° − tan -1 Tx FTy
K = 1.25
Butt weld
66
6.8.7.3
≤ 1.0
1.5 1+cos 2 θ
σ12 +τ12 +τ 2 2 ≤ p y
Angle between the resultant transverse force FT the throat of the weld [°] Coefficient [-] Check for vector sum of stresses
6.9.3
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
11.2.2 Capacity of welds for aluminium design Intermittent welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of 10×t or 300mm if it is in compression or shear, 24×t or 300mm if it is in tension. BS 8118-1:1991
Capacity of aluminium welds Type Data
Factored resistance of weld σ1, τ1, τ2 2
2
S = Sa + Sb + Sc
2
θ t L le = L – 2×(weld width) lf (see Fig. 6.6) pw γm = 1.2
Values of te ¨
Values of gt Butt weld
Clause 2
Full and partial penetration J or U type te = t Partial penetration V or bevel type te = lesser of (0.75×t) or (t-3mm)
Factored stresses [N/mm ] Design axial, longitudinal and transverse loads [kN] Angle between line of weld and direction of load Thickness of the thinner part connected [mm] Length of weld [mm] Effective length of weld [mm] Effective length of fillet [mm] 2 Limiting stress of weld material [N/mm ] Material factor
(a) Full penetration weld (b) Partial penetration weld
Fig. 6.5
Fig. 6.4 6.9.3 (c)
Interaction 2
PR ) + ( Sb VR )
2
≤ 1.0
Fig. 6.3
Direct tension normal to line of weld PRFB = Lt e ( k z p a ) γ m PRTB = Lt ( k z p a ) γ m
Direct shear parallel to line of weld VRFB = VRTB = Lt p vz γ m Fillet weld
Tension capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] Tension capacity at the toe “T” [N] Shear capacity at the fusion boundary and toe [N]
6.9.3 (a) 6.9.3 (b) 6.9.2
Generally σ1 +3 ( τ +τ 2 2
Heat-affected zones (HAZs)
Fig. 6.2
2
σ1 +3τ 2 ≤ p w γ m Direct tensile force normal to line of weld lt PRB = e e p w γ m ≥ S 3 Oblique tensile force le t e PRB = pw γm ≥ S 1+2cos 2 θ
(Sa
Fig. 6.1
6.9.1
Generally 2
Heat-affected zones (HAZs)
6.9.1 Fig. 6.6 Table 6.2 Table 3.3 6.7.8
Leg (size) of weld [mm] Throat (effective size) of fillet weld [mm]
gl g t =0.707g l
6.9.1 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.4
2 1
2
)
≤ pw γm
Load perpendicular to line of weld 0.85 le g t PRF = p w γ m ≥ Sa 2 Load parallel to line of weld 0.85 lf g t PRF = p w γ m ≥ Sc 3
Fig. 6.2
Interaction
6.9.3 (c)
(Sa
2
PR ) + ( Sb VR )
2
Fig. 6.6 6.7.9
≤ 1.0
Fig. 6.3
Direct tension normal to line of weld PRFF = Lg1 ( k z p a ) γ m PRTF = Lt ( k z p a ) γ m
Direct shear parallel to line of weld VRFF = Lg1 ( k z p v ) γ m VRTF = Lt ( k z p v ) γ m
BRITISH STANDARDS
6.9.3 (a) Tension capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] Tension capacity at the toe “T” [N] Shear capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] Shear capacity at the toe “T” [N]
6.9.3 (b)
67
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
11.3 Guide to welding Weld symbols
BS 499
Weld examples - plates
68
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
Weld examples – hollow sections
BRITISH STANDARDS
69
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.4 Bracket 11.4.1 Top of slab fixing
BS 5950-1:2000
Design of TOS-fixed steel bracket Parts Data
Notes
Clause
Minimum plate thickness [mm] Width of plate [mm] Height of stiffener rib plate [mm] Cantilever arm of applied loads [mm] Outrigger distance to fixing/cast-in [mm] Unfactored gravity load [kN] Unfactored lateral load [kN] 2 Design strength of steel [N/mm ]
tp b hp Lf Lb Fg Fw py
Bracket Plate a) Simplified tp ≥
4 (1.4Fg L f ) ×103 b py
b) Exact 4 (1.4Fg L f ) ×103 1.4Fw + ≤ py b tp2 b tp Plate with welded stiffener ribs 1.4Fg L f ×103 1.4Fw ×103 + ≤ py 2 b+2h b − 2t p ) t p ( b h b ( b − t p ) + − t p t p 2 Anchor
Reaction forces N Ed = 1.4Fg L f L b
Minimum plate thickness [mm]
4.2.5.2
Combined tension and moment
4.8.2.2
Combined tension and moment for U cross-section
4.8.2.2
Used as design axial, shear and resultant forces for anchor design [kN]
VEd = 1.4Fw FEd =
N Ed 2 + VEd 2
N γ = tan -1 Ed VEd
Angle of incidence of FEd [°]
BS 8118-1:1991
Design of TOS-fixed aluminium bracket Parts
Notes
Clause
Minimum plate thickness [mm]
4.2.5.2
Combined tension and moment
4.8.2.2
Bracket Plate or extrusion a) Simplified tp ≥
4 (1.2Fg L f ) ×103 b ( p o 1.2 )
b) Exact 4 (1.2Fg L f ) ×103 1.2Fw p + ≤ o 2 b tp b tp 1.2
70
BRITISH STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART III AMERICAN STANDARDS 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents III-1 LOADS
5
1.1
Importance factor
5
1.2
Definitions
6
1.3
Dead load, D
6
1.4
Live load, L
7
1.5
Wind load, W
9
1.6
Notional load, N
14
1.7
Load combinations
15
III-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
17
2.1
Deflection limits
17
2.2
Common structural movements
18
III-3 STEEL DESIGN
21
3.1
Properties of steel
21
3.2
Steel design
22
3.3
Bolted connections to AISC 360-10
29
3.4
Weld connections
32
III-4 STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN
35
4.1
Properties of stainless steel
35
4.2
Design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members
36
4.3
Test
36
4.4
Connections
37
III-5 ALUMINUM DESIGN
41
5.1
Properties of aluminium structures
41
5.2
Allowable stress design
42
5.3
Moment of inertia tables
45
5.4
Thermally separated profiles
46
5.5
Fasteners
47
5.6
Metric fasteneners
48
5.7
Spaced thread fasteners
51
III-6 GLASS DESIGN
53
6.1
Properties
53
6.2
Glass design
54
AMERICAN STANDARDS
3
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
III-1 LOADS 1.1
Importance factor ASCE 7:2010 Table 1.5-1 & 15-2 Wind Ice [ASCE 7 ‘05]* Risk Snow Seismic V= V> category Is Ie thickness - wind 85-100 100 Ii Iw mph mph
Importance factors by risk category of buildings and other structures
Use or Occupancy
Buildings and other structures that represent a low risk to human life in the event of failure
I
0.80
0.80
1.00
1.00
0.87
0.77
All buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV
II
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial risk to human life.
III
1.10
1.25
1.00
1.25
1.15
1.15
IV
1.20
1.25
1.00
1.50
1.15
1.15
Buildings and other structures, not included in Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial economic impact and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure. Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives) containing toxic or explosive substances where their quantity exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released. Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities. Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial hazard to the community. Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances where the quantity exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction to be dangerous to the public if released and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released. Buildings and other structures required to maintain the functionality of other Risk Category IV structures. Note: The Importance Factors in ASCE 7-05 have been used to adjust the velocity pressure to different annual probabilities of being exceeded. ASCE 7-10 removed these factors and new wind speed maps are introduced for each of the risk categories I, II and III/IV also incorporating uniform recurrence interval wind speed contours throughout all geographic regions including hurricane prone regions. These changes directly affect calculation of unfactored wind loads. Revised load factors for wind in ASD and LRFD load combinations are coordinated to compensate for the new wind speeds, resulting in design velocity pressures that are very similar to those calculated using provisions of ASCE 7-05 for most U.S. regions. AMERICAN STANDARDS
5
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.2
Definitions
Definition of loading capacities Category Load/strength Ultimate limit state (factored loads)
Definition
Tensile strength
the force required (usually minimum or average) to a member to the point where it breaks
Characteristic strength value of the strength below which only 5% of all test results would be expected (probability) to fail Yield strength
The load at which a member experiences a specified amount of permanent deformation
Proof load
the greatest load applied without straining it beyond the elastic limit (no evidence of deformation)
Service load Rated capacity (non-factored loads)
Devices with counter-mass
1.3
the minimum load a complete assembly can withstand before failure in a laboratory pull test when the product is NEW
Breaking load
the lowest breaking force when tested to destruction
Working load limit (WLL)
the maximum load, specified by the manufacturer following an assessment by a competent person, authorized to support when the product is new and when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the member
Safe working load (SWL)
the breaking load divided by an appropriate factor of safety (usually ≥ 2.0) giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried. No additional safety factors required. Ceased to be used in American, ISO and European standards because of legal implications.
Maximum rated load
maximum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
Minimum rated load
minimum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer
Dead load, D
1.3.1 Self-weight, Sw Weight of facade shall be calculated with a contingency factor on top of the self-weight as calculated from the table below. Density of materials
Commentary on ASCE 7:2010 Density, γ [kg/m³]
Group
Material
Concrete
Normal weight
Density, γ [kg/m³]
Group
Material
Metal
Aluminium
2 700
Bronze
8 800
Light weight
Copper
8 900
Heavy weight
> 2 000
Iron, cast
7 200
Granite, basalt
1 550
Iron, wrought
7 700
Limestone, marble
1 520
Lead
11 400
Sandstone
1 310
Steel
7 880
Stainless Steel
Natural Stone
Wood
2 400 900 – 2 000
Timber
750
7 850
Plywood
580
Zinc
7 200
Particle board
720
Glass
Glass (annealed)
2 500
Fibre board
800
Insulation
Rockwool (Loose)
25
Rockwool (Medium)
51
PVC-U 250
1 400
Rockwool (Dense)
70
Terra Cotta
1 900
6
Plastic
ETFE film
-
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.4
LOADS
Live load, L Facade shall be designed to carry and transmit safely all live loads acting on it to the primary structure through the supports.
1.4.1 Floor live load ASCE 7:2010 Table 4-1; IBC:2009 Table 1607.1
Live loads Description
Uniform load 2 [kN/m ]
Concentrated load* [kN]
Office use
2.40
8.9
Computer use
4.79
8.9
Fixed seats
2.87
-
Assembly areas and Lobbies, movable seats, platforms theaters Stage floors
4.79
-
7.18
-
4.79
-
Balconies and decks 1.5 times the live load for the occupancy served.
≤ 4.79
-
For maintenance access
1.92
1.33
First floor
4.79
-
Load Access floor systems
Dining rooms and restaurants
Catwalks Corridors
4.79
-
Operating rooms, laboratories
2.87
4.45
Patient rooms
1.92
4.45
Corridors above first floor
3.83
4.45
Reading rooms
2.87
4.45
Stack rooms
7.18
4.45
Corridors above first floor
3.83
4.45
Light
6.00
8.9
heavy
11.97
13.4
Offices
2.40
8.9
Partitions (Cl. 4.3.2: additional live load)
0.72
-
Corridors above first floor
3.83
8.9
Lobbies and first floor corridors
4.79
8.9
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar uses
3.59
-
Dance halls and ballrooms
4.79
-
Gymnasiums, grandstands, viewing stands and bleachers
4.79
-
Stadiums and arenas with fixed seats
2.87
-
One- and two-family dwellings
1.92
-
Private rooms and corridors
1.92
-
Public rooms and corridors
4.79
-
-
1.33
Flat, pitched and curved roof
0.96
-
Fabric construction
0.24
-
4.79
-
Dining rooms and Restaurants Hospitals
Libraries
Manufacturing
Offices
Recreational
Residential
All other residential occupancies
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance work Roofs, Lr
-
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated
Assembly or roof gardens 2
Note: * Cl. 4.4: Uniformly distributed over an area of 0.58 m (762mm×762mm).
AMERICAN STANDARDS
7
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.4.2 Live load reduction Reduced uniform live load Action Values
Notes 2
2
Data
L0 ≤ 4.79 kN/m AT
Floor live load
L = Lo 0.25 +
Unreduced design live load [kN/m ] 2 Tributary area [m ] 2
KLL 4 4 3 2 2 2
All other members not identified, including: edge beams with cantilever slabs, cantilever beams, oneway slabs, two-way slabs, members without provisions for continuous shear transfer normal to their span
Reduced roof live load Action Values
1
ASCE 7:2010 Clause
Notes
L0 ≤ 0.96 kN/m
2
2
Lr = Lo R1 R2 ≥ 0.58 kN/m2 Reduction factor R1: Tributary area 2 AT ≤ 18.58 m 2 2 18.58 m < AT < 18.58 m
AT ≥ 18.58 m
4.7.2
Table 4-2
Interior beams
Roof live load
4.7.3
Reduced design live load [kN/m ]
K LL AT 4.57
Live load element factor KLL: Element Interior columns Exterior columns without cantilever slab Edge columns with cantilever slab Corner columns with cantilever slab Edge beams without cantilever slabs
Data
ASCE 7:2010 Clause
2
Reduction factor R2: Roof pitch F ≤ 0.48 0.48 < F < 1.44 F ≥ 1.44
Unreduced design roof live load [kN/m ] 2
Reduced design live load [kN/m ]
4.8.2 4.8.2
KLL 1 1.2-0.011AT 0.6
KLL 1 1.2-0.05F 0.6
1.4.3 Barrier live loads ASCE 7:2010 cl. 4.5; IBC:2009 cl. 1607.7
Barrier live loads Category Handrails and guards Components
Sub-category One- and two-family dwellings All others Intermediate rails, balusters and panel fillers
Grab bars Passenger vehicle Condition 1 – at height of 457mm Condition 2 – at height of 686mm barrier systems
Load direction
Concentrated load
Uniform load -
Any (on top)
0.89 kN
Horizontal
0.22 kN**
-
Any
1.11 kN
-
Horizontal
26.70 kN
-
0.73 kN/m*
Note: * need not be considered for one- and two-family dwellings, factory, industrial, and storage occupancies, in areas that are not accessible to the public and that serve an occupant load not greater than 50. 2 ** Uniformly distributed over an area of ≤ 0.093 m (305mm×305mm). 8
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.5
LOADS
Wind load, W
1.5.1 Exposure categories To assign an exposure category, a ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site. ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26.7.2
Ground surface roughness Surface Roughness
Description
B
Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
C
Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 9.1 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.
D
Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.
Exposure categories Exposure Roof category height B
ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26.7.3 Illustration
Description
h ≤ 9.1 m Surface roughness B prevails in upwind direction ≥ 457 m h > 9.1 m Surface roughness B prevails in upwind direction ≥ max{792 m; 20 Hr}
C
Where Exposures B or D do not apply
D
Surface roughness D prevails in upwind direction ≥ max{1,524 m; 20 Hr} Surface roughness B or C immediately upwind ≤ max{183 m; 20 Hr}
1.5.2 Buildings OPEN BUILDING - Each wall having at least 80 percent opening: Aoi ≥ 0.8 Ai PARTIALLY ENCLOSED BUILDING – The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure (1) exceeds by more than10% the sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the building 2 envelope (walls and roof), (2) exceeds 0.37 m or 1% of the area of that wall and the percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20 percent: 1. Aoi > 0.1(AoT - Aoi) 2. Aoi > min{ 0.37 m2; 0.01Ai}; (AoT - Aoi) ≤ 0.20 ENCLOSED BUILDING – where open or partially enclosed buildings do not apply. where: 2
Aoi = area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure [m ] 2
Ai = area of the wall that receives positive external pressure [m ] 2
AoT - Aoi = sum of areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) [m ]
AMERICAN STANDARDS
9
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
1.5.3 Wind loads on Main Wind Force Resistings Systems (MWFRS) Wind load on MWFRS Action Values Velocity pressure
h z V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz: Exposure Kz 2.01 ( z 365.76 )
27
C
2.01 ( z 274.32 )
2 9.5
D
2.01 ( z 213.36 )
2 11.5
B
K zt = 1.0
≥ 0.57
(conservatively)
Table 27.3-1
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient [-]
Fig. 26.8-1
Wind directionality factor [-]
Table 26.6-1
2
Velocity pressure [N/m ]
27.3.2 26.9.4
Rigid building or other structures: G = 0.85 (conservatively) Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures: See Cl. 26.9.5 qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h) qi = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = zi)
Cp Internal pressure coefficient,(GCpi): Building
(GCpi)-
26.9.5 Velocity pressure considering mean roof 27.4.1 height and the level of the highest opening 2 (zi), respectively [N/m ] Fig. 27.4-1 through 3 External pressure coefficient [-]
(GCpi)+
Table 26.11-1
Enclosed - 0.18 + 0.18 Partially enclosed - 0.55 + 0.55
Internal pressure coefficient [-]
( ) + − qi ( GC pi ) − p− = qh ( GC p ) − qi ( GC pi ) − +
Positive design wind pressure [N/m ]
p+ = q z GC p
Free roof
Topographic factor [-]
≥ 1.03
(for MWFRS) q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2
Enclosed & partially enclosed buildings
Mean roof height or ht. of structure [mm] 26.3 Height above ground level [m] Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m above Fig. 26.5-1 ground [m/s]
≥ 0.85
K d = 0.85
Gust-effect factor
ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 27 Clause
Notes
qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h)
Net pressure coefficient, CN: Open building Reference Monoslope free roofs
Fig. 27.4-4
Pitched free roofs
Fig. 27.4-5
Troughed free roofs
Fig. 27.4-6
Free roofs
Fig. 27.4-7
27.4.1, & 27.4.2
2
2
Negative design wind pressure [N/m ] 2
Velocity pressure [N/m ] Fig. 27.4-4 through 7
Net pressure coefficient [-]
2
Net design wind pressure [N/m ]
27.4.3
External pressure coefficient [-] 2 Positive design wind pressure [N/m ] 2 Negative design wind pressure [N/m ]
Fig. 27.4-1
p+/ − = qhGC N
Roof overhangs
Cp p+ = qhGC p
(
p− = qhG C p − 0.8
Parapets
)
q p = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2
Combined net pressure coefficient, (GCpn): Parapet (GCpn) Windward +1.5 Leeward -1.0
(
p p = q p GC pn
10
27.4.4
Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the 27.4.5 2 parapet [N/m ]
) AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS
1.5.4 Wind load on signs, lattice frameworks and trusses Wind load on other structures Action Values Velocity pressure
h z V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz: Exposure Kz B
2.01 ( z 365.76 )
C
2.01 ( z 274.32 )
D
2.01 ( z 213.36 )
27
2 9.5
≥ 0.85
2 11.5
≥ 1.03
(conservatively) Wind directionality factor, Kd: Structure type Walls, signs & lattice frameworks Triangular, square, Trussed rectangular towers Other sections
Gust-effect factor
Freestanding solid walls & Solid signs
Kd 0.85
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient [-]
Fig. 26.8-1
Wind directionality factor [-]
Table 26.6-1
2
Velocity pressure [N/m ]
solid area ε = > 0.70 gross area qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h)
1.5
F = qhGC f As ⋅ k solid area ≤ 0.70 ε = gross area Force coefficient, Cf:
ε
29.3.2 26.9.4
Force coefficient, Cf: Cross-section
Criterion for solid walls and signs [-] 2
1.2 1.3 1.5
Fig. 29.4-1
Velocity pressure [N/m ] Force coefficient [-] 2 Gross area of the solid wall or sign [m ] Reduction factor [-] Design wind force [N]
29.3.2 Fig. 29.4-1 29.4.1 Fig. 29.4-1 29.4.1
Criterion for open signs [-]
Fig. 29.5-2
Force coefficient [-]
0.8 0.9 1.1
29.5 29.4.1 2
Projected normal area [m ] Design wind force [N]
Force coefficient [-]
Fig. 29.5-3
Projected normal area [m2] Design wind force [N]
29.5 29.4.1
Cf
Square
4 ε 2 − 5.9ε + 4
Triangle Af F = q z GC f A f
3.4ε 2 − 4.7 ε + 3.4
AMERICAN STANDARDS
26.9.5
Flat-sided Rounded, D q z members ≤ 5.3 > 5.3
< 0.1 2.0 0.1 - 0.29 1.8 0.3 - 0.70 1.6 Af F = q z GC f A f
Table 29.3-1
0.95
2
Rigid building or other structures: G = 0.85 (conservatively) Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures: See Cl. 26.9.5
k = 1 − (1 − ε )
Trussed towers
Fig. 29.4-1 29.3 Fig. 26.5-1
0.85
Cf As
Open signs & Lattice frameworks
Height or free-standing wall [mm] Height above ground level [m] Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m above ground [m/s] Topographic factor [-]
≥ 0.57
K zt = 1.0
q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V
ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 29 Clause
Notes
11
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.5.5 Wind loads on Components and cladding (C & C) Wind load on C & C Action Values Velocity pressure
Mean roof height or ht. of structure [m] 26.3 Height above ground level [m] Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m Fig. 26.5-1 above ground [m/s] Topographic factor [-] Table 30.3-1
h z V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz: Exposure Kz B
2.01 ( z 365.76 )
C
2.01 ( z 274.32 )
D
2.01 ( z 213.36 )
27
≥ 0.70
2 9.5
≥ 0.85
2 11.5
≥ 1.03
Kzt = 1.0 (conservatively) Kd = 0.85 (for Components & cladding) q z,h = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 Internal Pressure
Enclosed building Partially enclosed
(GCpi) = +/- 0.18 (GCpi) = +/- 0.55
Enclosed Low-rise building, h ≤ 18.3 m: & partially External pressure coefficient,(GCp): enclosed Zone (GCp) for Area [m2] buildings Roof ≤ 0.9 0.9 < A < 9.3 0.2968 − 0.1 log A 1, 2, 3 +0.3 1
ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 30 Clause
Notes
Fig. 26.8-1 Table 26.6-1 30.3.2
Internal pressure coefficient [-]
Table 26.11-1
Gable roofs, θ ≤ 7°
Fig. 30.4-1 through 7
≥ 9.3 +0.2
-1.0
0.1 log A − 0.9968
-0.9
2
-1.8
0.7 log A − 1.7778
-1.1
3
-2.8
1.7 log A − 2.746
-1.1
Walls ≤ 0.9
Velocity pressure exposure coef. [-] Wind directionality factor [-] 2 Velocity pressure [N/m ]
4,5
+1.0
0.9 < A < 46.5 0.9944 − 0.1766 log A
4
-1.1
0.1766 log A − 1.0944
-0.8
5
-1.4
0.3531 log A − 1.3888
-0.8
Fig. 30.4-1
≥ 46.5
30.4.2
+0.7
a = min {0.1B; 0.1L; 0.4h} p+ = qh GC p p− = qh GC p
( (
) + − ( GC pi ) − ) − − ( GC pi ) +
High-rise building, h > 18.3 m: External pressure coefficient,(GCp): Zone (GCp) for Area [m2] Roof ≤ 0.9 1
-1.4
0.9 < A < 46.5 0.2943 log A − 1.3906
2
-2.3
0.412 log A − 2.2869
-1.6
3
-3.2
0.5297 log A − 3.1832
-2.3
Walls ≤ 1.9 +0.9
1.9 < A < 46.5 0.9578 − 0.2146 log A
4
-0.9
0.1431 log A − 0.9385
-0.7
5
-1.8
0.5723 log A − 1.9541
-1.0
4, 5
a = min {0.1B; 0.1L} ≥ 0.9m
( )+ ( )− p− = qh ( GC p ) − qh ( GC pi ) − + p+ = q z GC p
12
Fig. 30.6-1
− qh GC pi
≥ 46.5 -0.9
≥ 46.5 +0.6
Fig. 30.6-1
Local corner zone [m] Design wind pressure, acc. to cl. 30.2.2 2
2
minimum 0.77 kN/m [N/m ]
30.6.2
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 27 Clause
Wind load on C & C Action Values
Notes
Velocity pressure
Velocity pressure considering roof/parapet 2 height [N/m ]
Gust-effect factor
Free roof
Parapets
qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2
26.9.4
Rigid building or other structures: G = 0.85 (conservatively) Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures: See Cl. 26.9.5 Net pressure coefficient, CN: Open building Monoslope free roofs Pitched free roofs Troughed free roofs p+/ − = qhGC N
Reference Fig. 30.8-1 Fig. 30.8-2 Fig. 30.8-3
26.9.5
Fig. 30.8-1 through 3
Net pressure coefficient [-]
2
( GC p ) 4 + ,5 + ( GC p ) 4 − ,5 − ( GC p ) 2 − ,3 − Windward parapet: pw = q p GC p − GC p 4 + ,5 + Leeward parapet: pl = q p GC p − GC p 4 + ,5 +
(
)
(
) 2 − ,3−
(
)
(
)4 − ,5 −
30.3.2
Net design wind pressure [N/m ]
30.8.2
Positive external pressure coeff. for walls
Fig. 30.4-1 or
Negative external pressure coeff. for walls
Fig. 30.6-1
Negative external pressure coeff. for roofs
Fig. 30.4-2
2
Fig. 30.9-1
Net design wind pressure [N/m ]
1.5.6 Air-Permeable Cladding [ASCE 7 C30.1.5] The design wind pressures derived from Chapter 30 represent the pressure differential between the exterior and interior surfaces of the exterior envelope (wall or roof system). Because of partial air-pressure equalization provided by air-permeable claddings, the components and cladding pressures derived from Chapter 30 can overestimate the load on air-permeable cladding elements. The designer may elect either to use the loads derived from Chapter 30 or to use loads derived by an approved alternative method. If the designer desires to determine the pressure differential across a specific cladding element in combination with other elements comprising a specific building envelope assembly, appropriate full-scale pressure measurements should be made on the applicable building envelope assembly, or reference should be made to recognized literature (Cheung and Melbourne 1986, Haig 1990, Baskaran 1992, Southern Building Code Congress International 1994, Peterka et al. 1997, ASTM 2006, 2007, and Kala et al. 2008) for documentation pertaining to wind loads.
1.5.7 Wind tunnel testing Wind tunnel test result limitations Action Permissible reduction MWFRS
The overall principal loads in the x and y directions are not to be less than 80 % of that calculated with Part 1 of Chapter 27 or Part 1 of Chapter 28.
Components Pressures shall not be less than 80 % of those calculated for Zone 4 for walls and Zone 1 for roofs using the and procedure of Chapter 30. Cladding**
ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 31 Absolute minimum reduction* Clause 50 %
31.4.3
65 %
Note: *1. There were no specific influential buildings or objects within the detailed proximity model. 2. Loads and pressures from supplemental tests for all significant wind directions in which specific influential buildings or objects are replaced by the roughness representative of the adjacent roughness condition, but not rougher than exposure B, are included in the test results. ** Zone 5 pressures may be reduced based on the percent reduction of Zone 4 and Zones 2 & 3 pressures may be reduced based on the percent reduction of Zone 1. See commentary of Chapter 31.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
13
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
LOADS 1.5.8 Load combination for continuous corner cladding Wind load patterns for corner cladding
1
2
1.6
100 %
100 %
3
4
75 %
80 %
75 %
80 %
5
60 %
6
60%
60%
60 %
Notional load, N
1.6.1 Load path connections All parts of the structure between separation joints shall be interconnected to form a continuous path to the lateral force-resisting system, and the connections shall be capable of transmitting the lateral forces induced by the parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall be tied to the remainder of the structure with elements having strength to resist a force of not less than 5% of the portion’s weight.
1.6.2 Lateral forces Static lateral force applied independently in each of two orthogonal directions at all levels: Fx = 0.01 Wx Where: Fx = the design lateral force applied at story x and Wx = the portion of the total dead load of the structure,D, located or assigned to level x.
14
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.7
LOADS
Load combinations ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 2.4
Allowable stress design, Ra (ASD) Basic combinations
Vertical facade
Sloped façade or overhead glazing
1
D
D
D
2
D+L
D+L
-
3
D + (Lr or S or R)
-
D + Lr
4
D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
-
-
5
D + (0.6W* or 0.7E)
D + 0.6W*
D + 0.6W*
6
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W*) + 0.75(Lr or S or R) D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W*) D + 0.75Lr + 0.75(0.6W*)
7
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S
-
-
0.6D + (0.6W* or 0.7E)
-
0.6D + 0.6W
Note: * 1.0W in ASCE 7-05. ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 2.3
Load and resistance factor design, Ru (LRFD) Basic combinations
Vertical facade
Sloped façade or overhead glazing
1
1.4D
1.4D
1.4D
2
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6L
-
3
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L* or 0.5W**)
-
1.2D + 1.6Lr + 0.5W** 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5W**
4
1.2D + 1.0W*** + 0.5L* + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.0W***
1.2D + 1.0W*** + 0.5S
5
1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L* + 0.2S
-
-
6
0.9D + 1.0W***
-
0.9D + 1.0W***
-
-
7
0.9D + 1.0E *
2
Note: Cl. 2.3.2: 0.5L for L ≤ 4.79 kN/m areas not for public assembly, 1.0L otherwise. ** 0.8W in ASCE 7-05. *** 1.6W in ASCE 7-05.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
15
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
III-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.1
Deflection limits
Deflection limits for curtain walling Standard Component AAMA TIR-A11:2004
Description
Limit
Clause
H ≤ 4.11 m
L/175
3.0
4.11 m < H < 12 m
H/240 + 6.35 mm
12 m < H
See note 1
Framing members
IBC:2009
Framing member for each individual glass Interior glazing – differential deflection of two adjacent unsupported edges under 0.73 kN/m at 1067 mm above FFL
L/175 or 19.1 mm
2403.3
glass thickness
2403.4
ASTM E 1300
Glass edge support
AAMA Skylights and sloped glazing, 1987
IGU
( Lg
100
)
2
Other glass types
( Lg
100
)
2
L/175
Structural glass Author: Mic Paterson facades and enclosures. 2011
63.5 42.3
L/50
Deflection limits Standard Component AISC 360:2010
5.2.4
Limit
Clause
D+L D+0.5L (Short term def.) (Long term def.)
-
Floor span (reduced live load)
L/360
-
Roof span
L/240
-
Cantilevers
L/150
-
Loading
IBC:2009*
L
S or W**
D+L
Floor members
L/360
-
L/240
Roof members Supporting plaster ceiling Supporting nonplaster ceiling Not supporting ceiling Supporting formed metal roofing
L/360 L/240 L/180 L/150
L/360 L/240 L/180 -
L/240 L/180 L/120 -
Exterior walls and interior partitions With brittle finishes With flexible finishes Supporting formed metal sheeting
-
L/240 L/120 L/90
-
Formed metal sheet roofing/siding
-
L/60
L/60
Aluminum members Supporting edge of glass Not supporting edge of glass Aluminum panels Aluminum sandwich panels
-
L/175 L/60 L/60 L/120
L/175 L/60 L/60 L/120
Loading
L3
Table 1604.3
Note: *For cantilever members, L shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever. **Wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the “components and cladding” loads for the purpose of determining deflection limits herein.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
17
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.2
Common structural movements Building envelopes have to accommodate movement of their components and of the supporting structure, and to make this possible building structures have to be sufficiently stiff.
Allowable storey drift Type
Drift limit Risk category
ASCE 7:2010
Structures, other than masonry shear wall structures, 4 stories or less , with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, and exterior wall systems that have been designed to accommodate the story drifts
I or II
III
IV
h/40
h/50
h/67
Masonry cantilever shear wall structures
h/100
Other masonry shear wall structures
h/150
All other structures
h/50
For cladding design and other design requirements AISC 360:2010 Total or interstorey drift*
Recommended Static Test Method for Evaluating Curtain Wall and Storefront Systems Subjected to Seismic and Wind Induced Interstory Drifts
h/67
Table 12.12-1
h/100
h/100
12.14.8.5
H (or h) / 400 - 500
Absolute interstory drift limit** to avoid damage on nonstructural partitions, cladding and glazing. AAMA 501.4: 2000
Clause
L4
10 mm h/100 unless otherwise stated
7.2.5
Note: * ASCE Task Committee on Drift Control of Steel Building Structures, 1988. ** Cooney and king, 1988; Freeman, 1977. Structural movements Type Movement Column shortening
Steel construction
Common values
Clause
Differential column shortening may be a consideration in design and AISC 303:2005 construction. In some cases, it may occur due to variability in the Cl. 7.13 accumulation of dead load among different columns (see Figure C– 7.1). In other cases, it may be characteristic of the structural system that is employed in the design. Consideration of the effects of differential column shortening may be very important, such as when the slab thickness is reduced, when electrical and other similar fittings mounted on the Structural Steel are intended to be flush with the finished floor and when there is little clearance between bottoms of beams and the tops of door frames or ductwork.
Concrete construction Settlement Thermal movement
18
Steel
0.2mm/m per 15°C
AISC 303:2005 Cl. 7.13
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
AISC 303:2005 Fig. C-7.5. Exterior steel column plumbness tolerances normal to building line.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
19
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN
III-3 STEEL DESIGN 3.1
Properties of steel AISC 360:2010 Table B4.1b
Material constants of structural steel Form
All
Density, γ [kN/m³]
Unit weight, ρ [kg/m³]
Young’s modulus, E 2 [N/mm ]
Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+)ν] 2 [N/mm ]
Poisson’s ratio, ν [-]
77.0
7 850
200 000
81 000
0.30
-6
12·10
ASTM A6:2002
Characteristic values of structural steel Structural shapes
Preferred ASTM Material Standard
Yield strength, Fy 2 [N/mm ]
Tensile strength, Fu 2 [N/mm ]
345
448
A242 Grade 50 a A529 Grade 50 b A572 Grade 42, 50, 55 c A588 Grade 50 b A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70
345
448
A36 Grade 36, c A242 Grade 50 a A529 Grade 50 b A572 Grade 42, 55 c A588 Grade 50 b A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70 b A992
248
400
A242 Grade 50 a A529 Grade 50 b A572 Grade 42, 50, 55 c A588 Grade 50 b A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70
Grade B
317
400
Grade C
345
427
A501 Grade 36 b A618 Grade I, II and III c A847 Grade 50
Grade B
290
400
Grade C
317
427
Grade B
240
414
N/A
248
400
A242 Grade 50 d A514 Grade 100 a A529 Grade 50, 55 b A572 Grade 42, 50, 55, 60, 65 c A588 Grade 50 e A852 Grade 70
b
W
A992
HP
A572
S, M, C, MC & L
A36
HSS (Rectangular and square)
A500
HSS (Round)
A500
b
a
a
Pipe
A53
Plates and bars
A36
a b
Grade 50
345
448
a
Grade 30
205
340
Grade 40
275
380
Grade 50
345
450
A572
Sheets
Grade 50
a
a
A570
Thermal coefficient, α [/˚C]
Other Applicable ASTM Material Standards c
a
c
a
c
b
b
A606 , A607
a
Note: Carbon steel b High-stregth, low-alloy steel c Corrosion-resistant, high-stregth, low-alloy steel d Quenched and tempered alloy e Quenched and tempered low-alloy
AMERICAN STANDARDS
21
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN 3.2
Steel design
3.2.1 Tension and Compression Members AISC 360:2010
Design for Tension and Compression Members Mode Tension
Values Pu
φ t Pn
Notes Pa (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Pn Ω t
(LRFD);
General: Pn = Ag F y
D2
Tensile yielding in the gross section [kN] φt = 0.90 (LRFD); Ω t = 1.67 (ASD)
Pn = Ae Fu
Tensile rapture in the net section [kN] φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.00 (ASD)
where: Ae = U ⋅ An
Net effective area to account for shear lag
Pin-connected: Pn = (2t ⋅ be )Fu Pn = Asf ⋅ 0.6 Fu
D3 Table D3.1
Tensile rapture on the net effective area [kN] Shear rapture on the effective area [kN] φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.00 (ASD)
where: be = 2t + 16mm ≤ ( b − d h ) 2 Asf = 2t ( a + d 2 )
Compression
Clause
Pu Pa (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Pn Ω c φc Pn
Local Squashing: Pn =Ag F y
Effective width [mm] 2 Area on the shear failure path [mm ]
D5.1
φc = 0.90 (LRFD); Ω c = 1.67 (ASD)
E1
Design compressive strength [kN]
E3
Flexural Buckling*: Pn = Ag Fcr Q = Qs Qa
S ≤ S1: KL rz ≤ 4.71 E QFy Fe =
π 2E
2
( KL rz )
Fcr = 0.658
Elastic buckling stress [N/mm ]
2
( QF y
Fe
) QF
2
Critical buckling stress [N/mm ] y
S > S1: KL rz > 4.71 E QFy Fcr =
Selected sections: Section KL rz
0.877 π 2 E
( KL rz )
2
Rect.
Slenderness limit, 4.71√(E/Fy): Grade A36 A53 A500 A572 S235 S275 S355
Fy 2 [N/mm ] 248 240 290 317 345 235 275 355
4.71
E Fy
133.8 136.0 123.7 118.3 113.4 137.4 127.0 111.8
Circular
Fe
Fcr
12KL Eb 2 Eb 2 0.8225 0.7214 2 b ( KL ) ( KL ) 2
4KL D
2.4674
Effective length factor, K: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0
ED 2
( KL ) 2 1.2
2.1639
1.5
ED 2
( KL ) 2
2.0
2.0
Note: *Applicable to single angle with b/t ≤ 20 with rz being the radius of gyration about the minor principal axis.
22
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN
Reduction Factor for Compression Elements Subject to Axial compression Unstiffened Elements
AISC Table B4.1a & Cl. E7.1 & 2
Qs
S
S ≤ S1
S1 < S < S2
S1
S ≥ S2
S2
E7.1
Rolled sections b t
1.0
0.56
E Fy
b Fy 1.415 − 0.74 t E
1.03
E Fy
1.0
0.64
Ekc Fy
b Fy 1.415 − 0.65 t Ekc
1.17
Ekc Fy
1.0
0.45
E Fy
b Fy 1.34 − 0.76 t E
0.91
E Fy
1.0
0.75
E Fy
b Fy 1.908 − 1.22 t E
1.03
E Fy
0.69 E 2
b Fy t
(a)
Built-up sections
kc =
4
b t
0.9 Ekc 2
b Fy t
(b)
h tw
Angles & Other elements b t
Tees
d t
0.53E 2
b Fy t
0.69 E 2
b Fy t
Rect. and round bars
(c)
(d)
E3
Q = 1.0 Qa = Ae Ag
Ae is calculated based on reduced effective width, be
Stiffened Elements S Doubly symmetrical
S ≤ S1
E7.2
S1 < S
S1
h tw
1.0
1.49
E Fy
b t
1.0
1.40
E Fy
b t
1.0
1.49
E Fy
b t
1.0
1.40
E Fy
D t
1.0
E 0.34 E 1 − ≤b Fcr ( b t ) Fcr Fcr is calculated based on Q = 1.0
be = 1.92t
Cover plates
Other Elements
Box sections
(a)
be = 1.92t
E 0.34 E 1 − ≤b Fy ( b t ) F y
(b)
Round HSS
AMERICAN STANDARDS
0.11
E Fy
Q=
0.038 E 2 + Fy ( D t ) 3
(c)
23
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN 3.2.2 Flexural members
AISC 360:2010 Table B4.1b & Cl. F
Design of Flexural Members Mu
Bending
φb M n
(LRFD);
Ma (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Mn Ωb
S
Mn for S ≤ S1
Lb
M p = Z y Fy
b t
Mp
I & C, LTB
L p = 1.76rz
Square or Rect. HSS Flange local buckling
Z z F y ≤ 1.6 S z F y
-
E Fy
0.38
-
E Fy
T & Double Angles Flange in comp., LTB
F3.2
-
F6.1
S 1 − 1 − 0.7 y 1.61 b t − 0.61 M p Z y E Fy
F6.2
-
F7.1
b t
Mp
1.12
E Fy
S 1 − 1 − y 3.57 Z y
h t
Mp
2.42
E Fy
S 1 − 1 − y 0.305 Z y
-
Mp
D t
Mp
-
M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y bf
Web in comp., LTB
M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y
-
S y Fy
d tw
S y Fy
Lb d
M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y
t
24
S 1 − 1 − 0.7 y 1.61 b t − 0.61 M p Z y E Fy
Mp
2t f
Rectangular bars
F2.2
-
Flange local buckling
Web local buckling
S y Lb − L p C b 1 − 1 − 0.7 M p Z y Lr − L p
Mp
-
Web local buckling
Round HSS Local buckling
E Fy
b t
0.38
2
0.31
E Fy
S Z
− 0.738 M p E Fy ht
E Fy + 1 M p 0.021 ( D t )
Lb
(
F7.3
Lb
(
F8.2
)
1 + B 2 + B ; B = 2.3
S 1 − 1 − 0.7 yc Zy
π EI z GJ
-
0.08
F7.2
F8.1
π EI z GJ
E Fy
0.84
− 4.0 M p E Fy b t
-
-
0.38
F1
Mn for S1 < S < S2
S1
Flange local buckling
Bending about minor axis Flange local buckling
φb =0.90 (LRFD); Ω b = 1.67 (ASD)
d Lb
Iz J
b f 2t f − 0.61 M p 1.61 E Fy
)
1 + B 2 − B ; B = 2.3
E Fy
d 2.55 − 1.84 t w
Fy S y Fy E
E Fy
L d Fy C b 1.52 − 0.274 b2 S y Fy t E
d Lb
Iz J
F9.1 F9.2 F9.3 F9.1 F9.2 F9.4
F11
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN AISC 360:2010 F1 & Comm. F1
LTB Modification factor Mode Laterally braced at Lb
Values Cb =
Notes
Clause F1
12.5 M max Rm 2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C
Doubly symmetric section: Rm = 1.0 Singly symmetric section: a) Single curvature bending Rm = 1.0 b) Reverse curvature bending I zTop Rm = 0.5+2 Iz
Continuously braced laterally on one flange
C-F1
Moment at the end of the unbraced length that gives the largest compressive stress in the bottom flange [kN·m] C-F1 Moment at other end of the unbraced length [kN·m] Moment at the middle of the unbraced length [kN·m]
Mo M1 MCL Laterally braced flange in compression:
Case 1A: Negative M1 M CL 2 M 8 C b = 3.0 − 1 − 3 M o 3 ( M o + M 1 ) Case 1B: Positive M1 C b = 3.0 −
Fig. CF1.4 Case 1A: Negative M1
Case 1B: Positive M1
2 M 1 + 8 M CL 3M o
Fig. CF1.5
Laterally braced flange in tension:
Case 2A: Both end moments are positive or zero Case 2A: Both end moments are positive or zero ( M o + 0.6 M 1 ) C b = 2.0 − M CL Case 2B: One end moment is negative (Mo) ( 0.165 M o + 2 M 1 − 2 M CL ) Cb = 0.5 M 1 − M CL Case 2C: Both end moments are negative ( M o + M 1 ) 0.165 + M 1 C b = 2.0 − M CL 3M o
AMERICAN STANDARDS
Case 2B: One end moment is negative (Mo)
Case 2C: Both end moments are negative
25
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN 3.2.3 Shear
AISC 360:2010
Design of members in shear Mode Shear
Values Vu Va (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φvVn Vn Ω v
Notes
Clause
φv =0.90 (LRFD); Ω v = 1.67 (ASD)
G1
Webs: Vn = C v Aw 0.6F y
G2.1
Shear coefficient, Cv: Sect.
Aw
I,C,T
htw
L Rect. HSS
Slenderness
1.0
h tw ≤ 1.10 kv E Fy
bt
bt
Nominal shear strength [kN]
Cv
Web shear coefficient [-]
> 1.10 kv E Fy
1.10 kv E Fy
≤ 1.37 kv E Fy
h tw
> 1.37 kv E Fy
1.51kv E
G4 G5
( h tw )2 Fy
2ht h t
Shear buckling coefficient, kv: Webs
kv
No transverse stiffener
I or C: h tw < 260
5.0
Rect. HSS T, L
5.0 1.2
260 a h > 3.0 or h tw
With transverse stiffeners
Other a/h
Round HSS: Vn = Ag 0.5Fcr 1.60E 5
( Lv
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners [mm]
2
D)( D t )4
G5 G4
5.0
5+
G2.1
5
( a h )2 Nominal shear strength [kN] Lv = distance from maximum to zero shear force [mm]
For Lv ≤ 4.21 ⋅ D D t : Fcr =
G2.1
Shear buckling coefficient [-]
G6
2
Critical buckling stress [N/mm ]
For Lv > 4.21 ⋅ D D t : Fcr =
0.78E 3
( D t)2
26
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN
3.2.4 Torsion AISC 360:2010
Design of members in torsion Mode Torsion
Hollow sections
Values
Notes
Clause
Tu Ta (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φT Tn Tn Ω T
φT =0.90 (LRFD); Ω T = 1.67 (ASD)
Tn = C ⋅ Fcr
Nominal torsion strength [kN·m]
H3.1
Torsional constant [mm³]
H3.1
Round HSS 2
C = π (D − t) t 2 Fcr
= max
1.23E 5
( L D) ( D t )4
0.60E ; ≤ 0.6 F y 3 2 ( D t )
Critical stress [N/mm²]
Torsional constant [mm³]
Rectangular HSS C = 2 ( B − t ) ( H − t ) t − 4.5 ( 4 − π ) t 3
Critical stress [N/mm²] Limiting slenderness:
For h t ≤ 2.45 E Fy : Fcr = 0.6 F y
For 2.45 E Fy < h t ≤ 3.07 E Fy : Fcr =
(
0.6F y 2.45 E F y
)
(h t)
For 3.07 E Fy < h t ≤ 260 : Fcr =
Other sections
0.458π 2 E
( h t )2
Rectangular section
A500 A36 A572 S235 S275 S355
317 248 345 235 275 355
2.45
E E 3.07 Fy Fy
61.54 69.58 58.99 71.47 66.07 58.15
77.11 87.18 73.92 89.56 82.79 72.87
2
H3.3
Torsional constant [mm³]
bt 2 3 1+0.6095
Fy
Nominal torsion strength [kN·m]
Tn = C ⋅ 0.6 F y
C=
Grade
H3.1
3
t t t t + 0.8865 − 1.8023 + 0.91 b b b b
4
OR
C 1 = α 1 bc 2 ;
C 2 = α 2 bc 2
Multiple rectangular sections C i = α i bi t i 2
K i = β i bi t i 3
(
K = ∑ β i bi t i 3 C=
)
Ci K Ki
Individual torsional constant [mm³] 4 Individual shear constant [mm ] 4 Total shear constant [mm ] Total trsional constant [mm³]
Source: Aircraft Structures by J. Perry & J.J. Azar
AMERICAN STANDARDS
27
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN 3.2.5 Cobined forces
AISC 360:2010
Combined forces and torsion Mode
Values
Axial and Flexure
Doubly and singly symmetric members When Pu φc,t Pn ≥ 0.2 M uy Pu 8 M ux + + φc ,t Pn 9 φb M nx φb M ny When Pu φc,t Pn < 0.2
Notes
M ay Pa 8 M ax (LRFD); + + Pn Ω c ,t 9 M nx Ω b M ny Ω b
Clause
(ASD) ≤ 1.0
H1
H1
1 Pu 2 φc ,t Pn
M uy M ay M ux M ax 1 Pa + (LRFD); + (ASD) ≤ 1.0 + + 2 Pn Ω c ,t M nx Ω b M ny Ω b φb M nx φb M ny Unsymmetric members M uy M ay Pu M ux Pa M ax + + (LRFD); + + (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φc ,t Pn φb M nx φb M ny Pn Ω c ,t M nx Ω b M ny Ω b
Shear, Axial and Flexure
28
2
2
V Va Pu Mu Pa Ma Ta T + + u + r (LRFD); + + + (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φc ,t Pn φb M n φvVn φT Tn Pn Ω c ,t M n Ω b Vn Ω v Tn Ω T
H2 H3.2
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 3.3
STEEL DESIGN
Bolted connections to AISC 360-10
Characteristic values of fasteners ASTM Grade | Group EN Equivalent
AISC 360:2010 Table J3.2 Proof stress, 2 Fy [N/mm ]
Tensile strength, 2 Fu [N/mm ]
-
A307M | 4.6
- | 240
414 | 400
A
A325M | 8.8
586 | 640
827 | 800
B
A490M | 10.9
827 | 900
1034 | 1000
3.3.1 Dimensions and Distances Maximum Size of Bolt Holes [mm]
AISC 360:2010 Table J3.3M
Bolt Diameter d [mm]
Standard [Diameter]
Oversize [Diameter]
Short-Slot [Diameter×Length]
Long-Slot [Diameter×Length]
M16
18
20
18 × 22
18 × 40
M20
22
24
22 × 26
22 × 50
M22
24
28
24 × 30
24 × 55
M24
27
30
27 × 32
27 × 60
M27
30
35
30 × 37
30 × 67
M30
33
38
33 × 40
33 × 75
≥ M36
d+3
d+8
(d + 3) × (d + 10)
(d + 3) × 2.5·d
Minimum Edge Distance and Spacing [mm] Bolt Diameter d [mm]
AISC 360:2010 Table J3.4M & 3.5M
Standard [Diameter]
Oversize [Diameter]
Short-Slot* Long-Slot* [Diameter×Length] [Diameter×Length]
M16
1.375·d = 22
1.375·d + 2 = 24
1.375·d + 3 = 25
2.125·d = 34
M20
1.300·d = 26
1.300·d + 2 = 28
1.300·d + 3 = 29
2.050·d = 41
M22
1.273·d = 28
1.273·d + 2 = 30
1.273·d + 3 = 31
2.023·d = 45
M24
1.250·d = 30
1.250·d + 3 = 33
1.250·d + 3 = 33
2.000·d = 48
M27
1.259·d = 34
1.259·d + 3 = 37
1.259·d + 5 = 39
2.009·d = 54
M30
1.267·d = 38
1.267·d + 3 = 41
1.267·d + 5 = 43
2.017·d = 61
M36
1.278·d = 46
1.278·d + 3 = 49
1.278·d + 5 = 51
2.028·d = 73
> M36
1.25·d
1.25·d + 3
1.25·d + 5
2·d
Minimum Spacing [Clause J3.3] 2.67d but 3·d is preferred
Note: * Long axis perpendicular to edge of slot. For long axis parallel to edge, use min. edge distances for standard holes. Maximum Edge Distance and Spacing [mm]
AISC 360:2010 J3.5 Maximum distance*
Maximum edge distance
12·tp ≤ 150 mm
Maximum spacing
Painted members or unpainted members not subject to corrosion
24·tp ≤ 305 mm
Unpainted members of weathering steel subject to atmospheric corrosion
14·tp ≤ 180 mm
Note: * tp is the thickness of the thinner connected part
AMERICAN STANDARDS
29
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN 3.3.2 Metric thread to ISO 724
ISO 724:1993
Metric screw thread Height of fundamental triangle 3 P ≈ 0.866254P 2
H = P sin(60°) =
Basic minor diameter d 1 = D1 = d − 2
5 5 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P 8 8
Basic pitch diameter d 2 = D2 = d − 2
3 3 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P 8 8
Nominal area Ab = 0.7854 d 2
Size
Pitch
Major Minor Pitch diameter diameter diameter P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm]
Nominal area 2 Ab [mm ]
M4
0.70
4.0
3.24
3.54
12.57
M5
0.80
5.0
4.13
4.48
19.64
M6
1.00
6.0
4.92
5.35
28.27
M8
1.25
8.0
6.65
7.19
50.27
M10
1.50
10.0
8.38
9.03
78.54
M12
1.75
12.0
10.11
10.86
113.10
M16
2.00
16.0
13.84
14.70
201.06
M20
2.50
20.0
17.29
18.38
314.16
M24
3.00
24.0
20.75
22.05
452.39
M30
3.50
30.0
26.21
27.73
706.86
3.3.3 Bolt design Design resistance of bolts in bearing-type connections Mode Criteria
Values Ru
φ Rn Tension Shear
AISC 360:2010 J3
Notes (LRFD);
Ra (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Rn Ω
Clause
φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD) Tensile strength [N]
Rnt = Ab ( 0.75Fu )
J3.6
Threads not excluded from shear planes: Rnv = Ab ( 0.45Fu ) Shear strength [N]
J3.6
Threads excluded from shear planes: Rnv = Ab ( 0.563Fu ) Fillers with t >6mm: k = 1 − 0.0154 ( t − 6 ) ≤ 0.85 Combined Tension and Shear Bearing
30
Rut
φ Rnt
+
Ruv
φ Rnv
(LRFD);
Shear strength reduction factor for thick fillers
Rat Rav + (ASD) ≤ 1.3 Rnt Ω Rnv Ω
J5.2 Comm. J3.7
Bearing strength at bolt holes (where deformation at J3.10 bolt hole at service load is a design consideration, otherwise increase by a factor of 1.25) [N] Long-slotted hole with slot perpendicular lc = Clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of the hole and the edge of an to direction of force: adjacent hole or edge of the material [mm] Rnb = 1.0lc ⋅ t ⋅ Fu ≤ 2.0d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu Standard, oversized and short-slotted holes: Rnb = 1.2lc ⋅ t ⋅ Fu ≤ 2.4d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN AISC 360:2010 J3.6
Steel bolt strength table [LRFD] Grade
A307M / 4.6
Size
Fu 2
[N/mm ] 400
M6
A570
340
A36 / A500
400
M20
M24
M30
78.54
113.1
201.1
314.2
452.4
1017.9
φRnt [kN]
6.36
11.31
17.67
25.45
45.24
70.7
101.8
229.0
3.82
6.79
10.60
15.27
27.14
42.41
61.07
137.41
(4.77)
(8.49)
(13.27)
(19.10)
(33.96)
(53.06)
(76.41)
(171.92)
12.72
22.62
35.34
50.90
90.48
141.4
203.6
458.0
7.63
13.57
21.21
30.54
54.29
84.82
122.15
274.83
(9.55)
(16.98)
(26.53)
(38.21)
(67.92)
(106.12)
(152.82)
(343.84)
15.90
28.28
44.18
63.62
113.10
176.72
254.47
572.56
9.54
16.97
26.51
38.17
67.86
106.03
152.68
343.53
(11.94)
(21.23)
(33.16)
(47.76)
(84.90)
(132.65)
(191.02)
(429.80)
3.67
4.90
6.12
7.34
9.79
12.2
14.7
18.4
4.32
5.76
7.20
8.64
11.52
14.4
17.3
21.6
4.86
6.48
8.10
9.72
12.96
16.2
19.4
24.3
3.89
5.18
6.48
7.78
10.37
13.0
15.6
19.4
φRnv [kN]
1000
M16
50.27
φRnt [kN] A490M / 10.9
M12
28.27
Ab [mm ]
φRnv [kN]
800
M10
2
φRnt [kN] A325M / 8.8
M8
φRnv [kN]
Bearing φRnb / t [kN/mm]
A572
450
S235
360
S275
430
4.64
6.19
7.74
9.29
12.38
15.5
18.6
23.2
S355
510
5.51
7.34
9.18
11.02
14.69
18.4
22.0
27.5
Note: * Values in () are for threads excluded from shear planes
AISC 360:2010 J3.6
Steel bolt strength table [ASD] Grade
A307 / 4.6
Size
Fu 2
[N/mm ] 400
M6
800
1000
A570
340
A36 / A500
400
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
28.27
50.27
78.54
113.1
201.1
314.2
452.4
1017.9
Rnt/Ω [kN]
4.24
7.54
11.78
16.97
30.16
47.12
67.86
152.68
2.54
4.52
7.07
10.18
18.10
28.27
40.72
91.61
(3.18)
(5.66)
(8.84)
(12.74)
(22.64)
(35.37)
(50.94)
(114.61)
8.48
15.08
23.56
33.93
60.32
94.25
135.72
305.36
5.09
9.05
14.14
20.36
36.19
56.55
81.43
183.22
(6.37)
(11.32)
(17.69)
(25.47)
(45.28)
(70.75)
(101.88)
(229.23)
10.60
18.85
29.45
42.41
75.40
117.81
169.65
381.71
6.36
11.31
17.67
25.45
45.24
70.69
101.79
229.02
(7.96)
(14.15)
(22.11)
(31.84)
(56.60)
(88.44)
(127.35)
(286.53)
2.45
3.26
4.08
4.90
6.53
8.16
9.79
12.24
2.88
3.84
4.80
5.76
7.68
9.60
11.52
14.40
3.24
4.32
5.40
6.48
8.64
10.80
12.96
16.20
2.59
3.46
4.32
5.18
6.91
8.64
10.37
12.96
Rnv/Ω [kN]
Rnv/Ω [kN] Rnt/Ω [kN]
A490 / 10.9
M10
Ab [mm ]
Rnt/Ω [kN] A325 / 8.8
M8
2
Rnv/Ω [kN]
Bearing Rnb/Ω / t [kN/mm]
A572
450
S235
360
S275
430
3.10
4.13
5.16
6.19
8.26
10.32
12.38
15.48
S355
510
3.67
4.90
6.12
7.34
9.79
12.24
14.69
18.36
Note: * Values in () are for threads excluded from shear planes
AMERICAN STANDARDS
31
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
STEEL DESIGN 3.4
Weld connections AWS D1.1:2004 Table 3.1 Yield strength Tensile strength 2 2 FEXX[N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Electrode Classification Base Metal
Electrode Classification
A36 [≤ 20mm], A53, A500 A36 [> 20mm], A572, A992
SMAW: Other processes:
E60XX
330
414
E70XX
400
480
E7015, E7016, E7018, E7028 E70XX
3.4.1 Minimum weld size AISC 360:2010 Table J2.3 & J2.4
Weld size limits Material thickness of thinner part joined [mm]
Partial-joint-penetration groove weld Minimum effective throat
3≤t≤ 5
Fillet weld Minimum weld size
Maximum weld size
2
2
t
53 - 6
0
0
t
0
0.5t
t
t ≤ 50
35
35
95
70
3003 H12
t ≤ 50
85
70
120
75
H14
t ≤ 25
115
95
140
85
0
t
1.5t
O
t ≤ 50
35
35
105
62
0
0
t
5005 H32
t ≤ 50
85
75
120
75
0
0.5t
t
H34
t ≤ 25
105
95
140
85
0
t
1.5t
O
t ≤ 80
65
66
170
110
0
0.5t
t
All
160
145
215
130
t
1.5t
1.5t
t ≤ 4.0
200
180
255
85
85
t ≤ 9.5
240
6005 T5
t ≤ 25
T6
35
35
35
35
95
105
70
62
65
65
170
110
150
-
-
-
-
2t
2.5t
3.5t
150
95
85
85
150
95
0
t
t
240
290
185
105
105
165
105
2t
2.5t
4t
240
240
260
165
90
90
165
105
-
-
-
t ≤ 15
140
140
170
100
150
195
120
50
-
150
80
-
t ≤ 25
50
-
T66
50
-
-
-
6061 T6, T651
All
240
240
260
165
80
80
165
105
-
-
-
T5
t ≤ 12.5
110
110
150
90
170
205
130
75
-
170
115
-
all
55
-
T6
55
-
-
-
6066 T6, T651
all
310
310
345
185
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
t ≤ 20
305
295
345
195
165
165
275
155
-
-
-
5052 H32 H36 6061 Extrusion
Fcyw
-6
23·10
ADM:2005 Table 3.3-1M 90° bend radius*
2
Welded [N/mm ] Ftyw
ADM:2005 cl. 3.1 Coef. of linear thermal exp., α [/˚C]
6060
6063
0 T6, T651
7005 T53
Note: * Atlas Steels Aluminium Alloy Data Sheet.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
41
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.2
Allowable stress design
5.2.1 Partial safety factors ADM:2005 Table 3.4-1
ASD safety factors Ultimate strength
nu = 1.95
Yield strength
ny = 1.65
Appearance of buckling
na = 1.20 ADM:2005 Table 3.3-3, 3.3-4
Formulas for buckling constants Temper –T5, –T6, –T7, –T8, or –T9
Stress type
Intercept
Temper –O, –H, –T1, –T2, –T3, or –T4
Slope
Compression in Fcy Bc = Fcy 1 + columns and 15510 beam flanges
Dc =
3 F Axial cy compression in B p = Fcy 1 + 21.7 flat elements
Dp =
Axial 5 compression in B = F 1 + Fcy t cy curved 12.8 elements
Dt =
Intersection
Bc 10
Bc E
Bp
Bp
10
Bt 4.5
E
Bt E
3
C c = 0.41
C p = 0.41
Bc Dc
Dp
Bending 5 compression in B = 1.5F 1 + F y tb y curved 12.8 elements
Btb E
3 F Fty ty 1+ 21.2 3
Fcy Fcy 1 + 6900
Bc 20
6Bc E
2Bc 3Dc
Bp
6B p
2B p
20
E
3D p
Bt E
Ct ∗
Bt 3.7
3 F cy Bbr 1.3Fcy 1 + 13.3 20
Bs 10
3
Bs E
B − Bt 5 F y C tb = tb 1.5F 1 + Btb y D − D t tb 8.5 2.7
C s = 0.41
3 F Fty ty 1+ 14.2 3
Bs Ds
Bs 20
Btb − Bt Dtb − Dt
Btb E
3
2
2Bs 3Ds
6Bs E
k 2 = 2.27
k1 = 0.35
k1 = 0.50
k 2 = 2.27
k 2 = 2.04
ADM:2005 Table 3.3-4
Buckling constants Bc
6Bbr 2B br E 3D br
k1 = 0.35
Ultimate strength of flat elements in bending
Alloy
3
2
B Dtb = tb 2.7
Ds =
Ultimate strength of flat elements in compression
Intersection
5 F cy Fcy 1 + 8.5
Ct ∗
6Bbr 2Bbr E C br = 3D br
Bs =
Slope
3 F cy Fcy 1 + 14.5
Bp
Bbr 3 F Bending cy Dbr = 20 compression in Bbr = 1.3Fcy 1 + 13.3 flat elements
Shear in flat elements
Intercept
Dc
Cc
Bp
Dp
Cp
Bt
Dt
Ct
Bbr
Dbr
Cbr
Btb
Dtb
Ctb
Bs
Ds
Cs
6061 T6
269.85 1.68 65.84 308.73
2.06 61.56 296.11 10.66
141 457.78 4.55 67.12 444.16 30.51 55.63 179.07 0.91 80.82
6063 T5
119.26 0.49 99.04 134.29
0.59 93.34 132.00 3.63
275 194.52 1.26 102.96 198.00 10.39 95.29
6063 T6
187.80 0.98 78.57 213.40
1.18 74.04 207.10 6.62
189 313.05 2.57 81.21 310.64 18.94 70.63 123.73 0.52 97.56
42
77.82 0.26 122.61
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
AMERICAN STANDARDS
ALUMINUM DESIGN
43
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.2.2 Allowable compressive stress for 6063-T6 Extrusions
ADM:2005 Tables 3.3-3 & 3.4-3
Allowable compression stress, F/ny
2
Allowable stress, F/ny [N/mm ]
Member/ Mode Element Column All buckling
S ≤ S1
S
S1
S1 < S < S2
kL r
-
b t
103.03
2.08 109.44 − 3.09
Column One edge supported – not flat buckling about a symmetry b t elements axis
103.03
2.08 109.44 − 3.09 b t
One edge supported – buckling about a symmetry axis
0
96.31 − 0.50
Clause S ≥ S2
S2
78.57 352269 kL r
kL r b t
2
12.41 879.7 b t
3.4.8
14.52 13544 b t
Both edges supported
b t
103.03
6.62 109.44 − 0.97
Column Both edges supported curved elements
Rb t
103.03
0.87 106.20 − 3.39 Rb t
b t
2
3.4.8.1
39.56 2804 b t 189.00
3.4.9
26970592 Rb t
( 35 +
3.4.7
Rb t
)
2
3.4.10
599498
Lb
Single web shapes
ry C b
Round or oval tubes BEAM LTB
Solid rectangular and round sections
Rb t
Tension edge supported, compression edge free
Beam element Both edges supported bending in own plane Both edges supported - with long. stiffener
SHEAR Both edges supported unstiffened in flat element 44
21.80 113.82 − 0.49
120.54
34.81 188.27 − 11.48 Rb t
ry C b
94.28 Lb ry C b 103.05
2
3.4.11
26970592 Rb t
( 35 +
Rb t
)
2
3.4.12
78699
2Lb S c Cb I y J
BEAM element Both edges uniform supported compres Curved element - both sion edges supported
103.03
Lb 133.94 Cbd
d t
Tubular shapes
One edge supported
Lb
103.03
b 15.57 189.73 − 3.58 t
128.87
35.31 d t
2
3.4.13
162624
2Lb Sc
113.82 − 0.95
Lb Cb d
C b I y J 2411.4 2Lb S c Cb I y J
2
3.4.14
b t
103.03
7.21 129.33 − 3.65
b t
12.41 1039.6 b t
3.4.15
b t
103.03
22.99 129.33 − 1.14 b t
39.56 3313.8 b t
3.4.16
Rb t
120.54
1.53 125.52 − 4.01 Rb t
189.00
b t
133.94
10.23 189.73 − 5.45
h t
133.94
35.82 h 189.73 − 1.56m m t
h t
133.94
123.51 189.73 − 0.45
h t
59.48
39.35 74.99 − 0.39
h t
b t
h t
31874336 Rb t
(
35 + Rb t
23.20 33985 b t 60.9 m
5771 m
)
2
3.4.16. 1
2
3.4.17
h t
3.4.18
210.02 19900 h t 78.05 266443 h t
3.4.19 2
3.4.20
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.3
ALUMINUM DESIGN
Moment of inertia tables
5.3.1 Minimum required moment of inertia of a split-mullion Use the table below to estimate the required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k), I ≥ qW,k×I* - per split mullion 4
2
AAMA TIR-A11:2004
Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load Aluminium mullion spacing, b [m]
δlimit,
Span, h [m]
[mm]
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.0
17.1
49.4
52.9
56.3
59.5
62.5
65.4
68.1
70.6
73.0
77.0
80.2
82.5
83.9
84.4
3.1
17.7
54.8
58.7
62.5
66.1
69.5
72.8
75.9
78.8
81.5
86.3
90.1
93.1
95.1
96.1
3.2
18.3
60.5
64.8
69.1
73.1
77.0
80.7
84.2
87.5
90.7
96.2
100.8
104.5
107.1
108.7
3.3
18.9
66.5
71.4
76.1
80.6
85.0
89.2
93.1
96.9
100.4
106.8
112.2
116.7
120.0
122.3
3.4
19.4
73.0
78.4
83.6
88.6
93.5
98.1
102.6
106.8
110.8
118.2
124.5
133.8
136.8
20.0
79.8
85.8
91.5
97.1
102.5
107.7
112.7
117.4
121.9
130.2
h137.5
129.7
3.5
143.6
148.6
152.3
3.6
20.6
87.1
93.6
100.0
106.1
112.1
117.8
123.4
128.7
133.7
143.0
151.3
158.4
164.3
168.9
3.7
21.1
94.8
101.9
108.9
115.7
122.2
128.6
134.7
140.6
146.2
156.6
166.0
174.1
181.0
186.6
3.8
21.7
102.9
110.7
118.3
125.7
132.9
139.9
146.7
153.1
159.4
171.0
181.5
190.8
198.7
205.3
3.9
22.3
111.5
120.0
128.3
136.4
144.3
151.9
159.3
166.4
173.3
186.2
197.9
208.4
217.5
225.1
4.0
22.9
120.5
129.8
138.8
147.6
156.2
164.5
172.6
180.5
188.0
202.3
215.3
227.0
237.3
4.1
23.4
130.0
140.0
149.8
159.4
168.7
177.8
186.6
195.2
203.5
219.2
233.6
246.61
258.2
4.2
23.9
140.9
151.8
162.4
172.8
183.0
193.0
202.7
212.1
221.2
238.5
254.4
269.0
282.0
293.5
4.3
24.3
152.4
164.2
175.7
187.1
198.2
209.0
219.6
229.9
239.9
258.9
276.5
292.7
307.3
320.3
4.4
24.7
164.5
177.2
189.8
202.1
214.2
226.0
237.5
248.7
259.6
280.4
299.8
317.7
334.0
348.6
4.5
25.1
177.2
191.0
204.6
217.9
231.0
243.8
256.3
268.5
280.4
303.1
324.4
344.1
362.1
378.4
4.6
25.5
190.5
205.4
220.1
234.5
248.6
262.5
276.0
289.3
302.2
326.9
350.2
371.8
391.7
409.8
4.7
25.9
204.6
220.6
236.4
251.9
267.2
282.1
296.8
311.1
325.1
352.0
377.3
401.0
422.9
442.9
4.8
26.4
219.3
236.5
253.5
270.2
286.6
302.7
318.6
334.0
349.2
378.3
405.8
431.7
455.7
477.7
4.9
26.8
234.6
253.1
271.4
289.3
307.0
324.3
341.4
358.0
374.4
405.9
435.7
463.8
490.0
514.2
5.0
27.2
250.7
270.5
290.1
309.3
328.3
346.9
365.2
383.2
400.7
434.7
467.0
497.5
526.0
552.5
5.1
27.6
267.5
288.7
309.6
330.2
350.5
370.5
390.2
409.4
428.3
464.9
499.7
532.7
563.7
592.5
5.2
28.0
285.1
307.7
330.0
352.1
373.8
395.2
416.2
436.9
457.1
496.4
534.0
569.5
603.1
634.4
5.3
28.4
303.4
327.5
351.3
374.8
398.0
420.9
443.4
465.5
487.2
529.4
569.7
608.0
644.2
678.2
5.4
28.9
322.5
348.1
373.5
398.6
423.3
447.7
471.7
495.4
518.6
563.7
606.9
648.2
687.2
724.0
5.5
29.3
342.3
369.6
396.6
423.3
449.7
475.6
501.2
526.5
551.2
599.5
645.8
690.0
732.0
771.7
5.6
29.7
363.0
392.0
420.7
449.0
477.1
504.7
532.0
558.8
585.2
636.7
686.2
733.6
778.7
821.3
5.7
30.1
384.5
415.2
445.7
475.8
505.6
534.9
563.9
592.5
620.6
675.5
728.3
778.9
827.3
873.1
5.8
30.5
406.8
439.4
471.7
503.6
535.2
566.3
597.1
627.5
657.4
715.7
772.0
826.1
877.8
926.9
5.9
30.9
430.0
464.5
498.6
532.5
565.9
599.0
631.6
663.8
695.5
757.6
817.5
875.1
930.3
982.9
6.0
31.4
454.0
490.5
526.6
562.4
597.8
632.8
667.4
701.5
735.2
801.0
864.6
926.0
984.8 1041.0
6.1
31.8
479.0
517.5
555.6
593.4
630.9
667.9
704.5
740.6
776.3
846.0
913.6
978.8 1041.4 1101.3
6.2
32.2
504.8
545.4
585.7
625.6
665.1
704.3
742.9
781.1
818.9
892.7
964.3 1033.5 1100.1 1163.9
6.3
32.6
531.5
574.3
616.8
658.9
700.6
741.9
782.8
823.1
863.0
941.1 1016.9 1090.2 1160.9 1228.8
6.4
33.0
559.2
604.3
649.0
693.4
737.4
780.9
824.0
866.6
908.6
991.2 1071.3 1149.0 1223.9 1295.9
6.5
33.4
587.8
635.3
682.4
729.1
775.4
821.2
866.6
911.5
955.9 1043.0 1127.7 1209.8 1289.1 1365.5
6.6
33.9
617.4
667.3
716.8
765.9
814.7
862.9
910.7
958.0 1004.7 1096.6 1185.9 1272.7 1356.6 1437.5
6.7
34.3
647.9
700.4
752.4
804.0
855.3
906.0
956.3 1006.0 1055.2 1151.9 1246.1 1337.7 1426.3 1511.9
6.8
34.7
679.5
734.5
789.1
843.4
897.2
950.5 1003.3 1055.6 1107.4 1209.1 1308.3 1404.8 1498.4 1588.8
6.9
35.1
712.1
769.8
827.1
884.0
940.4
996.4 1051.9 1106.8 1161.2 1268.2 1372.6 1474.2 1572.8 1668.2
7.0
35.5
745.6
806.1
866.2
925.9
985.1 1043.8 1102.0 1159.7 1216.8 1329.1 1438.9 1545.8 1649.6 1750.2
7.2
36.4
816.0
882.3
948.1 1013.6 1078.5 1143.0 1206.9 1270.3 1333.1 1456.8 1577.7 1695.7 1810.6 1922.0
7.4
37.2
890.6
963.1 1035.1 1106.7 1177.7 1248.3 1318.3 1387.8 1456.6 1592.3 1725.2 1855.0 1981.6 2104.6
7.6
38.0
969.7 1048.7 1127.2 1205.3 1282.9 1359.9 1436.4 1512.2 1587.5 1735.9 1881.5 2023.9 2162.9 2298.3
7.8
38.9
1053.3 1139.2 1224.6 1309.6 1394.0 1477.9 1561.2 1643.9 1726.0 1887.9 2046.9 2202.7 2354.9 2503.4
8.0
39.7
1141.6 1234.8 1327.6 1419.8 1511.5 1602.6 1693.2 1783.0 1872.3 2048.6 2221.8 2391.6 2557.9 2720.2
8.5
41.8
1383.8 1497.0 1609.8 1722.0 1833.6 1944.6 2055.0 2164.6 2273.6 2489.2 2701.5 2910.2 3115.0 3315.6
9.0
43.9
1658.1 1794.0 1929.4 2064.3 2198.5 2332.1 2464.9 2597.1 2728.5 2988.8 3245.5 3498.4 3747.1 3991.3
9.5
45.9
1966.4 2128.0 2288.9 2449.2 2608.9 2767.9 2926.1 3083.6 3240.2 3550.9 3857.7 4160.4 4458.7 4752.3
10.0
48.0
2311.0 2501.0 2690.5 2879.3 3067.5 3254.9 3441.5 3627.3 3812.2 4179.2 4542.2 4900.8 5254.7 5603.5
AMERICAN STANDARDS
b
246.1
b
2 268.3
45
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.4
Thermally separated profiles
Structural performance of composite thermal barrier framing system (Simplified) Mode Member
Thermal break
Values
Clause 7.5.3
D = h − ( c11 + c22 )
Unsupported span of the member [mm] Effective shear area of aluminium [mm²] Modulus of elasticity of the member [N/mm²] Distance between centroid axes [mm]
Gc b, Dc
Design shear modulus of thermal separator [N/mm²] Width and depth of thermal break (core), respectively [mm]
7.5.3
L A ≈ 0.4(a1+a2) E
c = Gc ( b Dc ) =
Moment of inertia & constants
∆F ∆δ ⋅ L
Elasticity constant (may be determined from test) [N/mm/mm] Lower bound on I’e (non-composite) [N/mm²] Transfer inertia [N/mm²] Upper bound on I’e (full composite) [N/mm²]
I o = I o1 + I o 2 I c = a1 a 2 D
2
( a1 + a 2 )
I = Io + Ic ID 2 c I c Dc
Gp =
C y = Gp
7.5.4
Geometric and core material parameter [N] Buckling slope formula
( EI o )
Complementary constant
r = L Cy 2
Uniformly loaded beam
AAMA TIR-A8:2004
Notes
Table 5 Table 3
EI o I c
D0 =
2
Gp I
D1 = −
D2 =
LI c L3 − 2G p I 24 EI
Ic 2G p I
L 12 EI 1 D4 = − 24 EI D3 =
F1 = −
Effective moment of inertia
Ic
(
C y G p I 1 + e 2r
D4 L4 D3 L3 D2 L2 D1 L Unit deformation [mm] + + + D0 + 2F1 e r + 16 8 4 2 L4 4 Effective moment of inertia without shear deformation [mm ] Ie = 76.8 Ey Ie 4 Eff. moment of inertia considering shear deformation [mm ] I e′ = 1 + 25.6 I e L2 A y=
(
Section modulus
(
Se 2 =
46
)
y ′′ = 3D4 L2 + 3D3 L + 2 D2 + 2C y F1 e r S e1 =
Shear flow per unit load
Table 5
)
1 1 − EI o y ′′ + Ec22 y ′′ a2 D
Effective section modulus at face 2 [mm ]
Vc = L 2 − EI o y ′′′ qc = Vc D
7.5.5
2
Effective section modulus at face 1 [mm ]
(
7.5.4
7.5.6
) L8
1 1 − EI o y ′′ + Ec11 y ′′ a1 D
y ′′′ = 6 D3 + C y 1.5 F1 1 − e 2r
7.5.4
3
3
7.5.7
) Shear resisted by thermal break per unit load [N/(N/mm)] Shear flow per unit load [(N/mm)/(N/mm)]
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.5
ALUMINUM DESIGN
Fasteners
5.5.1 Materials for fasteners Mechanical properties of stainless steel fasteners Material
Alloy Group
Steel
Stainless steel
Description
Condition*
AAMA-TIR-A9:1991 Tables 23 - 28 Yield strength, Tensile strength, 2 2 Fy [N/mm ] Fu [N/mm ]
SAE
Grade 2
204.1
510.2
SAE
Grade 5
331.0
827.4
A 307
137.9
413.7
A 325
303.4
827.4
A 490
372.3
1 034.2
AF
345
586
A
207
517
1
304, 304L
2
316, 316L
CW
448
690
3
321, 347
SH
655
827
4
430, 430F
A
241
483
5
410, 416
H
620
758
HT
827
1103
Grade 50
210
500
Grade 70
450
700
Grade 80
600
800
A2 / A4
Note: *AF - Headed and rolled from annealed stock and then reannealed. A - Machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock thus retaining the properties of the original material, or hot-formed and solution-annealed. CW - Headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of cold work; sizes 20mm and larger may be hot worked and solution-annealed.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
47
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.6
Metric fasteneners
5.6.1 Hole Dimensions and Distances Maximum size of bolt holes [mm]
AAMA TIR-A9:1991 Table 1
Bolt Diameter d [mm]
Standard [Diameter]
Oversize [Diameter]
Short-Slot* [Diameter × Length]
Long-Slot* [Diameter × Length]
< M12
d+1
d+2
(d + 1) × (d + 6)
(d + 1) × (50 - d)
≥ M16
d+2
d+3
(d + 2) × (d + 6)
(d + 2) × (50 - d)
Note: * Slots longer than these dimensions may be used for expansion or anchor alignment purposes with appropriate engineering analysis or testing.
5.6.2 Metric thread to ISO 724 ISO 724:1993
Metric screw thread Height of fundamental triangle H = P sin(60°) =
3 P ≈ 0.866254P 2
Basic minor diameter d1 = d − 2
5 5 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P 8 8
Basic pitch diameter d2 = d − 2
3 3 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P 8 8
Tensile stress area ≤ M24 A(S) = 0.7854 ( d − 0.9382 P )
2
Thread root area ≤ M24 A(R) = 0.7854 ( d − 1.2269P )
2
Thread-stripping area (Internal thread - nut) 1 1 TSA(I) = π d min + ( d min − d 2 ,max ) 2 3
Thread-stripping area (External thread - bolt) 1 1 TSA(E) = π D1,max + d 2,min − D1 ,max ) ( 2 3
Size
Bolt
Pullout
Screw chase
Pitch
Major dia.
Minor dia.
Pitch dia.
P [mm]
D [mm]
d1 [mm]
d2 [mm]
Tensile stress, A(S) 2 [mm ]
Thread root, A(R) 2 [mm ]
TSA(I) 2 [mm /mm]
TSA(E) 2 [mm /mm]
α [°]
M4
0.70
4.0
3.24
3.54
8.80
7.75
9.58
6.87
71.7
0.28
3.60
M5
0.80
5.0
4.13
4.48
14.21
12.68
12.57
9.09
68.5
0.27
3.85
M6
1.00
6.0
4.92
5.35
20.17
17.89
16.50
11.59
69.9
0.27
4.31
M8
1.25
8.0
6.65
7.19
36.68
32.84
24.35
16.96
67.6
0.26
4.82
M10
1.50
10.0
8.38
9.03
58.10
52.29
33.37
23.03
66.2
0.26
5.28
M12
1.75
12.0
10.11
10.86
84.42
76.25
43.60
29.75
65.3
0.25
5.70
M16
2.00
16.0
13.84
14.70
156.91
144.12
62.83
43.46
60.3
0.23
6.09
M20
2.50
20.0
17.29
18.38
245.17
225.19
90.33
61.11
60.3
0.23
6.81
M24
3.00
24.0
20.75
22.05
353.04
324.27
122.54
81.49
60.3
0.23
7.46
M30
3.50
30.0
26.21
27.73
561.38
518.99
170.81
113.25
58.2
0.22
8.06
48
Re sec(c) [-] [-]
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINUM DESIGN
5.6.3 Metric fastening design AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000
Metal curtain wall fasteners (UNC threads) Mode
Values
Notes
Area
For ≤ M24 (stainless steel); ≤ M16 (steel): A( S ) = 0.7854 ( d − 0.9382 P )
2
For bigger bolts and screws: A( S ) = A( R ) = 0.7854d 2
2
Ft = A(S) ⋅ min 0.75F y ; 0.4Fu
Shear
0.75 0.4 Fv = A(R) ⋅ min Fy ; Fu 3 3
Combined Tension and Shear
Pt Ft
Bearing
2
}
Tensile strength [N] Shear strength [N]
2
Pv + ≤ 1.0 Fv
Bearing on steel: Fb = 1.2 d t Fu Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2.4d e/2d Countersunk head 1- tk/2t Long slot 1/1.2 Bearing on aluminum: Fb = d t Fby 1.65 ; Fby ≥ 1.6F y Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2d Countersunk head Long slot
Pullout
Tensile stress area [mm ] 2 Thread root area [mm ] Tensile and shear stress area [mm ]
Tension
{
6 2
2
A( R ) = 0.7854 ( d − 1.2269 P )
Clause
Failure mode
e/2d 1- tk/2t 1/1.5
Thickness
Allowable bearing force [kN] Values of Fby acc. to The Aluminum Association, Specifications for aluminum structures, 3rd Edition. Alloy Fby ≈ (Fy + Fu)/1.5 156.7 5052 O 3003 H14, 5005 H34 165.5 6061 T6 386.1 6063 T5 165.5 6063 T6 275.8 Minimum Distances: Minimum Distances Edge Spacing Steel 1.5D 3D Aluminum 1.5D 2.5D
2mm ≤ t ≤ 3mm
F p = 0.665
3mm < t ≤ 6mm
F p = 1.2d ( 6 − t )
Yield
Transition
π
F p = 0.560
Shear strength 6mm < t ≤ 10mm
Fp =
t 3P
3
π 3
dt dt
7
Addendum
Pull-out strength
1.5mm ≤ t < 2mm
6
Fty 3 Fty 3
Fty 3
TSA( I )
+
≈ 0.3386 d t Fty ≈ 0.4020 d t Fty
F 1.16 TSA( I ) ( t − 3 ) tu P 3
Ftu 3
Note: * Values can be increased by 1/3 stress under wind loads. Whether or not to use the increase is left to the discretion of the structural engineer on the job.
AMERICAN STANDARDS
49
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.6.4 Screw chase
AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000
Metal curtain wall fasteners (UNC threads) Mode
Values
Data
d1 d
α = 2 cos −1
π d 2 α − sin α 180 Re = 2 2 π d − d1
(
Notes
Clause
Angle defining limits of screw engagement in screw chase [°]
12
Ratio of engaged thread area to total thread area [-]
)
Pull-out
F p′ = Re F p
Pull-out strength with Addendum 2000 [N]
Sliding friction
t T f = 0.47
Thickness of screw engagement to screw chase [mm] Tightening torque [N·mm] Coef. of friction for mild steel on aluminum [-]
2
sec ( c ) =
SF =
12 ( d − d 1 ) + ( 8.5 P ) 12 ( d − d 1 )
Re T 2.34 d 2
2
P + π d 2 f sec ( c ) t π d 2 − P f sec ( c ) P
Sliding friction strength [N]
5.6.5 Metric fastener design tables AAMA-TIR-A9:1991
Fastener strength table [ASD] Size
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
2
8.80
14.20
20.20
36.70
58.10
84.40
156.90
245.20
2
[N/mm ] A(R) [mm ]
7.80
12.70
17.90
32.80
52.30
76.30
144.10
225.20
510.2
Ft [kN]
1.35
2.17
3.09
5.62
8.89
12.92
24.02
37.53
204.1
Fv [kN]
0.69
1.12
1.58
2.90
4.62
6.74
12.74
19.90
827.4
Ft [kN]
2.18
3.53
5.01
9.11
14.42
20.95
38.95
60.87
331.0
Fv [kN]
1.12
1.82
2.57
4.70
7.50
10.94
20.65
32.28
A307 (4.6)
400.0
Ft [kN]
1.21
1.96
2.79
5.06
8.01
11.64
21.64
33.82
183.9
Fv [kN]
0.62
1.01
1.43
2.61
4.16
6.08
11.47
17.93
A325 (8.8)
800.0
Ft [kN]
2.82
4.54
6.46
11.74
18.59
27.01
50.21
78.46
586.1
Fv [kN]
1.44
2.35
3.31
6.06
9.66
14.10
26.62
41.61
A490 (10.9)
1000.0
Ft [kN]
3.52
5.68
8.08
14.68
23.24
33.76
62.76
98.08
827.4
Fv [kN]
1.80
2.93
4.13
7.57
12.08
17.62
33.28
52.01
586
Ft [kN]
2.06
3.33
4.73
8.60
13.62
19.78
36.78
57.47
345
Fv [kN]
1.06
1.72
2.42
4.44
7.08
10.33
19.50
30.48
517
Ft [kN]
1.37
2.20
3.14
5.70
9.02
13.10
24.36
38.07
207
Fv [kN]
0.70
1.14
1.60
2.94
4.69
6.84
12.92
20.19
655
Ft [kN]
2.31
3.72
5.29
9.62
15.22
22.11
41.11
64.24
827
Fv [kN]
1.18
1.92
2.71
4.96
7.91
11.54
21.80
34.07
700
Ft [kN]
2.46
3.98
5.66
10.28
16.27
23.63
43.93
68.66
450
Fv [kN]
1.26
2.05
2.89
5.30
8.45
12.33
23.29
36.41
Fu Material / Condition
Fy
A(S) [mm ] 2
Grade 2 SAE
Steel
Grade 5
Stainless steel
ASTM (EN)
1 (304, 304L) 2 (316, 316L) 3 (321, 347)
A2 / A4
50
- AF -A - CW 70
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.7
ALUMINUM DESIGN
Spaced thread fasteners
5.7.1 Spaced thread fastener design AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000
Metal curtain wall fasteners (Spaced threads) Mode
Values
Notes
Clause 2
Area
A( R ) = 0.7854d 1 2
Thread root area [mm ]
9
Tension
Ft = A(R) ⋅ 0.4Fu
Tensile strength [N]
9
Shear
Fv = A(R) ⋅ 0.4
Shear strength [N]
9
Combined
( Pt
Bearing
2
3 Fu
6
2
Ft ) + ( Pv Fv ) ≤ 1.0
Bearing on steel: Fb = 1.2 d t Fu Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2.4d e/2d Countersunk head 1- tk/2t Long slot 1/1.2 Bearing on aluminum: Fb = d t Fby 1.65 ; Fby ≥ 1.6F y Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2d Countersunk head Long slot
Pullout
e/2d 1- tk/2t 1/1.5
Thickness
Failure mode
1mm ≤ t < 2mm Yield
2mm ≤ t ≤ 2P 2P < t ≤ 4P
Transition Shear strength
4P < t ≤ 8mm
Allowable bearing force [kN] 6 Values of Fby acc. to The Aluminum Association, Specifications for aluminum structures, 3rd Edition. Alloy Fby 3003 H14, 5005 H34 165.5 6061 T6 386.1 6063 T5 165.5 6063 T6 275.8 7 Minimum Distances: Minimum Distances Edge Spacing Steel 1.5d 3d Aluminum 1.5d 2.5d Addendum
Pull-out strength F p = 0.560 π
3 d t Fty 3 ≈ 0.3386 d t Fty
π
F p = 0.665
3
dt
F p = 1.2d ( 4 P − t ) F p = 0.9
π 3
d t
Fty 3 Fty 3
≈ 0.4020 d t Fty + 3.26d ( t − 2 P )
Ftu 3
Ftu ≈ 0.544 d t Ftu 3
Note: * Values can be increased by 1/3 stress under wind loads. Whether or not to use the increase is left to the discretion of the structural engineer on the job. AAMA-TIR-A9:1991
Self-tapping screw strength table [ASD] Size Alloy
Condition
Stainless steel
Steel
Grade 2 SAE Grade 5 1 (304, 304L)
- AF
2 (316, 316L)
-A
3 (321, 347)
- CW
A2 / A4
70
AMERICAN STANDARDS
k [mm]
ST 2.9
ST 3.5
ST 3.9
ST 4.2
ST 4.8
ST 5.5
ST 6.3
2.08
2.51
2.77
2.95
3.43
3.99
4.70
A(R) [mm ]
3.40
4.95
6.03
6.83
9.24
12.50
17.35
P [mm]
1.10
1.30
1.30
1.40
1.60
1.80
1.80
2
Ft [kN]
0.69
1.01
1.23
1.39
1.89
2.55
3.54
Fv [kN]
0.40
0.58
0.71
0.80
1.09
1.47
2.04
Ft [kN]
1.13
1.64
2.00
2.26
3.06
4.14
5.74
Fv [kN]
0.65
0.95
1.15
1.31
1.77
2.39
3.32
Ft [kN]
0.80
1.16
1.41
1.60
2.17
2.93
4.07
Fv [kN]
0.46
0.67
0.82
0.92
1.25
1.69
2.35
Ft [kN]
0.70
1.02
1.25
1.41
1.91
2.59
3.59
Fv [kN]
0.41
0.59
0.72
0.82
1.10
1.49
2.07
Ft [kN]
0.89
1.30
1.58
1.79
2.42
3.28
4.55
Fv [kN]
0.51
0.75
0.91
1.03
1.40
1.89
2.62
Ft [kN]
0.95
1.39
1.69
1.91
2.59
3.50
4.86
Fv [kN]
0.55
0.80
0.97
1.10
1.49
2.02
2.80
51
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
III-6 GLASS DESIGN 6.1
Properties
6.1.1 Glass ADM:2005 cl. 3.1
Glass constants Density γ [kN/m³]
Unit weight ρ [kg/m³]
Modulus of elasticity E 2 [N/mm ]
Modulus of rigidity G = E/[2(1+ν)] 2 [N/mm ]
Poisson’s ratio ν [-]
Coef. of thermal exp. α [/˚C]
24.5
2 500
71 700
29 400
0.22
9·10
-6
6.1.2 Interlayer Laminated glass interlayer Shear Modulus [N/mm²] Interlayer
PVB Polyvinyl Butyral
SG Sentryglas
Thickness [mm]
[mils] [mm]
xx.1 xx.2 xx.3 xx.4 15 30 45 60 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52
[mils] [mm]
35 60 90 120 0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05
Temp.
Load Duration 3s
1m
10 m
1 hr
24 h
1 mo
10 yr
30°C
0.97
0.75
0.5
0.44
0.28
0.07
0.05
50°C
0.44
0.29
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
30°C
141
110
65*
59.9
49.7
11.6
5.31
50°C
26.4
11.3
4.0*
4.0
2.82
2.18
2.0
60°C
8.18
3.64
2.0*
1.7
1.29
1.08
0.97
80°C
1.32
0.83
0.4
0.32
0.25
0.21
0.18
Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.
6.1.3 Laminated glass effective thickness ASTM E1300:2009a
Laminated glass effective thickness Mode Data
Effective thickness
Values
Notes Glass ply 1 & 2 minimum thickness [mm] Interlayer thickness [mm] 2 Glass young’s modulus [N/mm ] 2 Interlayer storage shear modulus [N/mm ]
h1 = h2 hv E= 71 700 N/mm2 G
Γ =
1 Eh h 1 + 4.8 1 2 v Gb
I s = h1 ( h1 + hv )
2
Shear transfer coefficient [-]
AMERICAN STANDARDS
X11
2
hef ,w = 3 2 ⋅ h13 + 12 Γ I s hef ,σ =
Clause
hef3 ,w h1 + Γ ( h1 + hv )
Effective thickness for glass deflection [mm] Effective thickness for glass stress [mm]
53
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN 6.2
Glass design
6.2.1 Stress design Glass Design (Failure prediction model) Method LOAD CHART
Values Pb = 0.008 d
ASTM E1300:2012 Notes
Clause
Probability of breakage [-] Duration of load [sec]
3.2.8.2 2
Uniform lateral load (3 second gust) [kN/m ] Equivalent 3 sec. load of a di second duration qi load. Equivalent 3 sec duration load: Values of n & LDF: q3 = ∑ ( qi LDF ) Type n 3 s 10 m 1 h 24 h 30day 1 yr ∞ 1 AN 16 1.00 0.72 0.64 0.53 0.43 0.36 0.31 LDF = ( 3 d i ) n HS 32 1.00 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.60 0.53 FT 48 1.00 0.89 0.86 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66 Criteria: q3 ≤ LR
Single glass LR = NFL × GTF Insulating glass (IG) Lite No. 1 LR1 = NFl1 × GTF1 × LS1 Lite No. 2 LR2 = NFl2 × GTF2 × LS2 where:
( LS 2 = ( t
LS1 = t 1 3 + t 2 3
STRESS ANALYSIS
3 1
+ t23
) )
t13 t2 3
Allowable stress 1
54
Lite GTF No.1
Insulating glass (IG) Lite No. 2 AN HS FT GTF1 GTF2 GTF1 GTF2 GTF1 GTF2 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.9 1.0 3.8 1.9 1.0 1.8 1.8 1.9 3.8 3.8 1.0 3.8 1.9 3.6 3.6
AN 1.0 HS 2.0 FT 4.0 Values of NFL: Monolithic Support Figure 4-side A1.1 - A1.12 3-side A1.13 - A1.24 2-edge A1.25 1-edge A1.26
Pb = k ( d 3 )7
n
7 A
Allowable stress [N/mm²] AN Surface stress HS FT AN Clean cut HS edges FT AN Edge Seamed HS stress edges FT AN Polished HS edges FT
Tables 1, 2 & 3
Laminated Support Figure 4-side A1.27 - A1.33 3-side A1.34 - A1.40 2-edge A1.41 1-edge A1.42
Surface flaw parameter Glass surface area
K A
σ allowable
Values of GTF: Single glass
X5
X6
3s 23.3 46.6 93.1 16.6 n/a n/a 18.3 36.5 73.0 20.0 36.5 73.0
10 m 16.8 39.6 82.8 11.9 n/a n/a 13.2 30.9 65.3 14.4 31.0 65.0
1h 14.9 37.3 80.1 10.0 n/a n/a 11.7 29.2 63.0 12.8 29.2 62.8
∞ 7.2 24.7 61.4 5.1 n/a n/a 5.7 20.3 49.4 6.2 19.3 48.2
X6
X7 [ASTM E2751 Table 1]
AMERICAN STANDARDS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS DESIGN
6.2.2 Deflection ASTM E1300:2012
Centre of glass deflection Mode Data
Deflection
Values a b E= 71 700 N/mm2
{
x = ln ln q ( ab )
2
Notes
Clause
Long dimension [mm] Short dimension [mm] Interlayer thickness [mm]
X1.1 X1.1
}
Et 4
2
a a a r0 = 0.53 − 3.83 + 1.11 − 0.0969 b b b 2
3
a a a r1 = − 2.29 + 5.83 − 2.17 + 0.2067 b b b 2
3
a a a r2 = 1.485 − 1.908 + 0.815 − 0.0822 b b b
w = t⋅e
3
( r0 + r1 x + r2 x 2 )
AMERICAN STANDARDS
55
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
ANNEX
DESIGN AIDES 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents A
GLASS
5
A.1
Glass dead load holders
5
A.2
Glass deflection
6
B
WINDOWS AND DOORS
7
B.1
Sliding doors
7
B.2
Design of window sash
8
C
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
9
C.1
Schüco stick system
9
C.2
Raico stick system
13
C.3
Raico glass chairs
15
D
ALUMINIUM
17
D.1
Aluminium Extrusion Guidelines
17
D.2
Aluminium Mechanical Properties
18
D.3
Aluminium temper designation
23
E
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
27
E.1
Snap-fit design
27
E.2
Serrated washer
27
E.3
Sleeve sizes
27
E.4
List of fasteners
28
E.5
Group of fasteners
32
E.6
Screw channels
34
E.7
Spring pin
40
E.8
Lifting tools
41
F
ANCHORS
45
F.1
HILTI Anchor Selector
45
F.2
HILTI concrete anchor approvals
48
F.3
HALFEN Cast-in channel
51
F.4
HILTI Cast-in channels
56
G
FORMULAS
57
G.1
Conversion
57
G.2
Stresses
58
G.3
Cross-sectional property formulas
59
G.4
Beam formulas
63
G.5
Arc formulas
69
G.6
Cable structures
71
DESIGN AIDES
3
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
A
Glass
A.1
Glass dead load holders
GLASS
Dead load for glass holders Values General
Figures
W = γgA A = bh − ( b − b1 ) ( h − h1 ) 2
b 2 h − ( b − b1 )
x =
3
2A
( b − b1 )
2
+ ( h − h1 )
90° − θ e x = b1 + a ⋅ tan 2 Pg 1 = W ( b − x − e x ) ( S − a − a s )
s
a
Pg1 ex
g1
)
+ Pg 2 sin θ
Pgh
b1
h − h1 b − b1 = ( b − a − a s cos θ ) cos θ
a
Pg2
θ = tan −1 sx
sy = Pg 1 =
(
sx + s y
x
W
( h − h1 − a − as sin θ ) sin θ W (b − x − a )
a
s
Case 2: b1 > 160mm; x ≤ (a + b - b1 )
(P
a
Pg 2 = W cos θ − Pg 1
Pgh =
x
W
2
h1
h − h1 b − b1
θ = tan −1 S=
( h − h1 )
h1
Case 1: b1 ≤ 160mm
2
)
Pg1
a
Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 sin θ Pgh = Pg 1 cos θ
Pgh
a
b1
Pg2
Pg 1 = W ( b − x − a ) ( b1 − a − a s ) Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 x
W
a
as
b1
Pg2
Case 4:
h1
Case 3: b1 > 160mm; x > (a + b - b1 )
Pg1
Pg 1 = W ( x − a ) ( b1 − 2a ) Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 h
x
h1
W
a
a b Pg1
DESIGN AIDES
Pg2
5
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
GLASS A.2
Glass deflection
Minimum roof slope to prevent ponding Action
Values
Data
L δD
Minimum slope
C≈L Ro
Notes
Clause
Glass dimension along flow direction, [mm] Dead load deflection of glass, [mm] C2 δD = + 8δ D 2
C 2 Ro C 180 ≈ × 2Ro π
α = sin -1
Chord length, [mm] α
R -δ O
Radius of curvature, [mm] Required minimum slope, [°]
R
D
slope
O
C δ
α
D
Edge slippage of simply supported glass Action
Values
Notes
Clause
Data
L δ
Glass dimension along slip direction, [mm] Maximum centre of glass deflection, [mm]
Edge slip
L 180 = 1 – cos × Ro π 2 Ro L ∆ = L – 2 Ro sin 2 Ro
Solve equation to determine radius of curvature, [mm]
δ
Ro L
Edge slippage, [mm] δ ∆
6
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
B
Windows and Doors
B.1
Sliding doors
WINDOWS AND DOORS
In the analyis of sliding door framing profiles, combine the central mullions and apply the appropriate lateral loads on both the fixed and the sliding panels.
To ensure airtightness at the sliding interface, the mullion moment of inertias of the fixed panel should be greater than that of the sliding panel, IF2 ≥ IF1
DESIGN AIDES
7
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
WINDOWS AND DOORS B.2
Design of window sash
Structural design of window frame Action Forces
Values
Notes
Clause
Wt = γ g BH
V = Wt H = Wt ( B 2 − a )
( H − a)
a = 100 mm c = 200 mm Side hung
Vertical member, M1
a
H ⋅ a ⋅ h ( H + a ) 3h ( H + a )
Iz ≥
H
27 H ⋅ E ⋅ 3mm 1.35 H ⋅ a ⋅ h Wz ≥ H ⋅ fy γ M1 Vertical member, M2 5 ( qw B 2 ) y 4 Iy ≥ 384 E ⋅ y 180
Wy ≥ Iz ≥
Wt
e
z
H
1.5 ( qw B 2 ) y 2
M1
M2
y
8 fy γ M1
H ⋅ c3 3E ⋅ c 180
V
1.35 ( H ⋅ c + V ⋅ e )
Wz ≥
c
fy γ M1
T
Horizontal member, T
Iz ≥
c
V ⋅ a ⋅ b ( B + a ) 3b ( B + a ) 27 B ⋅ E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}
Wz ≥
a
B
1.35V ⋅ a ⋅ b B ⋅ fy γ M1
Top hung Vertical member, M1 Iy ≥ without struts
Wy ≥ Horizontal member, T V ⋅ a 3B 2 − 4a 2 Iz ≥ 48 E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}
(
Wz ≥ Top hung with struts
)
1.35V ⋅ a 2 fy γ M1
Vertical member, M1 Iy ≥
Wy ≥ Horizontal member, T V ⋅ a 3B 2 − 4a 2 Iz ≥ 48 E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}
(
Wz ≥
)
1.35V ⋅ a 2 fy γ M1
Bottom hung
8
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
C
Curtain Wall Systems
C.1
Schüco stick system
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
+
+
FW 50
Profile No.
BT
W
A
Iy
Iz
W el,y W el,z W pl,y W pl,z
[mm]
[kg/m]
[cm2]
[cm4]
[cm4]
[cm3]
[cm3]
[cm3]
[cm3]
It
Wt
[cm4]
[cm3]
FW 60+
Profile No.
Schüco BT
W
A
Iy
Iz
W el,y W el,z W pl,y W pl,z
[mm]
[kg/m]
[cm2]
[cm4]
[cm4]
[cm3]
[cm3]
[cm3]
[cm3]
It
Wt
[cm4]
[cm3]
-
1.3
4.8
10.8
4.2
4.3
1.8
6
3.7
1.2
0
324 680
-
1.5
5.5
19.0
5
6.3
2
8.6
4.3
0.7
322 250
50
2.1
7.6
31.3
19.3
8.2
7.7
13.3
10.2
18.5
6.8
324 010
50
2.4
8.9
35.1
35
8.8
11
15.7
15
28.2
6.1
322 260
65
2.2
8.1
55.5
22.8
12.6
9.1
18.7
11.6
29.6
9.3
324 020
65
2.6
9.7
63.1
42.3
13.7
14.1
22.3
17.5
47.9
12.8
322 270
85
2.5
9.3
108.3
28.1
19.9
11.3
28.9
14
46.3
13
324 030
85
3.1
11.3
124.3
53.3
21.9
17.8
34.3
21.6
79.5
18.7
322 280
105
2.6
9.8
167.1
32.4
27
13
36.6
15.7
62.1
16.7
324 040
105
3.3
12.2
195.1
62.4
30.1
20.8
44.2
24.6 110.6
24.3
322 290
125
3.1
11.3
278.5
38.4
37.2
15.4
51.6
18.5
80.5
20.3
324 050
125
3.8
14.2
325.1
74.4
41.7
24.8
62
29.2 144.4
26.2
322 300
150
3.3
12.3
423.6
44.4
48.9
17.7
66.1
20.9 102.1
26.3
324 060
150
4.2
15.7
500.4
86.8
55.6
28.9
80.3
33.5 186.9
32.6
322 310*
175
3.9
14.5
661.9
52.8
66.8
21.1
88.7
24.7 122.9
17.5
324 070
175
5.0
18.4
787.0 103.1
81.3
34.4 108.6
39.5 224.8
20.9
326 250
175
4.8
17.6
730.0
68.2
75.9
27.3 101.8
31.6 161.3
17.3
324 080
200
5.4
19.9 1,083.1 115.6
99.8
38.5
43.9
267
23.2
326 030
200
5.2
19.1 1,008.9
76.7
92.1
30.7 124.3
35.2 190.3
19.2
324 090
225
5.8
21.4 1,445.4 128.1 119.9
42.7 157.8
48.3 312.8
28.5
336 230
225
5.6
20.7 1,352.3
85.3 110.4
34.1 149.2
38.9 222.5
25.7
336 270
250
6.2
23 1,876.3 140.7 140.7
46.9 185.6
52.7 358.3
336 240
250
6.0
22.2 1,759.1
93.8 129.9
37.5
42.5 253.6
25.2
324 220
85
4.0
14.9
322 520
65
2.8
10.2
68.1
40.3
14.8
7.9
23.6
16.2
31.4
10.6
322 510
85
3.7
13.6
173.9
81.1
28.9
12.8
44.4
25.5
82.5
11.8
322 500
105
3.5
13
209.5
61.5
29.2
13.9
47.1
23.6
3.3
323 420
65 - 250
1.7
6.3
53.6
18.2
9
4.9
15.9
9
323 430
65 - 250
1.8
6.7
68.6
20.7
11
5.5
18.8
323 440
65 - 250
1.6
5.9
39.8
19.2
7.4
4.9
13
323 940
85
2.0
7.4
71.5
6.5
13.3
2.9
923 950
85
1.6
5.8
42.5
6.5
8.9
2.3
323 960
105
2.2
8.2
119.2
7.4
18.4
323 970
105
1.8
6.6
76.7
7.3
13.3
323 980
125
2.5
9.1
182.7
8.3
323 990
125
2.0
7.4
124.2
8.1
326 010
150
2.7
10.1
287.8
326 020
150
2.3
8.5
204.7
323 040
85
2.5
9.1
323 050
105
2.6
9.6
323 060
125
3.0
328 640
150
3.3
328 650
175
328 660
176
Standard
323 540
168.2 108.4
132
28
17.5
45.1
0.8
30.9
33
97.6
11.8
65 - 250
1.7
6.3
53.6
18.2
9
4.9
15.9
9
26.2
4.9
65 - 250
1.8
6.7
68.6
20.7
11
5.5
18.8
10.5
29.6
8.8
0
323 440
65 - 250
1.6
5.9
39.8
19.2
7.4
4.9
13
8.9
23.5
4
26.2
4.9
324 100
85
2.4
8.8
81.7
11.1
15.4
3.8
23.2
8.3
6.8
2.6
10.5
29.6
8.8
324 110
85
1.9
7.2
49.6
12
10.3
3.3
16.9
7.7
5.3
2.4
8.9
23.5
4
324 120
105
2.7
10
136.9
12.7
21.8
4.3
32.5
9.6
11
2.7
19.7
5.9
4.8
1.7
324 130
105
2.3
8.4
91.0
13.4
15.7
3.7
24.7
9
9.2
4.1
14.1
5.2
3.8
2.7
324 140
125
3.1
11.3
212.1
14.3
28.9
4.8
43.1
11
15.5
5.9
3.3
27.3
6.7
7.5
2.4
324 150
125
2.6
9.7
149.3
14.7
22
4
33.8
10.2
13.6
5.4
2.6
20.3
6
6.3
3.8
324 160
150
3.5
12.8
337.9
16.2
39.2
5.3
58.1
12.6
20.7
8.1
24.1
3.7
35.9
7.6
10.2
3.6
324 170
150
3.0
11.2
249.7
16.3
31.2
4.4
46.9
11.8
19.1
8.7
18.4
2.9
27.3
6.8
0.6
0
324 180
85
3.0
11.2
122.7
51.4
21.4
17.1
33.9
21
76.5
18.3
9.4
32.3
4.1
47.8
8.6
13.6
6.8
324 190
105
3.2
12
192.7
60.6
29.5
20.2
43.6
24 107.1
23
9.1
25.5
3.2
37.3
7.8
12.3
7.7
324 200
125
3.8
14.1
320.8
72.6
40.9
24.2
61.2
28.7 141.2
23.2
106.9
26.8
19.5
10.7
28.6
13.5
44.2
12.7
28.3
165.0
31.1
26.5
12.4
36.2
15.2
59.9
16
11.2
274.6
37.1
36.4
14.8
51
18
78.5
20.3
12.2
418.1
43
47.8
17.2
65.2
20.4 100.1
21.4
4.5
16.8
687.4
64.4
69.9
25.8
96.3
29.8
163
27.6
200
4.9
18.3
950.9
72.9
86.2
29.1 117.7
33.4 193.2
322 720
85
2.1
7.9
39.5
11.7
12.1
5.2
322 730
105
2.5
9.4
74.9
14.3
16.7
201 216
105
4.1
5.2
49.1
8.3
11.4
322 740
125
2.8
10.4
120.4
16.4
201 217
125
4.6
5.8
80.7
9.3
322 750
150
3.2
11.9
227.6
322 760*
175
3.6
13.4
326 270
175
2.8
10.3
326 050
200
3.1
336 250
225
336 260
250
323 270
Mullion
Faceted Out
Installation
Corner
323 420 323 430
324 210
150
4.2
15.6
494.0
85
54.5
79.4
33 183.5
28.2
324 990
175
4.7
17.5
741.5
97.3
74
32.4 102.9
37.3 228.4
33.2
327 010
200
5.1
19 1,021.9 109.7
91.1
36.6 125.2
41.7 271.1
42.6
327 020
225
5.6
20.6 1,365.6 122.3 109.7
40.8
150
46.1 315.5
59.3
336 290
250
6.0
22.1 1,773.8 134.8 129.6
44.9 176.7
50.5 360.9
44.9
32.4
324 300
85
2.2
8.1
41.4
13.9
12.5
5.2
16.8
9.4
2.5
0
324 310
105
2.6
9.7
78.5
16.5
17.3
6.2
25
11.4
25.4
10
8.6
2.3
0
6.4
24
10.6
25.4
9.1
3.7
14.6
6.2
0.4
0
21.5
7.3
31.2
12.1
32.7
11.3
15.5
4.2
19.7
7
0.4
0
19.2
34.2
8.5
47.1
14.1
42.8
344.1
22
42.4
9.8
60.3
16.1
282.3
14.9
33.8
6.9
48.5
11.5
11.3
404.9
16.6
41.1
7.7
59.6
12.8
3.3
12.2
560.3
18.3
49.6
8.5
71.6
14.1
46.9
11.8
324 420
22
1.4
3.6
13.2
753.1
20
59.2
9.3
85.3
15.3
53.3
13.5
324 430
40
1.7
85
0.4
1.6
2.2
0.2
1.3
0.2
1.7
0.5
0.1
0
324 440
50
2.0
7.3
323 280
105
0.6
2.3
7.5
0.3
2.7
0.3
3.7
0.7
0.1
0
324 450
65
2.2
323 290
125
0.8
3.1
17.4
0.4
4.7
0.3
6.4
0.9
0.1
0
324 460
85
2.6
323 550
-
1.0
3.8
10.7
3.9
4.3
2
5.5
2.9
0.4
0
324 470
105
Reinforcement
16.1
324 320
125
2.9
10.7
125.8
18.6
22.3
7
32.4
12.9
2.6
0
324 330
150
3.3
12.2
236.9
21.4
35.2
8.1
48.7
14.9
2.3
0 0
175
3.7
13.6
357.5
24.2
43.6
9.1
62.3
16.9
2.4
324 350
200
4.1
15.1
519.3
27
54
10.2
77.6
18.9
2.5
0
14.3
324 360
225
4.5
16.5
727.6
29.8
66.2
11.2
94.8
21
2.6
0
52.8
17.7
324 690
-
1.3
4.8
21.0
5.4
7
2.6
8.8
4.2
0.1
0.2
34.4
8.7
324 400
0
0.7
2.6
6.1
0.4
2
0.4
3.2
0.7
0.1
0.2
40.3
15.9
324 410
16
1.3
4.7
16.4
3.4
5.4
1.8
7.4
3.3
5.2
2.7
5.1
19.4
5.9
6.5
2.8
8.4
4.6
9.3
3.7
6.2
28.4
19
9.5
6.6
11.6
9.7
26.4
7
33.5
32.9
11.1
9.4
13.5
14.2
38.2
8.9
8.3
58.5
41
13.9
13.7
20.1
16.1
56.7
11.7
9.5
107.4
51
20.7
17
28.9
19.6
85.2
15.4
2.9
10.7
175.2
61.1
28.4
20.4
39.1
23.2 115.9
19.2
Level 1
324 340
0
0.6
2.4
3.6
0.4
1.4
0.3
2.3
0.7
0.1
0.1
324 480
125
3.3
12.1
270.9
71.3
37.4
23.8
51.4
26.8 149.9
22.9
322 380
16
1.1
3.9
8.9
3
3.6
1.7
4.9
2.8
3.8
2.2
324 490
150
3.7
13.7
419.1
83.8
49.5
27.9
67.6
31.2 187.2
27.6
322 460
22
1.1
4.2
10.4
5.1
4.1
2.5
5.6
3.8
6.6
3.1
324 500
175
4.1
15.2
610.3
96.4
62.8
32.1
85.7
35.6
323 840
40
1.4
5
16.0
14.7
5.8
5.9
7.8
7.4
17.2
5.8
326 940
200
4.5
16.8
849.0
109
77.5
36.3 105.7
322 390
50
1.6
5.9
28.0
17.1
8.2
6.9
11.9
8.5
0.9
0
324 370
50
2.1
7.8
33.9
25.7
9.4
8.6
14.6
12.1
26.7
6
322 400
65
1.8
6.5
49.4
20.8
12
8.3
16.5
10
35
9.9
324 550
50
1.3
4.9
24.8
9.9
6.9
3.3
10.2
6.3
0.1
0.1
322 410
85
2.0
7.4
89.3
25.6
17.6
10.2
23.5
12
50.4
13.1
324 560
50
1.2
4.6
23.6
8
6.6
2.7
9.5
5.3
0.1
0.2
322 420
105
2.2
8.2
144.0
30.4
23.8
12.2
31.3
14
65.5
16.3
324 510
85
2.6
9.5
100.6
48.1
19.1
16
28.1
18.7
77.3
14.3
322 430
125
2.5
9.2
221.1
35.3
31.1
14.1
40.9
16.1
82.5
19.5
322 440
150
2.8
10.5
354.5
42
41.5
16.8
55.2
19 106.9
23.5
322 450
175
3.1
11.6
509.4
48
52
19.2
69
21.5 128.3
27.5
322 490
50
1.6
5.8
25.5
14.6
7.7
5.8
10.6
7.9
16.4
5.8
80×50×3
322 630
50
1.1
4.1
21.3
5.4
6.2
2.4
8.6
4.1
0.1
0.1
336 090
322 640
50
1.0
3.8
19.7
4.4
5.4
1.9
7.6
3.5
0.1
0.1
322 330
85
2.0
7.5
84.6
24
16.4
9.6
22.9
11.4
45.6
10.2
322 340
105
2.2
8.3
138.4
28.8
22.7
11.5
30.8
13.4
60.5
14.4
322 350
125
2.5
9.3
215.2
33.8
30.1
13.5
40.7
15.6
77.6
17.4
18.4 101.6
21.1
322 360
150
2.9
10.6
347.6
40.4
40.6
16.1
55
80×40×2
105 - 175
3.5
4.5
37.4
12.7
9.3
6.4
11.6
7.2
29.3
351 980
125 - 175
3.3
12.4
194.0
40.1
30.9
17.8
43.3
21.3
2.9
0
100×40×3 125 - 175
6.1
7.8
92.3
21.7
18.5
10.8
23.7
12.4
58.8
21.4
120×40×3 150, 175
7.1
9
148.0
25.7
24.7
12.8
32.2
14.6
74.2
25.8
150×40×3
8.5
10.8
266.1
32
35.5
16
47
17.9
97.9
32.5
175
DESIGN AIDES
Level 2
Transom
322 370
Reinf.
Installation Reinf.
Level 2
Transom
Level 1
Reinforcement
Faceted Out
Mullion
Corner
Standard
FW 50+
FW 60
229
32.2
40 271.5
36.9
324 520
105
2.9
10.8
166.8
58.1
26.7
19.4
38.2
22.2 107.6
18.1
324 530
125
3.3
12.2
261.1
68.4
35.8
22.7
50.7
25.9 141.6
21.8
150
3.7
13.7
407.7
80.9
47.8
27
66.9
30.3 177.2
25.9
105 - 200
5.7
7.2
61.1
29.4
15.3
11.8
18.8
13.6
64.8
21.6
125 - 200
3.4
12.6
201.5
55.6
32.4
21.4
44.7
25.2
3
0
100×50×3 125 - 200
6.6
8.4
106.5
36.1
21.3
14.4
26.7
16.4
88.3
27.2
120×50×3 150 - 200
7.5
9.6
168.0
42
28.1
17
35.7
19.3
112
32.8
150×50×5 175, 200
8.9
11.4
298.5
52.6
39.8
21.1
51.4
23.5 149.9
41.4
324 540
11.8
9
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
+
FW 50
10
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
+
FW 60
DESIGN AIDES
11
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS +
Schüco
FW 50 S +
Level 1 L. 2
Transom
Installation
Mullion
I&T
FW 50
12
Profile No.
BT [mm]
Iy
W
A
[kg/m]
[cm ]
2
Iz 4
[cm ]
Wel,y 4
[cm ]
322 530
85
3.0
11
122.8
15.4
322 540
125
3.6
13.4
311.2
322 550
175
4.4
16.4
700.8
323 870
250
7.2
26.8 2,029.2
160 790
125
3.5
12.9
337.5
3
[cm ]
Wel,z 3
[cm ]
Wpl,y 3
[cm ]
21.7
6.2
33.9
16.3
41
6.5
59.2
17.4
69.6
7
97.1
16.8
144
6.7
207
13.6
43.4
5.4
60.2
Wpl,z 3
[cm ]
10.7
It
Wt 4
[cm ]
3
[cm ]
6.2
2.9
12
9.3
4.1
13.9
13.7
5
13.2
5.4
4.7
11.1
14.7
6.6
322 580
85
2.4
8.9
78.6
9.5
14.5
3.8
22.1
7.3
5.9
2.7
322 570
125
3.1
11.3
215.4
10.4
28.1
4.1
43
8.7
9
4.2
322 560
175
3.9
14.3
518.5
11.5
50.3
4.6
76.3
10.5
13.4
4.9
326 870
85
1.8
6.7
50.9
5
8.8
2.4
15
4.5
1.9
1.1
326 860
85
1.3
4.7
29.5
2.1
6.6
1.1
10.2
2.5
0.8
0.4
326 630
125
2.2
8.3
140.1
5.2
17.1
2.5
28.6
5
2.6
1.8
326 640
125
1.6
6.1
91.1
2.5
13.7
1.4
20.9
3.2
1.4
0.7
326 890
175
2.8
10.3
339.7
5.5
30.7
2.6
51.8
5.8
3.6
2.4
326 880
175
2.3
8.5
244.8
3
26.8
1.8
40.2
4
2.5
1.1
322 370
0
0.6
2.4
3.6
0.4
1.4
0.3
2.3
0.7
0.1
0.1
322 380
16
1.1
3.9
8.9
3
3.6
1.7
4.9
2.8
3.8
2.2
326 900
50
1.4
5.3
20.9
4.6
6
1.8
9.4
4
3.1
1.5
326 920
85
2.6
9.8
193.8
11.3
24.7
4.5
38.4
8.4
12
4.7
323 900
125
2.1
7.8
69.8
10.5
12.3
4.2
19.6
7.2
9.3
3.6
323 910
85
2.9
10.6
116.0
38.9
21.9
7.8
31.9
16.1
9.4
2.8
323 920
125
3.3
12.4
292.7
42.9
40.5
8.2
55.3
17.6
12.1
3.9
323 930
175
3.8
14.1
634.6
46.4
65.8
8.7
86.1
18.9
15.2
7.8
326 910
85
2.2
8.3
69.9
9.2
12.6
3.7
20.1
6.9
7
3.5
336 100
125
2.7
9.9
189.4
9.9
24.1
4
38
8
9.6
5.7
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES C.2
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
Raico stick system
Right-angled profiles
Expansion Profiles
Right-Angled Profiles
+
THERM 50
+
THERM 56
Expansion Profiles
+
THERM 50
+
THERM 56
DESIGN AIDES
13
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Insertion Profiles for CW 50 and 56
T-Profile
14
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES C.3
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
Raico glass chairs
Raico glass chair Description
Detail
Variante 1: ≤ 400 kg
Variante 2: ≤ 600 kg
Variante 3: ≤ 800 kg
Variante 3: ≤ 1500 kg
DESIGN AIDES
15
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
D
ALUMINIUM
Aluminium
Alloy Deisgnations
D.1
Aluminium Extrusion Guidelines The figure below shows maximum profile dimensions for the largest Swedish press of Sapa.
Note: The entire cross section of the desired profile must fit within the bold line. .
Sapa Design Manual
Recommended Wall Thickness, [mm] t = 2.0+Ø/125 t ≈ 1.5+Ø/133
t ≈ 1.0+Ø/129 t ≈ 0.8+Ø/148
Circumscribing Circle [mm] • Legend:
DESIGN AIDES
Solid (open) profiles 6060 / 6063 6005A 6082
Hollow (closed) profile 6060 / 6063 6005A 6082 17
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS D.2
Aluminium Mechanical Properties
Aluminium Sheets/Plates
18
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
EN 485-2:2008
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Aluminium Sheets/Plates
DESIGN AIDES
ALUMINIUM EN 485-2:2008
19
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS Aluminium Sheets/Plates
20
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 485-2:2008
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Aluminium Extrusions
DESIGN AIDES
ALUMINIUM EN 755-2:2008
21
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS Aluminium Extrusions
22
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 755-2:2008
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES D.3
ALUMINIUM
Aluminium temper designation
Temper Descriptions to BS EN 515 Temper Description F
As fabricated (no mechanical property limits specified).
O
Annealed - products achieving the required annealed properties after hot forming processes may be designated as O temper.
O1
Thermally treated at approximately the same time and temperature required for solution treatment and slow cooled to room temperature (formerly designated as T41).
O2
Thermomechanically processed to enhance formability, such as required for super-plastic forming (SPF).
O3
Homogenized.
H12
Strain-hardened - ¼ hard.
H14
Strain-hardened - ½ hard.
H16
Strain-hardened - ¾ hard.
H18
Strain-hardened - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
H19
Strain-hardened - extra hard.
Hxx4
Applies to embossed or patterned sheet or strip, fabricated from the corresponding Hxx temper.
Hxx5
Strain-hardened - applies to welded tubes.
H111
Annealed and slightly strain-hardened (less than H11) during subsequent operations such as stretching or levelling.
H112
Slightly strain-hardened from working at an elevated temperature from a limited amount of cold work (mechanical property limits specified).
H116
Applies to aluminium-magnesium alloys with a magnesium content of 4% or more and for which mechanical property limits and exfoliation corrosion resistance are specified.
H22
Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ¼ hard.
H24
Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ½ hard.
H26
Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ¾ hard.
H28
Strain-hardened and partially annealed - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
H32
Strain-hardened and stabilized - ¼ hard.
H34
Strain-hardened and stabilized - ½ hard.
H36
Strain-hardened and stabilized - ¾ hard.
H38
Strain-hardened and stabilized - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
H42
Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ¼ hard.
H44
Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ½ hard.
H46
Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ¾ hard.
H48
Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).
W
Solution heat-treated (unstable temper). The period of natural ageing (W2h..) may also be specified.
W51
Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
W510
Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruted rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
W511
Same as W510 except minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
W52
Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1- 5%.
DESIGN AIDES
23
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
W54
Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die (die forging).
T1
Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged.
T2
Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked and naturally aged.
T3
Solution heat-treated, cold worked and naturally aged.
T31
Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 1% and naturally aged.
T351
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after
T3510
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T3511
Same as T3510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
T354
Solution heat-treated stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and naturally aged.
T36
Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 6% and naturally aged.
T37
Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 7% and naturally aged.
T39
Solution heat-treated and cold worked to an appropriate degree to achieve the specified mechanical properties. Cold work may be carried out before or after natural ageing.
T4
Solution heat-treated and naturally aged.
T42
Solution heat-treated and naturally aged. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.
T451
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T4510
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T4511
Same as T4510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
T452
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and naturally aged.
T454
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and naturally aged.
T5
Cooled from an elavated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged.
T51
Cooled from an elavated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability.
T56
Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged - mechanical property level higher than T5 achieved through special control of the process (6000 series alloys).
T6
Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged.
T61
Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability.
T6151
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate) and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T62
Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.
T64
Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions (between T6 and T61) to improve formability.
T651
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
24
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ALUMINIUM
T6510
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T6511
Same as T6510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
T652
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artificially aged.
T654
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially aged.
T66
Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged - mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special control of the process (6000 series alloys)..
T7
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged.
T73
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
T732
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.
T7351
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T73510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching. T73511 Same as T73510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. T7352
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
T7354
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
T74
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76).
T7451
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T74510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar shapes and tube 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76). The pro-ducts receive no further straightening after stretching. T74511 Same as T74510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. T7452
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially overaged (between T73 and T76).
T7454
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially overaged (between T73 and
T76
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.
T761
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistan-ce. (applies to 7475 sheet and strip).
T762
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistan-ce. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any tem-per by the user.
T7651
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance. The products recieve no further straightening after
DESIGN AIDES
25
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
T76510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoli-ation corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching. T76511 Same as T76510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. T7452
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.
T7454
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking in the finish die and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.
T79
Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged (very limited overageing).
T79510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged (very limited overageing). The products receive no further straightening after stretching. T8
Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially aged.
T82
Solution heat-treated by the user, controlled stretched with a minimum permanent set of 2% and then artificially aged (alloy 8090).
T832
Solution heat-treated, cold worked a controlled specific amount and then artificially aged (applies to 6063 drawn tube).
T841
Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially underaged (sheet and strip in alloys 2091 and 8090).
T851
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T8510
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, profiles and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.
T8511
Same as T8510 except for minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
T852
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially aged.
T854
Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially aged.
T86
Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 6% and then artificially aged.
T87
Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 7% and then artificially aged.
T89
Solution heat-treated, cold worked to an appropriate degree to achieve the specified mechanical properties and then artificially aged.
T9
Solution heat-treated, artificially aged and then cold worked.
26
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
E
Fasteners & Connections
E.1
Snap-fit design
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Formulas are derived from theory of cantilever beam with concentrated load (also conforms to BASF design). http://snapfit4.cmg.net/SnapFit/workspace.jsp
Design resistance of aluminium structures Perpendicular force [N]
Mating force
Uniform beam bt 3 E P= Y 4L3 Tapered beam bt 3 E P= Y 6.52L3
( µ + tan α ) ( 1 − µ ⋅ tan α ) ( µ + tan α´ ) P 1 ( − µ ⋅ tan α´ )
W = P
Push-on force [N]
W´ =
Pull-off force [N]
values of µ: 0.6 0.3
E.2
Uniform beam
Tapered beam
Coefficient of friction [-] Raw surface Anodised surface
Serrated washer Additional tension due to serration angle (θ) of washer and friction (µ): Ft´ = Fv/tan(θ+φ)
F´t
-1
φ = tan (µ)
N θ+φ
Fv
http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm Static Sliding
Frictional coefficients Material
Material
Aluminium
Dry
Greasy
Dry
Greasy
Aluminium
1.05-1.35
0.3
1.4
-
Aluminium
Steel (mild)
0.61
-
0.47
-
Steel (mild)
Steel (mild)
0.74
-
0.57
0.09-0.19
Steel (hard)
Steel (hard)
0.78
0.05-0.11
0.42
0.029-0.12
Cast iron
Cast iron
1.1
0.15
0.07
Nylon
Nylon
0.15-0.25
E.3
Sleeve sizes
Sleeve sizes Bolt size
1.4301/1.4404
6060 T6
Screw size
1.4301/1.4404
6060 T6
M4
-
Ø8×1.5
ST 2.9
Ø6×1.0*
-
M5
Ø8×1.0*
Ø10×2.0
ST 3.5
Ø6×1.0*
Ø7×1.5
M6
Ø10×1.5
-
ST 3.9
Ø8×1.5*
Ø7×1.5
M8
Ø12×1.5
Ø12×1.5
ST 4.2
Ø8×1.5*
Ø8×1.5
M10
Ø15×2.0*
Ø15×1.5
ST 4.8
Ø8×1.5*
Ø8×1.5
M12
Ø17.2×2.3
Ø16×1.5
ST 5.5
-
Ø10×2.0
M16
Ø21.3×2.0
Ø20×1.5
ST 6.3
Ø10×1.5
Ø13×3.0
M20
Ø26.9×2.6
-
DESIGN AIDES
27
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS E.4
28
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
List of fasteners
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DESIGN AIDES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
29
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Bolts and screws commonly used in façade construction Metric thread bolts and screws Reference
Figure
Description
ISO 4014 DIN 931
Hexagonal head bolts
ISO 4017 DIN 933
Hexagonal head screws
ISO 4762 DIN 912
Hexagonal socket head cap screws
DIN 6912
Hexagonal socket thin head cap screws with pilot recess for wrench key
ISO 10642 DIN 7991
Hexagonal socket countersunk head screws
ISO 7046 DIN 965
Cross recessed countersunk head screws
DIN 7500
Thread rolling screws for ISO metric thread D+SHB C-Z M-Z M
ISO 8752 DIN 1481
Spring-type straight pins, slotted, heavy duty
ISO 2338 DIN 7
Parallel pins, of unhardened steel and austenitic stainless steel
ISO 4026 DIN 913
Hexagonal socket set screws with flat point
DIN 975
Threaded rod
30
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Spaced thread screws Reference
Figure
Description
ISO 1479 DIN 7976
Hexagonal head tapping screws
ISO 14585 DIN 7504
Hexalobular socket pan head tapping screws
ISO 14586
Hexalobular socket countersunk head tapping screws
ISO 7049 DIN 7981
Cross recessed pan head tapping screws
ISO 7050 DIN 7982
Cross recessed countersunk head tapping screws
ISO 15480 DIN 7504
Hexagonal washer head drilling screws with tapping screw thread
ISO15482 DIN 7504
Cross recessed raised pan head drilling screws with tapping screw thread
DIN 571
Cross recessed raised countersunk head drilling screws with tapping screw thread Hexagonal head wood screws
DESIGN AIDES
31
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS E.5
Group of fasteners
Group of fasteners in tension or shear Fastener Layout Shear
Tension
Fv1 =
M ⋅ y1 y1 +y2 2 + ...yn 2
Fvn =
M ⋅ yn y1 2 +y2 2 + ...yn 2
Fv1 = Fv2 = Fv3 =
Fv1 =
Ft1 =
M ⋅ y1 y1 2 +y2 2 + ...yn 2
Ftn =
M ⋅ yn y1 +y 2 2 + ...yn 2 2
2
x'1 = ( 2 x1 + x 2 ) 3
M ⋅ ( 2x 1 +x 2 )
(
2
2 x1 +x1 x 2 + x 2
2
)
x' 2 = ( x1 − x 2 ) 3 x' 3 = ( x1 + 2 x 2 ) 3
M ⋅ x1 − x 2 2
(
)
2 x1 2 +x1 x 2 + x 2 2
)
2
2 x1 +x1 x 2 + x 2 M ⋅ ( x1 +2x 2 )
(
x'1 = ( 3 x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 ) 4
M ⋅ x'1 x'1 +x' 2 2 + x' 3 2 + x'4 2 2
x' 2 = ( − x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 ) 4 x' 3 = ( x1 + 2 x2 − x3 ) 4 x'4 = ( x1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x3 ) 4
Group of fasteners in shear Fastener Layout
Shear X component Fvx =
Shear Y components
M⋅y
(
2
2 x +y
2
Fvy =
)
Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvx1 =
Fvy1 =
M⋅y 2x 2 +3y 2
Fvy1 =
M ⋅ 3y 8 ( x1 +x 1 x 2 +x 2 2
2
) +9y
2
Fvy2 = Fvy3 =
32
(
2 x 2 +y 2
)
M⋅x 2x 2 +3y 2
Fvy2 = 0
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 Fvx1 =
M⋅x
M ⋅ ( 2x 1 +x 2 )
8 ( x1 +x 1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2 M ⋅ x1 − x 2 2
8 ( x1 2 +x1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2 M ⋅ ( x1 +2x 2 ) 8 ( x1 2 +x1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvx1 =
Fvy1 =
(
2 x 1 2 +x 2 2 +2y 2
)
Fvy2 =
M⋅y 2x1 2 +2x 2 2 +5y 2
(
(
2
2 x1 +x 2 2 +2y 2
M⋅y
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 Fvx1 =
M ⋅ x1 2
)
M ⋅ x2 2 x1 +x 2 2 +2y 2
Fvy1 =
M ⋅ x1 2x 1 +2x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvy2 =
M ⋅ x2 2x1 2 +2x 2 2 +5y 2
)
2
Fvy3 = 0
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = ... Fvxn Fvx1 =
Fvy1 =
(
2 x1 2 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2
)
Fvy2 =
(
(
2
(
2
2 x 1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2
M⋅y
Fvyn =
M ⋅ x2 2 x1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2 2 x 1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2
M⋅y 4x 2 +3y 2
Fvy1 =
)
M⋅x 4x 2 +3y 2
Fvy2 = 0
Fvx1 = Fvx2
Fvy1 = Fvy3 M⋅y
(
4 x1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2
)
Fvx3 = Fvx4 = 0
Fvy1 =
Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 M⋅y 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvx4 = Fvx5 = 0
M ⋅ x1
(
4 x 1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2
)
Fvy2 = Fvy4 Fvy2 =
Fvx1 =
)
M ⋅ xn
Fvx3 = 0
Fvx1 =
)
Fvy1 = Fvy3
Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvx1 =
M ⋅ x1 2
M ⋅ x2
(
4 x1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2
)
Fvy1 = Fvy4 Fvy1 =
M ⋅ x1 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvy2 = Fvy5 Fvy2 =
M ⋅ x2 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2
Fvy3 = 0
DESIGN AIDES
33
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS E.6
Screw channels Screw channel with self-tapping screws ST4.8×30 / A2 Lindner AG appointed Labor für Stahl und Leichtmetallbau, Hochschule München to conduct a test on the design shear and tension loads of screw channels. ST4.8×32mm A2 with DIN912 head is used. The following characteristic and design values at 5% fractile test values are obtained from the official report Doc. Nr. 2009-2037.
Screw channel capacities [kN] Base extrusion Screw channel Incidence type angle Fv,k Fv,d Ft,k
F+45°
3.4
2.56
F0°
4.6
3.46
F-45°
5.6
4.21
1.35
2.0
a) 0° < α < +45°
1.50
Fα
6.8
3.5
2.63
3.6
2.71
5.1
3.83
Fα α
α
1.8
Interaction formula
α
Fα
F+90°
Anodised extrusion Fv,k Fv,d Ft,k
Fα
α
6.8
F0°
Fα =
2 ⋅ F0° cos ( α ) + − 1 sin ( α ) F +45°
b) +45° < α < +90° α
3.68
4.9
3.68
F+90°
1.8
1.35
1.9
1.43
α
Fα α
α
4.9
α
F-90°
Fα =
α
2.56
F0°
3.7
2.78
F-45°
5.5
4.14
3.1
2.33
3.0
2.26
6.0
4.51
7.6
c) -45° < α < 0° α
α
8.3
α
3.4
α
F+45°
F+90° 2 ⋅ F+90° − 1 cos ( α ) + sin ( α ) F+45°
Fα
F-90°
5.1
3.83
5.2
F
3.91 Fα =
F+90°
2.8
2.11
2.8
2.11
F+45°
1.8
1.35
1.9
1.43
F0°
2.8
2.11
2.8
2.11
Fα
F0° 2 ⋅ F0° cos ( α ) − − 1 sin ( α ) F −45°
d) -90° < α < -45°
F-45°
7.7
5.9
4.44
6.2
Fα
4.66 Fα =
F-90°
4.3
3.23
5.3
3.98
α
7.6
α
α
Fα α
F
Fα
F−90° 2 ⋅ F−90° − 1 cos ( α ) − sin ( α ) F−45°
Note: Material factor γM = 1.33 is used for the design values according to DIN 1055-100 Basis of structural design.
34
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Screw channel with metric screw M5×25 / A2 Test conducted on 02.11.2011 by GBD LAB GmbH, Austria.
F0,k
F//,k F90,k
F//,k
DESIGN AIDES
F0,k
F90,k
35
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Fastener approvals Blind rivet, Ø4.8 mm AlMg2.5 (EN AW-5052)
DIBt Z-14.1-537
Pull-out capacity by local bending of aluminium around screw head
DIBt Z-14.1-537
36
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Self-drilling screw, Pan-head ST4.8 (1.4301)
DESIGN AIDES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS DIBt Z-14.1-537
37
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
38
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Self-drilling screw, Hexagonal head JT4-4-4.8×L/JT9-4-4.8×L (1.4301)
DIBt Z-14.1-537
Self-drilling screw, Hexagonal head JT4-6-5.5×L/JT9-6-5.5×L (1.4301)
DIBt Z-14.1-537
DESIGN AIDES
39
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS E.7
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Spring pin
Slotted spring pin
ISO 8752 Table 1
Note: Applies to steel (St) and martensitic (C) corrosion resistant steel products only. For austenitic (A) stainless steel pins no double shear strength are specified.
40
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES E.8
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Lifting tools Shackles [EN 13889] Sample designation: 9.5mmØ / EN 13889 – Grade 6 – 0.75 ton D (or B) W (or X)
*
Note: *Appropriate factor of safety (2.0 to 4.0) should be considered to determine the working load limit WLL.
DESIGN AIDES
41
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS Schackle [Federal Specification RR-C-271 F] Sample designation: 3/8” / RR-C-271F, Type IV A, Grade A
*
Note: *Appropriate factor of safety (2.0 to 4.0) should be considered to determine the working load limit WLL. 42
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS
Eye bolt [DIN 580]
Swivel hoist [CROSBY SS-125M]
DESIGN AIDES
43
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
F
Anchors
F.1
HILTI Anchor Selector
DESIGN AIDES
ANCHORS
45
ANCHORS
46
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DESIGN AIDES
ANCHORS
47
ANCHORS F.2
HILTI concrete anchor approvals
Stud anchor HST
48
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ETA - 98/0001:2013
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Screw anchor HUS 6/8/10/14
DESIGN AIDES
ANCHORS ETA – 08/0307:2013
49
ANCHORS Wedge anchor DBZ 6
50
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ETA – 06/0179:2011
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES F.3
ANCHORS
HALFEN Cast-in channel
HALFEN cast-in channels
DESIGN AIDES
B 13-E
51
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
ANCHORS HTA Product Range and Dimensioning
B 13-E
HR-Q CF HR-Q HR-Q CF HR CF HR CF CF CF
52
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES T-BOLT
DESIGN AIDES
ANCHORS B 13-E
53
ANCHORS
54
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES T-BOLT with nib
DESIGN AIDES
ANCHORS B 13-E
55
ANCHORS F.4
56
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
HILTI Cast-in channels
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
G
FORMULAS
Formulas
G.1 Conversion Sheet Metal Guage
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
4
[in.]
.018
.024
.030
.036
.048
.060
.075
.090
.105
.120
.135
.150
.164
.180
.194 .224
[mm]
.46
.61
.76
.91
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.3
2.7
3
3.4
3.8
4
4.6
4.9
5.7
Fasteners #6
#8
#10
#12
#14
1/4" 5/16"
[in.]
.138
.164
.190
.216
.250
.250 0.313 0.375 0.50 0.625 0.75 0.875 0.938
[mm]
3.5
4.2
4.8
5.5
6.3
Number
DESIGN AIDES
6
8
3/8"
10
1/2"
12
5/8"
16
3/4"
20
7/8"
22
15/16" 1-1/4" 1-3/16"
24
1.063
1.181
27
30
57
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS G.2 Stresses Principal stresses Stresses Type
Action
Von Mises stress
Notes Design stress is typically maximum surface stress (simple loading) or Von Mises stress (complex loading conditions). The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding occurs when the Von Mises, σv stress exceeds the yield strength in tension.
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 1 − σ 3 ) 2
σv =
2
where: σ1, σ2, σ3, are principal stresses
???
σ =
σ xx + σ yy 2
σ xx − σ yy + 2
Glass stress
2
2 + τ xy
Torsional Stress Aircraft Structures J. Perry and J. J. Azar
Torsion of Rectangular cross-section Type
Action
Rectangular section
(J r ) (J r ) τ=
2
Non-linear torsional constant [mm³]
= α 1 bc 2 = α 2 bc 2
T J r T
Torsion stress [N/mm²]
( )
θ= Multiple rectangular sections
1
Notes
Torsional rotation [rad]
β Gbc
(J r )
i
3
Individual torsional constant [mm³]
= α i bi t i 2
4
Individual shear constant [mm ]
K i = β i bi t i 3
(
K = ∑ β i bi t i 3
τi =
T J r
( )
)
Ki K
58
J r
= 1
Individual shear stress
i
T θ= G⋅K Constants
4
Total shear constant [mm ]
Torsional rotation [rad] bc 2 3 2
1+0.6095
3
c c c c + 0.8865 − 1.8023 + 0.91 b b b b
4
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS
G.3 Cross-sectional property formulas Section Properties – Solid Cross Sections Shape Area Centroid Moment of inertia Rectangle A=bd bd 3 Iy = 12 b3 d d y Iz = 12 Triangle
A=
bd 2
z=
d 3
d z
y
Spandrel d
A= n°
y
bd n+1
y
z
Circle
A=
d
πD 2 4
b n+1 d z= n+1 y=
-
Section Modulus bd 2 Zy = 6
Plastic Modulus bd 2 4 b2d Sz = 4 Sy =
b2d 6
Zz =
Iy =
bd 3 36
Iz =
b3 d 36
Iy =
bd 3 (n+1)12
Zy =
bd 2 (n+2)6
Iz =
b3 d (n+1)12
Zz =
b2d (n+2)6
I=
πD 4 64
bd 2 24 b2d Zz = 24 Zy =
Z=
Torsional Inertia/Constant
πD 3 32
Sy =
8bd 2 81
Sz =
8b 2 d 81
S=
J=
D3 6
J=2I= C=
y
Semi-circle
A=
y d
πD 2 8
y=
πD 4 128 I z =0.0069D 4
2d 3π
Iy =
b b5 1 − 0.63 +0.052 5 d d
db 3 3
πD 4 32
2J πD 3 = D 16
πD 3 64 Zz =0.0138D3 Zy =
y
Section Properties – Hollow Cross Sections Shape Area Moment of inertia
RHS
A=BD-(B-2t)(D-2T) T y
t
CHS
A=
π[D 2 -(D-2t) 2 ] 4
BD3 -(B-2t)(D-2T)3 12 3 B D-(B-2t)3 (D-2T) Iz = 12 Iy =
I=
π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 64
t
D
y
Section
Zy =
2I y
D 2I Zz = z B
Z=
2I D
Plastic Modulus
D S y =BT(D-T)+2t -T 2 B Sz =Dt(B-t)+2T -t 2
S=
D3 -(D-2t)3 6
2
2
Torsional Inertia/Constant Error! Reference source not found. 2(B-t) 2 (D-T) 2 t 1 J= (B-t)+(D-T) C=2(B-t)(D-T)t
J=2I= C=
2
π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 3 32
2J π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 3 = D 16D
1
Note: Salmon and Johnson 1980 - resolved and omitting the effect of corner radius. 2 Salmon and Johnson 1980, Seaburg and Carter 1997 - resolved and omitting the effect of corner radius. 3
Stelco 1981, Seaburg and carter 1997
DESIGN AIDES
59
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS
Section Properties – Structural Cross Sections Shape
Area
Centroid
I-beam
A=2BT+(D-2T)t
-
Section Modulus
BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 12 2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 Iz = 12 Iy =
z
T
D
Moment of inertia
y
t
Torsional Inertia/Constant Error! Reference source not found.
Plastic Modulus 2
Zy =
BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 6D
D S y =BT(D-T)+ -T t 2
J=
Zz =
2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 6B
Sz =
B2 T D t 2 + -T 2 2 2
C=
2BT 3 +(D-T)t 3 3
B3 (D-T) 2 T 24
1
2
B
Channel
y=
T
y
D
A=2BT+(D-2T)t
2B2 T+(D-2T)t 2 2 [ BT+(D-2T)t ]
t
A=BT+(D-T)t z
z=
T
Dz
BT 2 +(D+T)(D-T)t 2 [ BT+(D-T)t ]
y
t
Angle w
d
tz y
A=(b+d-t)t z
v y
BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 12
Iz =
2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 B t +2BT -y +(D-2T) y- t 12 2 2
Zy =
D
Zz =
Iz B-y
2
y
Tee
2I y
Iy =
y=
b 2 +(d-t)t 2(b+d-t)
2
z=
T
b
2K 1 α= tan -1 2 Iy-Ix K= 1
bd(b-t)(d-t)t 4(b+d-t) 2
d +(b-t)t 2(b+d-t)
2
BT 3 +t(D-T)3 T D+T +BT z- +(D-T)t z 12 2 2 Iy 2I B3 T+(D-T)t 3 Iz = Zy = Zz = z 12 D-z B Iy =
Iy =
t(d-z)3 +bz 3 -(b-t)(z-t)3 3 3
2
α
2
Iz =
3
t(b-y) +dy -(d-t)(y-t) 3
Zy =
3
Zz =
I v =I y cos 2 α+I z sin 2 α-Ksin2α t t v= z- sinα+ y- cosα I w =I y sin 2 α+I z cos 2 α+Ksin2α 2 2 t t w= z- cosα- y- sinα I y +I z =I v +I w 2 2 3
Iy
2
D S y =BT(D-T)+ -T t 2
J=
t Sz =(B-y) 2 T+2y 2 T+(D-2T) y- t 2
Sz =
Zw =
Iw (b-y)coα-ysinα
3
t 2 B- (D-T) t 2 C= 13
4
3
B 2 T+(D-T)t 2 4
T 3 Dt 3 2 B T 2 C= + 144 36
-
5
t t 3 b- d- t 2 2 ≈ 0 for small t J= 3
Iz (b-y) Iz (d-z)cosα+zsinα
3
3
t T bT 3 +(D-T)t 3 S y =BT z- + (D-z) 2 +(z-T) 2 ≈ 0 for small t J= 2 3 2
(d-z)
Zv =
( 2B-t ) T 3 +(D-T)t 3
t 3 t 3 3 b- + d- t 2 2 C= 36
4
5
Note: Galambos 1968. Galambos 1968, Picard and Beaulieu 1991. SSRC 1998. Galambos 1968 and, SSRC 1998 – simplified. Bleich 1952, Picard and Beaulieu 1991
DESIGN AIDES
61
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS Section Properties – Thin-wall Cross Sections Shape
Area
Centroid
C
A= [ D+2(B-t) ] t
D B2 + -t t 2 y= D+2(B-t)
z
t
t D
y
Moment of inertia
Iy =
Section Modulus Shear Centre
BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2t)3 12 3
Zy =
2I y D
2
3
Zz =
Iz =
(D-2t)t +2B t t B +t(D-2t) y- +2Bt -y 12 2 2
Iy =
BD 3 -(B-2t)(D-2t)3 -t(D-2c)3 12
Iz B-y
e=
3B 2 6B+D
Torsional Inertia/Constant Error! Reference source not found. J=
[ D+2(B-t)] t 3 3 B d t 2+3 B D 12 1+6 B D 3
2
C=
2
y
Lipped C
A= [ D+2(B+c-2t) ] t
z
c
t D
t
D B 2 + -t t+(c-t) ( 2B-t ) 2 y= D+2(B+c-2t)
2I y D
Iz B-y
Zz =
2
Iz =
y
Zy =
e=
2
BD 2 ct 1 B 2c 2 + I y 2 4c 3D 2
(D+2c-4t)t 3 +2B3 t t t B +t(D-2t) y- +2Bt -y +2(c-t)t B-y- 12 2 2 2
J=
[ D+2(B+c-2t)] t 3 3 2
2
C=
B t ( 4c3 +3D2 c-6Dc2 +BD 2 ) -I y e2 6
y
A= [ D+2(B-t) ] t
z
-
BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2t)3 12 (D-t)t 3 +8B3 t Iz = 12
t y
D
t
Z Lipped Z
A= [ D+2(B+c-2t) ] t
-
Iy =
z
t
BD 3 -(B-2t)(D-2t)3 -t(D-2c)3 12 3
y
Iz =
t c
U
Refer to C shape
Zy =
Iy =
3
Zy =
(D+2c-3t)t +8B t t +2(c-t)t B- 12 2
2I y D
2I y D
Zz =
Iz B
-
Zz =
Iz B
-
J=
2
J=
[ D+2(B-t)] t 3 3
[ D+2(B+c-2t)] t 3 3
c +D 2 ( B 2 +2BD+4Bc+6Dc ) 2 2 B 2 t +4c ( 3BD+3D +4Bc+2Dc ) C= 12 2B+D+2c 2
(interchange y and z axes)
y
z t
Omega D
y
z t
62
A= [ B+2(D+c-2t) ] t
t
z
B D 2 + -t t+(c-t) ( 2D-t ) 2 z= B+2(D+c-2t)
2 2 2 [ B+2(D+c-2t)] t 3 (B+2c-4t)t 3 +2D 3 t t t D +t(B-2t) y- +2Dt -y +2(c-t)t D-y- J= 12 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 I D t B D+t(B+2c-2t) -(D-t)(B-2t) Iz B Dct 1 D 2 c y 3 2 2 2 2 Iz = Zy = e= Z = + C= 6 ( 4c +3B c-6Bc +B D ) -I y e 12 D-z z B I y 2 4c 3 B 2 +c-t 2
Iy =
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS
G.4 Beam formulas Simple beam formulas Case
Moment PL M max = 4
M max =
Deflection PL3 δ max = 48 ( EI )
Pab L
M max = Pa
when n is odd: PL(n 2 − 1) M max = 8n when n is even: nPL M max = 8 M1 = M2 =
[ P1 (L − a)+P2 c] a
Reactions R1 = R 2 =
δ max =
Pab(L+b) 3a ( L + b) 27 ( EI ) L
δ max =
Pa ( 3L2 -4a 2 ) 24 ( EI )
when n is odd: PL3 1 1 1 δ max = n − 3 − 1 − 2 192 ( EI ) n 2 n
R1 =
L [ P2 (L − c)+P1a ] a
M max =
L
M max =
wL 8
w ( 3L2 -4a 2 ) 24
M max = 0.06415wL2 @ x = 0.5774L
Pb Pa ; R2 = L L
R1 = R 2 = P
when n is even: PL3 1 4 δ max = n 3 − 1 + 192 ( EI ) 2 n 2 -
2
R1 = R 2 =
P1 (L-a)+P2 c L P2 (L-c)+P1a R2 = L
5wL4 384 ( EI )
R1 = R 2 =
δ max =
2 4 wL4 a a 25-40 +16 1920 ( EI ) L L
R1 = R 2 =
wL4 ( EI )
(n − 1)P 2
R1 =
δ max =
δ max = 0.00652
P 2
R1 =
wL 2 w ( L-a ) 2
wL wL R2 = 6 3
@ x = 0.5193L 2
M max =
wL 12
wa 2 2 2L-a ) 2 ( 8L a @x= ( 2L-a ) 2L M max =
δ1
δ2
0≤x≤a
a ≤ x ≤ (a+b)
δ1
δ2
0≤x≤a
a ≤ x ≤ (a+b)
δ1 =
2 2 wx a ( 2L-a ) 24 ( EI ) L -2ax 2 (2L-a)+Lx 3
δ2 =
wa 2 ( L − x ) 4Lx-2x 2 -a 2 24 ( EI ) L
R1 = R 2 =
wL 4
wa ( 2L-a ) 2L wa 2 R2 = 2L R1 =
4aL wb ( b+2c ) x 2a ( 2L-a ) +b(b+2c)-2x 2 wb wb ( 2c+b ) R1 = δ = ( 2c+b ) 1 +b 2c+b ( ) 2L 24 EI L ( ) M max = 8L2 b ( b+2c ) x 2a(2L-a) 4 w ( x-a ) + b 2 @ x = a+ 2c+b ( ) L wb ( 2a+b ) +b(b+2c)-2x 2L R2 = δ2 = 2L 24 ( EI )
M max =
10wL2 96
δ max =
Ma = +
Moa M b Mb = - o L L
δx =
M = Mo
DESIGN AIDES
wL4 120 ( EI )
δ max =
4wL4 384 ( EI )
M o 3a 2 x3 − 2L x − 6a − 6 ( EI ) L L
δ max =
M o L2 8 ( EI )
R1 = R 2 =
R1 = +
wL 3
Mo M R2 = - o L L
-
63
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS Fixed-end beam formulas Case Moment PL M max = M A = M B = 8 PL M centre = 8
B
A
L/2
L/2
Pab 2 max. when a < b L2 Pa 2 b M B = - 2 max. when a > b L 2Pa 2 b 2 @ point of load MP = L3 MA = -
B
A
a
b
MA = MB = A
B
a
MP =
a L
Pa(L − a) L
MA = MB = -
PL(n 2 − 1) 12n
B L n
L n
L n
L n
L n
B
M centre =
L
MA = B
A
L/2 L
MA = B
5wL2 192
2aL , for a > b 3a+b
δP =
Pb 2 (3a+b) L3 Pa 2 R B = 3 (3b+a) L
Pa 3 b 3 @ point of load 3 ( EI ) L3
δ max =
2 3 PL3 a a 3 − 4 24 ( EI ) L L
RA = RB = P
when n is odd: PL3 1 1 1 δ max = n − 1 − 1 − 2 192 ( EI ) n 2 n
δ max =
wL4 384 ( EI )
RA = RB =
wL 2
wx 2 2 (L − x ) 24 ( EI )
δ centre =
wL4 768 ( EI )
RA =
δ centre =
wL4 768 ( EI )
RA =
7wL4 3840 ( EI )
RA = RB =
wL 4
RA = RB =
wL 3
wL 8 3wL RB = 8 wL 6 wL RB = 3
wL2 20
MA = MB = -
5wL2 96
δ centre =
MA = MB = -
wL2 15
δ max =
B
L/2
@x=
P 2
RA =
11wL2 192
wL2 30
w A
2Pa 3 b 2 3 ( EI ) (3a+b) 2
δ=
M max = M B = -
L
wL2 12
wL2 24
M max = M B = -
A
RA = RB =
when n is even: PL3 1 4 1 δ max = 3 − 1+ n − 2 n − 192 ( EI ) 2 n 2 n M max = M A = M B = -
A
Reactions
δ max =
Pa 2 @ point of load L
(n-1) forces
A
Deflection PL3 δ max = 192 ( EI )
L/2 L
B
A
3wL2 80 Mb 3a Ma 3b MA = -1 M B = -1 L L L L
2wL4 384 ( EI )
M centre = M B
A
a
2 a a a M A ' = M 1 − 1 − 3 +6 L L L
b L
∆
A B
L
64
6(EI)∆ L2 6(EI)∆ MB = L2 MA = -
δM
a ML2 L =
2
a 1 − L 2(EI)
2
M A -M A ' 2a 1 − R A = R B = a L
@ load -
12(EI)∆ L 12(EI)∆ RB = L RA =
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Cantilever beam formulas Case Moment M max = PL θ
FORMULAS
Deflection & rotation PL3 PL2 δ= θ= 3 ( EI ) 2 ( EI )
δ
Reactions R=P
L
M max = Pa θ
δ=
Pa 2 PL2 ( 3L-a ) θ = 6 ( EI ) 2 ( EI )
R=P
δ
a
M max =
wL2 2
δ=
wL4 wL3 θ= 8 ( EI ) 6 ( EI )
R = wL
M max =
wa 2 2
δ=
wa 4 4b 1+ 8 ( EI ) 3a
R = wa
wa ( 8a 3 +18a 2 b+12ab 2 +3b 3 )
R = wb
δ
θ L
δ a
b
δ a
b M max = wa a+ 2
δ=
b M max = wa a+ 2
δ=
24 ( EI )
b L
δ a
b
wa ( 8a 3 +18a 2 b+12ab 2 +3b 3 +12a 2 c+12abc+4b 2 c ) 24 ( EI )
c
R = wb 2
θ
4
3
M max =
wL 6
δ=
wL wL θ= 30 ( EI ) 24 ( EI )
R=
wL 2
M max =
wa 2 3
δ=
wa 4 5b 1+ 15 ( EI ) 4a
R=
wa 2
M max =
2wL2 3
δ=
11wL4 60 ( EI )
R=
wL 2
R=
wb 2
δ
L
δ a
b
δ
δ a
2b M max = wb a+ 3
δ=
wb ( 20a 3 +50a 2 b+40ab 2 +11b 3 ) 60 ( EI )
b
M θ
M max = M
δ=
ML2 ML θ= 2 ( EI ) ( EI )
R=
M L
δ=
Ma 2 2b 1+ 2 ( EI ) a
R=
M a
δ
L
M max = M δ a
Note: δ =
b
ML2 ML & θ= where M = moment at support and n = degree of moment curve. n+2 ( EI ) n+1 ( EI )
DESIGN AIDES
65
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS Propped cantilever beam formulas Case Moment
Deflection
M max- = M A = A
B
L/2
M max + =
L/2
B
a
δ max = 0.009317
Pab (b+L) 2L2
δ centre =
M max- = M A = B
M max + =
L
MA = C
A
a
B
2
δ max =
L
MA = C
a
B
b
A
B
b
3
3 ( EI ) ( 3L2 − b 2 )
δ max =
2
,@x=
a 2− L
2
δC =
wb 2 b 2− 8 L
2
δC =
wL4 , @ x = 0.4215L 185 ( EI )
wa 4 ( 6 − 12p+7p 2 − p3 ) 48 ( EI )
wL4 q 3 ( −q 4 +9q 2 − 14q+6 ) 48 ( EI )
B
wL2 15
δ max =
B
A
7wL2 120
δ max =
0.003wL4 , @ x = 0.598L ( EI )
wa 2 ( 3a 2 − 15aL+20L2 ) 120L2 w 3 Mx = RBx − (x − b) 6a MA = -
B
a
b
M max @ x = b+
B
66
b
wap 2 (4 − p) 8
M wb ( 2c+b ) + A 2L L MA wb RB = ( 2a+b ) − 2L L 2wL RA = 5 wL RB = 10 9wL 40 11wL RB = 40 RA =
RA =
2 wa a ( 5L − a ) 1 − 2 20L3
RB =
wa 3 ( 5L − a ) 40L3
RA =
wb − RB 2
a2 a 1− 2L 5L
wb 2 (10L2 − 3b 2 ) 120L2 w 3 M x = R A x+M A − ( x − a ) 6b MA = -
A
RB =
wbq (6 − q2 ) 8 wb 3 RB = ( q − 6q+8 ) 8
0.00235wL4 , @ x = 0.447L ( EI )
M max = 0.0423wL2 @ x = 0.67L
A
wa 8 − p 2 ( 4 − p ) 8
RA =
M max = 0.0298wL2 @ x = 0.447L
MA = -
RA =
RA =
c
A
a
3wL 8 5wL RB = 8 RA =
wb 2 ( 6q − q3 − 4 ) 8 b where: q = L w M A = - 2 ( d 2 − c 2 )( 2L2 − c 2 − d 2 ) 8L
MA = -
Pa 2 (b+2L) 2L3 Pb RB = (3L3 − b 2 ) 3 2L RA =
3L2 − b 2
9wL2 3 ,@x= L 128 8
wa 2 8
Reactions 5P RA = 16 11P RB = 16
2L ( L2 − b 2 )
MC =
L
a
wL2 8
Pb ( L2 − b 2 )
2 2 a wa 2 8 − p (4 − p) MC = +4 − p ( 4 − p ) where: p = L 8 16
b
A
7PL3 768 ( EI )
when a < 0.586 L:
δ max =
A
PL , @ x = 0.447L ( EI )
Pa b b b , @x=L 1 − Pa b 6 ( EI ) 3L - a 3L-a = (b+2L) @ load 2L3 when a > 0.586 L: 2
M max+
b
3PL 16
5PL @ centre 32
M max- = M A = A
3
RB =
w L4 (11L − 15a ) +a4 ( 5L − a ) 40bL3
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Beam with one side over-hang Case Moment M max = A
C
B
Deflection
Pb ( L − b ) L
a
δC = −
C
B
L
MB = − A
C
B
L
9 3 ( EI )
wa 2 2
δC =
w
2
L2 − b 2 3
@x=
Pa 2 ( L+a ) 3 ( EI )
PaL2 9 3 ( EI )
B
RB =
RA =
@x=
L
RB =
Pb L P (L − b)
L Pb L P (L − b)
L
3
waL3 3p 3 + 4p 2 − 1 24 ( EI )
RA = RB =
2
L
3
RA =
a p= L
a
A
Pb ( L2 − b 2 )
δ max+ =
a
Reactions
Pab b2 2L+ − 3b 6 ( EI ) L
δ max+ = M B = − Pa
A
δC = −
@ load
b L
FORMULAS
3
w ( L+a )( L − a ) 2L 2 w ( L+a ) 2L
4
M max =
wL 8
δC = −
waL 5wL ; δ max+ = 24 ( EI ) 384 ( EI )
RA = RB =
MB = −
wa 2 2
δC = −
wa 3 ( 4L+3a ) 24 ( EI )
RA = −
wL 2
a
A
C
B
δ max- = − Pa 2 M B = − Pa MA = A
B
C
Pa 2 M B = − Pa MA =
A
B
C
D
where: p =
A
B
L
b
L
C
D
a
b
3
δC =
PL3 a 2 a3 + ( EI ) 4L2 3L3
δC =
PL3 ( 4p 2 +6pq+3p+3q ) 12 ( EI )
δ max+ =
PaL2 L @x= 27 ( EI ) 3
B
C
a
L
M
5 3p 2 R A = wL − 4 8
MB = −
wa 2 2
δx =
wL4 2n 4 + ( 6p 2 − 5 ) n 3 − ( 6p 2 − 3 ) n 2 48 ( EI )
3p 2 3 R B = wL +p+ 4 8
x L
wa 2 4 wa 2 MB = − 2
δ max+ @ x = 15 − 18p 2 − 324p 4 − 156p 2 +33 δC =
wL4 p 2 ( 8p+6 ) q+6p 3 ( p+1) 48 ( EI )
δ max- = −
wL4 p 2 54 ( EI )
wa 2 12 wa 2 MB = − 6 M 2 MB = − M MA =
B
A
L
DESIGN AIDES
a
C
D
b
3Pa 2L 3a R B = P 1 + 2L RA = −
wL4 ( 8p 3 +6p 2 − 1) ( p+q ) − 2p 4 48 ( EI )
3wa 2 4L 3a R B = wa 1 + 4L RA = −
wa 2 4L wa a RB = 1 + 2 2L RA = −
MA = A
3a R A = − P 1 + 2L 3Pa RB = 2L
δC =
MA = B
L
w 2 ( L − 2a 2 ) 8
where: n =
A
18 3 ( EI )
@x=
MA = − D
a
a b ; q= L L
wa 2 L2
wa 2 2L wa RB = ( 2L+a ) 2L
δC =
M 4b L ( a+b ) +a 2 2+ 4 ( EI ) a
δ max- = -
ML2 L @x= 27 ( EI ) 3
3Pa 2L 3a R B = P 1 + 2L RA = −
67
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS Continuous beam formulas Case Moment / Deflection A
B
L/2
L/2
C
L/2
L
L/3
A
L/3
C
L/3
B
L/2
6PL 5PL ; MP = @ load 32 32
RA = RC =
5P 11P ; RB = 16 8
M max = M B = -
PL 2PL ; M P1 = @ first load 3 9
RA = RC =
2P 8P ; RB = 3 3
L/2
B
L/3
M max = M B = -
L
A
L/3
L/3
C
MB = −
3PL 13PL @ load M max = 32 64
L/2 L
L
A
B
a
δ max- = −
C
M max
B
L
C
Pab ( L+a ) 4L2 Pab = 4L2 − a ( L+a ) 4L2
M max = M B = −
L
δ max = 0.00541
A
B
C
MB = −
More continuous beam formulas Three equal spans
68
RA =
13P 11P 3P ; RB = ; RC = − 32 16 32
0.96PL3 @ x = 0.48L 64 ( EI )
Pb 4L2 − a ( L+a ) 4L3 Pa Pab 2L2 +b ( L+a ) ; R C = − 3 ( L+a ) RB = 2L3 4L
MB = −
b
A
Reactions
RA =
wL2 9wL2 ; M max+ = 8 128
wL4 @ x = 0.4215L ( EI )
wL2 49wL2 7L ; M max+ = @x= 16 512 16
RA = RC =
RA =
3wL 5wL ; RB = 4 8
7wL 5wL wL ; RB = ; RC = − 16 8 16
Four equal spans
DESIGN AIDES
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS
G.5 Arc formulas Circular arc formulas Diagram
Distance Ratio, N
Included angle, θ
B L
A
sin θ =
L R
cos θ = 1 –
Distance at tangent, L
Y
R
2RQ
R 2 ( N + 0.25 )
Radius, R
C N + 0.5
2Q ( N + 0.5 )
θ
R
Versine or middle ordinate, V
Approximate formulas for R > 5·x’: R y'
α≈
R–
1 4R 2 – C2 2
External distance, W
N 2 + 0.25 R – 1 N
A
QC L
B
R N
α
Ordinate at any point, Y x'2 2R
V–R+
C2 2R
R 2 – L2 R
C 2Q
2RQ – Q 2
L 2N 2
L2 + Q 2Q
R – CN
C L
R–
2
tan θ =
L 2
R – L2
69
R 2 – L2
C 2 – L2
C2 V + 8V 2
R 1 –
for
R C2 >5: V ≈ C 8R
for
R >5: W ≈ V C
for
R >5: A ≈ 4V C
L+
R 2 – X2
C2 – Q2
L N 2 + 0.25 N
2
x' R
DESIGN AIDES
cos θ =
R 2 – L2 2L
L2 + Q 2
2QN
RN N + 0.5
Offset from tangent, Q
C
y' ≈
V 2R
R+
R × θ (radians)
2
R > 5·x'
R2 – 0.25 C2
N + 0.25
X
R
L 2Q
2
V
θ 2
R – 0.25 2Q
Chord length, C
Q
W
Arc length, S
Expression
Q L
2 N + 0.25
N
2
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
FORMULAS
G.6 Cable structures Properties of cable materials Material
Young’s modulus, E 2 [N/mm ]
SCI Steel detailers manual Table 5.1 Ultimate tensile strength, Fu 2 [N/mm ]
Solid steel
210 000
400 - 2000
Strand
150 000
2000
Wire rope
112 000
2000
7 500
910
112 000
2800
Polyester fibres Aramid fibres
SCI Steel detailers manual 5.3.2.1
Elementary cable mathematics Mode Circular arc loaded radially
Catenary loaded vertically
Values
Tension [kN]
T = PR S2 d R = + 8d 2
Radius of cable [m]
WS 2 8d WS V = 2 H =
T =
Prestressed cable*
Notes
H 2 +V 2
Solve “T“ by iteration: T − T0 2T SW = sin −1 EA SW 2T
−1
S L = 2 R sin −1 2R (L− S) ε= S T = T0 + ε AE R= T W
Solve “d” by iteration: 4d 2 − 8 Rd + S 2 = 0
Note: *The straight cable (or flat fabric) is a special problem. To be straight, the cable must have an initial or prestress tension and theoretically zero weight. In order to carry load the cable must stretch and sag to a radius R.
DESIGN AIDES
71
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