21. CHAPTER - 21 Safety in Textile Industry

CHAPTER - 21

Safety in Textile Industry THEME 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Need of Safety in Textile Industry Types of Textile Industry Statutory Provisions : 3.1 General 3.2 Health Provisions 3.3 Safety Provisions 3.4 Welfare Provisions 3.5 Cotton Ginning & Pressing Factories Act & Rules Indian Standards Flowcharts of Textile Processes : 5.1 Composite Flowchart 5.2 Other Flowcharts Short & long Staple, Viscose

6.6 Ring (Spinning) Frames 6.7 Doubling Machines 6.8 Rotor Spinning 7. Hazards and Safety Precautions of Weaving Preparatory and Weaving Processes : 7.1 Winding Machines 7.2 Warping Machines 7.3 Sizing Machines 7.4 Looms 8. Hazards and Safety Precautions of Processing (Finishing) and Folding Machines : 8.1 General Precautions 8.2 Bleaching Process 8.3 Processing Machines (Dyeing, Printing etc.) 9. Fire & Explosion Hazards and Controls 10. Health Hazards and Controls : Cotton dust, Heat & Humidity, Noise and other Hazards 10.1 Health Hazards in Cotton Textile Industry 10.2 Health Hazards in Other Textile Industry 11. Effluent Treatment and Waste Disposal in Textile Industry

rayon, Synthetic fibre, Spun & Filament Yarn, Jute Hazards and Safety Precautions of Spinning Preparatory and Spinning Processes : 6.1 Opening and Blow Room Machines 6.2 Carding Machines 6.3 Sliver and Ribbon Lap Machines 6.4 Combers and Drawing Frames 6.5 Roving (Speed) Frames 6.

1 NEED OF SAFETY IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY

becoming sick in market competition. Yet it is a fact that the old textile machines are still in use in some mills. From safety point of view, such old and poorly guarded (and without built-in safety) machinery needs more attention. Indian textile industry is the oldest one in the world. Cotton was invented and planted by ‘Grutsmad’ Rushi some 20,000 years ago. Yarn and threads were manufactured by hands and cloth was woven by hand looms. A reference is published that a ginning machine made in India was sent to England. Dhaka’s ‘malmal’ (the thinnest and lightest cloth) was famous. British rulers cut off the palms and fingers of Indian weavers so that they cannot compete with cloth from England. Dyeing by natural colours was

Clothing is the basic need for all of us and with the modernisation a want of more and more attractive (durable, shining, anti-crease and colourful) fabrics is increasing day by day. Therefore the foundation of textile industry is very old, ever changing and ever lasting. The continuous blow room line, replacement of mule spinning by ring spinning, rotor spinning, high speed shuttle-less and workerless looms and computerised processing machinery has rapidly changed the structure of textile industry and the mills not following such modernisation and automation are

1

also in use. Old Indian garments were white and colourful. The textile mills established during 19th century in Lancashire and in New England initiated the Industrial Revolution and their cotton fabrics dominated the world markets for many years. Indian textile mill industry is also as old as the first Indian Factories Act 1881 and Gujarat is still leading in textile industries. Man made synthetic fibres such as polyamides and polyester are now blended with cotton and a trend of such artificial fabrics is increasing. In 1979 there were 19728 cotton textile factories working with 1147000 workers and 3244 wool, silk and synthetic fibre factories working with 179000 workers out of total 135173 working factories with total workers 6797000 in India. This gives 10.33% textile (cotton and others) factories and 19.50% textile workers. In 1999 estimated registered textile factories in India and Gujarat were @16000 and 4000 respectively. Similarly estimated textile workers in India and Gujarat were @14 lakhs and 3.0 lakhs respectively. Table 5.16 of Chapter-5 gives following figures of textile factories in Gujarat as on 30-6-1998. NIC Code 23 24 25 26 Total

Working Factories 1181 1754 16 299 3250

Therefore in want of correct and latest statistics, it seems difficult to figure out total textile factories and textile workers. Table 5.6 (Chapter-5) gives following figures for textile industry in India for the year 1992 : Accidents Incidence Rate Frequency Rate

Fatal 67, Nonfatal 33047, total 33114 Fatal 0.02, Nonfatal 8.55 Fatal 0.03, Nonfatal 14.80

Table 5.19 gives following figures for textile accidents in Gujarat : Type of Accidents Fatal Nonfatal Total Percent of total textile & non-textile fatal & nonfatal accidents

199 6 32 3978 4010 35.6 2

199 7 36 6967 7003 58.0 2

Thus total textile accidents occupy nearly 35 to 55% of all industry accidents in Gujarat. This indicates high need to control textile accidents. US incidence rates for the year 1995, of some textile processes are as under :

Average Workers 120527 89950 505 14884 225866

This indicates there was 16.43% textile factories (cotton, man-made fibres, wool, silk, jute and textile products) and 25.93% textile workers in these factories in Gujarat in 1998. Any estimate of unregistered textile factories is vague. Most of such weaving and texturising units employing less than 10 workers are many times more than the registered weaving factories. For example, against 100 registered factories, an estimate runs up to 10,000 unregistered (partitioned) establishments.

Carpets & rugs Knitting mills

10. 0 8.2

Manmade fabric mills Textile finishing

6.1 7.8

Yarn & thread mills Wool fabric mills Cotton fabric mills Misc textile goods

9.1 7.5 5.8 12.0

Comparing with all manufacturing incidence rate 11.6, it indicates little higher proportion of accidents in textile industry in USA (Accidents Facts, 1997, NSC). A case study of one good composite textile mill employing @3500 workers indicates following figures : Year Total

2

1984 281

1985 343

1986 368

accidents Due to unsafe conditions Due to unsafe actions Mandays lost Frequency Severity Rate

135 (48%)

161 (47%)

156 (42%)

146 (52%)

182 (53%)

212 (58%)

2100

7276

3995

32.78 245.04

40.25 849.0

45.04 466.1 6

Another case study of 2100 accidents in 10 composite mills, carried out by the Central Labour Institute, Bombay gives following figures : Department 1 Spinning Preparatory & Spinning 2 Weaving Preparatory & Weaving 3 Finishing & other Departments Total

The department wise accidents in above study give following figures for the year 1986. 1 Weavin g

11 1

6 Bleaching, Finishing Lab etc. 7 Dyeing

23

2 Enginee ring 3 Contrac t Workers 4 Spinnin g 5 Printing

51 65

8 Folding, Store, Office

15

53

Total

Agency 1 Looms 2 Ring Frames 3 Other Machines 4 Material Handling 5 Working Conditions 6 Hand Tools 7 Hand Trucks and Transport Equipment 8 Chemicals 9 Others Total

22

368

28

10 3

6 Fall from height

24

48

7 Burn by hot substance, chemicals etc. 8 Cut by bobbin shields

16

9 Others

72

34

30

27

Total

Percent 35.2

1019

48.6

343

16.2

2100

100

Agency distribution is as follows :

The causation wise accidents in above study gives following figures for the year 1986 : 1 Striking against objects 2 Struck by falling bodies 3 Cut by sharp edges, knife, tools etc. 4 Caught betwee n objects 5 Flying shuttles

Accidents 738

Accidents 617 321 335

Percent 29.4 15.3 15.9

228

10.9

202

9.6

176 121

8.4 5.8

34 66 2100

1.6 3.1 100

Above statistics ascertains that the textile industry is one of the biggest industries in India employing more than 20% of total labour force and contributing more than 50% of total industrial accidents thus highlighting the great need of safety and accident prevention in this industry. Heavy and numerous machineries, health hazards including machine accidents, shuttle flying, cut by bobbin shield, byssionosis, heat stress, humidity, high noise, fire hazards and higher number of employment also stress for the higher need of safety. Almost 50% accidents occurring in textile industry are due to unsafe conditions. Therefore machine guarding

14

368

3

and other safety conditions need much attention. The latest design of textile machinery having built-in safety, dust suction device and computer controls has eliminated many hazards of old machinery.

Asbestos Amphiboles, Actinolite, Amosite, Anthophyllite, Crocidolite, Tremolite, Serpentine, Chrysotile

2 TYPES OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Wollastonite Zeolite, Sepiolite, Attapulgite

Cotton being the natural and old product, light, easily compressible, transportable and most suitable for human body (particularly for hot days), cotton textile is pioneering and oldest industry. But with inventions of new fibres, natural and synthetic, it has, now, become a mixed industry. The industry includes the spinning, weaving, knitting and finishing of all types of natural, synthetic and artificial fibres. The machines vary from handlooms of cottage industry to very expensive and intricate modern machines. Some are only spinning mills, weaving units or dyeing and finishing houses while some are composite textile mills carrying out all operations at one place. A classification of various types of the fibres is as follows :

Manmade Fibres Artificial Fibres (Natural Polymer) Viscose rayon (artificial silk) Cupra rayon, Staple fibre

and

Cellulose ester Cellulose triacetate

acetate,

Cellulose

Protein fibres from milk, seaweed, maize-soya groundnuts Glass & Chemical fibres

Fibres

Glass fibres made from borosilicate or calcio alumina silicate glass (Glass wool)

Natural Fibres

Synthetic Fibres (Petrochemical Origin) Polyamides (Nylon), Polyesters Polyolefins (Courlene), Polypropylenes Polyurethanes (Spendex fibres)

Vegetable Origin Cotton, From Kapok, Coir

Filament

Seeds

&

Fruit,

Jute, From Bast, Flex, Hemp, Ramile, Sisal

Polyvinyl derivatives (Acrylic Fibres)

From Leaf

Polyacrylonitrile, Polyvinyl chloride, Polyvinylidene chloride, Polyvinyl alcohol, Polytetrafluoro ethylene & related polymers (Teflon), Polyvinylidene dinitrile, Polystyrene and Miscellaneous.

Animal Origin Wool, alpaca, mohair, goat, camel hair Silk & other filament

All these fibres are used for various purposes such as garments, protective

Mineral Origin

4

wears, ropes, carpets etc. They are the raw materials for various types of textile industries.

interlocking of the exhaust fan with main drive of the machine, thermostats to regulate temperature, explosion doors (flaps) to let off the fumes outside the workroom, weekly cleaning of filter gauge and exhaust dust, checking of V-belt tension, examination and a register therefore. See Part 3.3 for more details. Rule 68D for thermic fluid heaters used to circulate hot oil in stenter and other drying machines, prescribes many provisions. See Part 10 of Chapter-18 for details. For Rule 68G, GFR, for Oven & Driers, see Part 27 of Chapter-23. For Sch. 12 & 19 u/r 102, GFR, for chemical works, see Part 11 of Chapter23 and for Sch. 23 u/r 102, for high noise, see Part 4 of Chapter-12. Chapter-3 (Health), 4(Safety), 5(Welfare), 6(Working hours), 7(Employment of young persons) and 8(Annual leave with wages) of the Factories Act are mostly applicable to textile factories as they are applicable to other factories. Some relevant provisions of the Factories Act & Rules applicable to textile industry are mentioned below in brief.

3 STATUTORY PROVISIONS 3.1

General :

Section 15 (Artificial humidification), 27 (Cotton openers) and 31 (Pressure plant) of the Factories Act are generally applicable to textile plants. The Gujarat Factories Rules has made some specific provisions by Sch. I & II under rule 54 and also under rule 68C & D, and Sch. 12, 23 & 27 u/r 102. The statutory requirements are individual machine drive, belt shifting devices, inter locked covers for beaters, card cylinders, headstocks and dangerous parts, fixed fencing for dust chamber, beater grid bars, guards for lap and fluted rollers, nip guards for calendering machines etc., and a wall fencing with locked doors for the underground line shafts of ginning factories. More details are provided by a substituted Schedule I under rule 54 of the Gujarat Factories (Amendment) Rules 1995. This schedule defines calendar, card, comber, combing machinery, rotary staple cutter, garnet machine, gill box, inrunning rolls, interlocking arrangement, kier, ribbon lapper, sliver lapper, loom, starch mangle, water mangle, mule, nip, openers and pickers, paddler, plating machine, roller printing machine, continuous bleaching range, mercerizing range, sanforizing machine, shearing machine, singeing machine, slasher, stenter frame and warper. Safety requirements for these machines and other machines such as centrifugal extractors, rope washers, laundry washer, printing machines, plating machines, baling machines and flat work ironer are also prescribed. For details of Sch I & II u/r 54, see Part 5.4 of Chapter-14. Rule 68C for polymerising or curing machine (fixing print by emulsion technique), requires thoroughly drying of printed fabrics, exhaust flap or damper, cutting off electrical heaters in emergency or solvent dropping,

3.2

Health Provisions :

Cleanliness (removal of cotton dust from work area), disposal of waste and effluent from dyeing and printing processes, good ventilation, temperature and lighting, removal of dust and fume from dusty and heating area, artificial humidification required for cotton fibre strength, drinking water, latrines and urinals and spittoons are applicable health provisions under Chapter-3 of the Factories Act. Artificial Humidification : Section 15 of the Factories Act requires that water to be used to increase humidity of air artificially (mostly in spinning department) should be clean and from a source of drinking water. Rules 19 to 29 prescribed u/s 15, require other details as under :

5

1. Artificial humidification is not allowed in spinning or weaving factory when room temperature exceeds 29.50C (850F) or when wet bulb reading of the hygrometer is higher than that specified in the schedule u/r 19 in relation to the dry bulb reading of the hygrometer at that time. 2. Provision of hygrometer. 3. Copy of schedule u/r 19 to be affixed near every hygrometer. 4. Temperature to be recorded in humidity register (Form No.6) at each hygrometer. 5. Specifications of hygrometer. 6. Thermometer to be maintained in efficient order. 7. Inaccurate thermometer not to be used without fresh certificate. 8. Hygrometer not to be affixed to wall etc. unless protected by wood. 9. No reading to be taken within 15 minutes of renewal of water. 10. Method of introducing steam for humidification (pipe dia < 2.5 cm , pressure < 5 Kg/cm2 , jet projection < 11.5 cm , insulation thickness > 13 mm.)

partition, they can be employed on feedend side. This is due to the risk of more flying cotton dust on delivery side and hitinjury when any revolving beater breaks or any solid material is thrown out on delivery side. Hoist, lift and lifting machine provisions are applicable to those machines. Section 30 on revolving machinery is applicable to hydroextractor to remove water from wet fabric. The top cover of the revolving basket should be interlocked and safe working peripheral speed should not be exceeded. Section 31 and rule 61 are most important for all pressure vessels to be used in a textile industry. Jet dyeing or beam dyeing vessels, ager, kier, drum washers, cooking-pans, drying cylinders, drying range, sizing cylinders, air receiver tanks etc. are all subject of this provision. Their design, construction, use and maintenance must be safe. They must be tested by a competent person periodically. Their safety devices like safety valve, pressure gauge, stop valve, drain valve and PRV or pressure regulator must be provided and maintained in a safe working condition. Steam traps and vacuum breakers are also essential. Precautions against toxic or flammable gas and fire are also applicable to textile processes using solvent (eg. blancket cleaning) and cotton godowns. Schedules I & II for detailed machine guarding u/r 54 are summarised in Part 5.4 of Chapter 14. Rule 68C, GFR, provides following safety precautions for Polymerising and Curing Machines :

Byssionosis is included in the third schedule of the Act as an occupational disease due to cotton dust exposures to workers. It is reportable u/s 89. For details see Part 10 of this chapter. For monitoring and control of ‘cotton dust’ (TLV ), new schedule 27 is u/r 102 is added in GFR vide Notification dated . It requires – * Add 1. 2. 3. 4.

3.3

1. Printed fabrics shall be thoroughly dried before feeding to such machines (to allow less solvent in the m/c). 2. 2/3 portion of the exhaust damper/flap should always be open. 3. Infrared ray heaters shall be cut off while running the prints. 4. Electrical heater should have separate circuit and switch to isolate it at the time of emergency. 5. Leakage of solvent should not come in contact with the heaters.

Safety Provisions:

Section 21 regarding general machine guarding is application to all textile machines. Section 27 prohibits employment of woman or child in a cotton press room where a cotton opener works. If feed-end of a cotton-opener is separated by full

6

6. Exhaust fan drive should be interlocked with main drive of the machine so that when exhaust motor stops, the machine (with heating device) should also stop. (Exhaust fan should start first before the fabric moves into the chamber). 7. Thermostat to regulate the temperature of the heater, not allowing it to go beyond the preset value. 8. Explosion flaps to be provided at top to let off the fumes in case of explosion. 9. Filter gauge and exhaust duct should be cleaned weekly. Vee-belt tension should be checked weekly. 10. Trained supervisor to examine the machine. A register to be maintained to enter all checks.

required depending on number of workers employed. Rules 68R to W of the Gujarat Factories Rules regarding health records, qualified supervisors, medical examination, occupational health centre, ambulance van and safety showers are applicable to hazardous processes in man-made fibre textile industry.

3.5 Cotton Ginning and Pressing Factories Act and Rules : This old Act and Rules are applicable to cotton ginning and pressing factories. See Part 6 of Chapter-27 for details.

4 INDIAN STANDARDS

When thermic fluid heaters are used to circulate hot oil instead of steam in textile machines (eg. stenter for cloth drying) rule 68D, GFR, is applicable. See part 10 of Chapter-18 for details. Rule 68E, requires suitable ladders, crawling board and work permit to prevent fall from fragile roofs. Rule 102, Sch. 23 requires ear protection for noise level above 90 dBA, and auditory examination every year. Weavers are mostly exposed to high noise. Sch. 27 requires protection from cotton dust. Man-made Fibre (Cellulosic and non-cellulosic) industry is listed in the First Schedule of the Act as a hazardous industry. Therefore while manufacturing such synthetic fibre, Chapter 4A of the Act and rules 68K to N, P and Q of the Gujarat Factories Rules are applicable. These provisions may be referred in statute books for details. Then Schedule 19 u/r 102 also becomes applicable for chemical work. Schedule 12 u/r 102 is applicable where acids or alkalis are used.

3.4

From a variety of IS on textile machinery, some are given below : Textile motors 2972 (Part I for loom motors, Part II for card motors, Part III for spinning frame motors), Code for fire safety in cotton textile mills 3079, rings for spinning and doubling frames 3078, 6317, ring doubling and twisting frames 5938, 7614, ring frame, warp spindle 3698, tin rollers 838, metal travellers 3523, shaft bottom for cotton looms 833, shuttle blocks for automatic looms 9280, 9287, shuttles-classification of terms 8684, spinning frames-bottom rollers 2510, spindles 3934, top roller 3176, machinery nomenclature 6068, methods for identification of application classes of dyes on textile materials 4472 (Part I for cotton and cellulosic fibres, Part II for wool, silk and protein fibres, Part III for man-made fibres), natural fibres 2364, drafting in spinning machinery 4474, finishing machines, nominal widths 7952, treatment and disposal of effluents 9508, tolerance limits for effluents 2490 (Part 1 to 10), water for quality tolerances 201, twisting machinery 6068, warp bobbins 1724, warper’s beams 9292, warp stop motion 3683, warp ring frame 3698, weavers beams 3165, weaving looms and preparatory machines 3199, weft pirns for shuttles 3265, winders-cone and cheese 8567, pirn 8568, winding rollers for finishing machines 8304, wooden bobbins

Welfare Provisions :

Chapter-5 (Sections 42 to 50) of the Factories Act is fully applicable to textile factory. Washing facilities, first-aid appliances, canteen, lunch room and rest room, crèche and welfare officers are

7

for ring doubling and twisting frames 7614, woven fabrics testing 9, 2977, 7903, 10100, yarn acetate and rayon filament 1229, blended 7866, polyester and polyamide 7703, 7867, cotton count determination 237, cotton winding cones 4888, twist determination 832, linear density determination 1226, textile conditioning 6359. Cotton handloom colour fastness 6906, residual chlorine 2350, scouring loss determination 1383. Dyes fastness 1688, Fibres, methods of identification 667, flammability and flame resistance test 11871, water quality tolerances 201, textile items made up, glossary 14281, processing glossary 9603, testing handbook SP:15, textile terms - wool and animal fibres 11206, mmf 1324, natural fibre 232, woven fabrics 2364, textile belting 1891, floor coverings, flame resistance 12722, asbestos yarn 13362, electrical insulation and plastic laminate 13128.

5 FLOWCHARTS OF TEXTILE PROCESSES 5.1

Composite Flowchart :

It is essential to understand a textile process flow chart before proceeding towards the textile machines. Therefore it is shown below in Fig 21.1.

8

Cotton (with seeds) from agriculture  Ginning machines (removal of seeds)  Press (gives bales)  Cotton/man-made fibre bales  Opening, mixing and blow-room machinery (gives lap)  Carding machines (gives sliver)  Draw frames (precomb), superlap machine, combers, draw frames (post comb), fly or roving frames (gives rove yarn), interframes  Ring frames (gives fine twisted yarn)  Doubling frames (twisting of double yarns)

 Ginning-pressing process   Spinning Preparatory Process

  Spinning Process  

 Winding machines (give cheese or cone of yarn )  Warping machine Pirn winding machine (gives (gives warper’s beam) pirn, weft for shuttle)  Sizing machine (gives sized warp and } Sizing weaver’s beam) } process (Starch  application Draw frames (gives drawn warp) )  Looms (give grey cloth)  Shearing Singeing (gives singed cloth)  Bleaching (gives bleached cloth)  Dyeing (gives dyed cloth) } Dyeing process  Printing } Printing process Polymerising (gives printed cloth)  Sanforizing (gives sanforized cloth)  Folding/plaiting  Cloth bales (fabrics)

Weaving Preparatory Process

 Weaving Process 

Finishing Process (Processing Dept.)   Folding Dept. & Cloth Godown 

Fig 21.1 Composite (Complete) Flowchart of textile processes General layout of different departments of a composite textile mill is shown in fig. 21.s. * Add

Above flowchart is self-explanatory, yet some main processes are explained below : Ginning : The fibres and the cotton seeds are separated by ‘gin’ machines in a ginning factory. Pressing & Baling : The ginned cotton is compressed and packed into bales by cotton presses (mostly hydraulic) in a pressing factory. Generally ginning and pressing factories are combined and situated in villages where cotton is collected. The cotton bales are transported to a spinning mill or a composite textile mill. The cotton-seeds are separately collected. They are used to extract oil therefrom and also for cattlefood. Schedule-2, rule 54, GFR is applicable to ginning and pressing factories while Sch-1 is applicable to following processes. Bale Opening and Scutching: In a blow room the bales are opened by bale openers, sometimes tinted in a tinting room for quality separation and mixed with cotton from other bales or manmade fibres through a hopper feeder. By a moving spiked lattice, beaters and a series of rolls the fibres are thoroughly mixed, cleaned and further opened by revolving beaters and air currents against a grid through which the dirt is separated. A cotton lap is formed and lap-rolls are sent to the carding machines Carding : The fibres are made parallel to each other, remaining hard tuffs are broken and short thin fibres and impurities are removed. A sliver (flat untwisted rope) is formed and it is collected in cans. Spinning : Through pre-comb drawing frames, sliver lap machines, comber machines, drawing frames and inter frames the sliver is converted into inter-end by drawing, drafting, combing and twisting processes. More slivers are passed through pairs of suitably spaced rollers, each pair revolving at a higher speed than the preceding pair. Further attenuation of the yarn is accompanied by ring frames and doubling frames. Inter roving ends are converted into yarn of required count by drafting and twisting in the ring frame machines. A new method

known as open-end or rotor spinning is most suitable for spinning coarse yarns and can replace not only the ring frame but some other initial processes as well. Texturising is done to synthetic yarn to reduce its denier. Weaving Preparatory : In winding department yarn defect is removed and cheese and beam (by warping machine) are produced. Pirn bobbins are filled to put them in shuttles. Yarn singeing is carried out to burn off the projected fibres (hairs). Sizing (starch) process is carried out in sizing machines. Weaving : After the weaving preparatory processes, the warp threads (beams) and weft threads (pirn bobbins) are fed to looms to weave cloth. Various types of looms are used. New alternations to the shuttle for weft insertion are rapier, water jet, air jet and ripple or wave shedding. The cloth is sent to the grey folding department for cleaning, mending, inspection and folding (plaiting) purposes. Artificial humidification is employed in carding, spinning and weaving departments to reduce yarn breakage, because moist thread has relatively higher breaking strength than a dry thread. But high humidity causes discomfort. Therefore its regulation is required by hygrometers and by rules 19 to 29 under the GFR. Finishing Processes : Here shearing cropping, cloth singeing, piling, mercerising, drying, washing, desizing (removing starch by enzymes solution), scouring (removing fats and waxes by hydroxide solution), bleaching (by H2O2 or Cl2), dyeing (wide range of dyes available) and printing (screen or multicolour rotary printing) processes are carried out in sequence. The dyed or printed cloth is dried, smoothed and pressed. It may also be subjected to other treatments to improve its appearance or wearing qualities. It may be made waterproof, flame repellent or rotproof. Synthetic resins are used for these purposes. The finished cloth (fabric) is sent to finish folding department, for checking, sample cutting, folding and baling purposes.

Now we shall see the flowcharts of different types of fabrics.

5.2

Other Flowcharts :

To understand flowcharts of fabric manufacturing it is necessary to understand sequence or stages of manufacture from fibres to fabrics and then bleaching, dyeing, printing and other finishing processes on the fabrics. The first stage in the production of a fabric is to clean and mix fibres thoroughly. The fibres are then generally straightened, but for the production of certain types of fabric they must be brought into a condition in which they are all parallel. The fibres are next drawn out into the form of sliver, which resembles a flat rope but with the fibres having no twist. Repeated drawing (extenuating) and twisting follow. This twisting is to give the resulting roving i.e. just sufficient strength to prevent breakage in its manipulation (extenuation). Thus a fine roving is produced which is finally twisted into yarn. The yarn is used to produce fabrics by either knitting or weaving. It will be realised that for the carrying out of these manufacturing processes a wide range of different types of complicated machines and a great variety of methods are used. Such processes have taken more than two centuries to perfect and even now, partly owing to the increasing use of rayon and synthetic fibres, modifications are constantly being introduced. Fibres are of two types - staple fibre and continuous fibre. Staple fibres are of

certain lengths while continuous fibre is a very long filament made from chemicals. Continuous fibre can be cut to required lengths which may be short or long, for the purpose of mixing with other short or long staple fibres. Short and Long staple Fibres : Staple fibres are classified as short, medium or long. Normally less than 2 inch (5 cm) long are short staple fibres and longer than that are called long staple fibres. Wool is called short staple if less than 2.5 inch long and called long staple or worsted if more than 2.5 inch long. In short staple spinning process, gilling machine (gill box) is not used. In long staple process ‘gilling’ machinery is used to straighten the sliver. Carding is an excellent method for straightening and attenuating short fibres. Gilling is not satisfactory if the fibres are short. Therefore in the preparation of wool fibres for combing, it is preferred to straighten them by carding if the fibres are less than about 9 inch (230 mm) in length and to gill if the fibres are longer, say up to 15 inch (380 mm) in length. Long staple worsted wool, jute, coir and flex can be classified as long staple fibres, cotton as short staple fibre and man-made synthetic filament including stretchable ‘textured’ yarn as continuous fibre. Process flowcharts are shown from Fig 21.3 to 21.9.

1. Process Flowchart of Short Staple i.e. Finishing :

Cotton Spinning and

Raw impure cotton highly compressed in bales  Sorting, selection and blending to suit type of yarn required  Opening-out and loosening of the baled cotton fibres (with removal of coarse impurities such as twigs, leaf, earth, etc.)  (in lap form) Carding (with removal of short fibres and residual cotton impurities) (in sliver form)





Combing Drawing and doubling (with parallelism of the fibres and removal of (several stages with parallelism of the fibres, short fibres) removal of short fibres and roving attenuation)   (in roving form) Drawing and doubling (several stages to effect Spinning into coarse and medium-fine yarns mixing and further parallelism of the fibres and roving attenuation)  (in roving form) Spinning into fine cotton yarns by mule or ring machines and finally winding as cops or on bobbins

Fig 21.3 Flowchart of Cotton (Short Staple) Spinning Spinning & Weaving

Finishing





Bale Opening and Cleaning

Singeing

 Picking

Desizing

Carding

Kier Boiling Combing

Bleaching

Drawing

Mercerizing

Roving

Framing Dyeing

Printing

Ageing

Ageing

Washing

Washing

Framing

Framing

Spinning Winding Warping Quilling Slashing

Calendering Weaving

Sanforizing

Inspection

Inspection Legend Dry Processing Operation Wet Processing Operation Fig. 21.4 : Cotton Processing Flowchart

2. Process Flowchart of Long Staple (i.e. Worsted Wool) Spinning : Raw greasy wool



Sorting, selection and blending to suit type of yarn required



Opening-out and loosening of fibre packages



Scouring to remove grease and suint (sheep’s dried perspiration) and carbonisation (if necessary) to remove cellulose impurities

 (in lap form)

(in sliver form)

(in sliver form)

Carding

Backwashing (scouring)

(in roving form)

 (in sliver form)

Gilling

 (in sliver form)

Backwashing

Condensing



Spinning on mule machine into woollen yarn

 (in sliver form)

Gilling

 (in sliver form)

Combing



(in sliver form)

Gilling

 (in sliver form)

Wool tops

 (in roving form)

Drawing and doubling (several stages)

 (in roving form)

Spinning by flyer, cap, ring or mule machine into worsted yarn

Fig. 21.5 Process Flowchart of Wool spinning. A complete flowchart of wool processing - spinning, weaving & finishing is shown below in Fig 21.6. Spinning & Weaving

Finishing

Sorting and Blending

Singeing

  Scouring Drying

Crabbing From Burling & Mending

Carding Backwashing and Oiling

Scouring Drying Dyeing

Carbonizing

Gilling Fulling

Washing and Drying

Ball Winding Combing

Pressing

Gilling

Inspection

Roving  Spinning Winding

Warping Quilling Slashing Weaving  Inspection  Burling and Mending

Finishing 

Legend Dry Processing Operation Wet Processing Operation

Fig. 21.6 : Wool Processing Flowchart

3. Process Flowchart Manufacture :

of

Viscose

Rayon

and

Synthetic

Fibre

Wood Pulp (Alpha Cellulose)



Caustic Soda 19% (200C)

Steeping Press

 Rough Cutter

 Shredder CS2

Alkali Cellulose Waste vacuum 600 Chemical Reaction between Alk Cell & CS2

 Churn - 350C

Caustic Soda 3% (70C)

Cell Xanthate

Xanthate Waste

 Dissolver

 Blending Filtration Ripening

Filtration Waste

 Deaeration

 Viscose Storage Tank

CS2 + H2S Exhaust to chimney

 Spinbath acid 570C

Acid Recovery

Spinning Raw Cakes

Evaporation Crystallisation

Godet Waste

By Product Na2SO4

Yarn Waste

 Wash Bleach Purification Hydro Extraction

Desulphurisation 800C

 Dryer

- 700C

 Moisture Control Room Spg. Spg. Yarn Godet Waste Waste Packing

Cake Packing Conning

Conning Yarn Waste

 Hanks

 Cone Packing

Yarn Waste

Yarn Waste

Fig. 21.7 Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon Manufacture

Hank Packing

4. Process Flowchart of Spun and Filament Yarn : (A) Manufacture of Nylon – 6. Caprolactum



Water Opacifier

Stabiliser

1st Reactor



2nd Reactor



Granulator



Washing of Chips



Chip Storage



Compounding products

 Melting

Extrusion





Spinning

Granules for Plastic Conversion



Batching



Filament Winding





Drawing or Texturising if necessary



Sale



Sale

Spinning & Drawing Nylon chips





Thread guide



Feed rollers



Take-up bobbin (Spinning)



Thread guides



Input feed rollers



Deflector



Output feed roller



Thread guide

Hopper feeder Spinning vessel Electrical heater Pool of molten nylon Spinning jet Metering pump Cold air cross flow Steam chamber

       

Take-up bobbin (drawn nylon)

Fig 21.8 : Process Flowchart of Filament Yarn (Nylon-6) (B) Manufacture of Span or Oriented Yarn (LOY, POY, HOY & FOY) :

Many PET fibres also contain optical brighteners.

Polyesters :

Manufacturing and Processing :

Polyesters were initially discovered and evaluated in 1929 by W.H. Carothers, who used linear aliphatic polyester materials to develop the fundamental understanding of condensation polymerisation, to study the reaction kinetics, and demonstrate that high molecular weight materials were obtainable and could be melt-spun into fibres. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a fibre of great commercial significance, useful in cordage, apparel fabrics, industrial fabrics, conveyor belts, laminated and coated substrates, and numerous other areas. However, to engineer specific properties for special uses, many product variants have been developed and commercialised. These variants include alternative cross sections, controlling polymer molecular weight, modifying polymer composition by using co-monomers and using additive including delusterants, pigments and optical brightners. High molecular weight polymer is used for high strength fibres in tyres, ropes, and belts. High strength and toughness are achieved by increasing the polymer molecular weight from 20000 to 30000 or higher by extended melt polymerisation or solid-phase polymerisation. Special spinning processes are required to spin the high viscosity polymer to high strength fibre. Low molecular weight fibres are weak but have a low propensity to form and retain pills, i.e. fuzz balls, which can be formed by abrasion and wear on a fabric surface. Most pill-resistant fibres are made by spinning low molecular weight fibres in combination with a melt viscosity booster. Most of the textile fibres are delustered with 0.1-3.0% wt TiO2 to reduce the glitter and plastic appearance.

Terephthalic Acid (TA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) reacts with ethylene glycol (EG) to form bis (2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate [959-26-2] (BHET) which is condensation polymerised to PET with the elimination of EG. Molten polymer is extruded through a die (spinneret) forming filaments that are solidified by air cooling. Combinations of stress, strain and thermal treatments are applied to the filaments to orient and crystalize the molecular chains. These steps develop the fiber properties required for specific uses. The two general physical forms of PET fibers are continuous filament and cut staple.

Raw Materials : For the first decade of PET manufacture, only DMT could be made sufficiently pure to produce high molecular weight PET. After about 1965, processes to purify crude TA by hydrogenation and crystallisation became commercial. In Japan, oxidation conditions are modified to give a medium purity TA suitable to manufacture PET, provided colour toners such as bluing agents or optical brighteners are added during polymerisation. Compared to DMT, advantages of TA as an ingredient are lower cost, no methanol by-product, lower investment and energy costs, higher unit productivity, and more pure polymer because less catalyst is used. Catalysts are used in the transesterification reaction of DMT with EG and in polycondensation. Many compounds have catalytic activity. Divalent zinc and manganese are the prevalent transesterification catalysts. Antimony, titanium and germanium are the predominant polycondensation catalysts. Up to 3% delusterant is added to many PET fibre products to make them more opaque and scatter light; titanium dioxide is the most common delusterant. PET fibre blended with cotton for apparel frequently contains small amounts of fluorescent optical brighteners added during polymerisation. Commercial production of PET polymer is a two-step process carried out through a series of continuous staged reaction vessels. First, monomer is formed by transesterification of DMT or by direct esterification of TA with EG. In general, esterification is conducted in one or two vessels forming low molecular weight oligomers with a degree of polymerisation of about 1 to 7. The oligomer is pumped to one or two prepolymerisation vessels where higher temperatures and lower pressures help remove water and EG; the degree of polymerisation increases to 15 to 20 repeat units. The temperatures are further increased and pressures decreased in the final one or two vessels to form polymer ready to spin into fibre. For most products, the final degree of

polymerisation is about 70 to 100 repeat units. Average molecular weight is about 22,000; weight average molecular weight is about 44,000. Spinning: PET fibres are made either by directly spinning molten polymer or by melting and spinning polymer chips. A special, precise metering pump forces the molten polymer heated to about 2900C through a spinneret consisting a number of small capillaries, typically 0.2 to 0.8 mm in diameter and 0.3 to 1.5 mm long, under pressures up to 35 MPa (5000 psi). After exiting the capillary, filaments are uniformly cooled by forced convection heat transfer with laminar-flow air. Following solidification, the threadline is passed over a finish applicator and collected. A spin finish is applied to reduce friction and eliminate static change. It is convenient to classify commercial PET spinning processes according to the degree of molecular orientation developed in the spun fiber. Generally, the classification is a function of spinning speed. Low oriented yarn (LOY) is spun at speeds from 500 to 2500 m/min; partially oriented yarn (POY) is spun at 2500 to 4000 m/min; highly oriented yarn (HOY) is spun at 4000 to 6500 m/min; and fully oriented yarn (FOY) is spun at greater than 6500 m/min. Drawing and Stabilisation : Drawing is the stretching of low orientation, amorphous spun yarn (LOY) to several times their initial length. This is done to increase their orientation and tensile strength. Drawing in two or more stages is useful to optimise tensile properties and process continuity. Stabilisation is heating the fiber to release stress within the molecular chains melt and reform crystals and increase the level of crystallinity in order to stabilise the fibre structure. Staple Processes :

In staple processing, the containers of combined spun ends are further combined to form a tow band and fed to a large drawline. The tow band is spread out into a flat band tracking over multiple feed and draw rolls. Crimping is the process by which two dimensional configuration and cohesive energy is imparted to synthetic fibres so they may be carded and converted to spun yarns. The tow band is cut to precise lengths using a radial multiblade cutter, normally 30 to 40 mm for blending with cotton, 50 to 100 mm for blending with wool and up to 150 mm for making carpets. Cut staple is packaged in up to 500 kg. bales at densities greater than 0.5g/cm 3. Safety and Environmental Factors : Health & Safety : PET Fibres pose no health risk to humans or animals. Fibres have been used extensively in textiles with no adverse physiological effects from prolonged skin contact. PET has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for food packaging and bottles. PET is considered biologically inert and has been widely used in medical inserts such as vascular implants and

artificial blood vessels, artificial bone and eye sutures. Environmental Factors : PET materials are not dangerous to the environment and cannot contaminate surface or ground water. During polymerisation, non-condensible organic by-products are stripped from the process outflow streams and burned. Glycol and water are separated by refining. The water is treated in a standard water spray facility. The glycol is reused. The method from the DMT transesterification is refined and reused. Like all materials, polyesters should be disposed of properly to avoid litter and can be disposed of by landfill or incineration. A key environmental advantage for PET materials is the ability to recycle. Polyester materials, especially bottles, can be separated from contaminated materials such as aluminium caps and paper labels and remanufactured by direct remelt extrusion into fibres for filling products or carpets or into layered constructions for good-grade bottles.

A block diagram of above mentioned process is shown in Fig 21.9.

Catalyst

TA/DMT Storage

Glycol Feed

Feed Preparatio n Tank

Rec

ycle Glycolwater Separation Column

Additives Preparatio n

Glycol Hot Well

 Esterification

Oligomer Filter

Prepolymerisation

Pelletizing

LOY

Spinning

POY

Finisher

Gear Pump

Staple Fibre

HOY

FOY

Fig. 21.9 Block Diagram for Polyester Manufacturing by Continuous Polymerisation Process

5. Jute manufacture : The jute plant flourishes in hot and damp regions of Asia, mainly in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma and Thiland. Jute is a natural fibre and is used to make sack cloth, jute ropes, bags, camp beds, filter cloths etc. In 1820, jute was sent to England from India and was spun experimentally at Abingdon near Oxford. In 1822 Dundee mills in Scotland began spinning of jute. By 1850 the jute industry was well established. In India and Bangladesh, the jute plants (Corchorus) are harvested with a hand sickle. Jute plant grows to 5 mt with a stalk diameter of 2 cm. The fibres are separated from the stem. The strands of fibre, as much as 2 mt long, are washed and hung up in the sun to dry. They are compressed into bales and sent off to the mills for spinning. Small amount of mineral spindle oil is added into the fibre during conversion into yarn. Normal jute goods may contain upto 5% oil, but so-called ‘stainless’ yarns to be used for special purposes like wall coverings, cables etc., contain 1% or less oil. Jute Processes : Raw jute is first passed through the softening machine. Oil and water emulsion is sprayed on to the jute. Sometimes sodium alkyl phosphate (Teepol) is also used. This process is known as ‘batching’. After preparation, the fibres are carded or combed, drawn and spun. Then cop and spool winding, weaving, finishing, croppong, cutting and lapping complete the processing. Bleaching and dyeing of jute is also possible. Dyestuffs used for cotton, are also useful for jute. The fibre has a special affinity for basic dyes, which provide brilliant effects even on unbleached base. The increased demand for rugs, mats and carpets

require dyed jute yarns and fabrics suitable for these applications. Azoic and vat dyes give very bright and fast results but their high cost limits their use with jute. The tendency of jute to turn brown in sunlight is a permanent disadvantage. Hazards and Controls : Machinery hazards are high as in case of cotton textile machinery. Main drives, gears, in-running nips of rollers or bowls, spindles and shafts, knives and cutters, flying shuttles etc. need efficient guarding. Fire may occur due to friction and heat. Water hydrants are necessary. Pesticides used in cultivation of jute may cause poisoning. Dust is given off in bale opening and spinning. Local exhaust ventilation is a must. Dermatitis gives skin trouble due to dust, batching oil, dyes etc. Excessive noise in weaving operation may cause hearing loss. Ear protection is necessary. Carrying heavy loads may cause strains. Medical examination of workers is necessary.

6 HAZARDS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS OF SPINNING PREPARATORY AND SPINNING PROCESSES 6.1 Opening and Blow Room Machines: 1. Types of machines used are : Bale opener or breaker, Hard waste breaker, step cleaner, Super cleaner, Cotton opener - Porcupine or Chrighton opener, Roving waste opener, Scutcher, Combined opener and Scutcher, Scutcher and Lap machine, Axi-flo, hopper feeder etc. Tinting room is used to colour

2.

3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

the cotton or synthetic fibres for their mixing. Each machine should be driven by separate motor or by separate counter-shaft with fast and loose pulleys and efficient belt shifting device. All main drives, counter drives and reduction gears shall be securely guarded. All beater covers or doors giving access to any dangerous part of the machine should be interlocked or be securely fenced. Dirt door or desk door should have hinged or fixed grill as a guard and door for dirt/dust removal. Dust chamber opening should be so fenced that while admitting light, prevents contact between any portion of a worker’s body and the beater grid bars. All belt and chain drives should be guarded. In Roving waste opener, cage-wheel and side shaft wheel should be guarded. In opener machine, door giving access to the nip between the lattice and the fluted guide roller of the lattice and evener rolls etc, be interlocked. Inspection doors (covers) on trunkings should be properly situated and closed. If their location is dangerous, it should be changed or interlocked. Spiked or fluted rollers which feed the materials from conveyors should be guarded. In-running nips of Feed and Calendar rollers must be guarded or interlocked. Safe means of access i.e. catwalk, guard-rails, steps, ladders, handrails etc., should be provided on top of the machine where a worker has to work. Lap rods - Lap stand should be proper. Lap rods should not fall out of it. Stacking of lap-rods should be proper Knock-off lever - Its design or placement should be proper and the knock-off wheel should not hit a person.

13. Unsafe actions : The interlocks (micro-switches) on machines should not be tempered with. The supervision should be proper for loading dead weight on a buckley opener, handling a guard, cleaning the inside of a buckley cage or bottom dust chamber collecting cotton or waste from near any revolving part, placing spiked lattice on a bale breaker, removing jam med material from rack and rack wheel, climbing the opener, feeding the lap on a scutcher and removing choked cotton through an opening in a pneumatic pipe.

6.2

Carding Machines :

1. If the spacing between the cards is too small, all dangerous parts such as belts, ropes, pulleys, gears etc., should be securely guarded. Main drive shall be guarded. 2. The cylinder-doors must be interlocked (R. 54, Sch. I) and effective. Stripping (cleaning cylinder) operation with open doors should be done by a trained man. The newer machines have safer stripping attachment. 3. The belt shifting devices for fast and loose pulleys should be properly maintained. 4. The nip between the plate-wheel and the side shaft wheel should be guarded. 5. Coiler : (i) Coiler head should not fall down (ii) Gears of the coiler box be guarded. (iii) The nip between the calendar roller wheel and the coiler back shaft wheel should be guarded or fenced. 6. Licker-in : (i) The access to the underside of the licker-in should be properly guarded by a hinged swing door or flap guard swinging back upwards to prevent contact while collecting dust (ii) The checking of the clearance between the licker-in and its casing while the licker-in is in motion must be prohibited (it may be done while the licker-in is stationary).

7. Doffer & Comb Blade : (i) Covers on doffer wheels should be closed. (ii) Work at or near the doffer cover and doffer comb blade must be done with care and properly supervised. 8. High Speed Carding machine : The in running nip between cross rolls should be securely guarded. 9. Mounting or dismounting of belt or rope and stripping and grinding operations should be done with care and should be properly supervised. It should be checked that while such stripping or grinding, the stripping brush is properly positioned so that it may not be loosened, the idler wheel and the umbrella wheel are properly fitted (so that they may not get loosed and fell down) (ii) Gauging the clearance between the flats and the card-cylinder should be done with the cylinder stationary (not rotated even manually) and by a standard angular gauge for this operation. It should be so supervised. 10. Local Exhaust Ventilation : Modern card machines have built-in local exhaust system with dust collection chamber to extract the cotton dust generating in the machine and to prevent its exposure in the work environment. This system should be efficiently maintained.

6.3 Sliver and Ribbon Lap Machines: 1. Types of these machines are : Sliver lap, lap m/c or lap-former, Derby doubler, Ribbon lap m/c etc. The main and counter drive shall be securely guarded. 2. Nip between the lap forming rollers (lap roller and fluted roller) should be guarded. It is desirable if it is interlocked (R. 54, Sch. I). 3. Ribbon lap m/c : The lap drum and calendar drum gap should be interlocked.

4. Sliver lap m/c : Nip guard at the intake end of the calendar rollers necessary. 5. The carding slivers should be made parallel and combined to form a lap sheet suitable for feeding to a combing m/c. 6. Unsafe actions : Care must be taken during operations such as cleaning cap bars of a lap m/c, placing laps on lap rack, putting a lap rod on a lap stand, removing the chain drive from lap forming m/c, cleaning the ribbon of lap m/c and putting a lap end around a spool.

6.4 Combers and Drawing Frames : 1. Comber Machine : (i) The main drive shall have fixed guard (ii) The moving spiked cylinder should be interlocked. (iii) The cylinder covers i.e. hood of the comb near comber cylinder and the coiler covers should be fixed so as not to fall down and hit (iv) Hinged transparent guard to prevent contact with rotating segment i.e. nipper or gripper (v) Guard on top comb and detaching rolls (vi) Guard on calendar rollers and gears (vii) Interlock guard on coiler and draw-box gears. 2. Drawing frames : (i) Guards be provided on moving calendar rollers and gears (Nip between rollers should be covered). (ii) The gear wheels should be guarded or fenced. (iii) The head stock gearing must be guarded. (iv) The mango vacuum box of the top roller should be securely fixed. (so as not to fall down) (v) Sharp projections on the coiler bottom plate should be removed or rounded (vi) Off-end gear cover should be guarded.

6.5 :

Roving (Speed) Frames

1. Types of these m/cs are : Slubbing frames, inter frames etc. The main drive shall be securely guarded.

2. The head stock gearing (jack box wheels) should be interlocked. (R. 54, Sch I GFR). 3. Slubber Frames : (i) The driving bevel and bevel wheel should be guarded. (ii) The spindle shaft wheel should be guarded. (iii) Bobbin and spindle bevel gears should be guarded. (iv) The ratchet wheel should be guarded. (v) Work close to revolving flyers should be done only after stopping the flyers. It should be supervised so. (vi) Care should be exercised while handling of rollers and weights. 4. Inter (Speed) Frames : (i) The guard of the head stock gearing should be adequate or interlocked (ii) The stacking of bobbins on creel top should be done in safe manner. (so that the bobbins may not fall down) (iii) The height of creel top should be proper. (so as to reach easily). If not suitable, foot boards and hand holds should be provided (iv) Work close to rotating flyers should be done after stopping them (v) Draft rolls, draft gears, inter gears (jack box), cone drive and main drive should have guards. The new open end or rotor spinning system eliminates some steps of the spinning preparatory operation and reduces many accidents. See Part 6.8.

6.6 :

2.

3.

Ring (Spinning) Frames

Return-air system with humid air suppliers (diffusers) is used for better ventilation and humidification. It provides large duct area through floor openings, air cleaning, rapid air changes, more humidification and more reduction in flying fluffs. 1. Transmission parts : (i) The main drive and the other driving belts and ropes should be guarded. (ii) Mounting of taps on jockey pulleys should be done after stopping the pulley by cutting of power. (iii) The headstock gears should be

4.

5.

interlocked. Tieing ribbon on limitswitches and making interlocking ineffective is noticed many times. By frequent checking such unsafe practice must be discouraged. (iv) Drafting gear and drafting rollers, warm and warm wheel should be guarded. Damaged Bobbin Shields : Sharp edges of the broken metal shields of bobbins cause many injuries on fingers while piecing or doffing operations. Following remedies should be provided. (i) Inspection and rejection of damaged shields. (ii) Use of plastic bobbins instead of wooden with metal shields. (iii) Suitable knee-brake for each spindle to stop it. The height of this brake should coincide with the knee of the worker. This is the design (ergonomic) aspect. Struck against various m/c parts : (i) The sharp edge of a protruding metal sheet on the frame and broken edge of a ring frame may cause struck injury. Such damaged components should be replaced. (ii) Care should be taken while creeling, de-creeling, piecing, cleaning rollers, cleaning cotton fluff, stopping bobbins for piecing, fixing bobbins on spindles, doffing and adjusting arbor so as not to be struck against rollers, their supporting brackets or roller beams; work near lappet rail, filterbox, lappet middle-rollers, top arm and cradle and middle arbor and cradle assembly, pocker rod, tube bracket and dashing against the frame of the machine while attending to different jobs. Proper supervision necessary. Fall of bobbins from creel top : (i) Stacking of bobbins on creel top should not be haphazard. Only one row of bobbins should be stacked. (ii) Safe means of access i.e. suitable foot-boards and hand-holds should be provided for climbing up. Fall of rollers : (i) Fall of clearer rollers and dead weight rollers occur in the course of operations such as releasing auto-lever, piecing, removing the rollers or holding them

for cleaning. Care is necessary. (ii) Mechanism holding the rollers in position should be maintained in good condition. 6. Auto-lever : (i) Care should be taken while releasing or replacing the auto-lever. (ii) Condition of the saddle should not be defective. 7. Ring travellers : These can fly and injure persons unless there is an effective system of periodical replacement. Also the travellers should be of good quality and properly fitted. 8. Doffing boxes : (i) The hook on the doffing boxes for placing them on the rail should be proper. (ii) Splintered condition of the boxes and the protruding metal band may cause accident. Their periodical inspection and repair is necessary. 9. Suction pipes : Sharp or broken edge of a suction pipe may cause injury. It should be checked and required or replaced. Suction fan with duct is provided to collect broken ends. 10. Others : (i) Side plate of a frame may get loose and fall down. It should be periodically inspected. (ii) All motor fans should be closed by the covers.

6.7

Doubling Machines :

1. Drives : Main drive pulley belt and head stock gearing should have guards. Delivery roll gears should be guarded. 2. Knee-brakes : They should be provided to stop bobbin for piecing operation and maintained properly. They should be at proper knee height. 3. Cans : (i) The edges of cans for storing bobbins should not be broken or sharp. (ii) They should be inspected and repaired or replaced. (iii) Plastic cans are desirable. 4. Ring Travellers : (i) They should be of good quality and properly fitted. (ii) They should be periodically inspected and replaced.

5. Machine Parts : The creel tops to store bobbins should be within the arms reach. Foot rails should be provided. 6. Unsafe actions : Striking against knee-brakes, ring travellers, top roller, tap on a spindle, rough edge of jockey pulley etc., may cause accidents. Care should be exercised and supervised.

6.8

Rotor Spinning :

Rotor spinning is an open end (OE) or break spinning technique and is mostly useful for cotton, synthetic and wool fibres. It was developed in Cotton Research Institute at Czechoslovakia during 1960s. This technique came into production with the BD 200 machine at the end of 1967. This not only altered the technique of forming a yarn, but also the technology involved in fibre preparation. The difference between the ring spinning and rotor spinning is that in the latter the spool does not need to be rotated in order to put twist into the yarn. Fast revolving roller (rotor) or a succession of rollers (rotors), completely open up the sliver so that the fibres can be fed virtually individually into the spinning operation. This in effect, breaks apart the sliver, hence, the terms ‘open-end’ or ‘break’ spinning are used. At a stroke the rotor spinning system achieved many advantages which were not achieved by ring spinning. A few are – 1. Elimination of the slubbing condenser and roving-frame, realising after short end spinning system. 2. It raised the productivity of yarn formation by 3 to 5 times compared with ring spinning by ring and traveller limitations. 3. Larger spools can be wound with long lengths of knot-free yarn. 4. Reduction in handling spools. 5. Better fibre elongation.

6. Excellent dyeability with white shades. 7. Blend homogenation. 8. Greater production economy. 9. Increased quality of rotor-spun yarn. 10. Reducing access to dangerous machine parts, thus increasing safety. 11. Reduction in dust amount. Main three fibre length groups are : 1. Short staple upto 60 mm. 2. Medium staple, 61 to 125 mm. 3. Long staple, 126 to 200 mm. All the three types of staple groups can be processed by rotor spinning system. Its major use is for short staple (cotton) sector. The qualitative properties of rotor-spun yarn are much better than those of carded short staple cotton. It is more regular, has fewer naps, has fewer thick and thin places and has better weaving and knitting properties. It is possible to use much lower quality of cotton with the rotor spinning technique with one precondition that a well drafted sliver - highly clean and regular - is required. Limitations of this open end system are – 1. It is not possible to spin combed yarn. 2. Slivers should be free of foreign matter in order to operate OE system effectively. 3. Power consumption increases with the increase in spun yarn count. 4. For longer staple, larger rotor is required, which in turn reduces the maximum turbine speed and thus the productivity. 5. The yarn counts are lower than 40 (14.8 tex) which limits their use to heavier, coarser fabrics such as denims, towels, some poplins and interlinings. 6. The spun yarn is weaker due to their coarseness. The characteristics of new developments in cotton blow room are :

1. Intensive removal of dust by means of special condensers (dust can only be extracted by suction). 2. Very fine opening of the tufts with simultaneous cleaning to remove the smallest trash particles. The basis of this rotor technology is the simultaneous opening and cleaning processes and separation of micro dust consisting of fine seed and fibre fragments. Low quality cotton (i.e. with high dust content) requires more cleaning by extra condenser with reserve chute. That will do more dust extraction. The card, a cleaning device to eliminate small and very small trash particles, should be effective to have successful rotor spinning. Many rotor spinners have recognised that the tandem card seems to be the best suited for good parallelisation and a clean and regular sliver. Limits of yarn manufacturing process have been increased due to rotor speed. Rotor spinning has the widest economic and technical application range. All purpose capability of rotor spinning provides a universal spinning process. It is technically possible to spin yarns in metric counts ranging from Nm 1 to 100 by the rotor system. Rotor machine fulfils the spinner’s requirement of - Productivity, Product

quality and Economy.

7 HAZARDS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS OF WEAVING PREPARATORY AND WEAVING PROCESSES 7.1

Winding Machines :

Types of machines used are : Barber-Coleman m/c, Auto-coner, pirn winder etc. 1. Guards should be provided on main drive, revolving drum, drum drive

2.

3.

4.

5.

motor, timer drive, cam drive, traveller pulley and track nip and conveyor drive. Knotter-carriage assembly & spindle assembly should have cover. The gap between the moving parts of conveyor and fixed parts should be checked all along its length and reduced to the minimum by suitable covers/guards. Bobbins/sleeves used on the m/cs should be inspected for broken edges, burrs etc. as also for their proper fitment on driving spindles. Haste in loading spindles with empty bobbins should be avoided. Also, dust and other extraneous materials on spindle and moving yarn should not be removed while they are in motion. Dust collecting blower and bag are useful. Automatic winders like cone winder and spoolers prevent hands reaching near the rotating drum and are preferable.

7.2

Warping Machines :

Different types of warping m/cs are available. 1. The flanges of rotating beam should be properly guarded. Multiple photoelectric device is more safe. 2. The main drive, gear wheels, motor pulley, clutch pulley-belt and other parts should be properly guarded. 3. The nip between the driving roll and warp beam should be guarded. Trip cum distance guard should be provided for protection from rotating beam. 4. Beam side distance guard (rod) should be interlocked (contact switch) with drum which drives the beam. 5. Aluminium flange beam without metal flange ring is safer. Metal flange ring may open, fly out and hit. 6. Stop motion indicator lamp is useful. 7. Wheels of moveable stands should have guards.

8. Drum drive motor pulley, beam drive chain, beam ends and section warping gears should be guarded. 9. Unsafe actions : Dashing against rotating beam, leading the thread from the creel to the drum (at this time the m/c should be stopped), removing ball bearing from the shaft of the warp roll, stepping on the slopping platforms of the m/c, removing empty pegs from bobbins on creels and loading and unloading the beams can cause injuries.

7.3

Sizing Machines :

1. Nips : Nip guards should be provided on in-running nips between the driving rolls and other revolving rolls at the front of the m/c. Guards on drag rolls and squeeze rolls are essential. 2. The main drive, beam drive chain, size box drive chain and speedometer chain should be guarded. 3. Suction hood necessary to arrest steam vapour. 4. Gears : The gears of the marking mechanism of the m/c should be guarded. Other m/c parts be guarded. 5. Beam weights : The counter weights of a beam should be properly placed so that they may not fall down while touching. 6. Loading and unloading of beams can cause accidents. Care should be exercised. 7. Rule 61(8) GFR : (i) These provisions should be followed for thin wall cylinders. (ii) Form No. 11 – test report - should be available for each sizing cylinder. (iii) Pressure reducing valve, safety valve, pressure gauge, steam trap and drain-cock for condenset, steam stop valve etc., should be properly provided, set and maintained for ensuring safety. (iv) Maximum permissible working pressure shall be reduced 5% every year (v) Maximum life 20 years. (vi) New and second hand pressure vessel shall be tested at 1.5 times

its Maximum Pressure.

7.4

Permissible

Working

Looms (power looms) :

1. Types of looms are : Ordinary power looms, automated jacquard looms, dropbox, dobby, airjet, waterjet, rapier etc. Loom sizes are 46”, 52”, 56”, 60” and 64”. 2. Flying Shuttles : (i) Shuttle flight may be caused by warp breakage, broken or improper heald (heddle) wires, slackness in picking mechanism and other causes. Shuttle less looms (auto looms) is the best remedy for shuttle flights, but it is not economical. Therefore, the practical remedy is the shuttle guard. The shuttle guards be properly provided. It should extend sufficiently forward and the gap below it should not be too much. Because of possibility of change in this gap and despite the guard the shuttle can fly and hit. Certainly they protect the upper body of a worker from hitting. (ii) To protect from injury due to shuttle flying from the adjacent loom, every loom must be equipped with barrier guard placed close to each end of the slay beam. Such guards of strong wire netting or similar material are advisable. (iii) Reasons for shuttle flights should be properly recorded, investigated and removed. 3. Shuttles : (i) Shuttle receptacle should be provided near each end of the slay to place the shuttle properly. (ii) Removing empty pirn (bobbin in shuttle) and loading wound pirn into the shuttle may cause injury. Also care should be exercised while placing shuttle on the slay. (iii) Automation of process of filling up the empty shuttle can reduce these hazards where a pirn battery loads the shuttle as soon as the weft yarn on it is exhausted. This device of modern looms is advisable. 4. Picking stick assembly : (i) Vertical picking stick is less dangerous than horizontal one. Work

near the proximity of the stick should be done carefully. (ii) Spacing between two looms should be at least 55 cm measured from the farthest projecting point of an adjacent loom or wall. The aisles (alleys) should atleast be one meter wide. It is so desirable for safe movement. (iii) Picking stick (arm) should be securely guarded along its fixed path of movement so that hitting by it can be avoided. (iv) The loom spindle on which the picker moves may crack or fly out and hit. Defective spindle should be found out and replaced. (v) Picking spring should be inserted in position carefully (vi) The picking wheel should be guarded. (vii) All parts of picking mechanism and heald frame should be sound for proper fitment, wear and tear. 5. Beam Weighing : (i) Compound lever should be adopted for beam weighing wherever possible. The shape of the weights should be such that they would not come off the lever and hit. Weights of shape ‘8’ should be preferred to those of shape ‘C’. Weights must be harnessed to the beam by strings or straps of adequate strength (ii) Spring loaded mechanism used for beam weighing should be inspected at least once in a week and defects, if any, rectified. Defects of spring, lever handle, threads used if any, should be found and removed. 6. Cloth and Emery rolls : (i) The support brackets of the cloth roll should be examined once a week for any defects to ensure that the cloth roll sits tight in the brackets. (ii) Care should be taken from hitting the cloth or emery rolls while walking near them (iii) Heavy cloth rolls should be handled mechanically or by more workers. (iv) Guards should be provided on emery roll and guide roll, crank tappet gears, take-up gears, bottom cam drive gears, motor drive, shedding motion etc. 7. Slay beam : (i) The slay moving towards and away from the weaver may hit the hand and fingers may

get trapped between the moving slay and the front rest head frame, temples etc. Hands should not be placed on the slay or at places near its path. (ii) Clearance between the slay bolts of two adjacent looms should be adequate. (iii) Setting of the weft fork holder and hammer should be proper. (iv) Removing fluff or wastes and attending to minor adjustment on the loom must be done only after stopping the loom. 8. Duck bill and Hitter : The duck bill and hitter should be guarded on every loom to prevent contact with sharp edges of these moving parts or being trapped between them. Such guards can be in the form of close pitched springs surrounding the duck bill and extending 3 to 5 cm beyond so that approach to the sharp edges from the sides is prevented. 9. Others : (i) Driving pulley-belts (main drive) of the loom must be securely guarded by a fixed guard. (ii) Ratchet and pawl or crank and tappet mechanism (including gears) should be guarded. The edges of the guards should not be sharp so that it may injure. (iii) The tuning of the loom should be checked once in every shift and adjusted wherever necessary (iv) Spare pirns and their boxes should be examined for their broken edges etc., and should be rectified. (v) The operators must be alert to join the broken ends. They should be joined only after stopping the loom. (vi) Fall of various improperly fitted loom parts on workers while cleaning, oiling etc., dashing against loom parts, getting caught between loom parts due to accidental starting, striking weft box while loading or unloading pirns, striking heald wire while drawing ends or doing adjustments nearby etc., may cause accidents. Care should be exercised and supervised in such operations. (vii) Suction device for pirn-battery return air system, diffusers, sprinklers, hydrants, fire extinguishers etc. should be in good working order.

10. Noise : Hearing loss is possible due to high noise in loom shed. Noise level should be below 90 dBA. Shuttle less loom gives less noise. Good lubrication and maintenance, proper tuning, quick replacement of damaged parts of picking mechanism and stroke resistors help to reduce noise. Workers should wear ear protection.

8 HAZARDS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS OF PROCESSING (FINISHING) AND FOLDING MACHINES 8.1

General Precautions :

1. Types of machines in use are : Shearing, singing, washing, bleaching, kiers, yarn and cloth dyeing, printing, polymerising, sanforising, stentering, padding, finishing, folding, bale (cloth) pressing machine etc. 2. The in-running nips between rollers and similar parts, unless the nips are inaccessible, should be securely guarded with nip guards (bars) along the whole length on the intake side (Rule 54, Sch I, GFR). 3. In dryers and similar machines where there is a risk of access from the sides to nips referred to in item (2) above and driving gears should be guarded to prevent such access. 4. Other machine parts such as main and counter drive, belts, pulleys, shafts, gears and flappers should be guarded. 5. Removing crease from the cloth on rollers should never be done when the machine is in motion. 6. Oiling, greasing, adjustment or repairing near dangerous parts should not be done with the machine running. 7. Threading of tape or fixing lapping on cylinders should not be carried out while the rollers are in motion. The motion which may be necessary should be provided either manually

or by provision of inching arrangement. 8. Entanglement with the cloth in process is a serious hazard in some of the machines. While working here, care should be exercised and supervised. 9. To the extent possible, splash guards should be provided for containing the likely splashes of chemicals and hot liquids at those parts of machine where splashes generally occur. These would also facilitate keeping the floor free from spillage. 10. Wherever risk of splashes from chemical or hot solutions exists, operators should be provided with PPE such as face shields or goggles, hand gloves, aprons and gum-boots. 11. Wherever persons have to reach and work at parts of machine situated at heights, suitable means of access in the form of catwalks and platforms should be provided. Wherever these are not provided due to infrequency of the operations or any other reason, alternative arrangements such as scaffolding or safe ladder should be provided and the operations carried out confirming to standard safe practices. 12. Dismantling and fitting of heavy parts of machine should be done with care. To the extent possible, mechanical handling devices should be used for the purpose. 13. Acids, alkalis, bleach liquors or whitening agents, dyestuffs and solvents are used for process or cleaning purpose. Their storage should be kept away in a separate room. They should be handled in small containers with lids. Their spillage or leakage should be avoided and cleaned immediately. Solvent cleaning is risky. Source of ignition must be avoided while using solvent to clean printing machine, vessel, container etc. Then nearby electric fitting should be flameproof or switched off. Ordinary short-circuit has caused many accidents. Schedule 12 and 19 u/r 102, GFR should be followed while handling acids, alkalis and other chemicals.

Rule 68D should be followed for using hot oil circulation in stenter etc. through thermic fluid heaters.

8.2

Bleaching Process :

Normally chlorine, sodium hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide are used as bleach liquors. Their concentration should be within safe limits. They should be stored in minimum quantities. Transfer from bulk storage to small containers should be safe. Flexible connections must be checked for safety. Emergency kit to handle chlorine leak should be kept ready. Proper respirator, eye goggles and gloves should be worn while working near chlorine gas or hydrogen peroxide fumes. Addition of chlorine in caustic solution to make sodium hypochlorite should be in closed and safe system. See Part 16.7 of Chapter18 for chlorine safety. Open bleaching tanks should have fencing to prevent fall inside. Bleaching machine should have fume exhaust device. Bleaching range should have nip guard on rolls.

8.3 Processing Machines (Dyeing, Printing etc) : Water is used in large quantities in processing machines. Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant should be used to remove hardness as well as total dissolved solids (TDS) if the water available is hard and saline (salty). Such soft and salt less water decreases rate of corrosion and increases life of the vessels/ machines. Safety measures for some processing machines are stated below. 1. Washing machine : Purpose is to wash the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure) (i) Nip Guards on rollers (ii) Catwalk and platforms to reach and work at the required places with sufficient handhold and foothold (iii) Guard on moving flappers. (iv) Distance guard, belt and chain guard (v) FRP and

2.

3.

4.

5.

acidproof lining if acid/alkali is used. (vi) Clean overflow pipe with water tank (vii) Nip guard on draw nip (viii) Air regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls (ix) Guards on chain drives of nip rolls (x) Doors on soap tanks (xi) safety of steam lines and (xii) Guard on chain drive of a plaiter. (xiii) Nip guard on padding mangle. Washing Tanks : Purpose is to wash the cloth. (i) Railing near hot water tanks to prevent falling into it (ii) Drain pipes and valves to drain hot water from the tank. Simple hole, cotton plug (stopper) and bamboo use is an unsafe practice. Hydroextractor : Purpose is to remove water from wet cloth. (i) Interlock basket cover (ii) Fixed guard on pulley-belts (iii) Brake to stop basket. Jigger machine : Purpose is to colour the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure). (i) Nip guards on rollers and gears (ii) Splash guards should be provided on each of such machines to minimise chances of chemicals and colour solutions splashing on persons. (iii) Aprons and chemical goggles should be given to workers (iv) Periodic inspection and maintenance of the floors. They should be free from water and solution so as not to keep it slippery. (v) Pneumatic valve to control steam flow (vi) Cover on motor pulley belt drive and gearbox (vi) Roll motion controller. Calendar machine : Its function is to give fine finish (ironing) by passing the cloth through calendar rolls or bowls. (i) Auto temperature control to prevent over heating (ii) Nip guards on in-running nips (iii) Guards on main motor drive and reduction gears. (iv) Heavy rolls should be handled mechanically (v) Contact with hot rolls may cause burn injury. Care should be taken while working at heights (vi) When steam pressure is above atmospheric pressure, Rule 61 GFR should be complied with. All safety

devices should be properly maintained. 6. Drying machines : Purpose is to dry cloth. (i) Nip guards on rotating rolls and mangle rolls. Guards on chain, bevel gears, winch drive and stack drive. (ii) Platform, foothold and handhold to work at heights (iii) Hot cylinders of drying range may cause burn injury. Care and effective supervision (iv) For pressure control, follow Rule 61, GFR. 7. Kiers and Agers : Purpose is heating by steam pressure. (i) While tightening the eye bolts of kier, bars used should be of such construction that they hold the eye bolt securely and do not slip off. (ii) Catwalks and platforms to work on the top of the Kier (iii) Care form coming into contact with the hot parts of the kier (iv) Pressure reducing valve, safety valve, pressure gauge, stop valve etc. should be properly maintained for the safe working pressure inside. Safety valve and pressure gauge should be provided on jacket also (v) Hydraulic pressure test at every two years (vi) Chain pulley block or hoist to lift heavy parts. 8. Stenter machine : Purpose is to dry cloth by passing it through heat chambers. Padding mangle, feeding zone, heating zone (chambers), batching and plaiting are main divisions (i) Nip guard between inrunning rolls and rollers of the padding mangle, guard on uncurler nip, main drive and bevel gears (ii) Catwalks or platforms for working at heights. (iii) Temperature control devices (iv) Effective exhaust hood and chimney for removal of fumes from the machine. (v) Effective and sufficient exhaust fans in the workroom (vi) Scouring process i.e. oil removal from fabric before feeding it to the stenter machine to reduce the oil fumes. (vii) Textometer to detect moisture content. (viii) Covers on roll drive chain box, overfeed chain drive, batching and plaiter drive (ix) 3-way

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

pneumatic oil flow control valve where oil heaters are used. Padding machine : (i) Nip guard on in-running rolls and padding mangle. (ii) Guard on main drive, roll chain drive and gear drive. (iii) Pressure regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls. Jet Dyeing machines : Purpose is to colour the cloth under steam pressure. (i) PRV or pressure regulator in pressure feed line (ii) Adequate safety valve and rupture disc – both of at least 1.5 inch (dia) size and in parallel on the top of the vapour cell (iii) High pressure alarm and automatic or manual depressure (venting) device to operate at that alarm (iv) Use of heatexchanger for indirect heating and cooling (v) Periodical hydraulic tests and NDT for corrosion effects (vi) Non-corrosive metal, joints and body parts (vii) Flap guard near filter cover at the bottom and internal disc to restrict outflow (viii) Temperature gauge near the pressure gauge on the vessel (ix) Water, steam and air control valves (x) Manhole cover interlocked with depressure device (xi) Maximum pressure indicator and automatic pressure controller (xii) Trained operator (xiii) Effective supervision and auto programming. Drum washer : It is a washing machine under steam pressure. (i) Fixed guards on belt and chain drive (ii) Pressure Reducing Valve, Safety Valve and Pressure Gauge on steam supply line (iii) Drum motion fixing device (locking) while loading and unloading. Internal drum should not rotate while loading or unloading it. It should be mechanically locked. Power should also be de energised at that time. Expander machine : (i) Nip guard on rollers and between the cloth in process and the rollers (ii) Parts of machine should be periodically examined to detect defective conditions such as protruding nails. Stitching and sewing machine : (i) Gap between the needle and the

14.

15. 16. 17. 18.

19.

20.

machine table should be guarded to prevent access to this zone. (ii) Electric earthing should be proper and ELCB should be provided in power supply line. Printing machine : Purpose is to print the cloth by machine. Various types of machines are in use. (i) Nip guards on the printing roller, cloth roller and on the lapping and a roller (ii) While removing a heavy roll from the machine, care should be taken or the mechanical handling should be used. (iii) Care should be exercised while changing a design roller otherwise a hand may be caught between the design roller and control roller (iv) Care should be taken while turning a handle to apply pressure to the printing rollers otherwise a worker may slip and fall from height (v) The doctor blade of the machine should be removed carefully otherwise it may slip and its sharp edge may cause injury. (vi) Fixed guards on pulley-belt drive, sector, connecting (eccentric) rod, repeat-setting device and under table rollers (vi) Safety while cleaning blanket. Stretching machine : Nip guard between running cloth and roller. Polymerising or curing machine : See part 3.3 and 9 of this Chapter. Gas/Electrical Singeing machine : See part 9 of this Chapter. Shearing and Cropping machine : (i) Rotating cutters should be interlocked by a transparent cover. (ii) Guards on main drive, suction blower and dust chamber and (iii) Metal detector are necessary. Sanforizing and Palmer machine : Its function is to give final finish (ironing) to the cloth. (i) Nip guards and side guards on in-running rolls and trip wire near cylinder (height < 1.7 mt) to stop the motion (ii) Pneumatic controls and roll drives guards (iii) Steamline safety (iv) Plaiter drive guard. Mercerising machine : Nip guard on mangle rolls, guards on main drive coupling, chain drive, bevel

gears, mangle roll gears, chain return wheel, squeeze roll belt drive, squeeze rolls, impregnator nip between float roll and top roll, stabilizer-tension roll and top roll nip and splash guard on caustic tank are necessary. 21. Carbonising unit : Its function is carbonising i.e. acid burning of cotton fibre of the blended cloth. (i) Acid bath (70% H2SO4) should have safe overflow device and splash guards on both sides (ii) Nip guard on squeeze rolls (iii) FRP tray and acid-proof flooring, PVC valves for acid use and use of PPE and safety shower by workers. 22. Folding machine : (i) The crankwheel and reciprocating arm should be guarded to prevent hit injury. (ii) Fixed guard on main drive. 23. Towel cutting machine : Cutting edge should be guarded at the feeding end of towel. In addition to above textile machine guarding, general safety measures for metal working machinery, lifting machines, material handling, hand tools, hand trucks, chemicals, flooring, fire and health hazards, must also be provided and maintained. Welfare facilities of canteens, lunch/rest room, ambulance room, crèche, welfare and safety officers should also be provided. See Part-3 for statutory provisions.

9 FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS AND CONTROLS A booklet ‘Fire Prevention in Textile Industry, Instructions for Supervisors’ published by the Loss Prevention Association of India Ltd., Mumbai - 1 (Gujarati copy is also available), IS:3079 and 2190 are most useful to understand and control fire/explosion hazards in textile industry. Cotton dust is not fine enough to cause dust-explosion but it may certainly cause fire if any spark is available. Explosion hazard lies with polymerising or curing machine where

flammable liquids are used and therefore explosion relief doors are required. Fire hazard is more in blowroom and spinning sections due to loose and flying cotton and in processing department due to solvents and chemicals. The main cause of fire in textile mills can be attributed to the failure of electrical equipment, sparks from foreign material carried along with cotton stock, friction, hot bearings due to inadequate oiling and attention, presence of excessive quantities of fly and dust in the department and the use of flammable liquids and processing of cloth at high temperatures. Building Construction : Textile mill buildings are classified as ‘fireproof; ‘non-fire proof’ and ‘inferior’. In order to minimise the risk of fire, all mill processes and storage buildings must be of fire proof construction of at least 6 hours grading. The behaviour of a structure when subject to fire stresses must be taken into account at the design stage. Godowns for cotton and finished products shall be essentially single storey structures and located at least 30 mt away from the spinning department. In textile mills, the departments that requires separation by perfect party walls in order to reduce the fire loads are : (a) Baled cotton warehouses, cotton mixing and blowing rooms; willow and thread extractor rooms; waste opening rooms; carding rooms; speed and ring frames; mule spinning department; preparatory sections and loom sheds, cloth processing houses with fire walls around special hazard processes such as ‘singeing’ and ‘cloth raising’. (b) Boiler houses and firing places must be separated from all process and store buildings except the engine rooms and the like. (c) Electric generating stations and transformer houses must be cited at least 10 mt away. Cotton and yarn drying chambers must be constructed of incombustible materials and fitted with thermostat controls in order to cut off the source of

heat supply at predetermined temperatures. Warehouses and Stores : (a) Breakage of cotton bale hoops causes sparks and subsequent fires (b) Faulty electrical equipment, both for lighting and bale stackers may cause fire. (c) Lots of baled cotton must be stacked in an orderly manner away from godown walls to prevent spread of fire and assist fire fighting and salvage operations. (d) Adequate drainage of godown floors is necessary in order to prevent excessive water damage of lower layers. All sources of ignition like mechanical sparks due to friction, electrical spark, spark from welding or cutting, prismatic effect of sunrays from glass window on cotton bales, use of naked flames, heated lamp or metal parts, oil dripping and electrical loose wiring or electrically heated metal parts should be avoided by prompt supervision. Fire hydrants should be kept nearby. Cotton Mixing and Blow Rooms : (a) Generation of sparks from foreign matters, particularly pieces of metal carried along with cotton stock through metal rollers and spiked lattices of opening and blowing lines. Loose rivets and short ends of hoop iron are the main causes which could be eliminated by providing suitable magnetic separators which should be cleaned during each shift. (b) Machines with high speeds are more prone to fires. Machines with higher capacities are exposed to large quantities of loose cotton and hence fires in such machines are carried faster and at longer distances (c) All cotton opening and cleaning machines with spiked lattices and rollers must be sprinkled. Carding Department : Cotton in the carding machines being still in the loose stage is susceptible to fire due to friction between metallic parts, particularly fillets, licker-ins and grinds. Spinning Frames : (a) Frequent fires occur due to heated spindle bearings of those of the rollers driving them (b) Lint and fly cleaner units of spinning frames cause fire due to

improper conductor or collector shoe contacts with the open bus bars running the entire length of the machines. The uneven contacts of the collector shoes cause sparking which ignite the fluff collected around the buses. (c) Generation of static electricity is generally encountered in the spinning of rayon yarn particularly in the card room and it is safer to ground all machines and to provide suitable humidification system to eliminate static charges. Loom Shed : The picking mechanism usually gets jammed due to accumulation of fluff which causes fire spreading and droppings below the loom or at times to the warp beams.

Processing Department : 1. Cloth and Yarn Singeing (burning by fuel fire) : Due to the presence of open flames and flammable gases, fires are frequent in singeing rooms but these could be avoided by the use of proper electrical equipment and electrical interlocked sequence in order to prevent the machine being started up before the exhaust and gas blower fans are brought into operation. All control gear in such case must be mounted externally with vapour-proof lighting fixtures. Solenoid valve on the fuel line is essential to stop fuel supply in the event of power or m/c failure. This will prevent stationary fabric undergoing singeing and from being ignited. LPG and air pipe lines should be colour coded. NRV to prevent flash back, gas burner control, no smoking notice and ready fire extinguishers are required. LPG safety rules should be followed. Fuel (petrol) control valve on carburettor (petrol vaporiser), temperature control on air heater, suction hood, duct and dust chamber, flameproof electric fitting, guards on nip rolls and batch drive, brush rolls and roll drive, water

cooling of the guide rolls near burner and safety ladder to fuel tank are also important. 2. Electrically heated Yarn Singeing Machines : An interlocking arrangement is necessary to ensure that the heating elements cannot be switched on while the yarn is stationary in the machine. Only water washed fabric should pass. Solvent may cause hazard. 3. Polymerising or Curing Machines : Its function is to dry (by heating) the printed cloth. Several explosions and fires have occurred in polymerising machines in textile mills due to the mixture of organic solvents in the printing pigments. Precautions to eliminate accidents are : (1) Pre-drying of printed fabric over drying ranges to remove most of the solvent outside the machine. (2) Lock the exhaust openings in top of curing machine at least 2/3 full opening. (3) Electric heaters must be provided with thermostat controls and synchronised with the exhaust fan and machine main drive so that in the event of accidental failure of exhaust fan motor, the entire machine stops along with the heating elements. (4) Provision of safety flaps on the tops of polymerising machines which would open out automatically in case of explosion. (5) Air circulation fan filter gauze must be regularly cleaned as poor circulation would cause localised pockets of solvent vapour. (6) Exhaust duct must be regularly cleaned every week and extended outside the work room. (7) Interlocking of exhaust fan with fabric motion so that the fans will start before fabric is fed into the chamber. See Part 3.3 for Rule 68C GFR. Steam curing is safer. 4. Cloth Raising Department : Here fires are frequent due to passage of foreign materials between filleted rollers and it is necessary that the

cloth be inspected before passing through the machine. The machine must be regularly cleaned of fluff accumulation. 5. Electrical Installation: Electrical equipment must comply with Electricity Act and Rules (See Part 2.7 & 2.8 of Chapter-28), relevant Indian Standards and installed and maintained in safe condition. Lighting fixtures in places where considerable dust and fluff accumulate and godowns must be of dust-proof type, wired in screwed conduits and switchgear must be mounted externally. Stop motion devices on machines must be dustproof, wired in conduit and checked regularly. Overhead electric lines in compounds should also be cleaned regularly. Fire Extinguishers : Fire fighting arrangements consisting of portable appliances, water hydrants and automatic sprinklers must be designed and laid in accordance with relevant IS Specifications. The automatic sprinkler system discovers fire, sounds alarm and extinguishes the smallest fire. In sprinkled building, water damage will be less because the amount of water necessary for extinguishing is smaller, hence all mill buildings must be ‘sprinkled’. Such installations are expensive but their worth is justified. High pressure automatic sprinklers of special design must be provided in generating stations, transformer houses and oil godowns. They should be used after power is switched off. A trained fire fighting squad shall be maintained round the clock within the mill premises. General Safety Precautions : Mill compounds must be regularly cleaned and housekeeping both inside as well as in the yard should be of good order. Overhead structures in all departments must be regularly cleaned and floors swept during each shift.

Electrical equipment shall be satisfactorily maintained and periodic check-up is necessary. Risk of overheating can be reduced by providing efficient lubrication and dayto-day maintenance of all machines, bearings and moving parts. Adequate guarding for machines should be provided particularly on blowing and carding machines. Smoking should be prohibited within 6 mt of process and storage blocks and it is advisable to provide smoking booths.

10 HEALTH HAZARDS AND CONTROLS Some important health hazards in a textile industry are as follows : Accidents to fingers, hands and other body parts are due to a variety of textile machinery and their hundreds of moving parts. Constant machine guarding is the best solution. Noise and vibration are incidental hazards. Byssionosis is a lung disease due to prolonged exposure to high concentration of cotton dust. Extraction and suppression is the best remedy. Sch. 27, Rule 102, GFR requires this. Increased humidity and temperature cause discomfort to workers. Limits of dry and wet bulb temperatures should be maintained. Well designed and maintained AC plants are more comfortable.

10.1

Health Hazards in Cotton Textile Industry :

1. Cotton Dust and Byssionosis : According to one survey 20% (approx. 3 lakh) of the textile workers in mills were found victim of byssionosis. It was 14% in carding section and 10% in spinning and winding sections. Measurement of cotton dust concentration in 8 units in India showed it from 3.4 to 5.6 mg/m3 in blow room and 0.1 to 2.2 mg/m 3 in

card room. Another survey showed cotton dust level as under: At At At At

Kanpur Delhi Ahmedabad Mumbai

-

7.85 5.50 4.00 3.90

mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3

The threshold limit suggested is 0.2 to 0.75 mg/m3. 2nd Schedule of the Factories Act prescribes 0.2 mg/m3 lint free raw cotton dust. ILO prescribed cotton dust values are as under : TWA OSHA – 0.2 mg/m3 in yarn manufacturing. 0.5 mg/m3 in other operations. 0.75 mg/m3 in slashing and weaving. STEL ACGIH – 0.6 mg/m3 IDLH – 0.5 mg/m3 Vacuum stripping and suction exhaust arrangement attached to carding machines, lint and dust collectors and general exhaust ventilation are necessary to minimise the flying cotton dust. Proper dust mask or cotton cloth should be given to workers. Byssionosis is an occupational disease caused to many mill workers by the cotton dust. This name was given by Proust in 1877. It is a lung disease like TB or Asthma and reduces working capacity of a worker. After working for 5 to 10 years in cotton dust area, respiratory problem starts. Initial symptoms are cough or bronchitis, chest pain, breathlessness, emphysema and phlegm. Ultimately the lungs are damaged. The victim gets exhausted soon by a small work. He feels energy loss and becomes unfit to work. Its major hazard area is spinning department, though it can happen to winders and weavers and also to flax, hemp or jute workers. Under section 89 and the Third Schedule of the Factories Act, byssionosis is a notifiable occupational disease and the

medical practitioner noticing this disease has to report to the Inspector of Factories, otherwise he is liable for penalty. For its diagnosis (1) Occupational history of the worker and (2) Lung function test are required. The effected worker is examined on the first day after his holiday and also at the end of his shift after working. His loss of working capacity is measured. Workman Compensation is available under WC Act or ESI Act. Factory Medical Officer should check such workers periodically. His workplace must be changed soon after the first detection. X-ray and gradation reports should be maintained. There is no medical remedy for this disease. Therefore its prevention is the only best solution. Local exhaust ventilation attached with machine, room exhaust ventilation, water sprinklers and use of cotton dust mask or respirator are the effective remedial measures. Workers engaged in cleaning of cotton dust or in its high concentration must be provided with air line respirator and hood or efficient face mask. Instead of broom-stick cleaning, vacuum cleaning machine should be used to minimise the flying particles. 2. Heat and Humidity: Higher temperature due to closed operations and work rooms, humidity (to reduce thread breakage), heat generating processes such as sizing, kiers, drying range, stenter, hot dyeing, singeing, polymerising or curing, steam and oil heaters, hot air dryers, boilers etc., create higher temperature in spinning and processing departments which if exceeds 29.50C (850F) (threshold or effective temperature), or humidity is increased, causes discomfort and fall in productivity. Therefore the room temperature must be controlled @ 25.5 to 29.50C (78 to 850F) by good natural and

3.

4.

5.

6.

mechanical ventilation (See Chapter 10). Workers should be relieved at short interval from high temperature zone. Air conditioning is desirable. Hot metal parts should be insulated. Noise : High noise in weaving and ring frame department causes mental stresses and may result in a hearing loss which is an occupational disease under the Factories Act. Permissible limit of 90 dB for 8 hr. working should not be exceeded. One survey in a mill at Bombay indicated the noise levels in Spinning Dept. - 96.5 dB, Doubling machines 97.6 dB, Winding machines - 98.5 dB, Auto loom shed - 99 dB and Nonauto loom shed - 102 dB. Use of sound absorbing material is effective but expensive. Use of ear muffs or ear plugs (glass wool) is the most practical remedy and the workers must be trained to wear them. In Nigeria, it was observed that due to use of ear protection individual efficiency was increased by 12% and overall production by 1%. The long term solution is the design of noiseless looms. Legally Sch. 23, rule 102, GFR is applicable. Weaver’s Cough : This is caused by inhalation of sizing materials, 50% of which comes out during weaving. As the name suggests the workers of loom shed are prone to it. Good ventilation dilutes the effect. Cancer and Coronary diseases : These diseases like bladder cancer, chrome eczema or chrome poisoning, dermatitis are caused due to the chemicals like lead chromate, potassium or sodium bichromate, toxic solvents, titanium dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and trioxide. Local exhaust system near toxic fume generation, chemical respirators, gloves, aprons etc. are useful. Non or less hazardous substitutes should be utilised. Medical health check-ups and advice should be followed. Training and supervision will also help. Machinery hazards : Foregoing parts 6 to 8 have classified and

explained process-wise machine hazards in textile industry. Newer machinery has reduced many of these hazards. The most dangerous parts of textile machines are main motor and gear drives, head stock gearing of spinning frames, revolving beaters of blow-room machines, card cylinder, flying shuttles and loom gears, picking stick and in-running rolls of processing machinery. Specific hazards of jet dyeing and other pressure vessels have also caused many accidents. The fixed guards, interlocked guards, nip guards and other safety devices should not be tempered with or kept open while machinery is in motion. 7. Material handling : Heavy rolls and other machine parts and bulk containers are to be handled in textile industry. Excessive weights may cause health injuries, strain and pain. Mechanical aids should be used to lift, carry and handle such heavy loads. 8. Poor lighting : Many textile processes require high standards of illumination, such as drawing in threads through healds and reed, weaving and processing of coloured cloth, jacquard (design) weaving, fabric defect checking, folding and packing etc. Poor lighting on such processes causes eye strain. Poor lighting in passage ways, corners, stairs, platforms, confined spaces, tanks, pits and vessels, unguarded machinery and slippery surfaces may cause accidents. Therefore in addition to providing sufficient lighting (see Part 5 of Chapter-9), window glasses, lamps and tubes should be regularly cleaned and local lighting should be provided where required. 9. Shuttle Kissing : Suction shuttles of ordinary (non-auto) looms need thread (weft) sucking by mouth through shuttle eye (small hole) and pirn bobbin many times during a day. Dirt, dust or broken fibre ends are drawn into the throat. The same shuttle may be used by different workers in different shifts. Therefore

this is unhygenic and infectious method. Non-suction shuttle or pirn bobbin battery requiring no kissing by mouth is the only remedy. 10. Overtime work : Legal limit of 8 hours a shift is hardly followed in thousands of small and medium scale textile industries. 12 hours a shift has become a routine working. This certainly causes health hazards. This causes more harm to women and child workers. More working hours cause physical, mental and nervous strain and result in more accidents and sickness rates. Full cooperation of employers and employees can solve this problem. 11. Welfare provisions : Large scale factories have lunch room, rest room, canteen, ambulance room, creche, washing facilities, free medical examinations, transport facilities etc. But majority of small and medium scale factories do not have such facilities. This affects the health and general well being of the workers. 12. Fire and Explosion hazards : Cotton is easily combustible material. Solvents used in processing department can cause fire and explosion both. For details see part just following.

10.2 Health Hazards in other Textile Industry : 1. Manmade fibres (mmf) : Fire and explosion is the main risk from solvents and nitrocellulosic materials. All flammable materials should be stored in specially designed separate building and its flow should be through closed system. All sources of ignition including static charge should be eliminated. Electric fitting should be flameproof. Toxic effects due to H 2S, CS2, C6H6, acetic acid etc. should be reduced by local exhaust ventilation. Workers should be given respirators.

Spillage of water and other solutions may cause slipping hazards. Protective clothing is necessary for wet processes. Machine guarding to machineries is similar to cotton industry. Glass wool manufacturing induces infrared emissions from molten glass. Heat absorbing screen is required. Flying or breaking glass particles may cause skin penetration. Resins, hardeners and accelerators may cause skin irritation. Protective clothing, good hygienic practices and medical advice are necessary. Dust fumes need local exhaust ventilation. Synthetic fibres are made from chemicals or petrochemicals. Nylon, polyester, polyolefins, polypropylene, polyurethane etc. are welknown. Machine guarding is required as in case of other textile machines. The large quantities of solvent vapours given off during spinning and extrusion pose fire, explosion and poisoning hazard and need local exhaust with safe discharge and respiratory protection. Delivery of toxic and flammable substances through pumps and pipes reduces hazards of manual handling and direct exposure. TLV, LEL and other safe limits must be maintained. Sparks should be eliminated. Electric equipment should be flameproof. Effective earthing to machines and vessels shall prevent dangerous spark. Static charge eliminators to machines are necessary. Workers should wear footwear with rubber soles. 2. Flax & Linen industry : The fibres of flax plants are used to make linen cloth, towels, nets and ropes. The fibre is light, strong and absorbent. Its strength increases on wetting. Machine guarding on rollers, pulley-drives and other moving parts is essential. Flax dust may cause Mill fever and Weaver’s cough, chronic bronchitis and byssionosis. An ILO report (1965)

gives following figures for flax dust levels and byssionosis prevalance :

Process

Prepreparers Prepares Wetfinishers other finishers

Mean total dust concentration mg/m3 6.7

Byssionosis prevalence (% all grades) 44.0

2.7 0.6

30.0 3.6

1.4

0.7

Dust measurement at 6 months interval by a trained industrial hygienist is useful. Fine dust is removed by passing air through canvas filter. Coarse dust is extracted by a cyclone extractor. Hackling machines and carding engines need hood enclosure and exhaust system at the sources of generation. For noise reduction, sound absorption treatment to walls, ceiling and floors and isolating mounts to machines are necessary. Process segregation by separate rooms of heavy partition walls and ear muffs to workers reduce noise problem. 3. Jute industry : See Part 5.2 4. Silk industry : Silkworms were reared in homes where CO poisoning was noticed in Japan. In reeling raw silk, dermatitis was noticed. Handling raw silk may produce skin and respiratory allergy. Very good lighting is required in the weaving of coloured silk yarn. Temperature, ventilation and humidity control are important at all stages. Reeling bath temperature should be lowered to control skin effect. Exhaust ventilation on bath and frequent replacement of water are necessary. Machine guarding is required as in case of textile industry. See also Part 33 of Chapter-23.

5. Wool industry : Like cotton textile machines, wool textile machinery also needs effective machine guarding and spacing. Anthrax is possible to wool sorters. Chemicals used may cause poisoning, eye burning, gassing etc. Selection of less harmful chemicals, local exhaust ventilation, good washing facility, PPE and strict personal hygiene are necessary. Dust, temperature and noise control are also necessary.

11EFFLUENT TREATMENT AND WASTE DISPOSAL IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY Textile effluents are generally coloured and contain soluble (organic and inorganic) and insoluble (suspended) impurities and possess high BOD and COD. Therefore their treatment and safe disposal are necessary and statutory.

(1) On Water courses : 1 Colour

Dyes

2 Suspended impurities 3 pH 4 Oils Grease 5 Dissolved minerals 6 Toxic chemicals

7 Oxygen

Content

&

Colloidal & suspended particles Alkalis Mineral oils

Inorganic sodium salts Chromium, sulphide, chlorine and aniline dyes Starch,

dextrin, sulphide, nitrite etc.

from water and affects aquatic life.

(2) On Land : The excess content of sodium and boron of textile wastes adversely affects crops. High sodium alkalinity combined with salinity impairs the growth of plants. Suspended solids and sodium prevent root penetration in land and soil texture is spoiled. (3) On Air : Continuous addition of CO2 and other particles due to fuel (coal, LDO, gas) burning in boilers and stenters, and toxic fumes of chlorine, acids, H 2O2 and flammable vapours from volatile solvents pollute the air and surrounding environment. Effluent Flowchart : A flowchart of effluent generation during cotton textile processing is shown in Fig 21.10.

Effects of textile effluents :

Impurity

depletion

Effluent Effect Colourificatio n. Photosynthesi s is affected. Turbidity of receiving water. Alkalinity disturbs aquatic life. Effluent Form blanket and prevent O2 entry in water. Increase salinity of water. Toxic effect to fishEffluent and microbial organisms. Effluent Demand Effluent O2

Raw Cotton 

Cotton opening 

Carding 

Combing 

Spinning 

Sizing 

Weaving 

Gray Cloth 

Desizing 

Scouring 

Bleaching

Mercerizing 

Printing

Acidic wastes

Dyeing 

Finishing

Effluent

Effluent



Finished goods

1. Colour removal. 2. Recovery and reuse of waste water. 3. Conservation and reuse of water.

Reduction of Pollution Load : To reduce costs and complexity of treatment, it is first necessary to reduce pollution load of the effluents. It also results in saving of costly materials. Good housekeeping, controlled and efficient use of dyes and chemicals and closer process controls are essential for this purpose. Some important methods are as under :

4. 5. 6.

Waste segregation. Recovery and reuse. Substitution of low pollution load substances. Judicious use of chemicals. Process changes. Economical water use.

Treatment Methods : Three stage treatment methods of textile effluents is as tabulated below : Treatment Methods Primary Screenin g Sedime n tation Equalisation Neutralisation

Secondary (Biological)

Tertiary

Activated sludge process Trickling filteration

Multimedi a filteration

Aerated lagoons Secondary sedimentation Oxidation ponds Anaerobic digestion

Chemical coagulatio n Chemical precipitatio n Reverse osmosis Dialysis

Sludge disposal Removal of interfering substances in secondary biological treatments

Coagulation Floatation

Other methods are -

Fig 21.10 Effluent Flowchart

1. 2. 3.

Alkaline wastes

carbon adsorption Chlorinatio n

Activated

For details of these methods, books on pollution control methods should be referred. Please see reference No.7 at the end of this chapter. Tolerance Limits : IS 2490 (Part 1 to 10) and Schedule I & VI u/r 3 & 3A of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, prescribe tolerance limits applicable to textile effluents. Characteristics of raw (untreated) effluent and required parameters of process houses are shown in the table. Process House Characteristics

Effluent

No .

Paramete r

Before Treatmen t

1 2

pH Color

3

6

Suspended Solids Total Dissolved Solids Oil & Grease BOD

6.6-8.0 1000-1500 unit 600-900 ppm 1000014000 ppm

Required after Treatmen t 6.5-8.5 100 unit

7

COD

8

Ammonical Nitrogen

4 5

100 ppm 2100 ppm

20-25 ppm

10 ppm

500-600 ppm 1600-2200 ppm 0-5 ppm

30 ppm 100 ppm 50 ppm

Flow diagram of effluent treatment plant in textile processing industry is given in Fig. 21.11.

FeSO4/Alum Lime Polyelectrolite

Recycle

Effluent  Oil & Grease Trap  Collection Tank  Flocculator  Lammella (Solid Separation)  Aeration Tank  Lammella (Secondary)  Sand bed  Carbon bed  Final disposal

Primary Treatment

Secondary Treatment

Tertiary Treatment

Fig 21.11 Effluent Treatment diagram for textile processing industry

Exercise 1. Explain, Discuss : 1.

State,

Mention

or

Need of safety in textile industry. 2. Statutory provisions for safety in textile machinery. 3. Flow chart of a composite textile processes. 4. Flow chart of spinning and weaving OR Finishing processes. 5. Flow chart of long staple finishing processes. 6. Flow chart of synthetic fibre manufacture. 7. Flow chart of Filament yarn (Nylon – 6) 8. Flow chart of Oriented yarn (LOY, POY etc.) 9. Manufacturing process of span (oriented) Yarn ( POY, FOY etc.) 10. The merits and demerits of rotor spinning.

11. Hazards and safety precautions of Blow room machinery. 12. Hazards and safety precautions of Carding machines. 13. Hazards and safety precautions of Sliver and Ribbon lap machines. 14. Hazards and safety precautions of Combers and Draw frames. 15. Hazards and safety precautions of Speed frames. 16. Hazards and safety precautions of Ring frames. 17. Hazards and safety precautions of Doubling machines. 18. Hazards and safety precautions of Winding machines. 19. Hazards and safety precautions of Warping machines. 20. Hazards and safety precautions of Sizing machines. 21. Hazards and safety precautions of power looms.

22. Hazards and safety precautions of Bleaching process. 23. Hazards and safety precautions of Washing machines. 24. Hazards and safety precautions of Jigger machines. 25. Hazards and safety precautions of Calendar machines. 26. Hazards and safety precautions of Jet dyeing machines. 27. Hazards and safety precautions of Stenter machine. 28. Hazards and safety precautions of Drum washer machine. 29. Hazards and safety precautions of Printing machine. 30. Hazards and safety precautions of Carbonising machine. 31. Health hazards and controls in Cotton textile industry. 32. Health hazards and controls in Silk and Wool industry. 33. Fire and Explosion hazards in Textile industry. 34. Effluent treatment flow chart of a textile mill. Explain by a diagram. 35. Types of effluent treatment methods in a textile mill. 2. Write short Notes on : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Inference of accident case studies in a textile mill. Types of fibres and their use. Spinning preparatory OR Weaving preparatory process. Spinning processes OR Finishing processes. Jute Manufacture. Rotor Spinning. General Safety Precautions of textile processing (finishing) machines OR Safety devices on a Singeing machine. Hazards and controls of flying shuttles. Picking stick assembly. Hazards and safety aspects of a Washing tank. Kiers and Agers. Byssionosis OR Weaver’s Cough. Heat and Humidity problems in a textile mill.

14. Fire hazards in cotton godowns. 15. Methods to reduce pollution load in a textile mill. 3. Explain the difference between – 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Cotton and Man made fibres. Thermic fluid heater and Drier. Ginning and Pressing. Ring frame and Doubling frame. Pirn winding machine and a Warping machine. Bleaching and Dyeing. Spinning and Weaving. Fibre and Fabric. Short staple fibre and Long staple fibre. Gilling and Carding. Ring spinning and Rotor Spinning. Singeing machine and Curing machine. Stitching machine and Folding machine. Fire hazards and Explosion hazards in a cotton textile mill. Primary and Secondary effluent treatment methods.

4. Comment on the following explaining whether it is true or false ? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Women or children can be employed toward delivery – end side of a cotton opener. Section 30 (F.A) is not applicable to hydro extractor. Rule 61 (GFR) is applicable to drum washers. Copper sizing cylinder is a thin wall pressure vessel. PET fibres pose no health hazards. PET fibres pose environmental hazards. Beaters are most dangerous parts in below room machinery. Rotor spinning machine cannot spin combed yarn. Bleaching and dyeing of jute is not possible. Trip cum distance guard is required on a Warping machine.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

Rule 61 (8) for thin wall pressure vessels is applicable to sizing cylinders. Vertical picking stick is less dangerous than horizontal picking stick of a loom. Hydro-extractor does not need interlocked top lid. Jigger machine needs splash guards. Calendar machine needs safety valve. Stenter machine needs exhaust fans. Jet dyeing machine needs depressure device. Drum washer needs PRV and safety valve. Sanforizing needs steam line safety. Towel cutting machine needs guard on delivery end of towel. High noise area in a textile mill is its cloth department. Jacquard (design) weaving requires better lighting condition. Mmf manufacture has toxic hazards. In silk industry dermatitis is not possible. Glass wool processing has dust hazard but no infrared radiation hazard. Flax dust cannot cause Byssionosis. Employment of Industrial hygienist is justified in a textile mill. Explosion is possible in a polymerising machine. Cotton mixing room does not pose fire hazards. Solenoid valve is essential on fuel supply line of a singeing machine. Flameproof electric fitting is required in a fuel fired singeing machine room. Electric heaters should be interlocked with exhaust fan drive and cloth drive of a curing machine.

5. Explain the following terms from safety point of view – 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Fibres from Animal origin. Card OR Comber. Kier. In-running nip. Head stock gearing. Drying range. Artificial humidification. Byssionosis. Cotton opener. Polymerising machine. Yarn singeing machine. Sanforizing. Texturising. Bobbin shield. Knee brake. Duck bill and Hitter. Weaver’s cough Shuttle kissing. Tolerance limits of effluent. Padding mangle. Scouring process Hinged swing door. Micro switch. Lap rod. Beam flange. Drafting zone. Etching of copper roller. Dust chamber. Flutted roller. Licker in.

6. Match the words in column ‘A’ with appropriate words from column ‘B’ from safety point of view – A Fibres from – Vegetable origin Natural polymer Petrochemical origin Polyvinyl derivatives Carding machine Roving frame Ring frame Pirn winding machine Warping machine Draw frame

B Acrylic fibres Synthetic fibres Viscose rayon Cotton Wool Asbestos Dyeing of cloth Gray cloth Weft for shuttle Drawn warp Combed yarn Cone of yarn Sliver

Loom Jigger machine Cotton opener Carding machine Sliver lap m/c Comber m/c Slubber frame Inter frame Ring frame Rotor spinning Warping machine Sizing machine Loom Bleaching machine Washing Tank Hydro extractor Calendar machine Jigger machine Drying Range Ager machine Stenter machine Jet dyeing machine Drum washer Stitching machine Shearing machine Carbonising unit Folding machine

Twisted yarn Rove yarn Warper’s beam Cylinder doors Beater Coiler and draw box gears Nip guard Rotating flyers Bevel wheel guard Knot-free yarn Knee brakes Ring travellers Nip guards Photo electric device Fume exhaust Shuttle guard Doffer wheel Chemical goggles Heavy rolls Railing on hot water t ank Brake Use of chain pulley bloc k Chain drive guard Rupture disc Exhaust hood and chi mney Crank-wheel guard

Cotton dust Noise Weaver’s cough Humidity Bleaching process Shuttle kissing 12 hours shift Anthrax Yarn singeing machine Storage of cotton bales

Locking device Acid proof flooring Metal detector ELCB Repeat setting device To reduce thread breakage Sizing material H 2 O2 Byssionosis Explosion hazard Loom shed Pirn bobbin battery Fire hydrant Wool industry LPG safety Illegal

7. Give probable causes and controls of the following – 1. Accidents in below room OR Loom shed 2. Accidents in Sizing OR Carding 3. Accidents in Dyeing OR Bleaching. 4. Accidents in Printing. 5. Bursting of drying cylinder. 6. Broken shields of bobbins. 7. Processing chemicals. 8. Stentering machines. 9. Ring spinning OR Winding. 10. Carbonising of polyester.

Reference and Recommended Reading : 1. The Factories Act and Rules. 2. BIS Handbook. 3. Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, ILO, Geneva. 4. The Course Material of the Central Labour Institute, Sion, Mumbai-22. 5. Synopsis of the Gujarat Factories (Amendment) Rules, 1995, by K.U. Mistry, Siddarth Prakashan, Ahmedabad. 6. Gujarati Booklet : Byssionosis Control, Unnati Vikas Shikshan Sansthan,

G1/200, Azad Society, Ahmedabad 380014, or PRIA, New Delhi - 110062. 7. Treatment of Textile Processing Effluents by N Manivasakam, Sakthi Publications, Coimbatore-21. 8. Rotor Spinning - by Dr. Eric Dyson, The Textile Trade Press, Stockport, England. 9. An Introduction to Spinning by Morton & Wray.