20 - Music Performance Anxiety

Music performance anxiety

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online Music, Motor Control and the Brain Eckart Altenmüller, Mario Wiesendanger, and Jurg Kesselring

Print publication date: 2006 Print ISBN-13: 9780199298723 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2012 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199298723.001.0001

Music performance anxiety Jürg Kesselring

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199298723.003.0020

Abstract and Keywords This chapter discusses music performance anxiety (MPA). MPA may be defined as a state of arousal and anxiety occurring before or while a person is performing nonanonymously in front of an audience producing a valuable or evaluated task touching on his/her self-esteem. Among the symptoms are palpitation, intestinal problems, tremor, difficulty concentrating, dry mouth, wet hands, difficulty with intonation, unreliable memory, increased sweating, and irregular breathing. The chapter also discusses its causes, prevalence, and treatment strategies. Cognitive-behavioural strategies are used by many musicians to cope with MPA: positive thought, visualization and distraction, muscle relaxation, deep breathing, proper nutrition and exercise.

Keywords: music performance anxiety, treatment strategies, anxiety, cognitivebehavioural strategies, positive thought, muscle relaxation

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Music performance anxiety

Definition Music performance anxiety (MPA) may be defined as ‘a state of arousal and anxiety occurring before or while a person is performing non-anonymously in front of an audience producing a valuable or evaluated task touching on his/her self-esteem’. A description by a sufferer is particularly realistic and dramatic: ‘my heart is beating up to the neck, I can hardly breathe, my knees are trembling, my hands are wet, I cannot think clearly, I am disorientated, I feel helpless and abandoned. Everybody will laugh at me, they will hate me, even kill me—and they will be right…now it is clear that I had completely overestimated myself. What a shame…!’. This description (most probably by someone who is not actually performing because this would impede his or her finding the words) contains all the reactions one would expect from heightened activity of the sympathetic nervous system, an adrenergic response which is usually set up in situations of fear and danger which induce ‘fight or flight’ reactions for survival. Music performance anxiety is a problem of the whole person and cannot be reduced to a disorder of motor control.

Symptoms Music performance anxiety is a special form of emotional behaviour (Damasio 1999) with aspects of: 1. Motor expressive behaviour: e.g. trembling or shaky voice, hands, arms, knees, or feet; irregular breathing, changes of facial expression (mimics), chewing finger nails, etc. 2. Reactions of the autonomous nervous system (sympathetic as well as parasympathetic): e.g. palpitation (rapid heart rate), sweating, flushing; shortness of breath or hyperventilation (clammy hands), fidgeting, pacing, loss of sensitivity or numbness in fingers, gastrointestinal disturbances (dry mouth, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting), frequent trips to the toilet, increased urination, diarrhoea, insomnia. 3. Subjective feelings (which may in part be influenced by the motor responses and the reactions of the

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Music performance anxiety

autonomic nervous system): e.g. feeling tense,

(p.310)

increased irritability and vulnerability, depression, anxiety, feelings of helplessness, being overwrought, panic, loss of control, anguish (feeling faint or dizzy), fear, fright, shock, numbness, feeling inadequate or worthless. 4. Cognitive appraisal (thoughts and reflections concerning feelings and bodily symptoms): e.g. concentration and memory problems (decreased concentration and increased distractibility, mind blanks, blocks, freezes, memory lapses), circular thinking (catastrophizing), confusion, difficulties making decisions, interfering negative thoughts. 5. Behavioural changes: e.g. insomnia, loss of appetite, avoidance reactions, hectic or paralyzed movement, talkative or mute, exhaustion.

Causes of music performance anxiety Is music performance really a situation so dangerous as to provoke these ‘fight, flight and fright’ reactions and why does the individual concerned feeling him- or herself to be in such a situation when performing music in public? Music performance anxiety may be present during performance and when not mastered may render it impossible, or it may be present for hours or days or even weeks before a performance. This is clear evidence for the fact that it is the imagined situation of performance which induces the same bodily reactions as does an acute danger in the real world. The imagination of a real frightening situation is apparently equally as effective in producing these bodily reactions as such a situation itself. The changes observed would have an adaptive function in relation to a physical threat but the after effects of the alarm system can, when not overcome before and during the performance, greatly interfere with its accomplishment (Wilson and Roland 2002). What is perceived as the danger leading to the anxiety reactions is mainly a fear of being judged and possibly devalued in one's self-esteem. The activity of the sympathetic nervous system, however, is Janus faced: it acts equally as a positive stimulant increasing alertness and focusing concentration. The quality of arousal is

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Music performance anxiety

related to arousal with an inverted U-shaped curve: low levels of arousal are insufficiently motivating while excessive arousal interferes with performance because concentration is disrupted, memory blocks occur, and there is loss of steadiness in the hands and voice (the Yerkes–Dodson law; see Wilson and Roland 2002) Considerable research has focused on MPA and coping strategies (Smith et al. 2000) but only a few studies have monitored physiological parameters before, during, and after performance, demonstrating increased heart rate, pulse, and blood pressure (and lower confidence) particularly during auditions (Fredrikson and Gunnarsson 1992). The latter study allowed the differentiation of a high-anxiety (tremor often experienced) from a low-anxiety (no tremor) group, and (p.311) importantly performance quality was rated higher in the latter group by an attending expert professor. Interestingly, however, raters blind to group assignment who listened to tape recordings and only had auditory cues made the reverse judgement, suggesting that quality judgement (at least in the tasks that were investigated) made by raters present at the performance was influenced more by factors associated with visual cues than by auditory ones—probably by behaviours like self-confidence and body posture. Biological reactions such as fighting, fleeing, or avoidance make sense in a strictly biological realm but may become counterproductive in the social context in which one of the most feared situations is the possibility of being laughed at or ridiculed. Stage fright results from an imbalance between selfset claims and expectations and coping capabilities, and it arises particularly in situations which may endanger selfesteem, the affection and sympathy of others, or the continuation of a career. Musicians perform complex psychomotor skills under conditions of high arousal when outcome is critical, performance is being evaluated, and competition is fierce. A person's appraisal of the demands of a performance, the perceived coping resources (e.g. ability and preparedness), and the ‘meaning’ or consequences (Smith et al. 2000) are all

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Music performance anxiety

influenced by personality (self-esteem, confidence, auditory style) and motivational factors (perfectionism, practice time). Music performance as a social situation gains significance by the presence and (mainly silent) participation of spectators and audience. In order to be able to participate the audience expects to encounter fulfilment of norms and standards but equally to be led by the person on stage to novel aesthetic experiences. Performance is an exchange of emotional values. Anxiety in such situations may arise through the suspected expectations of the audience. It is not just the fear of threatening events in nature but the fear of the reaction of other, largely unknown and anonymous, people. A sense of reality and autonomy must be balanced against dependency on expectations of the evaluation and appreciation by others. Pathological MPA may therefore be understood as a form of social phobia (Steptoe and Fidler 1987; Cox and Kennardy 1993). It is a mirror-world in which a person finds themself alone, dependent on the pre-conceived imagined estimations of others without being able to confront them in reality. Performance is a conflicting mixture of attraction and avoidance: a challenge on the one hand of being heard and seen and on the other hand a fear of being exposed with possible failure. Such fear is more marked when a pre-defined role has to be performed (as is the case in music performance). There is general agreement that auditions are the most stressful performance situations because they combine scrutiny and evaluation with a socially inferior status and may have a direct influence upon career progression (Wilson and Roland 2002). The degree

(p.312)

of anxiety

increases in direct proportion to the rigidity of the role, and this has to be taken into account by the person in that role well before the actual performance. The more we specialize and restrict our competence, the more vulnerable we become, and music performance is one of the highest possible specializations with narrowly defined stereotypes of bodily, mental, and emotional functions. The quality of a performance may be described, predicted, and analysed in a threedimensional model of stress factors interacting with each other: Trait anxiety (susceptibility to stress), situation (environmental pressure), and task mastery (Wilson 2002).

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Music performance anxiety

Expectations in our fantasy may grow into veritable monsters and become more dangerous than the ones we encounter in real daily life. Performance anxiety is most often related to a kind of judge or censor, internal or external, real or imagined, a consequence of previous life experiences. Unfortunately, very often the ‘inner censor’ is critical, doubtful, and cowardly— the very opposite of the qualities we strive for when performing, namely self-confidence, persuasive power, and courage. Reconciliation of these contradictory tendencies is therefore a pre-requisite for coming to terms with MPA. The ‘worryfactor’ (Wise 1971) leads only to increased self-centredness and is attracting just what we are most afraid of.

Emotional evaluation and self-esteem At the base of the problem of MPA lies the anxiety of being unmasked in front of the public, to lose value (and power) in failure. It is the conflict between the way by which a person is valued by others, by the values and validations experienced previously, and between the self-given evaluation, i.e. between expectations, the way one would like to be seen, and between self-evaluation. Most importantly this private conflict takes place in public. Emotions are created by inner engagement and involvement with the task. In MPA, shame, anger, and disorientation predominate. Anxiety is an emotion of the whole person, expressing itself as restlessness, irritability, insecurity, tension, clumsiness, sweating, freezing, etc. The problem in MPA is not anxiety itself but rather our attitude towards it. The narrow boundaries of anxiety may be overcome by courage on the basis of trust, which is the opposite of anxiety. A reason for trust is serious and adequate (not perfect) preparation. Practising means to make the difficult easy (or at least easier). Anxiety about failure most often results from projecting one's own self-destructive views and ideas onto others (the audience, jury, teachers, rivals). Shame is another emotional factor closely related to anxiety and always involved in MPA. Performing inevitably means exposing parts of oneself which are usually protected. The ambivalence of wanting to be

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Music performance anxiety

heard and seen on the one hand and of wanting to protect intimacy and identity on the other often renders performance so difficult. Anger arises if

(p.313)

we are not able to fulfil the

expectations of the inner censor or when perfectionism demands total control, which is never completely possible. Distractibility arises from inadequate concentration and lack of focus on the task and it may influence all cognitive domains even leading to complete disorientation.

Prevalence In 2002 a survey was conducted in three orchestras in Switzerland: the Zürich Chamber Orchestra (ZKO) (full-time professional musicians), the Glarner Musikkollegium (GMK) (part-time professional musicians), and the Orchester Gesellschaft Zürich (OGZ) (good amateurs) to which 50 musicians responded (for details see the Appendix). When asked whether they ever experienced anxiety while performing, 25 of the 32 women declared to have MPA sometimes and 6 often; and of the 18 men responding 12 had MPA sometimes and 4 often. Only three amateurs declared that they never experienced MPA. Stage fright was experienced more often during solo performance than when playing chamber music or in an orchestra concert, as is to be expected (Wilson and Roland 2002). More than half of the responders considered MPA to be disturbing often, 7/50 very much so. Symptoms began with equal frequency long before and shortly before performance, when entering stage and before difficult passages, respectively. These figures correspond well with those found among 155/650 professional orchestral players in The Netherlands who responded in a survey (Van Kemenade et al. 1995): in 59% MPA was considered serious enough to affect professional life, in 32% to a slight degree, in 32% to a moderate degree, in 28% it was very distinct, and in 9% of strong intensity. Anticipation of anxiety lasted for days (36%), weeks (10%), and even months (5%) and the conclusion was: ‘that their lives would have been merrier, happier, more relaxed and less stressed and more satisfying’. Among the symptoms were (in decreasing frequency) palpitation,

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Music performance anxiety

intestinal problems, tremor, difficulty concentrating, dry mouth, wet hands, difficulty with intonation, unreliable memory, increased sweating, and irregular breathing. Similar figures have been found by Krawehl and Altenmüller (2000) with symptoms among 40 music students considered to be very disturbing in 30% and sometimes disturbing in 60%, and by Wesner et al. (1990). When asked about personality type (on a scale from 0–10), 12 considered themselves to be introverted (7 women, 5 men) and 16 (11 women and 5 men) to be clearly extroverted while 22 (17 women, 5 men) ranged in between. Interestingly of those reporting MPA sometimes, twice as many considered themselves as being extroverted versus introverted, whereas those who experienced MPA often were equally distributed. On a scale for emotional stability,

(p.314)

MPA was reported

with equal frequency in those who considered themselves to be stable and in those who considered themselves to be unstable. On a scale for curiosity and openness (ranging from hesitant/anxious to open/courageous) MPA occurred twice as often in those who considered themselves to be open and courageous. All of those with a feeling of psychological weakness had MPA. When asked about the ability to relax, 10 rated themselves as being rather tense (4 women, 6 men) and 20 (11 women and 9 men) to be relaxed. Neither this question nor the questions regarding leisure satisfaction nor whether one would consider oneself as being a nervous person helped to predict the occurrence of MPA. Thirty participants could not agree to ‘feel well in (even unfamiliar) society’, phobias (height, open spaces, animals) were an issue in 11 women and 3 men, panic attacks occurred in 4, mainly among those who said they had MPA sometimes. This was rarer than in the study by Clark and Agras (1991) in which all participants fulfilled DSM-III criteria for social phobia.

Treatment strategies Cognitive-behavioural strategies are used by many musicians to cope with MPA: positive thought, visualization and

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Music performance anxiety

distraction, muscle relaxation, deep breathing, proper nutrition and exercise (Gratto 1998). In our survey, when asked ‘What do you do against MPA?’ the answers were (in decreasing frequency) relaxation, exercise, autogenous training, sport, beta-blockers, and tranquillizers (only amateurs!). Half of them had the impression that their coping behaviour would be very helpful, a quarter indicated that it would help only a little. Although the effects of coping behaviours on health and performance are of central importance, little research has been conducted on the efficacy of specific strategies (Smith et al. 2002). Experiences in sports medicine suggest that exposure to intermittent stressors may condition the body to respond positively to adrenergic stimulation. Physically fit individuals have a higher threshold for stressor intensity, a more rapid recovery to baseline levels, and an elevated endorphin concentration. Gradual incremental exposure to stressful situations may promote resilience and effort without distress. Beta-blockers

Beta-blockers block the receptors for the physical effects of the natural fight or flight response mentioned above. The ability of beta-blockers to help anxiety is related only to their blockade of beta receptors outside the brain; they will not help the emotional symptoms of stage fright (e.g. sleep problems or negative inner voices). It is important to find, under medical supervision, the ideal dosage by experimenting several times and under different circumstances before a major performance to get to know the personal effects and adverse reactions. (p.315)

Beta-blockers are not approved for use in anxiety or

stage fright, but they may be prescribed for this purpose because there is scientific literature to support this use. They do not make playing better just by relieving physical problems resulting from the fight or flight response, and some musicians feel that adrenalin helps their performance, giving them an edge that adds intensity to the performance. Beta-blockers do not directly improve emotional states, except to the extent that some musicians feel better when their physical problems are

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Music performance anxiety

relieved, namely interacting with ‘the obligate bodyrelatedness of feeling’ (Damasio 1999). If performance anxiety manifests itself mainly in psychological ways (e.g. negative inner voices), beta-blockers will not help. Scientific studies clearly show that beta-blockers significantly reduce symptoms that can hinder some people's playing. The musicians in the studies said they felt better about their performance after taking beta-blockers, and music critics consistently judged their performances to be better. There is, however, the danger that beta-blockers only help technical aspects of performance, but may in fact diminish emotional elements. A study of 2122 musicians in major US symphony orchestras showed that 27% reported taking beta blockers (72% of these mainly for auditions, 52% for solo recitals, 50% for difficult orchestral performances, 42% for concerto performances, and 4% before every performance) (Fishbein et al. 1988). Negative self-talk often mediates performance (Wilson and Roland 2002) mostly resulting from fear of failure, of getting worried and tense, of making mistakes such as playing wrong notes, losing the timing, of not being perfect, of disapproval (negative past performance experiences), of losing control, of problems with distraction or memory problems, and lack of confidence in ability (not feeling good enough, believing others are better). Instead one should try to focus on realistic, positive self-talk with clear, precise goals, perform regular mental rehearsals, and use many performance simulations. A voice of trust must be actively sought (‘Whether you think you can do it or whether you think you cannot do it—you will be right!’), and curiosity must be maintained: the pleasure of adventures and discoveries, free from prejudices (‘Link to the inner child’). Successful professional performers view anxiety or nervousness before a performance as a normal and even beneficial part of preparation (Wilson and Roland 2002). A very experienced teacher recommends creating a network of channels through which the player can transmit a potential flow of communication, in spite of the difficulties surrounding

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Music performance anxiety

him. MPA does not occur in gypsies because they are not burdened with the responsibilities of our social system; their sole interest is the pleasure of the listener (Havas 1973). A summary of coping strategies with MPA may therefore be: ‘Playing is never difficult—it is either made easy or remains impossible’ (Havas 1973). (p.316)

Appendix: Details of survey of MPA in three Swiss

orchestras (2002) Orchestras surveyed: Zürich Chamber Orchestra (ZKO) (full time professional musicians); Glarner Musikkollegium (GMK) (part-time professional musicians), and Orchester Gesellschaft Zürich (OGZ) (good amateurs). The following abbreviations are used: FS, female, sometimes; FO, female, often; MS, male, sometimes; MO, male, often. 1. Did you ever experience anxiety while performing? 2. How much is stage fright disturbing you? 3. When does music performance anxiety begin? 4. Which symptoms do you experience? 5. What do you do to combat music performance anxiety? 6. Does it help?

ZKO

GMK

OG

Women (6)

Never 0, sometimes 6, often 0

Men (4)

Never 0, sometimes 3, often 1

Women (9)

Never 0, sometimes 8, often 1

Men (4)

Never 0, sometimes 3, often 1

Women (17)

Never 1, sometimes 11, often 5

Men (10)

Never 2, sometimes 6, often 2

Stage fright was experienced more often during solo performance (39: FS 21; FO 5; MS 10; MO 3) than when playing chamber music (21: FS 13; FO 4; MS 3; MO 1) or in an orchestral concert (11: FS 6; FO 3; MS 1; MO 1).

Very much (7)

FS 3, FO 3, MS 1, MO 0

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Music performance anxiety

Often (31)

FS 19, FO 2, MS 8, MO 2

Not very much

(4) FS 0, FO 0, MS 3, MO 1

Long before(6)

FS 4, FO 2, MS 0, MO 0

Shortly before(18)

FS 8, FO 3, MS 6, MO 1

Entering stage (11)

FS 5, FO 3, MS 2, MO 1

Difficult passages (14)

FS 7, FO 1, MS 4, MO 2

(p.317)

Symptom

Number Distribution

Palpitation

30

FO 4, FS 18, MO 1, MS 7

Intestinal problems

24

FO 5, FS 18, MO 1, MS 0

Tremor

22

FO 3, FS 14, MO 2, MS 3

Concentration difficulty

15

FO 3, FS 10, MS 2

Dry mouth

14

FO 3, FS 9, MO 1, MS 1

Wet hands

13

FO 0, FS 8, MO 1, MS 4

Intonation

11

FO 0, FS 10, MO 0, MS 1

Unreliable memory

9

FO 1, FS 5, MO 0, MS 3

Increased sweating

7

FO 0, FS 4, MO 1, MS 2

Irregular breathing

4

FO 0, FS 4, MO 0, MS 0

Relaxation exercise (19)

FS 11, FO 3, MS 4, MO 1

Autogenous training (8)

FS 6, FO 1, MS 1, MO 0

Sport (5)

FS 3, FO 1, MS 1, MO 0

Beta-blockers (7)

(only amateurs)

Tranquillizers (3)

(only amateurs)

Yes, a lot (26)

FS 14, FO 3, MS 7, MO 2

A little (8)

FS 4, FO 3, MS 1, MO 0

References Page 12 of 14

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Music performance anxiety

Bibliography references: Clark, D.B. and Agras, W.S. (1991). The assessment and treatment of performance anxiety in musicians. Am. J. Psychiat, 148, 598–605. Cox, W.J. and Kennardy, J. (1993). Performance anxiety, social phobia and setting effects in instrumental music students. J. Anxiety Disord, 7, 49–60. Damasio, A. (1999). The feeling of what happens. Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Harcourt Brace & Co., New York. Fishbein, M., Middlestadt, S., Ottati, V., Straus, S., and Ellis, A. (1988). Medical problems among ICSOM musicians: overview of a national survey. Med Prob Perform Artists March, 1–8. Fredrikson, M. and Gunnarsson, R. (1992). Psychobiology of stage fright: the effect of public performance on neuroendocrine, cardiovascular and subjective reactions. Biol Psychol, 33, 51–61. Gratto, S.D. (1998). The effectiveness of an audition anxiety workshop in reducing stress. Med Prob Perform Artists, 13, 29–34. Havas, K. (1973). Stage fright—its causes and cures. Bosworth, London. Krawehl, I. and Altenmüller, E. (2000). Lampenfieber unter Musikstudenten: Häufigkeit, Ausprägung und ‘heimliche Theorien’. Musikphysiol Musikermed, 7, 173–178. Mantel, G. (2003). Mut zum Lampenfieber—Mentale Strategien für Musiker zur Bewältigung von Auftritts- und Prüfungsangst. Schott Musik Verlag, Mainz. Smith, A.M., Maragos, A., and Van Dyke, A. (2000). Psychology of the musician. In: R. Tubiana and P.C. Amadio (eds) Medical problems of the instrumentalist musician, pp. 135–170. Martin Dunitz, London.

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Music performance anxiety

Steptoe, A. and Fidler, H. (1987). Stage fright in orchestral musicians: a study of cognitive and behavioral strategies in performance anxiety. Br J Psychol, 78, 243–249. Tarr Krüger, I. (1993). Lampenfieber. Ursachen, Wirkung, Therapie. Kreuz Verlag, Stuttgart. Triplett, R. (1983). Stagefright. Letting it work for you. Nelson-Hall, Inc., Chicago, IL. Van Kemenade, J.F.L.M., Van Son, M.J.M., and Van Heesch, N.C.A. (1995). Performance anxiety among professional musicians in symphonic orchestras: a self-report study. Psychol Rep, 77, 555–562. Wesner, R.B., Noyes, R., and Davis, L.T. (1990). The occurrence of performance anxiety among musicians (University of Iowa School of Music). J Affect Disord, 18, 177– 185. Wine, J.D. (1971). Test anxiety and the direction of attention. Psychol Bull, 76, 92–104. Wilson, G.D. (2002). Psychology for performing artists, 2nd edn. Whurr, London. Wilson, G.D. and Roland, D. (2002). Performance anxiety. In: R. Parncutt and G.E. McPherson (eds) The science and psychology of music performance, pp. 47–61. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

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