2. the Planet Earth

Chapter 2 The Planet  Planet Earth Earth

© NASA

Chapter 2 The Planet  Planet Earth Earth

© NASA

The universe

Big Bang Theory hypothesis of the primeval atom

prevailing cosm ologic al model that explains the early early development of t he Universe: Universe: the Universe was once in an extremely hot and dense state which expanded rapidly firs t propo sed by the Georges Georges Lemaître Lemaître in the 1920 1920’s ’s Edwin Hubble Hubble justified Lemaître Lemaître’s ’s theory through observations that the Universe is continuously expanding (galaxies (ga laxies are moving away fr om each other)

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The universe

ae

e

Wilkinson Microwave  Anisotropy Probe

13.7 13. 7 ± 0.1 0.13 3 By

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The universe

‘Observable’ univ erse

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The universe

‘Observable’ univ erse

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The universe

© BBC News

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The universe

Size of the uni verse

Bars and Terning, 2009

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The solar system

Nebular Hypot hesis rotating gas-dust cloud began to . mass became concentrated at the center, forming the SUN proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon de Laplace in the 18th century remaining matter condensed to form the planets: terrestrial and jovian © redOrbit.com

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The solar system

Planets

© NASA

physics.fortlewis.edu/Astronomy/astronomy%20today/CHAISSON/AT306/HTML/AT30604.HTM

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The solar system

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The solar system

© BBC News

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The solar system

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Chapter 2 The Planet Earth

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth © NASA

Size and shape of the Earth

Earth’s v ital statistics Equatorial Radius 6378 km Polar Radius 6357 km Equatorial Circumference 40076 km Polar Circumference 40008 km Volume 260,000,000,000 cu. miles © NASA

Density 5.52 g/cm 3

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Size and shape of the Earth

Size Earth’s circumference was first calculated by Eratosthenes

Circumference = 360 degr ees 800 km 7 degrees N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Size and shape of the Earth

Earth’s characteristics Shape Oblate spheroid

ge 4.54 bill ion years

(Tera, 1980; Bowring and Housh, 1995; Dalrymple, 2001) Composition

© NASA

iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon 15.1% ma nesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calci um (1.5%), and alumin ium (1.4%); trace (1.2%)

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

 Age of the Earth

Radiometric dating a technique used to date materials such as rocks, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates

© The University of Waikato

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

 Age of the Earth

Oldest materials t o date oldest minerals analyzed small crystals of zirco n from th e Jack Hills of Western Australia at least 4.404 billion years old

oldest known solid constituents Ca-Al-rich inclusions (inclusions rich in calcium and aluminium) withi n meteorites that are formed wit hin the solar system 4.567 billion years old

© Michael Welland

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Size and shape of the Earth

Earth ’s surf ace: Facto ids Largest and deepest ocean Pacifi c Ocean: area of 166,241 sq. km; deepest i s 10,911 m

Highest mountain Mount Everest (China and Nepal): 8,848 m

Surface locations farthest from the center of the Earth: Mount Chimborazo (Ecuador) Mount Huascarán (Peru)

Longest river  Nile (Africa): 6,695 km

Largest lake Caspian Sea (Europe and Asia): 371,000 sq. km. © Marine Insight

Largest island Greenland (N. America): area of 2,175,590 sq. km.

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

The moon

Earth's only known natural satellite Fifth largest satellite in the Solar System Largest natural satellite of a planet in the Solar S stem relative to the size of its primary Second densest satellite after Io, a satellite of Jupiter   Age 4.527 ± 0.010 billio n years

(Kleine et al., 2005) Composition © Wikipedia

Silica, alumina, lime, iron oxide, magnesia, titanium oxide, sodium oxide en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Origin of the moon

Giant im pact hypothesis propo ses that the Moon was created out of the debris left over from a collisi on between the youn g Earth and a Mars-sized (Theia

© Wikipedia © Wikipedia

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Chapter 2 The Planet Earth

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth © NASA

Earth’s internal structure and composition

Oceanic crust - predominantly basalt - ~ 6-11 km thick - 3 g/cm³

Continental crust - composition comparable to granodiorite - ~ 30 km thick - 2.7 g/cm³

Mohorovicic

Upper mantle composed of the ultramafic rock peridotite Mantle rich in the mineral erovskite Gutenberg

Outer core liquid Fe and Ni composition Lehmann

Inner core solid Fe and Ni composition © Pearson Education, Inc.

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

EARTH’S CRUST

© Coastline Community College

© Pearson Education, Inc.

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

EARTH’S CRUST Compound

Formula

silica alumina lime magnesia iron(II) oxide sodium oxide potassium oxide iron(III) oxide Water carbon dioxide titanium dioxide phosphorus pentoxide

SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO FeO Na2O K2O Fe2O3 H2O CO2 TiO2 P2O5 Total

Composition Continental Oceanic 60.2% 48.6% 15.2% 16.5% 5.5% 12.3% 3.1% 6.8% 3.8% 6.2% 3.0% 2.6% 2.8% 0.4% 2.5% 2.3% 1.4% 1.1% 1.2% 1.4% 0.7% 1.4% 0.2%

0.3%

99.6%

99.9% © Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

EARTH’S CRUST In ter n at i on al C on ti nen tal Dr i ll i ng Pr og r am

In teg r at ed Oc ean Dr i ll i ng P ro gr am

© EarthScope.org

© Net World Directory

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

Ever won der what is t he deepest hol e ever dril led into the earth? The deepest hole drilled into the earth was started in 1970 on the Kola Peninsula, Russia. It reached a depth of ~12,231 m Current deep drilling projects include: The San Andreas Scientific Drilling Project in Parkfield CA (4,023 m); The Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project on Hilo, Hawaii (2,896 m); a 1,770 m bore hole into an impact crater in the Chesapeake Bay; and the Integrated Ocean Drilling Project in the Atlantic Ocean (1,448 m) Deep Ocean Explorer: Glomar Challenger  Deepest penetration into basaltic ocean crust: 1,714 m © Inland Lapidary

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

© Google

© LA Weekly

img.scoop.it/fha046Nu1qr84yaf5naiADl72eJkfbmt4t8yenImKBVaiQD B_Rd1H6kmuBWtceBJ

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

Oceanic crust - predominantly basalt - ~ 6-11 km thick - 3 g/cm³

Continental crust - composition comparable to granodiorite - ~ 30 km thick - 2.7 g/cm³

Mohorovicic

Upper mantle composed of the ultramafic rock peridotite Mantle rich in the mineral erovskite Gutenberg

Outer core liquid Fe and Ni composition Lehmann

Inner core solid Fe and Ni composition © Pearson Education, Inc.

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s internal structure and composition

m1.ikiwq.com/img/xl/xehXQiwFY2jB1gw1vUWlWa.PNG

© Nick Strobel

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Chapter 2 The Planet Earth

© NGDC

Earth’s large-scale features

Continents Orogenesis – process of mountain building  A: Alps : asman e t C: Andes Mountains D: North American Cordillera E: Caledonian belt F: Appalachian Mountains G: Himalayas

 A: accretionary wedge B: continental volcanic arc C: continental crust D: subducting oceanic lithosphere © Pearson Education, Inc.

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features

Ocean Basins : Margins and Trenches  A: deep-sea fan B: shelf break C: continental rise D: abyssal plain E: submarine canyon F: continental slope G: continental shelf   A: Kermadec Trench B: Mid-Atlantic Ridge C: South Sandwich Trench D: Java Trench E: Peru-Chile Trench F: Japan Trench G: East Pacific Rise H: Aleutian Trench I: Tonga Trench J: Marianas K: Puerto-Rico Trench © Pearson Education, Inc.

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features

© John Volos

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features : Continents

Cratons Expansive, stable regions of low relief 

North American craton

© Wikipedia © Natural Resources Canada

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features : Continents

Subducti on zone and folded linear mountain belts  And es

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features : Continents

Subducti on zone and folded linear mountain belts Himalayan mountain range

© Wikipedia

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features : Continents

Crustal spreading – Rift zones Extension of spreading centers under continents Great rift valley

© Wikipedia

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Continents

Transform faults – Large strik e-slip faults Steeply dipping strike-slip faults where plates slide past one another  San Andreas faul t

© Wikipedia

© Wikipedia

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Continental margins

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Continental margins

Continental margins Offshor e SE USA

transition from continental to oceanic crust

underwater part of the continental crust

© Wikipedia

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

© Columbia University

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

Oceanic ri dges

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

Topography of mid-oceanic ridges Mid-- Atl Mid Atlantic ant ic Ridge Rid ge (25° (25°N), spreading rate 2.6 cm/year 

East Pacific Rise Rise (55 (55°°S), spreading rrate ate 8.8 8.8 cm/year; sea--level ri sea rises ses causing transgression (arrows)

64.19.142.13/www.accessscience.com/loadBinary.aspx?aID=5979&filename=406200FG0030.gif_hyuncompressed

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

Deep-sea trenches and v olcanic arcs Mariana tr ench

© Max-Planck-Institut für Marine Mikrobiologie

© Wikipedia

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

Seamounts and guyots Pacific Ocean

© The University of New Hampshire

© Wikipedia

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

Submarine canyons and deep - sea channels

,

© M onterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute

N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

,

© M onterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute

Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Earth’s large-scale features: Oceans

Coral reefs and atol ls Great Barrier rreef eef 

Moorea, French Polyn Polynesia esia

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Tokel au, New Zealand

© Chesapeake Bay Action Plan

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© Wikipedia Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth

Chapter 2 The Planet Earth

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Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth © NASA

Isostasy 

ISOSTASY The state of gravitational equilibrium between the earth's lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic plates "float" at an elevation which depends on their thickness and density. -

Mountains have “roots” which extend down into the mantle. Thus, elevation is proportional to the depth of the underlying “root”. Pratt - Hayford Model

Elevation is inversely proportional to density. Thus, the higher the mountain, the , “float” higher. Vening Meinesz/Flexural Model

the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and its inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by bending N. Ramos | Geology 11 Principles of Geology

© McGraw Hill Lecture Notes: The Planet Earth