2 Estadistica
October 8, 2022 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A
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Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
? Opía`mng 6. Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno. Ohiuads outdrgs `gsnrmfga ho nmganmo gsto`êstmno ndjd ho tgnadhdiêo `gh jítd`d nmgatêlmnd, pugs gs ho gsto`êstmno y sus jítd`ds hos qug prdvgga o hds mavgstmio`drgs nda hos bgrrojmgatos poro prdfor sus bmpþtgsms `g trofocd (Udr gcgjphd Jdd` (?=75)). Ga igagroh, ho Gsto`êstmno gs `glmam`o ndjd ‘ho nmganmo `g gstmjor ho `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` uao vormofhg foso`o ga rgpgtm`os ohgotdrmos `g `g ho jmsjo vormofhgohgotdrmo ohgotdrmo‚ (Ojgjmyo (?==0)). dfsgrvonmdags `g vormofhgs Osê, ho gsto`êstmno gs uao nmganmo qug gjphgo ndacuatds `g `otds poro dftgagr o portmr `g ghhds malgrganmos (prdygnnmþa, o`mvmaoazo) sdfrg uao pdfhonmþa (vohdr rgoh). @g gsto ldrjo gh prdfhgjo gsto`êstmnd gs gandatror ho jgcdr prg`mnnmþa poro ua vohdr rgoh `gsndadnm`d poro gh mavgstmio`dr o portmr `g `otds rgndhgnto`ds (jugstro) `g uao pdfhonmþa. Ga gstg nopêtuhd rgposorgjds hds ndangptds fïsmnds `g gsto`êstmno y prdfofmhm`o` qug ads sgrïa ótmhgs o hd horid `g gstg hmfrd. ?.? \ormofhgs, vgntdrgs y jotrmngs ohgotdrmos. Vgnugr`ga qug uao vormofhg sg `glmag ndjd uao joiamtu` qug pug`g tgagr ua vohdr nuohqumgro `g hds ndjprga`m`ds ga ua ndacuatd. Ga dtros pohofros, gs uao ‘hgtro‚ qug pug`g tdjor uad d `mlgrgatgs vohdrgs. Udr gcgjphd, sm ho vormofhg x nujphg ho smiumgatg nda`mnmþa > x : 6 , gatdangs ho vormofhg agngsormojgatg tdjorï gh vohdr `g 6 > ( x : 6 > ).Dtrd gcgjphd, sm ho vormofhg x nujphg ho nda`mnmþa x 6 : ? , gatdangs x pug`g tdjor hds vohdrgs `g ? d ∖? . Obdro ndasm`grgjds ho `glmamnmþa `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo , tojfmía ndadnm`o ndjd uao vormofhg gstdnïstmno. Wao vormofhg ohgotdrmo gs uao ‘hgtro‚ qug tdjo `mlgrgatgs vohdrgs no`o uad nda uao prdfofmhm`o` prgvmojgatg `glmam`o. Udr gcgjphd, tmrgjds uao jdag`o custo oh omrg, y sgo R ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo qug tdjo gh vohdr `g uad sm ho noro supgrmdr `g ho jdag`o gs sghhd, ga nosd ndatrormd ho vormofhg tdjo gh vohdr `g ngrd. Gs `gnmr noro ⎩? sm noro R : ⎢ sghhd hd ⎭5 sm sgh Gatdangs `mrgjds qug ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo R tmgag `ds pdsmfhgs rgohmzonmdags. ^m ho jdag`o gs uao jdag`o adrjoh, gxmstmrï miuoh prdfofmhm`o` qug ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo tdjg gh vohdr `g uad d ngrd, ga dtros pohofros tga`rgjds qug ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo sgo miuoh o uad gs 5.7, oh miuoh qug ho prdfofmhm`o` qug ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo sgo ngrd. Gstd sg pug`g ofrgvmor `g ho smiumgatg ldrjo3 U( R : ?) : 5.7 y U ( R : 5) : 5.7 .
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
?
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
^m gh ndacuatd `g vohdrgs qug tdjo ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo gs ua ndacuatd lmamtd d malmamtd ndatofhg, gatdangs ho vormofhg gstdnïstmno sg `gadjmao uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo `msnrgto . Udr dtrd ho`d, sm hos pdsmfhgs rgohmzonmdags `g ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo ndrrgspda`g o ua ndacuatd `g rgohmzonmdags malmamtojgatg `mvmsmfhg y pdr toatd mjpdsmfhg `g ndator, gatdangs ho vormofhg gstdnïstmno sg ndadng ndjd uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo ndatmauo . Ga igagroh, sm hos pdsmfhgs rgohmzonmdags tdjo vohdrgs `msnrgtds gatdangs gstojds bofhoa`d `g uao vormofhg gstdnïstmno `msnrgto y ga nosd qug hds pdsmfhgs vohdrgs sgoa portg `g ua roaid ndatmaud `g vohdrgs gatdangs gstojds bofhoa`d `g uao vormofhg gstdnïstmno ndatmauo. Wa vgntdr ohgotdrmd R gs ua vgntdr nuyds ghgjgatds sda vormofhgs ohgotdrmos yo sgoa ndatmauos d `msnrgtos, gs `gnmr, ⎯ R ? ⎠
⎦ R ⎧ 6 R : ⎦ ⎧ , ⎦ ⎧ ⎦ ⎧ ⎦⎮ R a ⎧⎬
(O6.?)
`da`g R m poro m : ?,6,..., a rgprgsgatoa vormofhgs ohgotdrmos. Oaïhdiojgatg, uao jotrmz ohgotdrmo gs uao jotrmz nuyds ghgjgatds sda vormofhgs ohgotdrmos. Gs mjpdrtoatg oadtor qug hds gndadjmstos matgrprgtojds ohiuads ospgntds `g ho gndadjêo ndjd rgsuhto`ds `g ua prdngsd gstdnïstmnd. Ga ho prïntmno dfsgrvojds ua óamnd vohdr `g uao vormofhg ndjd gh UMF, gstg vohdr sg matgrprgto ndjd ho rgohmzonmþa `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo `gspuís `g qug hds ‘`o`ds‚ `g ho gndadjêo yo boa sm`d tmro`ds, gs `gnmr hd qug dfsgrvo gh mavgstmio`dr gs ho rgohmzonmþa `g ua gvgatd ohgotdrmd. ?.6 @mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` Wao `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo `msnrgto , d tojfmía ndadnm`o ndjd ho luanmþa `g `gasm`o` `msnrgto, l ( x ) gs uao hmsto `g hos prdfofmhm`o`gs osdnmo`os o hos `mlgrgatgs rgohmzonmdags, x , qug pug`g tdjor uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo `msnrgto R . Uoro uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo `msnrgto R tgagjds qug l ( x ) : U ( R : x )
(O6.6)
`da`g l ( x ) `gfg nujphmr qug3
• •
5 ≠ l ( x ) ≠ ?
∟ l ( x ) : ? m
td`d xm
Ga gh nosd `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo ndatmauo, gstï pug`g tdjor nuohqumgr vohdr `g ua ndacuatd malmamtd `g vohdrgs. Osê, gs mjpdsmfhg osmiaor uao prdfofmhm`o` poro no`o uad `g hds vohdrgs pdsmfhgs `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo, pugs ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug uao vormofhg ndatmauo sgo gxontojgatg miuoh o ua óamnd vohdr gs ngrd. Udr toatd ga gh nosd Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
6
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
`g vormofhgs ohgotdrmos ndatmauos gs agngsormd ua galdqug `mlgrgatg oh sgium`d nda hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos `msnrgtos, ga gstg nosd `glmamrgjds uao luanmþa qug ads pgrjmto ndadngr ho prdfofmhm`o` `g dnurrganmo `g ua matgrvohd y ad ua puatd poro hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos ndatmauos. Gcgjphd O6.? ^updaio qug hoazojds ua `o`d y `glmamjds ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo Y ndjd gh vohdr `g ho noro supgrmdr `gh `o`d. Ganugatrg ho `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` `g Y . Vgspugsto3 ^updamga`d qug sg troto `g ua `o`d sma trund, no`o uao `g hos < noros tmgag ho
jmsjo prdfofmhm`o` `g rgohmzonmþa, ? < . Udr toatd, ho `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` `g Y gs3
⎩? ⎣< ⎣ ⎣? ⎣< ⎣? ⎣ ⎣< ⎣ U (Y : w ) : ⎢ ? ⎣< ⎣ ⎣? ⎣< ⎣? ⎣ ⎣< ⎣⎭ 5
^m w : ? ^m w : 6
w:> ^m
^m w : 0
w:7 ^m w:< ^m d.w.
`da`g d. w. smiamlmno ga dtrds nosds (`gh maihís dtbgrwmsg). Wao ldrjo ndrto `g rgsnrmfmr gstd gs
? <
U (Y : w ) : M ( w :?,6,>,0,7,)
o
`da`g l ( x ) `gfg nujphmr qug3
• l ( x ) ≧ 5
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
>
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno ∑
•
∫ l ( x ) `x : ? ∖∑
Gs `gnmr, ho luanmþa `g `gasm`o` ndatmauo pgrjmtg ndadngr ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo ndatmauo sg ganugatrg ga ua `gtgrjmao`d matgrvohd. Gcgjphd O6.6 Wa ndangsmdaormd `g outdjdtdrgs, `gspuís `g ndatrotor ua gstu`md, gstï sgiurd qug ho luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa `g su ndasujd `g norfuroatg jgasuoh gsto `o`o pdr
⎩ ? sm ?5, 555 ≠ x ≠ 75, 555 ⎣ . l ( x ) : ⎢ 05,555 ⎣ 5 d. w. ⎭ `da`g x ndrrgspda`g o ho noatm`o` `g hmtrds `g norfuroatg glgntmvojgatg gjphgo`ds ga gh jgs. Gsto luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa sg pug`g irolmnor `g ho smiumgatg ldrjo. l(x)
? 05,5555
?5,555
75,555
Ganugatrg ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug gstg jgs sgoa gjphgo`ds3 o) gxontojgatg >5,555 hmtrds, f) pdr hd jgads 05,555, 05,555, y n) gatrg 65,555 y >5,555. Vgspugsto3 Gsto luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa sg `gadjmao uao `mstrmfunmþa uamldrjg. O
ndatmauonmþa sg rgspda`ga hos prgiuatos3 >5,555
o) @gfg sgr nhord qug U R
: >5, 555 : U >5, 555 ≠ R ≠ >5, 555 :
(
)
(
)
l x `x : 5 .
∫
>5,555
( )
Osê, ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug gh ndasujd sgo gxontojgatg >5,555 hmtrds gs ngrd. 05,555
U ( R ≠ 05, 555 ) :
∫ 5
l ( x ) `x :
> 0
: .97 . Udr toatd, ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug gh ndasujd sgo
`g pdr hd jgads 05,555 hmtrds gs `g 5.97. Irïlmnojgatg gstd sg pug`g rgprgsgator pdr gh ïrgo sdjfrgo`o `gh smiumgatg irïlmnd.
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
0
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Gcgjphd O6.6 (Ndat.) l(x)
? 05,5555
05,555
?5,555
75,555
x
>5,555
f) U ( 65, 555 ≠ R
≠ >5, 555 ) :
∫
l ( x ) `x : .67 , irïlmnojgatg3
65,555
l(x)
? 05,5555
?5,555
65,555
05,555
75,555
x
?.> \ohdr gspgro`d `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo y dtrds jdjgatds `g hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos. Gvgatuohjgatg, hos `mstrmfunmdags `g prdfofmhm`o` sg pug`ga `gsnrmfmr pdr jg`md `g sus jdjgatds. Gh prmjgr jdjgatd `g uao `mstrmfunmþa sg ndadng ndjd gh vohdr gspgro`d d gspgroazo jotgjïtmno `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo. Gh vohdr gspgro`d `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo ndrrgspda`g o ho jg`mo pdfhonmdaoh `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo y sg matgrprgto ndjd gh vohdr prdjg`md qug sg gspgro `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo nuoa`d sg dftmgag nuohqumgr jugstro `g gsto vormofhg ohgotdrmo. Gh vohdr gspgro`d `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo `msnrgto `gadto`d pdr G [ R Z sg `glmag ndjd G [ R Z :
∟
xm U ( R : xm ) :
td`d xm
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
∟
xm l ( xm ) .
(O6.0)
td`d xm
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
7
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Gcgjphd O6.> Ndatmauoa`d nda gh Gcgjphd O6.?, ganugatrg gh vohdr gspgro`d `g Y . Vgspugsto3 @g onugr`d o ho `glmamnmþa, G [Y Z :
<
<
6?
:
<
9
<
?
∟ w U (Y : w ) : ∟ w < : < ∟ w m
m
m :?
:
?
m
m :?
m
m :?
: >.7 . Osê ga prdjg`md sg gspgro qug ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo tdjg ua vohdr `g >.7
6
Gh vohdr gspgro`d `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo ndatmauo, tojfmía `gadto`d pdr G [ R Z sg `glmag ndjd ∑
G [ R Z :
∫ xl ( x ) `x
(O6.7)
∖∑
Gcgjphd O6.0 Ndatmauoa`d nda gh Gcgjphd O6.6, ganugatrg gh vohdr gspgro`d `gh ndasujd `g norfuroatg jgasuoh. ∑
75,555
∫
∫
? Vgspugsto3 @g onugr`d o ho `glmamnmþa, tgagjds qug G [ R Z : xl ( x ) `x : x `x 05,555 ∖∑ ?5,555 75,555
⎯ x 6 ⎠ ? ?52 ?5 0 6 6 6 6 ⎯75, 555 ∖ ?5, 555 ⎠⎬ : ⎯7 ∖ ? ⎠⎬ : : : 60 : >5, 555 . ⎦ ⎧ 05, 555 ⎮ 6 ⎬?5,555 2 ⋇?5 0 ⎮ 2 ⋇?50 ⎮ 2 ?
Gs `gnmr gh ndasujd jgasuoh gspgro`d `g norfuroatg gs `g >5,555 uam`o`gs.
Gh vohdr gspgro`d tojfmía gs ndadnm`d ndjd gh dpgro`dr `g gspgroazo jotgjïtmno, gstg dpgro`dr jotgjïtmnd gs ua dpgro`dr hmagoh nuyos prmanmpohgs norontgrêstmnos sda3
• G [ n Z : n , `da`g n gs uao ndastoatg, d uao vormofhg ad gstdnïstmno. • G [ oR + f Z : oG [ R Z + f , `da`g o y f sda ndastoatgs y R gs uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo. • Ga igagroh G ⎯⎮ i ( R ) ⎠⎬ ≥ i ( G ( R ) ) , `da`g i ( • ) gs nuohqumgr luanmþa. Ho óamno gxngpnmþa `g gstd gs nuoa`d i ( • ) gs uao luanmþa hmagoh.
• G [ o?R ? + o6 R 6 + ... + oa R a Z : o?G [ R Z + o6 G [ R 6 Z + ... + oa G [ R a Z , `da`g no`o uad `g hds
om y R m ( m : ?,6,..., a )
sda ndastoatgs y vormofhgs ohgotdrmo,
rgspgntmvojgatg.
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
<
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
⎩ ∟ i ( xm ) l ( xm ) sm R gs `msnrgto ⎣⎣td`d x • G ⎯⎮ i ( R ) ⎠⎬ : ⎢ ∑ ⎣ ∫ i ( x ) l ( x ) `x sm R gs ndatmauo ⎣⎭ ∖∑ m
Ndjd sg jganmdaþ oatgrmdrjgatg, G [ R Z sg ndadng ndjd gh prmjgr jdjgatd `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo y tojfmía sg `gadto ndjd · R , gs `gnmr ho jg`mo pdfhonmdaoh `g R . Gh m-ísmjd jdjgatd (ohrg`g`dr `gh drmiga) `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo, · mt , R , gstï m `glmam`d pdr · mt, R : G ⎯⎮ R ⎠⎬ .
?.0 Ma`gpga`ganmo hmagoh @ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos, R y ] , sg ndasm`groa gsto`êstmnojgatg ma`gpga`mgatgs, u drtdidaohgs, sm y sdhojgatg sm (O6.) qug 6
6 \or [ R Z : G ⎯⎮ R ⎠⎬ ∖ ( G [ R Z ) ;
(O6.=)
gstg rgsuhto`d pgrjmtg ga ho prïntmno oimhmzor gh nïhnuhd `g ho vormoazo `g nuohqumgr vormofhg ohgotdrmo. Gcgjphd O6.7 Ndatmauoa`d nda gh Gcgjphd O6.?, nohnuhg ho vormoazo `g Y . Vgspugsto3 ^miumga`d ho gxprgsmþa (O6.=) tgagjds qug \or [Y Z : G ⎯⎮Y
6
6
⎠⎬ ∖ ( G [Y Z ) . Ga gh 6
6 9 ⎛9⎑ 6 Gcgjphd O6.> gandatrojds qug G [Y Z : . Vgnugr`g qug G ⎯⎮Y ⎠⎬ ≥ ⎘ ⎔ : ( G [Y Z) . Osê, 6 ⎚6⎥
gs agngsormd nohnuhor G ⎯⎮Y
⎠⎬ , ophmnoa`d augvojgatg ho `glmamnmþa `g vohdr gspgro`d `g uao
luanmþa, tgagjds qug G ⎮⎯Y
< < < 6 6 6 ⎠⎬ : ∟ ( wm ) U (Y : wm ) : ∟ ( wm ) ? : ? ∟ ( wm ) : =? . < < m :? < m :? m :?
6
6
6
= ? ⎛ 9 ⎑ >7 ∖⎘ ⎔ : . Udr toatd, \or [Y Z : < ⎚6⎥ ?6
Hos prmanmpohgs prdpmg`o`gs `g ho vormoazo sda3 • \or [n Z : 5 , `da`g n gs uao ndastoatg, d uao vormofhg ad gstdnïstmno.
• \or [ oR + f Z : o 6\or [ R Z , `da`g o y f sda ndastoatgs y R gs uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo. • \or [ oR + f] Z : o 6\or [ R Z + f 6\or [] Z + 6ofNdv [ R , ] Z , `da`g o y f sda ndastoatgs y R y ] sda vormofhgs ohgotdrmos. (ga ho prþxmjo sgnnmþa rgposorgjds gh ndangptd `g Ndv ).
Ho vormoazo `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo tojfmía gs ndadnm`o ndjd gh sgiua`d jdjgatd ohrg`g`dr `g ho jg`mo. Ga igagroh, gh m-ísmjd jdjgatd ohrg`g`dr `g ho jg`mo `g m uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo , `gadto`o pdr ·m : G ⎯( R ∖ · ) ⎠ .
⎮
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
⎬
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
2
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Gcgjphd O6.< Ndatmauoa`d nda gh Gcgjphd O6.6, ganugatrg ho vormoazo `gh ndasujd `g norfuroatg jgasuoh. Vgspugsto3 ^mjmhorjgatg oh nosd `g uao vormofhg gstdnïstmno `msnrgto, tgagjds qug 6
6 \or [ R Z : G ⎯⎮ R ⎠⎬ ∖ ( G [ R Z ) , oatgs gandatrojds qug G [ R Z : > ⋇?5 0 . Obdro agngsmtojds
∑ 6
gandatror G ⎮⎯ R
6
⎬⎠ ; gstg vohdr gspgro`d gs G ⎮⎯ R
75,555 6
⎬⎠ : ∖∑ ∫
x l ( x ) `x :
6
?
x 05,555 `x ?5,555
∫
75,555
⎯ x> ⎠ ? ?5?6 ?52 >? 2 > > > > ⎯ ⎠ ⎯ ⎠ : : ∖ : ∖ : : ⋇ ?5 . 7 5 , 5 5 5 ? 5 , 5 5 5 7 ? ? 6 0 ⎦ ⎧ ⎬ ?6 ⋇?5 0 ⎮ ⎬ ?6 05, 555 ⎮ > ⎬?5,555 ?6 ⋇?50 ⎮ > ?
Udr toatd tgagjds qug \or [ R Z : G ⎮⎯ R
6
6
>?
0
2 2 2 ⎬⎠ ∖ ( G [ R Z ) : > ⋇?5 ∖ = ⋇?5 : > ⋇?5 . Gs `gnmr ho
vormoazo `gh ndasujd jgasuoh gs `g ?>>,>>>,>>>.>>.
Gh tgrngrd y nuortd jdjgatd ohrg`g`dr `g ho jg`mo sg ndadnga ndjd ho osmjgtrêo (skgwagss ga maihís) y nurtdsms, rgspgntmvojgatg. Wao jg`m`o `g osmjgtrêo ndjóajgatg gjphgo`o gs gh ndglmnmgatg `g osmjgtrêo `glmam`d ndjd3 · (O6.?5) O : >> . ώ Dtrd gsto`êstmnd ndjóajgatg gjphgo`d poro `gsnrmfmr qug toa ophoao`o d ‘pmnu`o‚ gs uao `mstrmfunmþa, gs gh ndglmnmgatg `g nurtdsms qug sg `glmag ndjd3 · N : 00 . (O6.??) ώ
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
=
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Pofho ?. Matgrprgtonmþa `gh Ndglmnmgatg `g ^mjgtrêo O 4 5 Matgrprgtonmþ Irïlmnd a 1 Osmjgtrêo o ho l(x) ? `grgnbo x
:
^mjgtrêo
l(x)
8
Osmjgtrêo o ho mzqumgr`o
l(x)
x
Pofho 6. Matgrprgtonmþa `gh Ndglmnmgatg `g Nurtdsms N4> 1
Matgrprgtonmþa @mstrmfunmþa photmnórtmnos (pmnu`o, oanbo d `g ndhos ndrtos)
Irïlmnd l(x)
x
:
@mstrmfunmþa jgsdnórtmno Gc.3 `mstrmfunmþa adrjoh)
(pdr
l(x)
x
8
@mstrmfunmþa Hgptdnurtmno (phoao, `ghio`o d `g ndhos horios)
l(x)
?.) Ndv [ R , ] Z : G [ R] Z ∖ G [ R Z G [] Z . ?
Ga dtros pohofros, ‘ndho iroa`g‚ `g ho `mstrmfunmþa gsto bonmo ho `grgnbo.
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
?5
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Ho gxprgsmþa (O6.?>) oyu`o o gatga`gr ho utmhm`o` `g ho ndvormoazo gatrg `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos. Adtga qug ga nosd `g qug hos vormofhgs gstdnïstmnos R y ] sgoa ma`gpga`mgatgs, sg tga`rï qug G [ R] Z : G [ R Z G [] Z . Osê, Ndv[ R , ] Z : 5 . Udr toatd ho ndvormoazo gatrg `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos sgrï ngrd sm ad gxmstg rghonmþa hmagoh (ma`gpganmo) gatrg hos vormofhgs. Ga nosd `g qug oh jmsjd tmgjpd qug uao rgohmzonmþa `g ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo R gstï pdr ganmjo `g su jg`mo, ho rgohmzonmþa `g ho vormofhg gstdnïstmno ] tojfmía gstï pdr ganmjo `g su jg`mo, gatdangs ho ndvormoazo `g gstos `ds vormofhgs sgrï pdsmtmvo. ^m nuoa`d ho rgohmzonmþa `g uao vormofhg ohgotdrmo gstï pdr ganmjo `g su jg`mo y ho rgohmzonmþa `g ho dtro vormofhg gstï pdr `gfocd `g ho jg`mo, gatdangs ho ndvormoazo sgrï agiotmvo. Wao mjpdrtoatg prdpmg`o` `g ho ndvormoazo gs3 • Ndv [ o + fR , n + `] Z : f` Ndv ( R , ] ) , `da`g o , f , n , y ` sda ndastoatgs, y R y ] sda vormofhgs ohgotdrmos.
Ndjd sg jganmdaþ oatgrmdrjgatg, ho ndvormoazo gatrg `ds vormofhgs gstdnïstmnos jm`g ho rghonmþa hmagoh gatrg hos vormofhgs, pgrd ísto `gpga`g `g hos uam`o`gs ga qug gstïa jg`m`os R y ] . Uoro tgagr uao jg`m`o `gh iro`dy `g gatrg `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos qug ad `gpga`o `g hos uam`o`gs pdr`gpga`ganmo toatd pug`o hmagoh sgr ndjporo`o, sg gjphgo gh ndglmnmgatg `g ndrrghonmþa gatrg `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos R y ] . Ho ndrrghonmþa gatrg `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos 6, `gadto`d pdr Ϗ , gstï `glmam`o pdr3
: Ϗ :
Ndv( R , ] ) \or ( R ) \or (] )
.
(O6.?0)
Gs juy lïnmh jdstror qug 5 ≠ Ϗ ≠ ? (vgr gcgrnmnmd 9). Ho ndrrghonmþa gatrg `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos tmgag uao matgrprgtonmþa juy sganmhho; pdr gcgjphd, uao ndrrghonmþa `g ?/-? gatrg hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos R y ] mjphmno uao rghonmþa hmagoh pgrlgnto y pdsmtmvo/agiotmvo gatrg hos `ds vormofhgs; jmgatros qug uao ndrrghonmþa `g ngrd mjphmno qug ad gxmstg rghonmþa hmagoh gatrg hos vormofhgs.
6
Pojfmía ndadnm`d ndjd gh ndglmnmgatg `g ndrrghonmþa.
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
??
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Irïlmnd O6.?. @moirojos `g `mspgrsmþa y sus ndrrgspda`mgatgs ndrrghonmdags. y
y
y
x
x
x
Ϗ :-? :-?
Ϗ :? :?
Ϗ :5 :5
y
y
y
x
x
Ϗ :5.= :5.=
Ϗ :-5.2 :-5.2
x
Ϗ :5 :5
?.9 Gspgroazo y vormoazo `g vgntdrgs ohgotdrmds. Ndjd sg jganmdaþ oatgrmdrjgatg, ua vgntdr ohgotdrmd gs ua vgntdr nuyds ghgjgatds sda td`ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos. Udr toatd, gh vohdr gspgro`d `g ua vgntdr ohgotdrmd ndrrgspda`g o ua vgntdr nuyds ghgjgatds sda hds vohdrgs gspgro`ds `g no`o uao `g hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos qug ndaldrjoa gh vgntdr gstdnïstmnd. Ga dtros pohofros, sgo R ua vgntdr ohgotdrmd, gatdangs ⎯ ⎯ R ? ⎠ ⎠ ⎯ G [ R ? Z ⎠ ⎯ · ? ⎠
⎦⎦ ⎧⎧ ⎦ ⎧ ⎦ ⎧ R 6 ⎧ ⎦ G [ R 6 Z⎧ · ⎦ G [ R Z : G ⎦ ⎧ : : ⎦ 6 ⎧ : · . ⎦⎦ ⎧⎧ ⎦ ⎧ ⎦ ⎧ ⎧ ⎦ ⎧ ⎦⎦ ⎧⎧ ⎦ R G R [ Z ⎦ ⎧ ⎧ ⎮⎦ · a ⎬⎧ a ⎬ ⎮⎦ ⎮ a ⎬ ⎬⎧ ⎮⎦
(O6.?7)
Gs juy lïnmh gxtga`gr gsto m`go o gandatror gh vohdr gspgro`d `g uao jotrmz ohgotdrmo. ^go R aÙj uao jotrmz ohgotdrmd `g `mjgasmdags a Ù j , gatdangs ⎯ G [ R ?? Z G [ R ?6 Z G [ R ?a Z ⎠
⎦ ⎧ G [ R 6? Z G [ R 66 Z G [ R 6 a Z⎧ ⎦ G [ R aÙj Z : ⎦ ⎧ ⎦ ⎧ G R G R G R [ Z [ Z [ Z ⎧ a? a6 aa ⎬ ⎮⎦
Oaïhdiojgatg oh nosd `g uao vormofhg vormofh g ohgotdrmo, ho vormoazo `g uao vormofhg v ormofhg ohgotdrmo ohgotdrm o sg `glmag ndjd3 P P P \or [ R Z : G ⎯( R ∖ · ) ( R ∖ · ) ⎠ : G ⎮⎯ RR ⎬⎠ ∖ ·· ⎮ ⎬
(O6.?
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
?.2 Vgsuhto`ds mjpdrtoatgs rghonmdao`ds nda `mstrmfunmdags `g prdfofmhm`o` ^ma `u`o, ho `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` jïs gjphgo`o y ndjóa gs ho `mstrmfunmþa adrjoh. Wao vormofhg ohgotdrmo R ndatmauo smiug uao `mstrmfunmþa adrjoh nda jg`mo · y vormoazo ώ 6 sm y sdhojgatg sm su luanmþa `g `gasm`o` ndrrgspda`g o3 ?
6
l x · , ώ
(
6 ? ⎯ ( x ∖ · ) ⎠ ⎧ ∖ ⎦ 6 ⎦ ώ 6 ⎧ ⎮ ⎬
):ώ
.
6υ g
(O6.?=)
Ga gstg nosd, pdr smjphmnm`o` sg gsnrmfg R ∸ A ( · , ώ 6 ) (sg hgg R gstï `mstrmfum`o adrjohjgatg nda jg`mo · y vormoazo ώ 6 ). Ga portmnuhor, ho `mstrmfunmþa A ( 5,?) sg ndadng ndjd ho `mstrmfunmþa gstïa`or adrjoh, uao vormofhg qug smiug gsto `mstrmfunmþa ndjóajgatg sg `gadto pdr S . O ndatmauonmþa ndasm`grorgjds vormds rgsuhto`ds mjpdrtoatgs qug mavdhunroa vormofhgs ohgotdrmos qug sg `mstrmfuyga adrjohjgatg3 R ∖ · • ^m R ~ A ( · , ώ 6 ) , gatdangs S : ~ A ( 5,?) . ώ • ^m ] ~ A ( 5,?) , gatdangs ] 6 smiug uao `mstrmfunmþa Nbm-nuo`ro`d nda ua iro`d `g hmfgrto`, `gadto`d pdr ] 6 ~ ω 6(?) .
• ^m ]m ~ A ( 5,?) poro m : ?, 6,..., a , gatdangs
a
∟ (] ) ~ ω ( ) 6
m
m :?
6
a
6
⎛ ] ⎑ • ^m R m ~ A ( 5,ώ ) poro m : ?, 6,..., a , gatdangs ∟ ⎘ m ⎔ ~ ω 6( a ) m :? ⎚ ώ ⎥ a
6
• ^m R ? ~ ω 6( a? ) , R 6 ~ ω 6( a6 ) y o`mnmdaohjgatg gstos `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos sda ma`gpga`mgatgs, gatdangs R ? + R 6 ~ ω 6( a? + a6 )
• ^m R ? ~ ω 6( a? ) , R 6 ~ ω 6( a6 ) y o`mnmdaohjgatg gstos `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos sda R ? a?
ma`gpga`mgatgs, gatdangs R 6 a6 smiug uao `mstrmfunmþa L nda a? iro`ds `g hmfgrto` ga gh aujgro`dr y a6 iro`ds `g hmfgrto` ga gh `gadjmao`dr > (uao ofrgvmoturo poro gstd gs L ( a? ,a6 ) )
>
Ho `mstrmfunmþa L tojfmía gs ndadnm`o ndjd ho `mstrmfunmþa L `g ^ag`gndr ga Bdadr o Igrig Y. ^ag`gndr uads `g hds po`rgs `g ho gsto`êstmno jd`grao.
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
?0
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
• ^m R ~ A ( 5,ώ 6 ) , ] ~ ω 6( a ) y R y ] sda ma`gpga`mgatgs, gatdangs
R
] a
smiug uao `mstrmfunmþa t `g ^tu`gat 0 nda a iro`ds `g hmfgrto`, `gadto`o pdr t ( a ) .
• ^m R ~ A a ( 5, ή ) , roa ( O ) : k y Oή gs m`gjpdtgatg, gatdangs R P OR ∸ ω k 6 . 6
• ^m Y ~ t ( a) , gatdangs Y ~ L (?,a ) . ?.= @mstrmfunmþa ndacuato `g prdfofmhm`o` Ho luanmþa ndacuato `g `mstrmfunmþa poro poro `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos R y ] , `gadto`o pdr l ( x, y ) , sg `glmag ndjd3
⎩ f ` ⎣⎣ ∫ ∫ l ( x, y ) `y`x sm R y ] ndatmauos (O6.65) l ( x, y ) : U ( o ≠ x ≠ f, n ≠ y ≠ ` ) : ⎢ o n ⎣ ∟ ∟ l ( x,y ) sm R y ] `msnrgtos ⎣⎭o ≠ x ≠ f n≠ y ≠ ` Pd`o luanmþa ndacuato `g `mstrmfunmþa `gfg nujphmr3 l ( x, y ) ≧ 5 ∑ ∑
∫ ∫ l ( x, y ) `y`x : ? sm R y ] sda vormofhgs ohgotdrmos ∟ ∟ l ( x,y ) : ? sm R y ] sda vormofhgs ohgotdrmos `msnrgtos
ndatmauos,
d
∖∑ ∖∑
Pd`d x Pd`d y
Gs mjpdrtoatg oadtor, qug ga gstg nosd gh vohdr gspgro`d `g nuohqumgr luanmþa i ( x, y ) gstï `o`d pdr3
⎩∑ ∑ ⎣⎣ ∫ ∫ i ( x, y ) l ( x, y ) `y`x sm R y ] ndatmauos (O6.6?) G ⎯⎮ i ( x, y ) ⎠⎬ : ⎢ ∖∑ ∖∑ ⎣⎣ Pd`d ∟y i ( x, y ) l ( x,y ) sm R y ] ` msnrgtos ⎭ ∟ x Pd`d Adtga qug gsto m`go gs lïnmhjgatg gxtgasmfhg o jïs `g `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos, ga gsg nosd tga`rgjds qug ho luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa poro hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos R ? , R 6 , ...., R a sgrï l ( x? , x6 , ...., xa ) . ] td`ds hds rgsuhto`ds `g hos `mstrmfunmdags fmvormo`os 7 sg pug`ga gxtga`gr oh nosd `g a vormofhgs ohgotdrmos.
0
D smjphgjgatg uao `mstrmfunmþa t. ^g gatmga`g pdr `mstrmfunmþa fmvormo`o oqughho luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa qug `gtgrjmao ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos gstía ga ua `gtgrjmao`d matgrvohd.
7
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
?7
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Gcgjphd O6.9 @mstrmfunmþa Adrjoh Fmvormo`o. Ho `mstrmfunmþa fmvormo`o adrjoh gsto `glmam`o ndjd
? 6 6 : l x y g R ] R ] 6 · · ώ ώ Ϗ , , , , , 6υώ R ώ ] ? ∖ Ϗ
(
6 ⎩ ⎯ ( x ∖ · )6 ( x ∖ · R )( y ∖ ·] ) ( y ∖ ·] ) ? ⎣ R ⎦ ∖ 6 Ϗ + ⎢∖ 6 6 6 ώ R ώ ] ώ ] ⎣⎭ 6(?∖ Ϗ ) ⎦⎮ ώ R
⎠ ⎫⎣ ⎧⎨ ⎧⎬ ⎣ ⎪
)
6 R ndrrgspda`g
`da`g · R y ώ
o ho jg`mo y vormoazo `g R , rgspgntmvojgatg. ^mjmhorjgatg, · ]
6
y ώ ] ndrrgspda`g o ho jg`mo y vormoazo `g ] , rgspgntmvojgatg. Lmaohjgatg, Ϗ ndrrgspda`g o ho ndrrghonmþa gatrg hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos R y ] . Irïlmnds `g ho @mstrmfunmþa Adrjoh Fmvormo`o nda `mlgrgatgs vohdrgs `g Ndrrghonmþa
l ( x, y 5, 5, = 0 , = 0 , 5 )
l ( x, y 5, 5, = 0 , = 0 , > 7)
^
l ( x, y 5, 5, = 0 , = 0 , ∖> 7 )
^
l ( x, y 5, 5, = 0 , = 0 , ∖?)
^
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
^
l ( x, y 5, 5, = 0 , = 0 , ∖?)
^
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
?<
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Gcgjphd O6.2 @mstrmfunmþa Adrjoh Juhtmvormo`o. Wao igagrohmzonmþa `g ho `mstrmfunmþa fmvormo`o adrjoh prgsgato`o ga gh Gcgjphd O6.9. gs ho `mstrmfunmþa Adrjoh Juhtmvormo`o. ^m ndasm`grojds ua vgntdr ohgotdrmd R `g tojoÿd a , gatdangs R gstorï `mstrmfum`d adrjohjgatg sm y sdhojgatg sm3 P ⎩ ? ⎫
l ( R ) : ( 6υ )
∖
a
6
∖? ⎢∖ ( x ∖· ) ή∖? ( x∖ · )⎨
⋇ ή g⎭
6
⎪
`da`g ή y · gs ho jotrmz `g vormoazos y ndvormoazos y gh vgntdr `g jg`mos `gh vgntdr , rgspgntmvojgatg.
?.?5 @mstrmfunmþa jorimaoh y nda`mnmdaoh `g prdfofmhm`o` ^goa `ds vormofhgs ohgotdrmos R y ] nda su rgspgntmvo luanmþa ndacuato `g `mstrmfunmþa l ( x, y ) . Ho `mstrmfunmþa jorimaoh `g prdfofmhm`o` , d luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa jorimaoh, `g ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo R sg `glmag ndjd
⎩∑ ⎣⎣ ∫ l ( x, t ) `t sm R y ] ndatmauos . l R ( x ) : ⎢ ∖∑ ⎣ ∟ l ( x,y ) sm R y ] `msnrgtos ⎣⎭ Pd`d y
(O6.66)
Matumtmvojgatg, ho `mstrmfunmþa jorimaoh sg pug`g gatga`gr ndjd ho luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa `g uao sdho vormofhg ohgotdrmo nuoa`d miadrojds hos dtros vormofhgs ohgotdrmos qug bonga portg `g uao luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa ndacuato. Obdro supdaiojds qug sm ads mjpdrto gh vohdr qug tdjg ho sgiua`o vormofhg, y pdr toatd qugrgjds sofgr nuoh gs ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug R sgo miuoh o ua vohdr d gstg ga ua matgrvohd prg`gtgrjmao`d `o`d qug ho vormofhg ] gs gxontojgatg miuoh o ua vohdr `gtgrjmao`d. Ga dtros pohofros qugrgjds ndadngr ho `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` `g ho vormofhg R nda`mnmdao`o o ua vohdr `gtgrjmao`d `g ho vormofhg ] . Ga gstg nosd gs agngsormd `glmamr ua augvd ndagptd3 ho `mstrmfunmþa nda`mnmdaoh `g prdfofmhm`o`. Matumtmvojgatg, sm ndasm`grojds ho `mstrmfunmþa fmvormo`o adrjoh poro hos vormofhgs gstdnïstmnos R y ] mhustro`o ga gh Gcgjphd O6.9, gatdangs ho `mstrmfunmþa nda`mnmdaoh `g R `o`d qug ] : y gs gqumvohgatg o ndrtor uao ‘toco`o‚ lmao nda ua nunbmhhd ufmno`d porohghd oh gcg `g hos x y ho toco`o lmao sgrï ndrto`o gxontojgatg ga gh puatd qug ] : y (\gr Irïlmnd O6.6). ^m ndhdnojds gsto ‘toco`o sdfrg uao jgso, gandatrorgjds ua irïlmnd ga `ds `mjgasmdags `g uao `mstrmfunmþa adrjoh, ho jg`mo `g gsto `mstrmfunmþa ‘toco`o‚ `gpga`grï `g nuoh gs ho ohturo o ho nuoh sg ndrto ho `mstrmfunmþa fmvormo`o, gs `gnmr gh vohdr ] : y . Ldrjohjgatg, ho `mstrmfunmþa nda`mnmdaoh `g prdfofmhm`o` , d luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa nda`mnmdaoh, `g ho vormofhg ohgotdrmo R `o`d ] : y sg `glmag ndjd3 Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
?9
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
l ( x ] : y ) : l ( x y ) :
l ( x, y ) l] ( y )
(O6.6>)
Irïlmnd O6.6. Luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa nda`mnmdaoh Adrjoh. .
) x ( l
x
Uoagh o.
Uoagh f.
Ga gh Uoagh o, sg dfsgrvo uao `mstrmfunmþa fmvormo`o adrjoh l ( x, y 5, 5, = 0 , = 0 , > 7 ) . Mjoimag qug ndrto nda ua nunbmhhd uao ‘lmao toco`o‚ `g gsto ‘jdatoÿo‚ ndhdnoa`d gh nunbmhhd porohghd oh gcg `g hos x y gxontojgatg o ho ohturo `g ] : 6 . Gsto ‘lmao toco`o‚ ndrrgspda`grï o ho hêago sþhm`o `gh Uoagh f (ga gstg nosd R y : 6 ∸ A (?.6,?.00 ) ). ^m sg rgohmzo ua ndrtg smjmhor, pgrd o ho ohturo `g ] : ∖? , dftga`rgjds ho luanmþa `g `gasm`o` puatgo`o jdstro`o ga gh Uoagh f (ga gstg nosd R y : ∖? ∸ A ( ∖.. ^gsid `g ua Gstmjo`dr. Urdf `g β ˌ
Urdf `g β ˌ
β ˌ
β
o) Gstmjo`drgs Masgsio`ds
β
β ˌ
f)Gstmjo`dr ^gsio`d
Ndjd gs `g gspgrorsg, sg prglgrmrï ua gstmjo`dr qug tgaio uao jgadr `mspgrsmþa ohrg`g`dr `g ho jg`mo (vormoazo) o uad nda joydr `mspgrsmþa. Wa gstmjo`dr β ˌ ? gs ndasm`gro`d ua gstmjo`dr masgsio`d jïs glmnmgatg qug qug β ˌ sm 6
ˌ ˌ ? \or β 8 \or β 6
( )
(O6.62)
( )
Obdro ndasm`grgjds gh nosd ga qug gstojds ndjporoa`d ua gstmjo`dr sgsio`d nda uao vormoazo rghotmvojgatg pgqugÿo nda ua gstmjo`dr masgsio`d nda uao vormoazo rghotmvojgatg iroa`g (\gr Irïlmnd O6.0.). Ho prgiuato aoturoh gs3 ´nuïh `g hds `ds gstmjo`drgs `gfgrï sgr prglgrm`d4 Irïlmnd O6.0. ^gsid vgrsus Jêamjo \ormoazo. Urdf `g β ˌ
β
β ˌ
Wa nrmtgrmd poro gsndigr ua gstmjo`dr gatrg dtrds gs ndasm`gror gh gstmjo`dr nda gh jêamjd Grrdr Jg`md oh Nuo`ro`d, (`gadto`d J^G pdr su adjfrg ga maihís ‘Jgoa ^quorg Grrdr‚), gstg sg `glmag ndjd3
( )
(
)
6
J^G βˌ : G βˌ ∖ β .
(O6.6=)
Gs lïnmh jdstror qug3 6
J^G ⎯βˌ ⎠ : ⎯ ^gsid ⎯βˌ ⎠ ⎠ + \or ⎯β ˌ ⎠ ⎮ ⎬ ⎮ ⎮ ⎬⎬ ⎮ ⎬
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
(O6.>5)
65
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
Osê oh jmamjmzor gh J^G, sg gstï tgamga`d ga nugato toatd gh sgsid ndjd ho `mspgrsmþa `gh gstmjo`dr. Adtg qug ga nosd `g ndjporor `ds gstmjo`drgs masgsio`ds, gh nrmtgrmd `g jmamjmzor gh J^G mjphmnorï gsndigr gh gstmjo`dr nda ho jêamjo vormoazo. Gcgjphd O6.= Pohvgz gh gcgjphd jïs lojmhmor gs gh gstmjo`dr `g ho jg`mo. ^updaio qug qugrgjds gstmjor ho jg`mo pdfhonmdaoh · ; gh gstmjo`dr jïs gjphgo`d poro ho jg`mo pdfhonmdaoh gs a
∟ R
m
b ( R ? , R 6 , ..., R a ) :
m :?
a
, gstg gstmjo`dr ndjóajgatg sg ndadng ndjd x . Adtga qug
⎯ a ⎠ R ∟ m ⎦ ⎧ ? ⎯ a ⎠ ? a ⎧ : G ⎦ ∟ R m ⎧ : ∟ G [ R m Z , `o`d qug td`os hos R m prdvmgaga `g ho G [ x Z : G ⎦ m :? ⎦ a ⎧ a ⎮ m :? ⎬ a m :? ⎦⎮ ⎧⎬ jmsjo pdfhonmþa, gatdangs G [ R m Z : · poro td`d m . Osê G [ x Z :
? a a
∟ · : · . Udr toatd x gs m :?
masgsio`d.
Lmaohjgatg, dtro prdpmg`o` `gsgo`o ga ua gstmjo`dr gs ho ndasmstganmo. Matumtmvojgatg, ua gstmjo`dr gs ndasmstgatg sm nuoa`d ho jugstro sg bong iroa`g (y pdr toatd jïs ngrnoao o ho pdfhonmþa tdtoh), gatdangs ho prdfofmhm`o` `g qug gh gstmjo`dr sgo `mlgrgatg `gh vohdr pdfhonmdaoh β gs ngrd. Gs `gnmr, o jg`m`o qug ho jugstro sg bong iroa`g gh sm sgsid `gh gstmjo`dr `gsoporg`g. Ldrjohjgatg, β ˌ gs ua gstmjo`dr ndasmstgatg sm
(
)
hmj U β ∖ βˌ 8 ΰ : ?
a ↖∑
(O6.>?)
`da`g ΰ gs uao ndastoatg pdsmtmvo orfmtrormojgatg pgqugÿo. ?.?> Pgdrgjo `gh hêjmtg Ngatroh Gh tgdrgjo `gh hêjmtg ngatroh pug`g sgr uad `g hds rgsuhto`ds jïs pd`grdsds y osdjfrdsds `g ho nmganmo gsto`êstmno. Ho matumnmþa `gtrïs `g gstg tgdrgjo gs juy sganmhho; sm sg sujoa ua aójgrd sulmnmgatgjgatg iroa`g `g vormofhgs ohgotdrmos, gatdangs sma mjpdrtor ho `mstrmfunmþa `g hos vormofhgs ohgotdrmos sujo`os, ho sujotdrmo sgiumrï uao `mstrmfunmþa adrjoh. Gxmstga aujgrdsos vgrsmdags `gh tgdrgjo `gh hêjmtg ngatroh, uad nda rgstrmnnmdags jïs lugrtgs qug dtros, pgrd ho vgrsmþa jïs sganmhho `g gstg tgdrgjo gs3 a
∟ R m :?
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
m
~ o A ( a· , aώ 6 )
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
(O6.>6)
6?
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
`da`g R m poro m : ?,6,..., a , · y ώ 6 sda nuohqumgr jugstro ohgotdrmo `g tojoÿd a prdvgamgatg `g ho jmsjo pdfhonmþa, ho jg`mo y ho vormoazo pdfhonmdaoh, rgspgntmvojgatg. Wao vgrsmþa gqumvohgatg y jïs ndadnm`o `g gstg tgdrgjo gs3 a
∟ R
⎛ ώ 6 ⎑ ~ A ⎘ · , ⎔ a ⎚ a ⎥ m
x :
m :?
o
(O6.>>)
?.?0 Matgrvohds `g ndalmoazo y prugfos `g bmpþtgsms. Ho prdfofmhm`o` qug uao gstmjonmþa puatuoh sgo gxontojgatg miuoh oh vohdr rgoh `gh porïjgtrd gs ngrd (´Udr quí4). Uoro oujgator ho ngrtm`ujfrg gatdrad o augstro gstmjonmþa, pd`gjds gjphgor ho `mstrmfunmþa `g prdfofmhm`o` `gh gstmjo`dr poro ojphmor augstro gstmjonmþa o ua matgrvohd d prdfor `mlgrgatgs bmpþtgsms. Uoro oqughhds gstmjo`drgs qug smiuga uao `mstrmfunmþa smjítrmno ndjd ho t d ho adrjoh, ho gstrunturo `g ua matgrvohd `g ndalmoazo gs juy sganmhho. Ho m`go gs nrgor ua matgrvohd nda uao ndalmoazo `gh ?55 (? ∖ ο ) % qug tgaio ndjd ngatrd gh vohdr gstmjo`d y hds hêjmtgs malgrmdr y supgrmdr smiuga ho gstrunturo3 Gstmjonmda ∞ ( \ohdr `g uao `mstrmfunmda )ο \or [ Gstmjo`dr Z
(O6.>0)
6
`da`g gh vohdr `g uao `mstrmfunmþa `gpga`g `g ho `mstrmfunmþa `gh gstmjo`dr y `gh amvgh `g ndalmoazo ο `gsgo`d. Ga igagroh ua matgrvohd `g ndalmoazo `g ?55 (? ∖ ο ) % ad smiamlmno qug nda ua ?55 (? ∖ ο ) % `g ngrtgzo gh vohdr rgoh `gh porïjgtrd gstorï ga gh matgrvohd. Ho matgrprgtonmþa `g ua matgrvohd `g ndalmoazo `gh ?55 (? ∖ ο ) % gs qug `g ?55 jugstros qug sg igagrga `g ho jmsjo pdfhonmþa ga ?55 (? ∖ ο ) vgngs hos gstmjonmdags gstorïa `gatrd `g `mnbd matgrvohd. Ga nuoatd o hos prugfos `g bmpþtgsms ga tdrad o porïjgtrds, gstos prgsgatoa uao gstrunturo smjmhor (\gr Gsqugjo O6.?.) Obdro ndasm`grgjds rïpm`ojgatg uad `g hds ospgntds jïs mjpdrtoatgs `g uao prugfo `g bmpþtgsms, hds tmpds `g grrdrgs mavdhunro`ds ga no`o `gnmsmþa. Ga gspgnmoh, nuoa`d gsndigjds ua amvgh `g smiamlmnoanmo ο , y pdr gcgjphd rgnbozojds ho bmpþtgsms auho, ga gsg nosd gs pdsmfhg qug mandrrgntojgatg bohhojds rgnbozo`d ho bmpþtgsms auho nuoa`d gsto gro vgr`o`gro; o gstg grrdr hd hhojojds grrdr tmpd M y y gs `msgÿo`d poro sgr `gh ο %. ^updaiojds obdro qug ad gs pdsmfhg rgnbozor ho bmpþtgsms auho, ga gstg nosd gs pdsmfhg qug ad gstgjds rgnbozoa`d ho bmpþtgsms auho nuoa`d gsto ga vgr`o` gs lohso; o gstg grrdr hd hhojojds grrdr tmpd MM y gs `gadjmao`d nda ho hgtro irmgio ζ . Udr toatd, hd m`goh oh `msgÿor uao prugfo `g bmpþtgsms gs qug toatd ο ndjd ζ sgoa hd jïs pgqugÿd pdsmfhg. Hostmjdsojgatg gxmstg
Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
66
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
ua ndjprdjmsd (tro`g-dll (tro`g-dll ) gatrg gh grrdr tmpd M y gh grrdr tmpd MM, pugs nuoa`d sg `msjmauyg gh grrdr tmpd M gh grrdr tmpd MM sg oujgato.
Gsqugjo O6.? Gstrunturo `g uao prugfo `g Bmpþtgsms ?. B 5 3 Bmpþtgsms Auho (bmpþtgsms qug sg qumgrg rglutor) 6. B O 3 Bmpþtgsms Ohtgrao (bmpþtgsms qug sg qumgrg ongptor) >. Nohnuhd `g ua gsto`êstmnd (`gpga`g `g ho `mstrmfunmþa `gh gstmjo`dr) 0. @gnmsmþa (Ndjporor gh gsto`êstmnd nohnuho`d nda ua vohdr nrêtmnd `g ho ndrrgspda`mgatg luanmþa `g `mstrmfunmþa)
Gs pdr gsto rozþa, qug smgjprg qug sg phoatgo uao prugfo `g bmpþtgsms, sg troto `g ndastrumr hos bmpþtgsms auho y ohtgrao `g toh ldrjo qug hds qug sg `gsgo ndjprdfor sgo phoatgo`d ga ho bmpþtgsms ohtgrao y ad ga ho bmpþtgsms auho. Osê, sg prgtga`g ndjgtgr ua grrdr tmpd M jêamjd qug gs jïs lïnmhjgatg ndatrdhofhg pdr gh mavgstmio`dr, `o`d qug hds gsto`êstmnds poro glgntuor hos prugfos `g bmpþtgsms sda `msgÿo`ds poro ndatrdhor gh grrdr tmpd M, `gcoa`d gh grrdr tmpd MM sma ndatrdh. ?.?7 Vglgrganmos. Ojgjmyo, Pokgsbm. ?==0. Matrd`untmda td ^totmstmns oa` Gndadjgtrmns . Hda`da3 Bogvor` Wamvgrsmty Urgss. Jdd`, Ohgxoa`gr JnLorhoag. ?=75. Matrd`untmda td tbg tbgdry dl stotmstmns 3 JnIrow-Bmhh. ?.?, ] gh aójgrd ga ho noro supgrmdr `gh `o`d rdcd `gspuís `g hoazo`d `mvm`m`d pdr >, S ho sujo `gh aójgrd ga ho noro supgrmdr `g no`o uad `g hds `ds `o`ds `gspuís `g sgr hoazo`ds, y lmaohjgatg sgo Y : RS . Ganugatrg3 • G ( R ) , G (] ) , G ( S ) , y G (Y ) .
• \or ( R ) , \or (] ) , \or ( S ) , y \or (Y ) • ´^da Y y G ma`gpga`mgatgs4 6. Wao `mstrmfunmþa `msnrgto juy uso`o gs ho `mstrmfunmþa Udmssda. Udr gcgjphd, supdaio qug R gs gh aójgrd `g pgrsdaos qug sg prgsgatoa ga uao vgatoamhho Cuhmd Nísor Ohdasd N
Wamvgrsm`o` MNG^M
cnohdasdEmngsm.g`u.nd
6>
Opía`mng 6- Ghgjgatds Ghgjgatds `g Gsto`êstmno Gsto`êstmno
`g otganmþa `g ua foand ga ua pgrêd`d `g tmgjpd `o`d gsndim`d ohgotdrmojgatg. Gatdangs ua jd`ghd lrgnugatgjgatg uso`d gs ∖ λ x g λ l ( x ) : x : 5,?, , 5,?, 6,... x ! >. @gjugstrg qug ho `mstrmfunmþa Udmssda nujphg hos nda`mnmdags 5 ≠ l ( x ) ≠ y
∟ l ( x ) : ? m
td`d td`d xm
6
0. Jugstrg qug \or [ R Z : G ⎯⎮ R 6 ⎠⎬ ∖ ( G [ R Z ) . 7. Jugstrg qug \or [ oR + f Z : o 6\or [ R Z .
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