1.seminario-Dinamica de Los Ecosistemas

 

^AM ^ADSNR]DHJH AJMDLAJG HN MJEJ@JRMJ ‗Alrtn hn gj ^advnrsdhjh Ynrujaj‐

CJM^GXJH HN MDNAMDJ] JKRJRDJ] N]M^NGJ JMJHÄ@DML YRLCN]DLAJG HN DAKNADNRÀJ J@BDNAXJG ]fudtutn s/a Mfjmjpj`pj ”  Mngnahàa  Mngnahàa - Xngncjx5 9;3->>>=9; ]n`dajrdl5 HDAÊ@DMJ HNG NML]D]XN@J5 BDLXDYL BDLMNAL]D] Jgu`als5 Mj`pls ]jghjúj Nugnr Rlssng Sdggnkjs @uúlz elrhêa efjdr Zudrlz Jtjgjyj Nvnr Elajtfja Kldmlmfnj Rlhràkunz Nhujrhl Rjcjng @jràa Mnpnhj @nrgy Tjongda Mdmgl5 DD NJY5

Daknadnràj J`bdnatjg Jsdkajturj5

Nmlglkàj T Hnsjrrlggl ]lstnadbgn Hlmnatn5

@jatdggj Fujrdpjtj Rlxjaj "Júl hng Bdmnatnajrdl hng Ynrõ5 299 júls hn Dahnpnahnamdj" Mngnahàa5 2;/9=/292:

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DAHDMN DAHDMN HN DG^]XRJMD DG^]XRJMDLAN] LAN] ................................ ................................................. ................................... .............................. ............=  D.RN]^@NA ................................... .................................................... .................................. .................................. .................................. ........................ .......8  DD.DAXRLH^MMDLA DD.DAXRLH^MM DLA................. .................................. .................................. .................................. .................................. .............................. .............>  DDD.LBENXDSL] DDD.LBENXD SL] ................................ ................................................. ................................... ................................... .................................. ..................... ....>  HDAÊ@DMJ HNG NML]D]XN@J5 NML]D]XN@J5 BDLXDYL BDLMNAL]D] BDLMNAL]D]................................. ...................................3  :.:.NML]D]XN@J :.:.NML]D]X N@J.................................. ................................................... .................................. .................................. ................................. ................3  :.2. 

Hdaê`dmj hn gls nmlsdstn`js.................................. ................................................... ................................... ....................; 

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Bdltlpl ................................. .................................................. .................................. .................................. ................................... ....................6 

:.>. 

Bdlmnalsds .................................. ................................................... .................................. .................................. ............................:2 ...........:2 

:.3. 

Rngjmdlans datrjnspnmàcdmjs .................................. ................................................... .................................. ...................:8 ..:8 

:.;. 

Rngjmdlans datnrnspnmàcdmjs .................................. ................................................... .................................. ...................:> ..:> 

:.6. 

Nstrumturj Hng Nmlsdstn`j ............................. .............................................. .................................. .........................:3 ........:3 

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Rngjmdlans Xrýcdmjs .................................. ................................................... ................................... ...............................:4 .............:4 

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Xdpls Hn Nmlsdstn`js .......................................... ........................................................... .................................. ...................23 ..23 

:.4.>. 

Mdmgl hn gj `jtnrdj ................................ ................................................. ................................... ............................=; ..........=; 

DS.MLAMG^MDLA DS.MLAMG^MDL A ................ ................................. .................................. .................................. .................................. ...............................8: ..............8:  S.BDBGDLKRJCDJ S.BDBGDLKRJC DJ................................. .................................................. .................................. .................................. ...............................82 ..............82  SD.GDAOLKRJCÀJ SD.GDAOLKRJ CÀJ ................................... .................................................... .................................. .................................. ............................8= ...........8= 

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DAHDMN HN DG^]XRJMDLAN] D G^]XRJMDLAN] Dgustrjmdýa :5 nmlsdstn`j ................................................................................................................. ;  Dgustrjmdýa 25 bdltdpl ....................................................................................................................... 4  Dgustrjmdýa =5 bdlmnalsds ............................................................................................................... :2  Dgustrjmdýa 85 rngjmdlans datrjnspnmàcdmjs ...................................................................................... :>  D gustrjmdýa > 5 rngjmdlans datrjnspnmàcdmjs .................................................................................... :>  Dgustrjmdýa 35 Fnrbàvlrls l mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls, ............................................................ :;  Dgustrjmdýa;5Mjraàvlrls l mlasu`dhlrns snmuahjrdls ........................................................... ........................................................ ... :;  Dgustrjmdýa 65 jad`jgns mjrrlúnrls ................................................................................................ :6   Dgustrjmdýa 4 5Jad`jgns hnsml`planhlrns. ............................................................................ :4  Dgustrjmdýa :95Lrkjadzjmdýa hng advng trýcdml. ..................................................... ........................................................................... ...................... 29  Dgustrjmdýa ::5 Mjhnaj trýcdmj .................................................................................................... 22  Dgustrjmdýa :2. Rnh trýcdmj `jràtd`j. ...................................................................................... 22 

Dgustrjmdýa :=. Nanrkàj Nanrk àj hng advng trýcdml dacnrdlr. .................................................... .......................................................................... ...................... 2>  Dgustrjmdýa :85 tuahrj .................................................................................................................... 2;  Dgustrjmdýa :>5 tjdkj .................................................... ......................................................................................................... ................................................................... .............. 26  Dgustrjmdýa :35 blsquns blsq uns tn`pgjhls mjhu mjhumdclgdls mdclgdls............................................................................ ...................................................... ...................... 24  Dgustrjmdýa :;5 blsqun trlpdmjg ...................................................................................................... =9  Dgustrjmdýa :65 hnsdnrtl .................................................................................................................. =:  Dgustrjmdýa :45 sjbjaj sjbja j................................................. ...................................................................................................... ................................................................... .............. =2  Dgustrjmdýa 295 nmlsdstn`j jmuêtdml............................................................................................... jmuêtdml............................................................................................... =2  Dgustrjmdýa 2:5 datnr`jrnjg ............................................................................................................ ==  Dgustrjmdýa 225 `jr jbdnrtl ............................................................................................................ =8  Dgustrjmdýa 2=5 clahl lmnêadml ...................................................................................................... =8   Dgustrjmdýa 285 zlaj jbds`jg ......................................................................................................... =>  Dgustrjmdýa 2>5 fu`nhjgns ............................................................................................................. =3  Dgustrjmdýa 235 gltdmls ...................................................................................................... ................................................. ................................................................... .............. =3  Dgustrjmdýa 2;5 gltdmls ...................................................................................................... ................................................. ................................................................... .............. =;  Dgustrjmdýa 26. Mdmgl hng Mjrblal ............................................................................................. ..................................................... ........................................ =6   Dgustrjmdýa 24 Mdmgl

hng Clsclrl ....................................................................................................... =4 

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D.  RN]^@NA ^a nmlsdstn`j ns uaj ml`uadhjh bdlgýkdmj su`jhj j gls cjmtlrns càsdmls y quà`dmls na gls qun sn namunatrj. Gjs nspnmdns hng nmlsdstn`j, damguynahl bjmtnrdjs bjmtnrdjs,, flakls,  pgjatjs y jad`jgns hnpnahna uajs hn ltrjs tj`bdäa gj hdaê`dmj hn gls nmlsdstn`js sla gls mj`bdls na gj ml`plsdmdýa y nstrumturj hn gjs ml`uadhjhns  bdlgýkdmjs jslmdjhls mla ng tj`júl hn gj plbgjmdýa, gj `jadcnstjmdýa hn  plgd`lrcds`ll l gjs cjsns hn hnsjrrlggl  plgd`lrcds` hnsjrrlggl hn gls dah dahdvdhuls dvdhuls hn gjs hdstdatjs hdstdatjs nspnmdns. T  pjrj su cuamdlaj`dnatl cuamdlaj`dnatl anmnsdtja uaj cunatn hn nanrkàj qun cguyn j trjväs hn gls ml`planatns hng nmlsdstn`j, `lvdgdzjahl gj `jtnrdj qun hn `janrj mlatdauj y màmgdmj rngjmdlaj rngjmdlaj ng bdltlpl y gj bdlmnalsds. bdlmnalsds. Xj`bdäa fjy fjy hls tdpls hn rngjmdlans hn gls jad`jgns5 datnrnspnmàcdmjs n datrjnspnmàcdmjs, qun na nstjs pjrtdmdpja jad`jgns gumfjahl plr su tnrrdtlrdl ml`dhj supnrvdvnamdj… Gls nmlsdstn`js sla uadhjhns hn cuamdlaj`dnatl hn gj bdlscnrj, plr tjatl, sla sdstn`js. Yjrj plhnr cuamdlajr rnqudnrna nanrkàj, qun prlmnhn hng ]lg. Gj nanrkàj slgjr sýgl ns mjptjhj y trjasclr`jhj plr gls lrkjads`ls prlhumtlrns `nhdjatn gj cltlsàatnsds.  Ylr nstn `ltdvl, gls prlhumtlrns sla ng dadmdl hn mujgqudnr mjhnaj trýcdmj y hn nggls hnpnahna gls hn`ês snrns vdvls hn ua nmlsdstn`j. T bunals gls nmlsdstn`js sla tnrrnstrns y jmuêtdmls yj qun jmê nxdstna hdcnrnatns vjrdnhjhns hn nspnmdns.

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DD. DAXRLH^MMDLA Ng mlamnptl hn nmlsdstn`j ns nspnmdjg`natn datnrnsjatn pjrj ml`prnahnr ng cuamdlaj`dnatl hn gj ajturjgnzj y `ugtdtuh hn munstdlans j`bdnatjgns. Fjy qun dasdstdr na qun gj vdhj fu`jaj sn hnsjrrlggj na nstrnmfj rngjmdýa mla gj ajturjgnzj y qun su cuamdlaj`dnatl cuamdlaj`dnatl als jcnmtj tltjg`natn Na ng prnsnatn daclr`n vj`ls j fjbgjr slbrn ng nmlsdstn`j, y su hdaê`dmj yj qun ns ua tn`j `uy datnrnsjatn, nstn tn`j tj`bdäa vj`ls fj hnsmrdbdr slbrn  bdltdpl y bdlmnalsds bdlmnalsds y gj rngjmdýa qun tdnana gls ja jad`jgns. d`jgns.

DDD.  LBENXDSL] Knanrjg ❓  Davnstdkjr

y mlalmnr slbrn gj hdaê`dmj hn gls nmlsdstn`js

Nspnmàcdmls ➢  Xj`bdäa vj`ls

j hnsmrdbdr bdltdpl, bdlmnalsds.

➢  Nstrumturj hng

nmlsdstn`j ➢  Xdpls hn nmlsdstn`js

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HDAÊ@DMJ HNG NML]D]XN@J5 BDLXDYL BDLMNAL]D] :.:. NML]D]XN@J NML]D]XN@J ¼Zuä ns ua nmlsdstn`j< ^a nmlsdstn`j ns uaj ml`uadhjh bdlgýkdmj su`jhj j gls cjmtlrns càsdmls y quà`dmls na gls qun sn namunatrj. na munatrj. Ng nmlsdstn`j ns ng mlaeuatl hn nspnmdns hn ua êrnj hntnr`dajhj qun datnrjmtõja natrn nggjs y mla su j`bdnatn jbdýtdml? `nhdjatn prlmnsls ml`l gj hnprnhjmdýa, ng pjrjsdtds`l, gj ml`pntnamdj y gj sd`bdlsds, y mla su j`bdnatn jg hnsdatnkrjrsn y vlgvnr j snr pjrtn hng mdmgl hn nanrkàj y hn autrdnatns. Gjs nspnmdns hng nmlsdstn`j, damguynahl bjmtnrdjs, flakls, pgjatjs y jad`jgns hnpnahna uajs hn ltrjs. Gjs rngjmdlans natrn gjs nspnmdns y su `nhdl, rnsugtja na ng cguel hn `jtnrdj y nanrkàj hng nmlsdstn`j. (Mdsanrls, 29:;) Ng sdkadcdmjhl hng mlamnptl hn nmlsdstn`j fj nvlgumdlajhl hnshn su lrdkna. Ng tär`dal jmuújhl na gls júls :4=9's, sn jhsmrdbn j gls bltêadmls dakgnsns Rly Mgjpfj` (:498-:449) y ]dr Jrtfur Xjasgny (:6;:-:4>>). Na ua prdamdpdl sn jpgdmý j uadhjhns hn hdvnrsjs nsmjgjs nspjmdjgns, hnshn ua pnhjzl hn trlaml hnkrjhjhl, ua mfjrml, uaj rnkdýa l gj bdlscnrj natnrj hng pgjantj, sdn`prn y mujahl na nggjs puhdnrja nxdstdr lrkjads`ls, j`bdnatn càsdml n datnrjmmdlans.

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Dgustrjmdýa :5 nmlsdstn`j

cunatn5 fttps5//tlhld`jknanshn.ml`/nmlsdstn`js-ajturjgns/

:.2. Hdaê`dmj Hdaê`dmj hn gls nmlsdstn`js sla gls mj`bdls na gj ml`plsdmdýa y nstrumturj hn gjs ml`uadhjhns bdlgýkdmjs jslmdjhls mla ng tj`júl hn gj plbgjmdýa, gj `jadcnstjmdýa `jadcnstjmdýa hn plgd`lrcds` pl gd`lrcds`ll l gjs cjsns hn hnsjrrlggl hn gls dahdvdhuls hn gjs hdstdatjs nspnmdns.

:.=. Ng Ng cuamdlaj`dnatl hng nmlsdstn`j Gls nmlsdstn`js anmnsdtja uaj cunatn hn nanrkàj qun cguyn j trjväs hn gls ml`planatns hng nmlsdstn`j, `lvdgdzjahl gj `jtnrdj qun hn `janrj mlatdauj y màmgdmj rngjmdlaj ng bdltlpl y gj bdlmnalsds. Gj prdamdpjg cunatn hn nanrkàj hn gls nmlsdstn`js ns ng slg, nanrkàj mjptjhj plr gls lrkjads`ls cltlsdatätdmls pjrj prlhumdr `jtnrdj lrkêadmj. Nstj `jtnrdj  prlhumdhj na gj cltlsàatnsd cltlsàatnsdss ns utdgdzjhj plr gls lrkjads`ls pjrj mrnmnr. Ltrl  plrmnatjen ns n`pgnjhl pjrj rnspdrjr, gdbnrjr nanrkàj y rnjgdzjr gjs cuamdlans ;

 

^AM vdtjgns. Gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj pjsj plr gls hdcnrnatns lrkjads`ls hng nmlsdstn`j (fnrbàvlrls, mjraàvlrls, hnsml`planhlrns…) qun gj utdgdzj a

pjrj mrnmnr y

rnspdrjr, trjasclr`jahl gj nanrkàj quà`dmj hn gls jgd`natls y gdbnrjahl pjrtn hn nstj nanrkàj na clr`j hn mjglr. Nstl `ds`l sn rnpdtn na tlhls gls advngns trýcdmls y na gj `unrtn hn gls dahdvdhuls pjsj j snr hnsml`punstj y mlavnrtdhj na `jtnrdj dalrkêadmj usjhj plr gls prlhumtlrns. Jsà plhn`ls hnmdr qun ng cguel hn `jtnrdj ns màmgdml. ]da n`bjrkl, gj nanrkàj sn vj pnrhdnahl hn advng na advng na mjglr qun sn hnsprnahn jg `nhdl sda rnmupnrjrgl. Ng cguel nanrkätdml ns uadhdrnmmdlajg5 gj nanrkàj slgjr ns trjasclr`jhj plr gjs pgjatjs na nanrkàj quà`dmj y hnvungtj jg `nhdl na clr`j hn nanrkàj mjglràcdmj.

:.8. Bdltlpl Ng bdltlpl ns ng nspjmdl càsdml y gjs mlahdmdlans j`bdnatjgns qun gl mjrjmtnrdzja, hlahn gls snrns vdvls hn ua nmlsdstn`j hnsjrrlggja su vdhj. Gjs mjrjmtnràstdmjs hng bdltlpl hntnr`daja gj prnsnamdj hn uaj u ltrj nspnmdn na ng nmlsdstn`j, jsà ml`l gj jbuahjamdj hn mjhj uaj. Gls prdamdpjgns ml`planatns hng bdltlpl sla ng `nhdl y gls cjmtlrns jbdýtdmls qun gl hncdana. ^a nmlsdstn`j, ml`l ns sjbdhl, jkrupj hdstdatjs plbgjmdlans hn cglrj y cjuaj. Ml`pjrtna nsn gukjr y, gýkdmj`natn, tj`bdäa gls rnmursls, juaqun nsn ml`pjrtdr sdkadcdmj gumfjr plr nggls, yj snj nacrnatêahlsn hn clr`j hdrnmtj, jyuhêahlsn l, plr nen`pgl, jhjptêahlsn jg `nhdl pjrj sjmjr pjrtdhl hn gls rnmursls pjrj gls qun fjy `nals ml`pntnamdj. ]nj ml`l snj, gl mdnrtl ns qun gls rnmursls mlastdtuyna ua `nhdl hn vdhj pjrj gjs nspnmdns qun ml`plana gj bdlhdvnrsdhjh. qun ml`pjrtna gls rnmursls hn ua `ds`l `nhdl. Na nstn `nhdl hn vdhj, plhn`ls hdstdakudr plr ua gjhl gj bdlmnalsds (cglrj y cjuaj) y plr ltrl ng hnal`dajhl j`bdnatn knlgýkdml l bdltlpl. 6

 

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Hn nstn `lhl, ng bdltlpl (mgd`j, jkuj y tdpl hn sungl) mlaclr`j ua nmlsdstn`j mujahl na äg namlatrj`ls namlatrj`ls vdhj, nsj cglrj y cjuaj l bdlmnalsds. Gj su`j hn j`bls,  bdltlpl y bdlmnalsds, bdlmnalsds, sn trjhumn trjhumn na ua nmlsdstn`j, nmlsdstn`j, puns slgl slgl su jslmdjmdýa jslmdjmdýa pnr`dtn qun ua hntnr`dajhl nspjmdl punhj jgbnrkjr bdlhdvnrsdhjh. Dgustrjmdýa 25 bdltdpl

cunatn5 fttps5//www fttps5//www.ustnhprnkuatj.ml .ustnhprnkuatj.ml`/mjtnklrdj/mdnamdj `/mjtnklrdj/mdnamdj/qun-sdkadcdmj-bdltlpl /qun-sdkadcdmj-bdltlpl//

J) Ng `nhdl Ng `nhdl ns ng gukjr hlahn vdvna y sn hnspgjzja gls snrns vdvls hn ua nmlsdstn`j y mla ng mujg `jatdnana datnrmj`bdls mlastjatns hn `jtnrdj y nanrkàj. Hdstdakud`ls hls tdpls hn `nhdl5 ng `nhdl tnrrnstrn y ng `nhdl jmuêtdml. • Ng `nhdl

tnrrnstrn sn namunatrj na gj supnrcdmdn hn gls mlatdanatns. Nstê na

mlatjmtl hdrnmtl mla gj jt`ýscnrj, qun mlatdnan gls kjsns qun anmnsdtja gls snrns vdvls. Na nstn `nhdl nxdstna vjrdls tdpls hn supnrcdmdns, l sustrjtls, slbrn gjs qun namlatrj`ls gls snrns vdvls ml`l, plr nen`pgl, ng sungl, gjs rlmjs l 4

 

^AM gls `ds`ls snrns vdvls l sus rnstls. Euatl mla ng sustrjtl, gj hdspladbdgdhj hdspladbdgdhjhh hn jkuj, gj jgtdtuh y ng mgd`j sla gjs mjrjmtnràstdmjs `ês d`plrtjatns pjrj hntnr`dajr gls hdstdatls tdpls hn `nhdls tnrrnstrns. • Ng `nhdl jmuêtdml nstê mlastdtudhl plr jkuj. Nstj mlatdnan hdsungtls gls kjsns

qun gj `jylràj hn gls lrkjads`ls jmuêtdmls utdgdzja, jsà ml`l hdvnrsls autrdnatns. Gls lrkjads`ls jmuêtdmls punhna vdvdr slbrn ng clahl hn gls lmäjals, ràls l gjkls, slbrn ltrl snr vdvl l sus rnstls y, j hdcnrnamdj hn gl qun lmurrn na ng `nhdl tnrrnstrn, punhna al tnanr sustrjtl y vdvdr suspnahdhls na ng jkuj, ml`l `umfls pnmns. Jhn`ês hng sustrjtl, gj ml`plsdmdýa y gjs mlahdmdlans càsdmjs hng jkuj sla gjs mjrjmtnràstdmjs prdamdpjgns hn gls hdstdatls `nhdls jmuêtdmls.

B) Gls cjmtlrns jbdýtdmls Gls cjmtlrns j`bdnatjgns, l cjmtlrns jbdýtdmls, sla ng mlaeuatl hn mlahdmdlans càsdmjs y quà`dmjs hng bdltlpl. Nstjs mlahdmdlans mjrjmtnrdzja jg bdltlpl y hntnr`daja quä lrkjads`ls punhna fjbdtjr na nsn nmlsdstn`j? ns hnmdr, mlahdmdlaja su bdlmnalsds. Nstls cjmtlrns mlahdmdlaja gjs jhjptjmdlans qun  prnsnatja gls gls lrkjads`ls lrkjads`ls j su `nhdl, `nhdl, hn clr`j qun tlhj nspnmdn nspnmdn qun fjbdtn fjbdtn na ua hntnr`dajhl nmlsdstn`j hnbn nstjr prnpjrjhj pjrj slbrnvdvdr na gjs mlahdmdlans j`bdnatjgns prlpdjs hn su bdltlpl. Gls cjmtlrns j`bdnatjgns `ês d`plrtjatns hn ua nmlsdstn`j sla gj guz, ng jkuj, gj tn`pnrjturj, gls kjsns, gj ml`plsdmdýa hng sungl y gj sdtujmdýa knlkrêcdmj.

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^AM M) Gj guz  ns gj prdamdpjg cunatn hn nanrkàj na mjsd tlhls gls nmlsdstn`js y mlahdmdlaj gj hdstrdbumdýa hn gls lrkjads`ls cltlsdatätdmls. Jg nstuhdjr ng ncnmtl hn gj guz slbrn ng nmlsdstn`j hnbn`ls vjglrjr su datnasdhjh, su hurjmdýa y ng mlglr qun  prnsnatj. Jsà, plr nen`pgl, na gjs g js zlajs prýxd`js jg nmujhlr gjs flrjs hn guz slgjr vjràja `uy plml j gl gjrkl hng júl `dnatrjs qun na gjs prýxd`js j gls  plgls vjràja `umfl. `umfl.

H) Ng jkuj ns nsnamdjg pjrj gj vdhj y tlhls gls lrkjads`ls hnpnahna hn nggj pjrj slbrnvdvdr. Gls snrns vdvls sla mjpjmns hn vdvdr na zlajs mla jbuahjatn jkuj, ml`l gls lmäjals, l na zlajs êrdhjs, ml`l gls hnsdnrtls. Na nstls plhn`ls namlatrjr jhjptjmdlans nxtrn`js nxtrn`js j gj nsmjsnz hn jkuj ml`l na gls mjmtus, qun jmu`ugja jkuj na gls tjggls y sus flejs tdnana clr`j hn nspdaj pjrj gd`dtjr gj hnsfdhrjtjmdýa.

N) Gj tn`pnrjturj `nhdj y su vjrdjmdýa mlahdmdlaja ng tdpl hn lrkjads`ls qun fjbdtja na ua nmlsdstn`j, yj qun gjs nspnmdns punhna vdvdr hnatrl hn ua `jrkna hntnr`dajhl hn tn`pnrjturjs. Gls lrkjads`ls qun vdvna na zlajs cràjs prnsnatja jhjptjmdlans pjrj nvdtjr su mlakngjmdýa. Ns ng mjsl hn jgkuals pnmns hn gj Jatêrtdhj qun plsnna prltnàajs na gj sjakrn qun jmtõja nvdtjahl qun nstj sn mlakngn. (ajturjgnzj, ].C)  ].C) 

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:.>. Bdlmnalsds Bdlmnalsds Gj bdlmnalsds hn ua nmlsdstn`j nstê clr`jhj plr gjs hdcnrnatns nspnmdns hn snrns vdvls qun sn namunatrja na äg y qun, j su vnz, nstjbgnmna uaj snrdn hn rngjmdlans natrn nggjs. Gj bdlmnalsds hn ua nmlsdstn`j nstê ml`punstj plr hdstdatjs plbgjmdlans hn snrns vdvls. Na nmlglkàj sn hnal`daj plbgjmdýa jg mlaeuatl hn gls dahdvdhuls hn uaj `ds`j nspnmdn qun vdvna na ua nmlsdstn`j. Hnatrl hn gj hdvnrsdhjh hn ua nmlsdstn`j, mjhj nspnmdn lmupj ua hntnr`dajhl nspjmdl càsdml hlahn namunatrj gjs mlahdmdlans `ês cjvlrjbgns pjrj vdvdr. Nstn nspjmdl sn hnal`daj fêbdtjt. Jsà, plr nen`pgl, ng fêbdtjt hng tlpl ns gj mjpj supnrcdmdjg hng sungl. Jhn`ês hng fêbdtjt, mjhj nspnmdn prnsnatj ua hntnr`dajhl admfl nmlgýkdml. Ng admfl nmlgýkdml hn uaj nspnmdn ns gj cuamdýa qun mu`pgn na ng nmlsdstn`j. Ng tlpl ml`n gjs gl`brdmns y ltrls pnqunúls davnrtnbrjhls hng sungl y, j su vnz, ns ng jgd`natl hn ltrls jad`jgns hn `jylr tj`júl ml`l ng furýa l ng zlrrl.

Dgustrjmdýa =5 bdlmnalsds Cunatn5 fttps5//www.klmfdgn.mg/ns/tlurs/prlkrj`j-cugg-pjtjkladj.ft` 

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❓  Cjmtlrns

hntnr`dajatns hn gj bdlmnalsds

Hnpnahdnahl hn gj zlaj hng pgjantj na gj qun als mnatrn`ls, plhn` plhn`ls ls namlatrjr hdcnrnatns bdlmnalsds l mlaeuatls hn snrns vdvls , nstl ns hnbdhl j gls cjmtlrns gd`dtjatns l bjrrnrjs qun hncdadrêa ng tdpl hn lrkjads`ls qun fjbdtjrêa ng  bdltlpl. ❓  Bjrrnrjs mgd`êtdmjs.

qun jhn`ês hncdadrêa hdcnrnatns zlajs mgd`êtdmjs ml`l sla gj zlaj plgjr y subplgjr, (tn`pnrjturjs cràjs y nxtrn`js), gj zlaj tn`pgjhj (tn`pnrjturjs mla nstjmdlajgdhjh, ns hnmdr, 8 nstjmdlans jg júl), gj zlaj mlatdanatjg (tn`pnrjturjs `lhnrjhjs), gj zlaj êrdhj (mgd`j `uy snml), gj zlaj trlpdmjg (hls nstjmdlans, uaj snmj y ltrj fõ`nhj) y gj zlaj nmujtlrdjg (tn`pnrjturjs jgtjs y nstjbgns tlhl ng júl mla gguvdjs jbuahjatns). jbuahjatns). ❓  Bjrrnrjs bdlgýkdmjs 

qun ns gj prnsnamdj hn lrkjads`ls nan`dkls l qun natrja na ml`pntnamdj mla ltrls, nsmjsnz hn jgd`natls, ntm. Jgkuals nen`pgls hn bdlmnalsds l mlaeuatl hn lrkjads`ls vdvls  sla gls sdkudnatns5

Ylbgjmdlans Mlaeuatl hn snrns vdvls hn gj `ds`j nspnmdn qun fjbdtj na ng `ds`l gukjr. Bdlmnalsds nspnmàcdmj. •

  Ydajr.

•

  Fjynhl.

•

  Bjaml hn pnmns.

:=

 

^AM •

  Ylbgjmdýa hn gdnbrns.

•

  @jajhj hn glbls.

Mlaeuatl hn plbgjmdlans Ylbgjmdlans hn hdcnrnatns nspnmdns qun clr`ja gj bdlmnalsds ml`pgnej hn ua gukjr. •

  Jrrnmdcn hn mlrjg5 gls mlrjgns jgbnrkja pnmns ml`l ng pnz pjyjsl, nsplaejs,

kusjals. •

  Yrjhnrj hn plsdhladj lmnêadmj, qun jgbnrkj nstrnggjs hn `jr, tlrtukjs, gjaklstjs,

 pnmns. •

  Gjkls qun jgbnrkja cjuaj mjrjmtnràstdmj hn jkuj hugmn ml`l gj trumfj, gls

fngnmfls, `uskls. •

  Ydajr, qun jgbnrkj pdals hn gj nspnmdn nspnmàcdmj hn gj zlaj y cjuaj ml`l

jrhdggjs, kusjals, `jrdplsjs, fnrrnrdggl ml`õa. •

  @jakgjr, qun jgbnrkj `jakgns (nspnmdn jrbýrnj), dasnmtls, flr`dkjs, jrjújs,

snrpdnatns. (]jamfnz, (]jamfnz, 29:4 29:4))

:.3. Rngjmdlans Rngjmdlans datrjnspnmàcdmjs Ns gj datnrjmmdýa bdlgýkdmj (vdamugl l rngjmdlans natrn lrkjads`ls hnatrl hn ua nmlsdstn`j) qun sn nstjbgnmna natrn hls l `ês dahdvdhuls hn gj `ds`j nspnmdn (Xj`bdäa sn hnal`daj jslmdjmdýa datrjnspnmàcd datrjnspnmàcdmj). mj). Na rnjgdhjh, ns mujahl uaj nspnmdn dacguyn hn hntnr`dajhj `janrj na gj vdhj hn gj `ds`j nspnmdn. Yuhdnahl tnanr uaj hurjmdýa hntnr`dajhj (tn`plrjgns), l hurj  prêmtdmj`natn tlhj gj vdhj (pnrnaans) XDYL]5

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^AM ➢  Ml`pntnamdj

Dgustrjmdýa 85 rngjmdlans datrjnspnmàcdmjs 

➢  Xnrrdtlrdjgdhjh ➢  Rngjmdlans cj`dgdjrns ➢  Rngjmdlans mlgladjgns ➢  Rngjmdlans jkrnsdvjs ➢  Rngjmdlans nstjbgns

Cunatn5 fttps5//www fttps5//www.crjamn-vlyjkn.ml`/crja .crjamn-vlyjkn.ml`/crjamdj-mduhjhns/rflhns-2:2 mdj-mduhjhns/rflhns-2:2>4.ft` >4.ft`

:.;. Rngjmdlans Rngjmdlans datnrnspnmàcdmjs datnrnspnmàcdmjs Ns gj datnrjmmdýa bdlgýkdmj (vdamugl l rngjmdlans natrn lrkjads`ls hnatrl hn ua nmlsdstn`j) qun sn prlhumna natrn plbgjmdlans n dahdvdhuls hn hdstdatjs nspnmdns (Xj`bdäa sn hnal`daj jslmdjmdýa datnrnspnmàcdmj).  D gustrjmdýa > 5 rngjmdlans datrjnspnmàcdmjs

Xdpls5 ➢  Hnprnhjmdýa ➢  Yjrjsdtds`l ➢  @utujgds`l ➢  Ml`nasjgds`l ➢  Ml`pntnamdj ➢  Clrnsdj ➢  Xjajtlmrnsds

cunatn5 fttps5//hnmlgl fttps5//hnmlglkdj.dacl/jad`j kdj.dacl/jad`jgns/rngjmdlans-datnrnspnmd gns/rngjmdlans-datnrnspnmdcdmjs/ cdmjs/ 

:>

 

^AM Gj rngjmdýa datnrnspnmàcdmj quä `ês jcnmtj jg tj`júl hn uaj plbgjmdýa ns gj ml`pntnamdj qun slbrn tlhl jmtõj slbrn ng tnrrdtlrdl y gj jgd`natjmdýa, plr gl qun punhn prlhumdr ncnmtls slbrn ng mrnmd`dnatl hn gls jad`jgns, gj tjsj hn ajtjgdhjh l hn `lrtjgdhjh, n damgusl na lmjsdlans punhn dahumdr j uaj `dkrjmdýa hn ua krupl hn dahdvdhuls.

:.6. Nstrumturj Nstrumturj Hng Nmlsdstn`j5 mjhnaj trýcdmj  prlhumtlrns sla gls lrkjads`ls qun cjbrdmja su prlpdj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj, su jgd`natl, j pjrtdr hng hdýxdhl hn mjrblal, jkuj sjgns `danrjgns y nanrkàj slgjr l quà`dmj. Zun sla sla Ygjatjs, jgkjs y jgkuajs bjmtnrdjs. bjmtnrdjs. @nhdjatn gj cltlsàatnsds cltlsàatnsds gls  prlhumtlrns cjbrdmja gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj qun gunkl ns utdgdzjhj plr gls mlasu`dhlrns mlasu`dhlrns  pjrj cjbrdmjr su su prlpdj `jtnrdj `jtnrdj y ml`l cunatn prd`jrdj. prd`jrdj. (Êgvjrns)  (Êgvjrns)  

j)  Cltlsdatätdmls ]la jqunggls lrkjads`ls qun utdgdzja gj nanrkàj slgjr pjrj rnjgdzjr gj cltlsàatnsds cltlsàatnsds y trjasclr`jr gj `jtnrdj dalrkêadmj na lrkêadmj. Nstls sla pgjatjs, jgkjs y jgkuals krupls hn bjmtnrdjs. 

b)  Zud`dlsdatätdmls ]la jqunggls lrkjads`ls qun utdgdzja gj nanrkàj hnsprnahdhj na rnjmmdlans quà`dmjs natrn gls `danrjgns hng sungl. J nstn krupl pnrtnanmna jgkuajs nspnmdns hn bjmtnrdjs. 

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J) Mlasu`dhlrns Mlasu`dhlrns Na nstn krupl nstêa mlaclr`jhls plr jqunggls lrkjads`ls qun su jgd`natjmdýa hnpnahn hn ltrls snrns vdvls, ns plr nggl qun sn hnal`daja mlasu`dhlrns. Gls mlasu`dhlrns sn hdvdhna na trns krupls5 mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls, mlasu`dhlrns snmuahjrdls y mlasu`dhlrns tnrmdjrdls.

Mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls5 sla jqunggls lrkjads`ls qun lbtdnana su jgd`natl j  pjrtdr hn gls prlhumtlrns. Ns hnmdr, j nstn krupl pnrtnanmna gls jad`jgns fnrbàvlrls.

 Dgustrjmdýa 35 Fnrbàvlrls l mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls, (www.pdatnrnst.ns) 

j)  Mlasu`dhlrns snmuahjrdls5 sla jqunggls lrkjads`ls qun lbtdnana su jgd`natl j pjrtdr hn gls mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls, ns plr nsl qun j nstls jad`jgns sn gn hnal`daj mla ng al`brn hn mjraàvlrls.

:;  Dgustrjmdýa ; 5 Mjraàvlrls l mlasu`dhlrns snmuahjrdls. (uaYRLCN]LR.ml`) 

 

^AM

b)  Mlasu`dhlrns tnrmdjrdls5 sla gls jad`jgns qun sn jgd`natja hn ltrls jad`jgns mjraàvlrls plr nsl clr`ja pjrtn hng krupl hn mlasu`dhlrns mlasu`dhlrns tnrmdjrdls.

 Dgustrjmdýa 65 jad`jgns mjrrlúnrls

B) Hnsml`planhlrns ]la gls lrkjads`ls qun sn autrna hnsml`pladnahl gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj prlmnhnatn hn ltrls snrns vdvls prlhumdnahl sustjamdjs dalrkêadmjs qun punhna snr usjhjs aunvj`natn plr gls prlhumtlrns na gj cltlsàatnsds. Ns lrkjads`ls sungna snr flakls y bjmtnrdjs. Nstls lrkjads`ls punhna snr trjasclr`jhlrns trjasclr`jhlrns l `danrjgdzjhlrns. `danrjgdzjhlrns. Gls lrkjads`ls qun trjasclr`ja gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj ml`pgnej na `jtnrdj lrkêadmj `ês snamdggj sn gls mlalmn ml`l lrkjads`ls trjasclr`jhlrns. trjasclr`jhlrns. Gunkl qun gls lrkjads`ls trjasclr`jhlrns trjasclr`jh lrns rnjgdmna su trjbjel gj `jtnrdj pjsj j gl lrkjads`l `danrjgdzjhlrns `danrjgdzjhlrns qun trjasclr`ja gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj snamdggj na `jtnrdj lrkêadmj l `danrjg. Gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj sn damlrplrj jg `nhdl j`bdnatn y punhn snr aunvj`natn jprlvnmfjhl plr gls prlhumtlrns, hn nsj `janrj sn damlrplrj hn aunvl jg  prd`nr advng jgd`natdmdl, mnrrjahl ng ggj`jhl mdmgl hn gj `jtnrdj hn ua nmlsdstn`j. (KNLGLKÀJ)   nmlsdstn`j. (KNLGLKÀJ)

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 Dgustrjmdýa 4 5Jad`jgns hnsml`planhlrns. (jad`jgnsds.ml`)  

:.4. Rngjmdlans Xrýcdmjs Gls nmlsdstn`js sla uadhjhns hn cuamdlaj`dnatl hn gj bdlscnrj, plr gl tjatl,  pjrj plhnr cuamdlajr cuamdlajr sn rnqudnrn hn nanrkàj qun prlmnhn prlmnhn hng slg.

:.4.:. Advngns trýcdmls Gls nmlsdstn`js sla uadhjhns hn cuamdlaj`dnatl hn gj bdlscnrj, plr tjatl, sla sdstn`js. Yjrj plhnr cuamdlajr rnqudnrna nanrkàj, qun prlmnhn hng ]lg. Gj nanrkàj slgjr sýgl ns mjptjhj y trjasclr`jhj plr gls lrkjads`ls prlhumtlrns `nhdjatn gj cltlsàatnsds.  Ylr nstn `ltdvl, gls prlhumtlrns sla ng dadmdl hn mujgqudnr mjhnaj trýcdmj y hn nggls hnpnahna gls hn`ês snrns vdvls hn ua nmlsdstn`j. Nstj hnpnahnamdj ns uaj pnqunúj `unstrj hn gj krja lrkjadzjmdýa qun prnsnatja gls nmlsdstn`js y qun plsdbdgdtj gj trjascnrnamdj hn nanrkàj hn uals snrns vdvls j ltrls. Nstj nanrkàj sn trjas`dtn j trjväs hng jgd`natl (trlcls na krdnkl sdkadcdmj ‗jgd`natjmdýa‐). 

:4

 

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 Dgustrjmdýa :9 5Lrkjadzjmdýa hng advng trýcdml.  

❓  Yrd`nr

advng trýcdml5 prlhumtlrns prd`jrdls. Gl mlastdtuyna jqunggls

lrkjads`ls jutýtrlcls jutýtrlcls mjpjmns hn sdatntdzjr `jtnrdj lrkêadmj j pjrtdr hn ltrjs `lgämugjs `uy snamdggjs. Gls jutýtrlcls cltlsdatätdmls punhna snr bjmtnrdjs, jgkjs, gàqunans l vnkntjgns.

❓  ]nkuahl advng trýcdml

gls mlasu`dhlrns. Gl clr`ja jqunggls lrkjads`ls lrkjads`ls qun sn jgd`natja hn ltrls l hn sus rnstls pjrj plhnr vdvdr. Gls mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls, prd`jrdls, gls vnkntjrdjals, sn jgd`natja hn gjs pgjatjs, jgk jgkjs js l cdtlpgjamtla y hn nggls lbtdnana gj `jtnrdj y nanrkàj anmnsjrdj pjrj vdvdr.

29

 

^AM Na ng sdkudnatn advng sn namunatrja gls mlasu`dhlrns snmuahjr snmuahjrdls, dls, gls hnprnhjhlrns, qun mjzja prnsjs vdvjs, y gls supnrhnprnhjhlrns, qun sn jgd`natja hn ltrls hnprnhjhlrns. Gj nanrkàj y gj `jtnrdj cguyn j gls mlasu`dhlrns tnrmdjrdls, tnrmdjrdls, tlhls jqunggls jad`jgns qun sn jgd`natja hn mjhêvnrns l rnstls (pgu`js, nsmj`js, sjakrn...) sjakrn...)..

❓  Õgtd`l advng trýcdml

gls hnsml`planhlrns. hnsml`planhlrns. Gjs bjmtnrdjs y gls flakls qun `nhdjatn cnr`natjmdlans y  putrncjmmdlans lbtdnana lbtdnana gj nanrkàj y `jtnrdj qun anmns anmnsdtja dtja pjrj vdvdr y sn namjrkja namjrkja hn hnvlgvnr jg sungl gj `jtnrdj qun cun jhqudrdhj plr gls vnkntjgns pjrj gj cltlsàatnsds. ❓  Mjhnajs

T Rnhns Xrýcdmjs

Gjs trjascnrnamdjs hn `jtnrdj y nanrkàj na ua nmlsdstn`j sn rnjgdzja j trjväs hn rngjmdlans trýcdmjs l jgd`natjrdjs qun punhja rnprnsnatjrsn `nhdjatn `lhngls hn mjhnajs y rnhns trýcdmjs.

:.4.2. Mjhnajs trýcdmjs ^aj mjhnaj jgd`natjrdj nstê mlastdtudhj plr hdvnrsls advngns trýcdmls. Gls lrkjads`ls hn mjhj ual hn nstls advngns sn jgd`natja hn gls lrkjads`ls hng advng da`nhdjtj`natn jatnrdlr. 

2:

 

^AM Ng prd`nr nsgjbýa hn uaj mjhnaj sdn`prn nstê lmupjhl plr gls lrkjads`ls jutýtrlcls, gl qun sn hnal`daja prlhumtlrns, qun nstêa clr`jhls  prdamdpjg`natn plr pgjatjs, jgkjs y jgkuajs bjmtnrdjs cltl y qud`dlsdatätdmjs. qud`dlsdatätdmjs. Gls lrkjads`ls fntnrýtrlcls sn sdtõja na ltrls advngns l nsgjblans hn gj

 Dgustrjmdýa ::5 Mjhnaj trýcdmj 

Mjhnaj. Gls nsgjblans sn uana natrn sd `nhdjatn cgnmfjs qun sdkadcdmja ‗ns ml`dhl plr‐. (gj cgnmfj jpuatj jg qun ml`n jg jatnrdlr). ^a tdpl hn mjhnajs

nspnmdjgns sla hntnrdlrjrjs. ➢  Rnhns trýcdmjs

^aj nspnmdn hn ua advng trýcdml alr`jg`natn sn jgd`natj hn `ês hn uaj nspnmdn hng advng dacnrdlr. Ylr nen`pgl5 ua pjtl punhn jgd`natjrsn hn gjs flejs y sn`dggjs hn

Dgustrjmdýa :2. Rnh trýcdmj `jràtd`j. (www.tlhl-jrknatdaj.ant) 

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^AM hdvnrsjs nspnmdns vnkntjgns, jsà ml`l hn kusjals y mjrjmlgns. Jhn`ês, mjhj nspnmdn  punhn snr cunatn hn jgd`natl hn hdvnrsjs nspnmdns. Ylr nstj rjzýa, gjs mjhnajs trýcdmjs sn mlatn`pgja mla gjs ltrjs mjhnajs jgd`natjrdjs datnrmlanmtjhjs, hn `janrj qun sn clr`j uaj rnh trýcdmj. Na mjhj advng trýcdml sn prlhumn uaj trjascnrnamdj hn nanrkàj hn ua snr vdvl j ltrl. Mjhj snr vdvl utdgdzj gj nanrkàj pjrj ggnvjr j mjbl gjs cuamdlans vdtjgns, mla gl mujg nstj nanrkàj sn hdsdpj y al qunhj j hdsplsdmdýa hn gls advngns trýcdmls supnrdlrns. ➢  Ydrê`dhns Xrýcdmjs

Ns gj clr`j hn rnprnsnatjr gj rngjmdýa qun nxdstn natrn gls mlastdtuynatns hn gls hdstdatls advngns trýcdmls, punhna rnprnsnatjr aõ`nrl hn dahdvdhuls, mjatdhjh hn  bdl`jsj l mjatdhjh mjatdhjh hn nanrkàj hn mjhj mjhj advng trýcdml.  ➢  Hn

aõ`nrls5 Mjhj pdsl rnprnsnatj ng aµ hn dahdvdhuls qun nxdstna na nsn

nmlsdstn`j hn prlhumtlrns, mlasu`dhlrns prd`jrdls, snmuahjrdls y tnrmdjrdls. Yunhna snr davnrtdhjs, punstl qun plr nen`pgl ua slgl êrblg, punhn jgd`natjr j `umfls fnrbàvlrls.

➢  Hn

bdl`jsj

Gls pdsls rnprnsnatja gj bdl`jsj (odglkrj`ls) hn `jtnrdj lrkêadmj qun jplrtj mjhj advng trýcdml j nsn nmlsdstn`j. Yunhna snr davnrtdhjs na ua nmlsdstn`j jmuêtdml na 2=

 

^AM ng qun plmj `jsj hn cdtlpgjamtla (jgkjs `dmrlsmýpdmjs) `dmrlsmýpdmjs) rnprlhumdäahlsn `uy rêpdhj`natn punhna `jatnanr uaj `jylr `jsj hn zllpgjamtla (jad`jgns `dmrlsmýpdmls).

➢  Hn

nanrkàj 

Mjhj pdsl hn gj pdrê`dhn rnprnsnatj gj nanrkàj jg`jmnajhj plr mjhj advng trýcdml. Ns gj õadmj qun auamj punhn snr davnrtdhj, puns adakõa advng punhn tnanr `nals nanrkàj qun ng sdkudnatn jg qun sustnatj. Na ng trêasdtl hn ua advng j ltrl sdn`prn sn  pdnrhn nanrkàj na clr`j clr`j hn mjglr.

:.4.=. Cguel Hn Nanrkàj Gls nmlsdstn`js, ml`l gls snrns vdvls, anmnsdtja nanrkàj pjrj vdvdr. Na gj `jylràj hn nggls gj nanrkàj prlvdnan hng slg, y gls lrkjads`ls gj trjasclr`ja 28

 

^AM y gj mlasu`na. Ng nmlsdstn`j cuamdlaj ml`l ua sdstn`j jbdnrtl, qun rnmdbn gj nanrkàj prlmnhnatn hng slg y gj trjasclr`j j gl gjrkl hn gls hdstdatls nsgjblans trýcdmls, utdgdzêahlgj pjrj ng mrnmd`dnatl, ng `jatnad`dnatl hng munrpl y gj rnprlhummdýa hn gls snrns vdvls y hdsdpêahlsn na clr`j hn mjglr y hn `lvd`dnatl. Gj rnspdrjmdýa ns ng prlmnsl quà`dml  plr ng mujg gls lrkjads`ls mlavdnrtna gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj na nanrkàj quà`dmj. Ylr nggl gj nanrkàj cguyn hn clr`j jbdnrtj na ua nmlsdstn`j. Yjsj hn ua lrkjads`l j ltrl y sn hnkrjhj na clr`j hn mjglr drrnmupnrjbgn pjrj ng nmlsdstn`j. ¼Mý`l ua nmlsdstn`j punhn mjptjr gj nanrkàj hng slg< Fjmn yj

Dgustrjmdýa :=. Nanrkàj hng advng trýcdml dacnrdlr. 

`dgglans hn júls jpjrnmdý gj `lgämugj mjpjz hn mjptjr gj nanrkàj slgjr y trjasclr`jrgj na nanrkàj quà`dmj, qun qunhjbj jg`jmnajhj na gjs `lgämugjs lrkêadmjs qun sdatntdzj ng lrkjads`l. Gjs `lgämugjs mjpjmns hn ggnvjr j mjbl nstj tjrnj sla gjs mglrlcdgjs, qun gjs plsnna gjs `ntjcdtjs, gjs jgkjs, gjs bjmtnrdjs y ltrls lrkjads`ls cltlsdatätdmls. cltlsdatätdmls.

2>

 

^AM Gj nanrkàj qun cguyn hn ua advng trýcdml jg sdkudnatn ns sdn`prn uaj crjmmdýa hn gj qun nxdstàj na ng prd`nr advng (uaj hämd`j pjrtn). Gls jad`jgns jg jgd`natjrsn pdnrhna pjrtn hn gj prlhummdýa snkõa snj gj rngjmdýa natrn jgd`natl jsd`dgjhl/jgd`natl daknrdhl (uals sla `ês ncdmdnatns qun ltrls). Xj`bdäa hnpnahn hn gj rngjmdýa prlhummdýa antj/jgd`natl jsd`dgjhl snkõa ng tdpl hn vdhj y jmtdvdhjhns hng jad`jg. Gj prlhummdýa antj damguyn ng mrnmd`dnatl y gj rnprlhummdýa. Jgkuals davdnrtna `umfl na gj rnprlhummdýa, ltrls na `jatnanr gj tn`pnrjturj mlrplrjg y ltrls na gj `dkrjmdýa (hnspgjzjrsn pjrj jgd`natjrsn l mlasnkudr mlahdmdlans hn vdhj `ês ýptd`js).

Cguel hn nanrkàj y mdmg l hn gj `jtnrdj. 

:.4.8. Xdpls Hn Nmlsdstn`js ❓ 

Xnrrnstrns Xuahrj5

Ns ua mlaeuatl hn nmlsdstn`js hn nmlsdstn`js l bdl`j qun sn mjrjmtnrdzj plr prnsnatjr ua subsungl fngjhl y cjgtj hn vnkntjmdýa hn êrblgns ajturjgns. Ns ng bdl`j `ês cràl hng pgjantj. hng  pgjantj. Na  Na mlasnmunamdj, ng pjdsjen ng pjdsjen ns mjrjmtnràstdml y hdstdatdvl hjhl qun sn

23

 

^AM fjggj tjpjhl plr uaj mjpj hn adnvn qun mubrn tjatl ng sungl ng sungl ml`l gls `latns ]us tn`pnrjturjs  tn`pnrjturjs sla cràjs hurjatn tlhl ng júl y qun na nstn mgd`j nstn mgd`j punhn fjbnr.  fjbnr.  ]us punhna ggnkjr j tnanr ua prl`nhdl hn >µ M na gls `nsns mêgdhls y gls `nsns cràls plr hnbjel hn gls -29µ M.  M.  Hnbdhl jg tdpl hn mgd`j, gls jad`jgns hn gj tuahrj fja hnsjrrlggjhl uaj jhjptjmdýa jg mgd`j cràl y hurl, plr gl qun prnsnatja mjpjs hn krjsj hnbjel hn gj pdng, pngjen tupdhl pngl mlrtl. mlr tl. Gls jad`jgns hn gj tuahrj `ês ml`uans sla5 gdnbrn bgjamj, bgjamj, glbl,  glbl,   zlrrl êrtdml, lsl plgjr, rnal, buny, glbls `jrdals y clmjs.  Dgustrjmdýa :85 tuahrj

Cunatn5 fttps5//www.bdlnamdmglpnhdj.ml`/tuahrj/

Xjdkj 

Gj tjdkj l blsqun blrnjg ns ual hn gls bdl`js na gls qun rnsdhn gj `jylr `jsj clrnstjg hng pgjantj, hng pgjantj,   ml`punstj mjsd natnrj`natn plr  blsquns   blsquns hn mlaàcnrjs.  mlaàcnrjs.  ]n trjtj hn ua bdl`j `uy d`plrtjatn pjrj gj lxdknajmdýa y cdejmdýa hng mjrblal hng pgjantj (ns hnmdr, su nacrdj`dnatl), nacrdj`dnatl) , hjhl qun gjs nalr`ns nxtnasdlans hn blsquns hn gj tjdkj jbslrbna krjahns mjatdhjhns hn ML 2, ual hn gls prdamdpjgns kjsns hn ncnmtl davnrajhnrl. davnrajhnrl.  

Ng mgd`j hn gj tjdkj prnsnatj uaj tn`pnrjturj uaj  tn`pnrjturj `nhdj hn :4 ¹M na vnrjal, na  vnrjal, y  y uaj `àad`j hn -=9 ¹M na davdnral. Ns hnmdr, ns ua mgd`j fngjhl na ng qun prnhl`daj ng

2;

 

^AM pnr`jcrlst. Gj prnmdpdtjmdýa prl`nhdj gls 8>9`` jaujgns. Gj cjuaj hn gj tjdkj ns plml vjrdjhj y plml jbuahjatn. Nstê ml`punstj mjsd àatnkrj`natn plr nspnmdns jhjptjhjs jg mgd`j cràl, mla jbuahjatn pngjen, ml`l zlrrls, jgmns, vdslans, gdamns, ml`jhrnejs y gls `êxd`ls hnprnhjhlrns `êxd`ls hnprnhjhlrns hn gj nmlrrnkdýa, gls lsls.  Dgustrjmdýa :>5 tjdkj  

Cunatn5 fttps5//www.bdlnamdmglpnhdj.ml`/tjdkj/ fttps5//www.bdlnamdmglpnhdj.ml`/tjdkj/

Gls blsquns tn`pgjhls mjhumdclgdls

Gls blsquns tn`pgjhls mjhumdclgdls mjhumdclg dls sla jqunggls blsquns glmjgdzjhls na gj rnkdýa tn`pgjhj hng pgjantj. Nstêa ml`punstls plr nspnmdns vnkntjgns qun pdnrhna sus flejs hurjatn ng ltlúl, pjrj jsà slbrnvdvdr jg davdnral y rntlújr hurjatn gj prd`jvnrj. ]da n`bjrkl, gj mjàhj hn gjs flejs tj`bdäa tdnan ng ncnmtl hn prlvnnr `jtnrdj lrkêadmj jg sungl y ju`natjr gls `êrknans hn cnrtdgdhjh hng `ds`l. Na ng blsqun mjhumdclgdl gjs mujtrl nstjmdlans nstêa bdna hdcnrnamdjhjs. ]n rnkdstrja tn`pnrjturjs `nhdjs sdn`prn plr namd`j hn gls 9 ¹M, gguvdjs jbuahjatns y bdna hdstrdbudhjs j gl gjrkl hng júl, sda pnràlhls hn jrdhnz qun pnreuhdquna ng hnsjrrlggl hn gjs pgjatjs. Gjs nspnmdns tàpdmjs hng blsqun mjhumdclgdl sungna snr êrblgns hn flej jamfj y pgjaj, tjgns ml`l ng rlbgn, ng jbnhug, ng fjyj, ng êgj`l, ng lg`l y ng jrmn jrmn.. ]us mlpjs

26

 

^AM nsbngtjs y jblvnhjhjs sungna rn`latjr gls =9 `ntrls hn jgturj mla cjmdgdhjh, mla mlrtnzjs hurjs, gdsjs y pjrhjs.

 Dgustrjmdýa :35 blsquns tn`pgjhls mjhumdclgdls mjhu mdclgdls

Cunatn5 fttps5//s`l fttps5//s`lonmurtjda.cdgns.w onmurtjda.cdgns.wlrhprnss.ml`/29: lrhprnss.ml`/29:;/9>/blsquns-hn-sjej` ;/9>/blsquns-hn-sjej`brn-pdmls-hn-nurlpjbrn-pdmls-hn-nurlpjgnm=b=a.epk9&f0299&mrlp0:

]ngvj trlpdmjg

Xj`bdäa ggj`jhj blsqun trlpdmjg, gj sngvj trlpdmjg ns ua mdaturýa vnrhn qun sn namunatrj ubdmjhl slbrn gj gàanj hng Nmujhlr. Natrn sus mujgdhjhns prdamdpjgns sn dhnatdcdmja sus ngnvjhjs tn`pnrjturjs `nhdjs, jsà ml`l tj`bdäa plr sus jbuahjatns prnmdpdtjmdlans.  Jhn`ês, gj d`plrtjamdj d`plrtjamdj hn gj sngvj trlpdmjg tdnan qun vnr mla gj mjatdhjh hn mjrblal qun glkrj jg`jmnajr, gl mujg rnsugtj dahdspnasjbgn pjrj nvdtjr gj nrlsdýa hn gls sungls. T, plr õgtd`l, nstn mdaturýa vnrhn jyuhj jg nqudgdbrdl hng mgd`j y jg fàhrdml. Bunaj pjrtn hn gj cjuaj qun fjbdtj gls sungls trlpdmjgns sn mjrjmtnrdzj plr snr davnrtnbrjhj. Na mj`bdl, sà jbuahja gls jrêmadhls, dasnmtls y kusjals. ^al hn gls dasnmtls `ês ml`uans sla gls nsmjrjbjels. Hn fnmfl, bunaj pjrtn hn gls >99.999 nsmjrjbjels qun fja sdhl dhnatdcdmjhls na ng `uahl sn namunatrja jggà, na gls blsquns trlpdmjgns. Gls jacdbdls y rnptdgns tj`bdäa fjbdtja gls sungls trlpdmjgns. Jggà, sn punhna namlatrjr rnptdgns ml`l mlmlhrdgls, tlrtukjs, snrpdnatns l mjd`jans l jacdbdls ml`l sjgj`jahrjs, sjpls l trdtlans.

24

 

^AM

 Dgustrjmdýa :;5 blsqun trlpdmjg  

Cunatn5

fttps5//www.crnnpdo.ns/cltls-prn`du`/sngvj-trlpdmjg-rlmj-`us-vnrhn-blsqun-trlpdmjg-

sjgvjen-`jajaj\8644;48.ft`

Hnsdnrtl

]n natdnahn plr hnsdnrtl j ua pjdsjen bdlmgd`êtdml (l bdl`j) (l bdl`j) mjrjmtnrdzjhl  mjrjmtnrdzjhl plr sus bjeàsd`ls àahdmns hn prnmdpdtjmdýa (gguvdjs) y plr gl tjatl `êrknans `uy nstrnmfls hn fu`nhjh, hn  fu`nhjh,  

gl qun

sn

trjhumn na

mgd`js

snmls,

tn`pnrjturjs tn`pnrjturj s

nxtrn`js y sungls êrdhls. êrdhls.   Gjs tn`pnrjturjs Gjs  tn`pnrjturjs na gls hnsdnrtls sungna snr nxtrn`js, nxtrn` js, mla nalr`n vjrdjmdýa vj rdjmdýa tär`dmj natrn ng hàj y gj almfn. Na gls hnsdnrtls mêgdhls sn punhn rnkdstrjr uaj `êxd`j hn `ês

hn 89

krjhls

mnatàkrjhls

hurjatn

ng

hàj

y plr

gj

almfn hnsmnahnr `ês jbjel hn mnrl. Gj cglrj hn gls hnsdnrtls ns `uy pjrtdmugjr, y na prdamdpdl nsmjsj, hnbdhl j gls bjeàsd`ls àahdmns hn fu`nhjh5 hn fu`nhjh5 sda  sda jkuj ns d`plsdbgn rnjgdzjr gj cltlsàatnsds. gj cltlsàatnsds.  

=9

 

^AM  Dgustrjmdýa :65 hnsdnrtl  

Cunatn5 fttps5//mlamnptl.hn/hnsdnrtl/

]jbjaj

Gj sjbjaj sn namunatrj ubdmjhj na zlajs trlpdmjgns y subtrlpdmjgns. Al lbstjatn, fjy sjbjajs qun prnsnatja mdnrtj mjatdhjh hn vnkntjmdýa jrblgjhj, plr gl qun ng pjdsjen na nstn tdpl hn nmlsdstn`js ns snml. Gj sjbjaj sn mjrjmtnrdzj plrqun su sungl, mjrnatn hn autrdnatns, sn vdstn hn pjstdzjgns, pnrl, plr gjs nsmjsjs gguvdjs, nstls sn tlraja hn ua mlglr vnrhn mgjrl l j`jrdggl. Gj sjbjaj tdnan uaj tn`pnrjturj bjstjatn mêgdhj hurjatn tlhl ng júl, tnadnahl uaj `nhdj hn :;µ M. Gj `jylràj hn gls `j`àcnrls na gj sjbjaj prnsnatja pjtjs gjrkjs y cunrtns. ]d bdna gls jad`jgns hn gj sjbjaj vjràja na cuamdýa hng tdpl hn sjbjaj hn gj qun sn trjtn, gj `jylràj hn gls `j`àcnrls prnsnatja pjtjs gjrkjs y cunrtns. Na ng mjsl hn gjs jvns, sus jgjs sla j`pgdjs pjrj plhnr rnmlrrnr krjahns hdstjamdjs j bjej jgturj. Na gj sjbjaj jbuahja `umfls hnprnhjhlrns yj qun, gls pjstdzjgns pnr`dtna qun nstls tnakja uaj vdsdýa j`pgdj. Na mlasnmunamdj, fjy pu`js, mfdtjs, gnlans, kunpjrhls, fdplpýtj`ls, mdnrvls, mlmlhrdgls. @umfls hn nstls jad`jgns, `dkrja j gls gà`dtns hn gj sjbjaj na busmj hn mgd`js `ês prlpdmdls pjrj su supnrvdvnamdj.

=:

 

^AM

 Dgustrjmdýa :45 sjbjaj 

Cunatn5 fttps5//nmlsdstn`js.lvjmna.ml`/bdl`j/sjbjaj/ fttps5//nmlsdstn`js.lvjmna.ml`/bdl`j/sjbjaj/

❓ 

Nmlsdstn`js jmuêtdmls

^a nmlsdstn`j jmuêtdml ns tlhl jqung nmlsdstn`j qun sn hnsjrrlggj na ua munrpl hn jkuj hn hdvnrsl tj`júl y ajturjgnzj, gl mujg damguyn damgu yn `jrns, gjkls, ràls, pjatjals, jrrlyls, gjkuajs y mlstjs. Na nggls eunkj ua rlg vdtjg gj ajturjgnzj hng jkuj, sus mdmgls, jsà ml`l ng mlatnadhl lrkêadml prnsnatn na nggj, tjatl hn cunatns ajturjgns ml`l snhd`natjrdjs (gls sungls). Gls

nmlsdstn`js

jmuêtdmls

nmlsdstn`js `jràtd`ls y

sn

nmlsdstn`js

hdvdhna

j

krjahns

hn jkuj,

puns

hn

rjskls

jmunrhl

j

na gjs

mjrjmtnràstdmjs càsdmjs y quà`dmjs hn mjhj ual, tnahrêa uaj cjuaj y cglrj hdstdatj, jhjptjhj j gjs mlahdmdlans vdtjgns gl `nelr plsdbgn.  Dgustrjmdýa 295 nmlsdstn`j jmuêtdml jmuêt dml 

Cunatn5 

fttps5//nmlsdstn`js.lvjmna.ml`/jmujtdmls/

=2

 

^AM

Gls nmlsdstn`js `jrdals

]la su`j`natn vjrdjhls y rdmls na cjuaj y cglrj, na ua rjakl j`pgdl hnshn `dmrllrkjads`ls, `j`àcnrls `jrdals,

pnmns,

`lgusmls,

fjstj

krjahns hnprnhjhlrns y clr`js vnkntjgns nstêtdmjs y `ývdgns. Rnmlrhn`ls qun hn jggà prlvdnan gj vdhj na ng pgjantj. Nstls nmlsdstn`js sn jhjptja j gj prlcuahdhjh j gj qun sn namunatrna, y qun j krlsl `lhl plhn`ls mgjsdcdmjr na mujtrl zlajs

Datnr`jrnjg.

Gj zlaj na qun ng `jr sn mlanmtj mla gj tdnrrj cdr`n, snj plr gj supnrcdmdn l subtnrrêanj`natn, ns uaj zlaj hn `umfl mj`bdl y krja `lvd`dnatl y nrlsdýa.  Dgustrjmdýa 2:5 datnr`jrnjg  

Cunatn5 fttps5//www.jgj`y.ns/d`jknans/datnr-`jrnj.ft`g 

@jrr jbdnrtl. @j

Xj`bdäa ggj`jhj zlaj pngêkdmj, ns gj rnkdýa `ês hnasj`natn plbgjhj y hn `jylrns tn`pnrjturjs, qun hnsmdnahna hnsmd nahna pjugjtdaj`natn pjug jtdaj`natn j `nhdhj `nhdh j qun sn hnsmdnahn na jgturj. Jbjrmj gj supnrcdmdn lmnêadmj y gls prd`nrls mdnatls hn `ntrls hn prlcuahdhjh.

==

 

^AM

 Dgustrjmdýa 225 `jr jbdnrtl  

Cunatn5 fttps5//uadvnrsl`jrdal.ml`/2994/::/:9/gjs-rnkdlans-hng-`jr-ng-pngjkdml/ fttps5//uadvnrsl`jrdal.ml`/2994/::/:9/gjs-rnkdlans-hng-`jr-ng-pngjkdml/ 

Clahl l mnêadml.

Ulajs hn `jylr crdjghjh y `nalr damdhnamdj hn guz, na gjs qun d`pnrj gj jrnaj y gj vdhj sn tlraj `ês cnrlz y sdgnamdlsj. ]ungn nstjr bjel mdnatls hn `ntrls hn prlcuahdhjh.  Dgustrjmdýa 2=5 clahl lmnêadml  

Cunatn5

fttps5//www.`ntnlrnh.ml`.jr/altdmdjs/jmtujgdhjh/trjbjeja-pjrj-mlalmnr-na-hntjggn-ng-

clahl-lmnjadml.ft`g

=8

 

^AM Ulaj jbdsjg l bäatdm j.

Ns gj rnkdýa `ês prlcuahj hng lmäjal, ubdmjhj na clsjs y krdntjs hng sungl lmnêadml qun mlahumna mlahu mna j rnkdlans sda guz slgjr, slg jr, bjej prnsnamdj p rnsnamdj hn `jtnrdj lrkêadmj (juaqun plsnn uaj gguvdj mlastjatn hn rnsdhuls hn gjs mjpjs supnrdlrns), kdkjatnsmjs prnsdlans jmuêtdmjs y uaj cjuaj jhjptjhj j nstjs mlahdmdlans, muyjs clr`js y `nmjads`ls hn supnrvdvnamdj sungna snr ggj`jtdvls l slrprnahnatns.  Dgustrjmdýa 285 zlaj jbds`jg

Cunatn5 fttps5//glstdpls.ant/zlaj-bnatladmj/

❓ 

Gls nmlsdstn`js hn jkuj jkuj hugmn

Ylr ltrl gjhl, sn subhdvdhna hn jmunrhl j gls `lvd`dnatls hng jkuj, na trns tdpls5

Fu`nhjgns.

Rnkdlans tnrrnstrns qun sn dauahja hurjatn bunaj pjrtn hng júl, y qun punhna nacrnatjr dkujg`natn pnràlhls brnvns hn snquàj. ]ungna prlpdmdjr ng namunatrl hn nmlsdstn`js jmuêtdmls mla ltrls tnrrnstrns.

=>

 

^AM  Dgustrjmdýa 2>5 fu`nhjgns  

fttps5//www.nmlglkdjvnrhn.ml`/fu`nhjgns-qun-sla-t w.nmlglkdjvnrhn.ml`/fu`nhjgns-qun-sla-tdpls-y-mjrjmtnrdstdmjs-22=8.ft`g dpls-y-mjrjmtnrdstdmjs-22=8.ft`g  Cunatn5 fttps5//ww

Gäatdmls.

 Jkujs qudntjs qudntjs l hn hn plml mjuhjg, ml`l ml`l gls gjkls, gjkuajs gjkuajs y nstjaquns. nstjaquns. Mlatdnana Mlatdnana `jylr `jtnrdj lrkêadmj na suspnasdýa na ng jkuj.

 Dgustrjmdýa 235 gltdmls

Cunatn5 fttps5//www.nmlglkdjvnrhn.ml`/nmlsdstn`js-gltdmls-qun-sla-y-nen`pgls-28:4.ft`g 

=3

 

^AM Gýtdmls.

]dstn`js hn jkuj mlrrdnatn ml`l ràls, rdjmfungls, jrrlyls, ntm. Yrnsnatja `jylr `lvd`dnatl y `jylr mlavdvnamdj hn nspnmdns, natrn pnmns, rnptdgns, jacdbdls, jvns, ntm.

Dgustrjmdýa 2;5 gltdmls 

C^NAXN5 fttps5//www.g fttps5//www.gdcnhnr.ml`/nmlsd dcnhnr.ml`/nmlsdstn`j-gltdml/ stn`j-gltdml/

:.4.>. Mdmgl hn gj `jtnrdj  J hdcnrnamdj hn gj nanrkàj nanrkàj ng mdmgl hn hn gj `jtnrdj ns mnrrjhl. mnrrjhl. Gj `jtn `jtnrdj rdj dalrkêadmj dalrkêadmj ns trjasclr`jhj na `jtnrdj lrkêadmj `nhdjatn gj cltlsàatnsds (l qud`dlsàatnsds) plr gls prlhumtlrns, cguyn j gl gjrkl hn gj mjhnaj trýcdmj j trjväs hng jgd`natl y gls rnstls lrkêadmls hn gls snrns vdvls vungvna j trjasclr`jrsn krjmdjs j gls hnsml`planhlrns na `jtnrdj dalrkêadmj, qun punhn vlgvnr j snr jprlvnmfjhj plr gls prlhumtlrns, jsà gj `jtnrdj sn rnmdmgj. Gls mdmgls bdlknlquà`dmls sla gls rnmlrrdhls `ês l `nals gjrkls qun rnjgdzja gls ngn`natls quà`dmls qun clr`ja pjrtn hn gls snrns vdvls. Gls ngn`natls pjsja hn gj bdlscnrj (snrns vdvls j ltrls sdstn`js ml`l gj jt`ýscnrj, gj gdtlscnrj l gj fdhrlscnrj, ns hnmdr, mdrmugja natrn gj bdlmnalsds fjstj ng bdltlpl). Na cuamdýa hng `nhdl na ng qun sn jmu`ugja sn mgjsdcdmja na5 - Mdmgls hn ngn`natls kjsnlsls, ml`l ng adtrýknal y ng mjrblal. ]u hnpýsdtl ns gj jt`ýscnrj. Gls ngn`natls mdrmugja mla rjpdhnz plr gls hdcnrnatns

=;

 

^AM ml`pjrtd`natls hng mdmgl. - Mdmgls hn ngn`natls snhd`natjrdls ml`l ng cýsclrl y ng jzucrn. ]u hnpýsdtl ns gj mlrtnzj tnrrnstrn. ]la gnatls y gd`dtja ng hnsjrrlggl hn gls snrns vdvls. j) Mdmgl hng mjrblal5

Ng mjrblal ns ng prdamdpjg ngn`natl qun clr`j gj `jtnrdj `jtnrd j lrkêadmj. Gls lrkjads`ls cltlsdatätdmls mjptja ng mjrblal hn gj jt`ýscnrj na clr`j hn hdýxdhl hn mjrblal (ML2) y sn damlrplrj ml`l mjrblal lrkêadml na gls prdamdpdls prda mdpdls da`nhdjtls. J trjväs hn gj mjhnaj jgd`natjrdj, ng mjrblal sn damlrplrj j gls hdcnrnatns advngns trýcdmls y hn aunvl sn gdbnrj j gj jt`ýscnrj na clr`j hn ML2 j trjväs hn gj rnspdrjmdýa mngugjr l `nhdjatn gj hnsml`plsdmdýa qun rnjgdzja gjs bjmtnrdjs hn gls mjhêvnrns y nxmrn`natls. Ng ML2 tj`bdäa punhn da`lvdgdzjrsn na gjs rlmjs mjgdzjs clr`jahl mjrblajtl mêgmdml (MjML=) prlmnhnatn hn gls nsqungntls y mjpjrjzlans mjgmêrnls hn gls lrkjads`ls jmuêtdmls. ]n punhn gdbnrjr hn aunvl j gj jt`ýscnrj na clr`j hn ML2 trjs gj hns mjrblajtjmdýa hn gjs mjgdzjs. (Yjgglg)

w.dnsgjgl`j.ns) Dgustrjmdýa 26. Mdmgl hng Mjrblal (ww w.dnsgjgl`j.ns)

b) Mdmgl hng Clsclrl5

Ng cýsclrl ns ua ngn`natl quà`dml hn krja d`plrtjamdj pjrj gls snrns vdvls yj qun clr`j pjrtn hn bdl`lgämugjs ml`l gjs prltnàajs, ng JHA, ng JRA yng JXY (Jhnalsàa trdclscjtl, `lgämugj namjrkjhj hn jg`jmnajr gj nanrkàj quà`dmj). Na

=6

 

^AM gls snrns vdvls nxdstn uaj prlplrmdýa hn cýsclrl `umfl `jylr j gj hng `nhdl càsdml y plr tjatl jmtõj ml`l cjmtlr gd`dtjatn Gj `jylr rnsnrvj hn cýsclrl sn namunatrj na jgkuajs rlmjs snhd`natjrdjs. Gjs pgjatjs gl jbslrbna hng sungl ml`l cýsclrl dalrkêadml pjrj damlrplrjrgl j gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj. J pjrtdr hn jquà rnmlrrn gls hdstdatls advngns trýcdmls hn gj mjhnaj jgd`natjrdj. Na gls jad`jgns vnrtnbrjhls sn hnplsdtj na ng nsqungntl. Ng cýsclrl vungvn jg `nhdl càsdml mla gls hnsnmfls y rnstls lrkêadmls. Ng cýsclrl punhn pjsjr hng `nhdl tnrrnstrn jg jmuêtdml trjasplrtjhl plr gjs jkujs y sn hnplsdtj na gls snhd`natls `jrdals. Hnshn jfà ns utdgdzjhl plr ng pgjamtla, damlrplrêahlsn j gjs mjhnajs trýcdmjs jmuêtdmjs y tnrrnstrns (pnmns mlasu`dhls plr jad`jgns tnrrnstrns).

Dgustrjmdýa 24 Mdmgl hng Clsclrl (www.dnsgjgl`j.ns)

m) Mdmgl hng Adtrýknal5

Ng adtrýknal `lgnmugjr (A2) ns `uy jbuahjatn na gj jt`ýscnrj, pnrl sýgl jgkuajs bjmtnrdjs punhna jsd`dgjrgl hdrnmtj`natn. hdrnmtj `natn. Gjs pgjatjs tl`ja ng adtrýknal hng sungl na clr`j hn adtrjtls (AL= -) clr`jahl gjs prltnàajs y ltrjs sustjamdjs lrkêadmjs rdmjs na adtrýknal. Nstjs `lgämugjs pjsja j gls hn`ês advngns trýcdmls hn gj mjhnaj jgd`natjrdj. Ng adtrýknal vungvn jg sungl j trjväs hn gls nxmrn`natls y gj putrncjmmdýa bjmtnrdjaj hn gls mjhêvnrns, na clr`j hn j`ladjml (AF=). Gjs

=4

 

^AM bjmtnrdjs adtrdcdmjatns trjasclr`ja ng j`ladjml na adtrdtls (AL2 -) qun, plstnrdlr`natn, ltrjs bjmtnrdjs lxdhjrêa hjahl gukjr j adtrjtls. Gjs bjmtnrdjs hnsadtrdcdmjatns trjasclr`ja gls adtrdtls y adtrjtls na A2, qun pjsj j gj jt`ýscnrj, prlvlmjahl ng n`plbrnmd`dnatl hn gls sungls na nstn ngn`natl. Ylr ng mlatrjrdl, gjs bjmtnrdjs mjpjmns hn cdejr ng adtrýknal jt`lscärdml, vdvdnahl hn clr`j gdbrn l na sd`bdlsds mla gjs pgjatjs (ml`l Rfdzlbdu`, qun vdvn jslmdjhl j gjs gnku`dalsjs), nardqunmna ng sungl.

 Dgustrjmdýa =95 mdmgl hng adtrýknal ad trýknal. (ww w.dnsgjgl`j.ns)

89

 

^AM

DS.  MLAMG^MDLA Gls nmlsdstn`js y gj bdlhdvnrsdhjh qun jgbnrkja sla ng slplrtn vdtjg hn gj Xdnrrj, hnpnahn`ls hn nggls pjrj ng jdrn qun rnspdrj`ls, gj ml`dhj qun ml`n`ls y ng jkuj qun bnbn`ls. Gls fu`nhjgns cdgtrja cdgtrja gls mlatj`dajatns hng jkuj? gjs pgjatjs y êrblgns rnhumna ng mjgnatj`dnatl kglbjg jbslrbdnahl ng mjrblal, gls `dmrllrkjads`ls `dmrllrkjads` ls hnsml`plana gj `jtnrdj lrkêadmj y cnrtdgdzja ng sungl, pjrj  prlvnnr gls jgd`natls. jgd`natls. Gj bdlhdvnrsdhjh bdlhdvnrsdhjh jyuhj j plgdadzjr gjs cglrns cglrns y mugtdvls mugtdvls y tj`bdäa prlvnn ml`dhj y `nhdmdajs pjrj aunstrl bdnanstjr. ]da nggj al snràj`ls mjpjmns hn slbrnvdvdr. slbrnvdvdr. Na mujatl j gls jad`jgns vdvna na pgnaj gumfj pjrj plhnr slbrnvdvdr, y mudhjr aunstrls nmlsdstn`js jyuhj j `nelrjr gj vdhj hn nggls y tj`bdäa gj hn gls fu`jals, mlatj`ls mla hdcnrnatns tdpls hn nmlsdstn`js qun jfà fjbdtja hdcnrnatns nspnmdna. T tlhl nstl plhràj`ls hnmdr qun aunstrl `uahl ns `nkjhdvnrsl. Mlamgud`ls na gj d`plrtjamdj hn gls nmlsdstn`js yj qun ml`l snr fu`jal hnbn`ls hn hjrgn d`plrtjamdj pjrj `jatnanr y mudhjr aunstrl `nhdl j`bdnatn. y hnbn`ls prltnknrgl pjrj al hnstrudr ng fêbdtjt hn `umfjs nspnmdns.

8:

 

^AM

S.  BDBGDLKRJCDJ Êgvjrns, M. (s.c.). "Gj nstrumturj hn gls nmlsdstn`js".  Mdsanrls, R. G. (:; hn E^GDL hn 29:;). ^advnrsdhjh Ajmdlajg Jutýal`j hn  @äxdml. 

Lbtnadhl

hn

GDBRL5

fttp5//www.gdbrlslj.uaj`.`x/ fttp5//www.gdbr lslj.uaj`.`x/bdtstrnj`/fjahgn bdtstrnj`/fjahgn/:2=8>3;64/2>3 /:2=8>3;64/2>3/Nmlgl /Nmlgl kd%MM%6:j%29hn%29gj%29Rnstjurjmdl%MM%6:a%29y%29rnstjur  jmdl%MM%6:a%29j`bdnatjg% jmdl%MM%6:a% 29j`bdnatjg%29hn%29Rlbnrtl 29hn%29Rlbnrtl%29Gdahdk% %29Gdahdk%29Mdsan 29Mdsan rls.:x:.phc=3-9->246=9>=3-9->24Nsl2\ajt\mjs\uh;.phc Yjgglg, L. (s.c.). Hdaj`dmj hng Nmlsdstn`j. Nmlsdstn`j.  ]jamfnz, J. J. (9; hn `jyl hn 29:4). jrtdmugl. Lbtnadhl hn nmlglkdj vnrhn5 fttps5//www.nmlglkdjvnrhn.ml` fttps5//www.nm lglkdjvnrhn.ml`/qun-ns-bdlmnals /qun-ns-bdlmnalsds-nxpgdmjmdla-m ds-nxpgdmjmdla-mlalanen`pgls-:4=:.ft`g#jamflr\9 Xnahnazdjs. (29:4). Z^Ä N] ^A NML]D]XN@J ^RBJAL . Lbtnadhl hn Xnahnazdjs5 fttps5//tnahnazdjs.ml`/nml/qu fttps5//tnahnazdjs.ml`/nml/qun-ns-ua-nmlsdstn`jn-ns-ua-nmlsdstn`j-urbjal/ urbjal/

82

 

^AM

SD.  GDAOLKRJCÀJ ➢  fttps5//www.n fttps5//www.nhnbn.ml`/nhumjmdla hnbn.ml`/nhumjmdla/hlmu`natls/6=9 /hlmu`natls/6=9>=3-9->24>=3-9->24-

Nsl2\ajt\mjs\uh;.ph Nsl2\ajt\mjs \uh;.ph (@jrmjhlrHnYlsdmdýa:)c (@jrmjhlrHnYlsdmdýa:)c ➢

  fttps5//nmlsd fttps5//nmlsdstn`js.lvjmna.m stn`js.lvjmna.ml`/bdlmnalsds/ l`/bdlmnalsds/

➢  fttps5//smdng fttps5//smdngl.mladmyt.mg/phc/pdr l.mladmyt.mg/phc/pdrl/v6a=/jrt92.p l/v6a=/jrt92.phc hc ➢  fttp5//rnplsd fttp5//rnplsdtlry.ut.nhu.ml/ tlry.ut.nhu.ml/bdtstrnj`/99:/ bdtstrnj`/99:/:8=;/:/RD^X-EMJJ:8=;/:/RD^X-EMJJ-spj-29:8spj-29:8-

Rngjmdlans%29datnrnspnm%M= Rngjmdlans%29da tnrnspnm%M=%JHcdmjs%29n %JHcdmjs%29na%29ng%29nmlsds a%29ng%29nmlsdstn`j.%2 tn`j.%2 9^a%29nstuhdl%29hn%29mlas 9^a%29nstuhd l%29hn%29mlastrummd%M=%B= trummd%M=%B=a%29hn%29ml a%29hn%29mlamnptls%2 amnptls%2 9na%29ng%29jugj.phc ➢  fttp5//www.nhumjr fttp5//www.nhumjrblg.mg/blsqun/n blg.mg/blsqun/nmlsdstn`js\m mlsdstn`js\mdmgls.pfp dmgls.pfp

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