1911 final

THE 1911 (Xinhai) REVOLUTION QUESTION: Examine the various factors that played a vital role in the 1911 Revolution in China and critically analyze its various interpretations. INTRODUCTION: In the face of foreign imperial and dynastic decline, there emerged two major political movements in China, each representing a different approach to the problem. The first, was a revolutionary reform led by Dr Sun Yat Sen who aimed to introduce sweeping changes and completely overthrow the Manchu dynasty, establish a parliamentary republic and constitutional government. The second was a progressive reform of 1898, led by K'ang Yu-wei from which evolved Ch'ing reform, and aimed to introduce strictly constitutional changes in the system. The Chinese revolutionaries slowly gained increasing support from the young intellectuals in the face of discriminatory and insincere Manchu endeavors. Eventually, the movement managed to replace the rustic imperial institution with a republic. The Manchus who had entered China in 1644 as conquerors had completely lost face before the Chinese republic. A desperate struggle for survival was highlighted in an anti Chinese policy under the pretext of reform and constitutionalism. Such a flagrant show of discrimination amidst rapid dynastic decline only served to exacerbate opposition from the ruled. BACKGROUND: As far as Dr Sun Yat Sen was concerned, there were a few things worth noting. Socially as well as geographically, Dr Sun Yat Sen's origin was opportune. Son of a peasant, he was schooled by an uncle who had fought for the lost cause of the Taiping. He approached China's problems from opposite social contexts, with antithetic preconceptions and through different media. Basically, Dr Sun Yat Sen had built up the entire structure of early Revolutionary movement. However, there were certain other prevailing conditions that require attention. Jonathan Spence points out certain “reforms” that further aggravated the social inequalities and furthered discontent. 1. The first dramatic gesture in the direction of constitutional reform was made by the Empress Dowager Cixi in 1905, when she ordered a small study group and officials to travel to Japan, Russia, USA, Britain, France, Germany and Italy, to study their governments. 2. Other proposed reforms were to establish women schools, to develop an urban police system, and, in particular, to re direct funds from local community organizations to the needs of reforming local government and education. 3. Under the “law of avoidance”, Qing officials were barred from serving in their own native provinces so they could not use their office to bolt their economic interests back at home. However, local men appointed to local offices were able to abuse and consolidate their power in their own communities. 4. Another example of ambiguity of reform was the abolition of the state

examination system in 1905. On hand, this could be viewed as a greater opportunity for the talented of varied groups, but in fact it was largely the sons of the traditional elite groups who had the money and the ambition to enroll in the new schools. 5. In late 1908, the court announced that full constitutional government would be established over the next nine year period. 6. Sun's Three People Principles of Nationalism, Democracy and Socialism also had a major impact and were accepted as the revolutionary philosophy. However, the majority of the members focused only on the 1st two principles of nationalism and democracy. This was because the China Revival Society and the Restoration Society, both of which emphasized the overthrow of Manchus and the establishment of a republic. Jonathan Spence, after enumerating these various 'so called ' reforms, remarks, that these suggest the 'frailty of proto democratic institutions and the difficulty of establishing them in an unprepared context’. Members of the Confucian educated Chinese elite, whether office holding, landholding, or involved in trade, enjoyed a natural dominance in the countryside and the cities. CAUSES OF 1911 REVOLUTION: BUDGETRY DEFICIT: The resulting budgetary deficit was so huge, that it had to be met by increased agricultural taxes, a wide range of new duties on tea, wine, salt and tobacco; high transit and custom dues, and special taxes on all real estate and land registration deals. Marie Claire Bergere argues that in the economic sphere, the Chinese reaction to the western aggression was quite adept, adroit and a successful effort to industrialize, the main aim of the foreign powers in the opening up of the country was to promote the expansion of trade. Eventually, the balance of trade was disrupted and China was forced to make up her trade deficit in cash. From the western perspective, the tendency at this time was to regard the Chinese market more as an outlet for manufactured items than a source of supply for primary products, or local agricultural products for export. JAPANESE INFLUENCE: The period from 1898- 1914 saw a major Japanese influence on the course of Chinese history. Japan was the home base for anti- Qing revolutionaries. The Japanese stimulus to modern education, militarism and constitutionalism in China, was a part of a broader contribution to the rise of Chinese nationalism in general. Japan's influence in this brief period was more direct, profound and far reaching than that of Britain in the 19th century. Reason being that, Japan's geographical and cultural proximity to China was closer. Also, it can be noted that, China, in that age was more eager to learn and Japan, more eager to teach.

ROLE OF RAILWAYS: • Many Chinese considered railways as disruptive to the harmony of nature and of man The foreign powers had made it clear that they would go ahead and build railways in their areas of influence despite the protests of the Qing’s. In 1895, railway construction had started in different parts of China; The Germans, in Shandong; the British in Yangzi valley; the French from Hanoi to Kunming; the Russians in the Heilongjiang province; the Japanese from North Korea to Mukden. These had become tools of economic imperialism, preliminary to opening mines, extracting resources, and exploiting markets. • However, a strong mood of nationalism had prevailed in China. The aim was to raise money through local bonds so that the Chinese could buy back the railroad rights made available to foreign investors and thus regain complete control over their own transport system. The court therefore decided to buy out the rights to the railway lines from their Chinese investors and to nationalize the whole system under Qing control. As a reaction to this, the railway agitation of 1910 and 1911 protested on the grounds that the Qing was selling out the nations resources to the foreigners. ROLE OF SECRET SOCIETIES: Anti Manchu sentiment never disappeared through the 268 year reign of the dynasty. Although their activities did not result in the direct overthrow of the alien rule, the germ of revolution was kept alive in underground organizations and secret societies. The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the activities of the Heaven and Earth Society, the White Lotus Rebellion and the Taiping revolution all demonstrated the never ending thread of nationalistic- racial protest. FOREIGN INFLUENCE: With the French, American and the Glorious Revolution (England), the ideas of liberty, equality, democracy, human rights, independence and freedom swept through the minds of the young Chinese having a profound impact on them. More so, the success of the Italian and German unification's in 1870, prompted the Chinese to take similar action. NEED FOR POLITICAL INNOVATION: The monarchical institution of China, in the view of Dr Sun Yat Sen was responsible for the succession of the imperial dynasties in China. Chinese history revolved around the cycle of division, disorder, unification and despotism. In this process, the country and the people mercilessly suffered and the historical pattern repeated itself periodically. To break this cycle, it was necessary to replace the monarchical institutions with a federal republic. In order to achieve this, Dr Sun Yat Sen felt, that the people should be engaged in a National Revolution to bring about the downfall of the imperial system and the Manchu dynasty. ROLE OF EDUCATION Immigrant Chinese and the westerners played a major role in education. For example,

Spence talks of how the Empress Dowager sent a study group of officials to travel to Japan, Russia, USA, Britain, France, Germany and Italy, to study their governments. Institutions were also started by missionaries and these were the centers through which ideas of equality, liberty and brotherhood developed. Therefore, all these factors helped Dr Sun Yat Sen to mobilize these section of people and money sources from the support of various secret societies)in order to make it a more peaceful country. ECONOMIC DEPLETION AND TAXATION BURDEN The discontent of people was severely heightened by increased taxation stemming from huge sums of war indemnity. With the introduction of various foreign banks, the process of drain of wealth had begun. These introduced a systematic method of exploitationloans to people, government and industry, assigned to the clients at an obvious high interest rate. New reforms of rail, education, industry and road required fund led to no source of income, but only further burden. ROLE OF MEDIA: The press, newspapers & magazines fueled the spreading of revolutionary ideas and literature. This became the medium of transmission of western thoughts and ideas; like the social contract theory. TRADITIONAL REASONS: 1. Overpopulation. 2. Inadequate resources. 3. Unbiased utilization of resources. 4. Unemployment. 5. Social degradation. 6. Inherent feudal attitude of China's society. 7. Natural calamities (Dynastic cycle). 8. Lack of funds. 9. No government support and disintegration of divine imperialist government; the Manchu dynasty.

HISTORIOGRAPHY: Most historians have underlined the role of educational reforms in the 1911 Revolution. They have stressed the importance on how these reforms in the educational sector brought about a whole new world of ideas centering themes like liberty, equality and freedom; which helped bringing down the dynastic rule. Fairbank has argued that though some sharp fighting occurred in the Wuhan cities, the 1911 Revolution was singularly non violent. It was also inconclusive as its main aim

was purely negative; to get rid of the Manchu rule. 1911, though it marked the end of an era, it was also significant as the beginning of a prolonged crisis of central power in the world’s most ancient government. Hsu argues that the Revolution and the republic had not brought the anticipated peace and order, instead the republican period saw more and lawlessness than before. It resembled the traditional disorder and chaos that always followed the fall of a dynasty. Yet, Sun, had laid the foundation for progress, from which his disciples could carry on. Chesenaux stresses the role of the politicized proletariat. Generally, a lot of strikes took place in the work place of this proletariat class. This eventually had a long term effect, as the nature of these protests and strikes were usually political, and not economic in nature. They shared an anti imperialistic feeling. M Wright underlined the role of the educational youth as well; calling them the most vibrant force in the nation. Besides the educational elite, the migrant Chinese were also able to experience freedom and modern ideas of a modern nation inclined with their loyalty for the Chinese nationalists by sending money for the required purposes. M.B Rankin argues, that the foreign experience of many youngsters from the gentry background made them influence the countryside with ideas of romanticism, heroic self sacrifice and revolutionary ideas. Rankin, in fact has even questioned, as to whether the 1911 'Revolution' deserves to be called a Revolution or not. Finally, Harold Issac under-defines the role of capitalism in China. He says, that more than capitalism, the final blow to the dynasty was from the reformist group under Dr Sun Yat Sen. The Chinese society, according to him was on the brink of a political breakdown and chaos as a result of Western expansion against the Chinese shore. Marxist historians comment, that for the first time, a bourgeois class was seen in China, as a result of foreign trade and treaty port system. Initially, being supporters of the Westerners, they eventually switched sides, as they realized that the government would not protect their industrial interests against foreign encroachment as native Chinese men. Therefore, according to the Marxists, nationalist reformist groups were supported by the bourgeoisie class, since the present government couldn't support them. Demanding a change , this bourgeoisie class rooted for a strong central government that supported change. Chen Tiejian underlined the role of the native bourgeoisie as it was the only progressive force that was relatively mature to start and lead a Revolution. Though it had its own inherent weaknesses, M. Wright and several other historians have emphasized the role of this class in the Revolution. Imperialist writer P. H Kent, puts the Sichuan struggle something between the central authority and provincial autonomy. The argument goes in the direction of how provincial interest against the imperial authority in the railway crisis context. Peter Zarrow points out, that society and polity didn't really change after the 1911 Revolution. It then turned into an era of warlords. The gentry class clung on to the dynastic class which now did not exist. He classifies the interpretation of the 1911

Revolution in 3 broad categories: 1. The Revolutionaries Revolution. (Dr Sun Yat Sen and his group) 2. The Bourgeoisie Revolution. 3. The Urban Gentry Revolution A) The Revolutionaries Revolution. (Dr Sun Yat Sen and his group): Most mainstream historians underline the importance of the heroism of few leaders and the role that educational reforms played. However, according to Zarrow, the Manchu government fell because its own army was not willing to support it. Neither did the gentry or the industrialists have any reason to support it. B) The Bourgeoisie Revolution: Chinese communist historians regard the 1911 movement as a revolution led by the bourgeoisie, whose members were democratic and socialist in outlook. As far as if nationalism is concerned, the communist theory is that it got rid of the Manchus, only to capitulate to Western imperialism. Its democracy failed to reverse the absolutism of the imperial regime. This semi impotence and partial failure are attributed to 2 main causes: • The numerical weakness of the bourgeoisie and its lack of political maturity, which made it incapable of choosing the right allies in the struggle and led it to rely on the gentry rather than on the peasant masses. • The deep hostility shown by the foreign powers towards the republican movement and the aspirations of the bourgeoisie, whose expansion could only take place at the expense of the imperialist powers with vested interests in China. Marie Claire Bergere talks of economic incentive for the foreign powers as one of the industrializing factors in China. She talks of how the supply of cheap labor and availability of raw material at a low price was an attractive offer to the entrepreneurs who sought to increase their profits. According to her, the Chinese tried to take part in this development; but when it came to industrial expansion, collaboration gave way to direct competition in which the Chinese entrepreneur, handicapped from the outset by the absence of any effective tariff protection, had little chance of success. This industrialization process implied the erection of the necessary buildings, a provision for a means of transport and communication. Therefore, an overall growth of urban development led to the destruction of ancient buildings and erection of new structures. This development, (rather changes) according to Bergere had very minute effects on Chinese economic life as a whole, in which traditional methods of agriculture remained a predominant feature. She argues that the commercial exploitation of primary products such as silk, cotton and tea and the supply for manufactured goods for the domestic market were on a very small scale that they ranked as secondary features of the Chinese economy. Albert Feurwerker points out that the existence of treaty ports made little difference to the lives/methods of production, in areas where new channels of trade were being developed. By no means, could the decline of the handicrafts industry and certain other

sectors be generalized. On the contrary, the industrialization of spinning and a mechanized consumer based marked stimulated handicraft production. G. William Skinner propounds the ‘false modernization’ theory where the requirements of foreign trade and the new demand have intensified this trade, but its pattern still followed the old models. Only big cities and areas immediately surrounding them had been affected by the introduction of modern transport and communications. Apart from these, there was no such change in the market structure during the first years of the 20th century. A number of markets increased under the growing influence and stimulus of foreign trade. Joseph Esherick argues that even if there is a question as to whether it deserves to be called a Revolution or not, it did end millenia of imperial rule. The monarchy was replaced by a republic, even if was not like the republic, the Chinese and the Western advocates would have liked to be. The abolition of the examinations destroyed the traditional criterion for gentry status. The establishment of Chambers of Commerce allowed and even encouraged merchant participation in the political process. The constitutional reforms institutionalized the power of local elites to an unprecedented degree. C) The Urban Gentry Revolution: The third school categorically say that the local elite feared local violence and wanted to make sure that the radical element did not claim power. They wanted preservation of their rights and the provincial leaders wanted cession from the center.

CONCLUSION!!: The Japanese provided their support for the 1911 Revolution. Provisional government was started under Dr Sun Yat Sen, with Nanking as its capital. Delegates form 13 provinces lent their support to Dr Sun Yat Sen to start a republic in China. Subsequently, he became the president of The Young Republic of China. The 1911 Revolution was a great success in bringing down a dynastic rule in China that lasted 2100 years. In the early years of Republic of China, the intellectuals in China and the participants of the Revolution were excited by the revolution's success in overthrowing the Manchu Dynasty, and they had high hopes for the revolution. However, because democracy had been only partially realized after the 1911 Revolution, people began to develop different perspectives. After the 1920s, the two dominant parties - the Nationalist Party and the Communist Party- evaluated the 1911 Revolution quite differently. The Nationalist Party recognized Sun Yat-Sen as the Father of the Nation and as the leader who led the 1911

Revolution to success. They had a high opinion of the 1911 Revolution, viewing the 1911 Revolution as the starting point of the modern history of China, and as the key element that enabled China to develop into a democratic and modern nation. On the other hand, the Communist Party thought that the 1911 Revolution merely overthrew the totalitarian rule of the Qing Dynasty. It did not oppose imperialism or feudalism because the bourgeois class was thought to be compromising and feeble, and therefore it did not create a truly republican system. Land had not been redistributed equally, and a transformation of society had not been achieved. The revolution ended up yielding to the Western powers, and it compromised with Yuan Shikai, who represented the old regime. At the same time however, they recognized that, if viewed as a first stage of reform, the 1911 Revolution had achieved much and had set the stage for further revolutions.