1.6 The Imperialist Diffusion of Science and Technology

The Spread of Western Science By George Basalla

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 THE MODEL Phase 1: The nonscientific society or nation provides a source for European science. Phase 2: A period of colonial science. Phase 3: Completes the process of transplantation with a struggle to achieve an independent scientific tradition (or culture). Figure 1: Sequence of phases in the diffusion of Western Science 0100090000037800000002001c 0100090000037800000002001c0000000000040 00000000000400000003010800 0000003010800050000000b0200 050000000b0200 000000050000000c02a4053e0a 000000050000000c02a4053e0a040000002e0118 040000002e0118001c000000fb0 001c000000fb021000070000000 21000070000000 000bc02000000000102022253 000bc02000000000102022253797374656d0005 797374656d00053e0a000071af00 3e0a000071af00006851110004ee 006851110004ee 8339209118000c02000004000 8339209118000c020000040000002d010000040 0002d0100000400000002010100 00000020101001c000000fb029 1c000000fb029cff  cff  00000000000090010000000004 0000000000009001000000000440001254696d6 40001254696d6573204e65772052 573204e657720526f6d616e00000 6f6d616e00000 00000000000000000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000040000002d 000040000002d01010005000000 010100050000000902000000020 0902000000020 d000000320a5a000000010004 d000000320a5a00000001000400000000003b0a 00000000003b0aa405209d2d00 a405209d2d00040000002d0100 040000002d010000 00 030000000000

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PHASE 1: GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION Europe European an observ observers ers survey survey,, class classify ify,, and apprai appraise se the the organi organic c and inorga inorganic nic environment. Phase 1 science is not limited to the uncivilized country where European settlement is the obje object ct.. It is also also to be found found in regio regions ns alrea already dy occu occupi pied ed by anci ancien entt civilizations, civilizations, some with indigenous scientific traditions like India and China. PHASE 2: COLONIAL SCIENCE   The The firs firstt colo coloni nial al scie scient ntis ists ts join join in the the surv survey ey of the the orga organi nic c and and inor inorga gani nic c environment conducted by the European observers.   This training will direct the colonial scientist’s interests to the scientific fields and problems delineated by European scientists. Benjamin Franklin and Mikhail V. Lomonosov – Heroes of Colonial Science American scientists opt to pursue graduate studies or gain Ph.D.’s in Europe. Meiji Restoration – importation of American and European scientists, engineers, and phys physic icia ians ns to serv serve e in nati native ve univ univers ersit itie ies s as teac teache hers rs of aspi aspiri ring ng scie scient ntis ists ts;; translation of Western scientific textbooks PHASE 3: INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC TRADITION Comp Comple lete tes s the the proc proces ess s of tran transp spla lant ntat atio ion n with with the the stru strugg ggle le to achi achiev eve e an independent scientific tradition.  The US and Russia replaced Western Europe as leading scientific nations. Phase 3 science is marked by a conscious struggle to reach an independent status.  Tasks to be completed to attain an independent scientific culture: 1. Resistan Resistance ce to science science on the basis basis of philosophi philosophical cal and religious religious beliefs beliefs must must be overc overcom ome e and and repl replac aced ed by posi positi tive ve enco encour urag agem emen entt of  scientific research. 2. The socia sociall role and place place of the scient scientist ist need need to be determi determined ned in order to insure society’s approval of his labor.

3. Clarify the relationship between science and government. 4. The teaching of science should be introduced into all levels of  educational system, provided that an adequate educational system already exists. 5. Native scientific organizations should be founded which are specifically dedicated to the promotion of science. 6. Channels must be opened to facilitate formal national and international scientific communication. This can be accomplished by founding appropriate scientific journals and then gaining their widespread recognition. 7. A proper technological base should be made available for the growth of  science.

Science, Technology, and Imperialism I: The Case of India By Ian Inkster

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IMPERIALISM Imperialism represented a vent for surplus, a source of strategic raw materials and foodstuffs, a market for the cotton manufactures of Europe. “Informal Imperialism” (where an industrial nation brought its political power to bear upon nominally independent states) Imperialism may include more than colonialism, with all the result of administration to the home economy entailed in the latter term. An “imperialist” is any force acting upon a relatively underdeveloped nation of the 19th century which did not directly arise from the workings of the international economy per se. •

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After the Dutch supremacy in Southeast Asia, the British established bases in India at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.  The decline of the Mughals in India and the defeat of the French in 1763 provided opportunities for further British territorial expansion and direct rule over Bengal. This gave Britain the ability to protect her commercial and strategic interests elsewhere in Asia. Annexation of states in India such as Satara, Nagpur, Jaitpur, etc. and its associated policy of land tenure form caused widespread unrest of which the best known was the Indian Mutiny of 1857. This led to the exit of the East Indian Company while British Crown assumed the government of  India.  This, in turn, had removed the effective sovereignty of the Indian people.  Throughout the rest of the century, India became strategically important to further expansionary activity in Asia.

 THE CASE OF INDIA E.N. Komarov published (in 1962) the negative effects of British colonialism to the economy of India. The following are the Komarov’s claims: 1. Even before the British came to India, its economy had already started to become industrialized. Towns were centers of the handicraft

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industry during India’s pre-colonial period. The British East India Company monopolized the Indian economy. This caused the decrease of native merchant capitalists in India. Reforms on tenure brought about the exploitation of peasantry by giving landlords more authority over the property of the peasant and the peasant itself. There was unequal trade relationship between Britain and India during the industrial revolution of Britain, thus preventing the development of  the Indian economy and its transition from feudalism to capitalism. The industrial workers were exploited as the production of raw materials was forced to be increased, further preventing the rise of  capitalism in India. Agricultural technology was not developed as the labor became cheaper and as the employment became scarce. These were due to additional tenure and revenue system reforms of Britain. The industry in India was not modeled after the British industries. The Indian industry was saddled by the excessive colonial imports coming in and payments on taxes and other responsibilities which weren’t translated to reproduction but administrative purposes.

In Irfan Habib’s work, he describes the economy of India during the Mughal period. Habib stated that the adaptation of new technologies, especially in agriculture, weren’t hindered by the existing differentiation of peasantry and other value systems but by insufficient capital and skills needed from the people in such technologies. He also said that prior to British colonialism, the caste system was already disintegrating and capitalism and industrialism was rising. “Drain” and “de-industrialization” are the usual topics of debate in the analysis of  the Indian economy. “Drain” pertains to the consumption and eventual drain of the resources of  economy from its revenue as they were used mainly for administrative purposes instead of being used in the continuation of the production. The interests paid in debts, military charges and civil charges were some of the administrative responsibilities were the bulk of the gains were used. “De-industrialization” in India was due to the clinging of the economy to agriculture rather than manufacturing or other industries. Although their exports increased, technological diffusion and industrial revolution was prevented in India because of this. As a conclusion, the presence of the British imperialist power in India had deprived the effective diffusion of new technologies and industrialism in India by aggression, inequality in trading, lack of economic sovereignty, and absence policies to protect the peasantry and workers.

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 TRANSFER, DIFFUSION, AND THE BRITISH The object of the East India Company was to transfer the European “natural history enterprise” to India for purely commercial purposes. A. The Royal Botanic Gardens (1787) researched in economic botany, mineralogy and zoology and aimed to disseminate botanical articles for the extension of national commerce and riches.

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Geological Survey of India (1851) attended to commercial potential of coal, iron, etc, and employed only Europeans in the higher offices. Discovery of resources in India; processing in Britain The activity in Education was dictated by racist attitudes Racism became prejudicial. Focus was on medicine and administration rather than engineering or commerce. Philosophy of “downward filtration” and creation of a class of intellectual compradores which eventually may filter the masses, and there was neglect of  mass primary education. There was considerable evidence of stirring of indigenous Indian activity despite British claims that educated classes of India were not interested in scientific instruction. Hindu attempts to establish own institutions for European studies e.g Delhi College Anglo-Indian College and Hindu Sanskrit College Aligarh scientific society Bihar Scientific Society etc... The purpose of Societies such as these was to translate European works on science and technology to provide intellectual basis for Indian industrial and agricultural improvement. The British response to all this was minimal. Minimal number of graduates from courses such as engineering Higher colleges offered meager scientific and technical provisions and demonstrated little sensitivity to the specific, highly localized needs of the Indian economy. The British interest remained with commerce, acclimatization, and the natural history enterprise. Raj policy did not erect institutions which could provide a significant cadre of skilled workers for Indian or western enterprise. As far as technical instruction was concerned, the British believed only in the “educational function” of successful industrial projects. 1888 government Resolution reflected the failure of the Raj as a “transfer mechanism”. Extension of railways, mills and factories create demand for skilled labor and educated foremen; technical schools would be established, and aggravate the present difficulties by adding to the educated unemployed a new class of  professional men for whom there is no commercial demand. The Raj industrial policy did not in fact lead to either an increased demand for skilled Indian labor or the generation of educational servicing institutions. The fully modern sector projects became the last resort of those who sought a transfer mechanism. Steam powered machines’ economic importance were stressed. But it was also argued that little of this required service of Indian engineers, and an activity such as the railway might strengthen Indian production of raw material rather than manufacturing because of low cost of import In contrast, the introduction of the railway system has been seen as the high mark of British technological achievement in India. Karl Marx wrote: when you have once introduced machinery into locomotion of a country which possesses iron and coals, you are unable to withhold it from its fabrication (but reservations still abound, as is enumerated in Inkster’s article)

Science, Technology, and Imperialism II: The Case of China By Ian Inkster  THE CASE OF CHINA China, “the victim of imperialism without annexation”, became a prey of the western predatory imperialist nations after the two opium wars.

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  The first opium war (1840-42) came about when the Chinese authorities destroyed the opium which were illegally brought and sold in China by the British traders. This war was won by Britain and China was forced to sign the Treaty of  Nanking (1842). The provisions of the treaty were: Opening of five ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai) to British trade. Renouncing the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain, Payment of war indemnity ($21,000,000), and Enabling all British traders to do business directly with the people.

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 The second opium war (1856-60) came about when a French missionary was killed by a Chinese. China lost to the alliance of France and Britain and the Treaties of Tientsin (1858) and the Peking Convention (1860) were signed with the following provisions: Cession of the Kowloon peninsula to Great Britain, Foreign diplomats were allowed to reside in Peking, Ten more ports in China were opened to international trade, Foreigners were allowed to wander to any part of China, Christian missionaries were given protection, and The Opium trade was legalized.

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China became a vulnerable country and this weakness was taken advantage by the imperialist powers—Britain, France, Prussia, Denmark, Holland, Spain, Belgium, Italy and Austria-Hungary. They divided the vast land of China into pieces of territories called the Spheres of Influence over which the imperialist power has the exclusive right to exploit the natural resources found in its piece.  The imperialist powers in China until 1895 were Europeans and Americans. After the loss of China in the Sino-Japanese war (1894-95), the Treaty of  Shimonoseki was signed with the provisions that China would give up its claim in Korea, paid a war indemnity ($158,000,000), and cession of Formosa, Arthur Port, and Liaotung Peninsula to Japan. The war also opened China to new imperialist powers such as Russia. Under the Russian imperialism, the Trans-Siberian railway was constructed for the following purposes: 1. To promote the economic development of China and other colonies of Russia, 2. To provide easier transportation of Russian troops to its colonies, and 3. To connect Moscow and Vladivostok (“Dominion of the East”). As a conclusion, the Chinese economy died during the first part of 

imperialism (under Americans and Europeans) for only the foreigners controlled and gained in the trades. Technological transfer and industrialization could have been effective if China controlled its economy. Under the Russian imperialism, aside from Suez Canal, the Trans-Siberian railroad aided to the diffusion of technology in China. 

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19th century - China’s economic retardation - S. Thomas’ pertinent historiography - Internal barriers: Confucianism, Emperor system, demographic trends, officialdom in class structure, firm government - Foreign intervention: trade patterns, investment, technology Western Impact - Positive - Neutral - Insignificant Confucianism - Political principles taught by Confucius - A belief, but is not considered a religion since it does not include devotion to any gods - China’s social structure - Educated Chinese comprised the Public Administration Compradores - Group of middlemen - Chinese merchants Manchu/Ching Dynasty (1644-1911) - Halted developments were because of increase of land, product taxes. Famine wreckage, declination of shipping Economic Backwardness - Government intervention Economic Forwardness - Wealthy merchants Late 18th century and early 19 th century - China was self-sufficient in economical aspects - Foreign trade was dominated by Canton system Foreign economic relations - Treaty ports - Small relative to size of Chinese economy  Japan was more effective than China - High investment - Various aid to industry and commerce Negativity of Chinese government - Foreign relationships - Transport improvements

 TRANSFER MECHANISMS  The treaty ports, the same as foreign settlements, were said to have played an important role in the transfer of technology and industrial knowledge from the foreigners to the Chinese people by providing employment and training grounds. In fact Shanghai, which is the largest treaty port, was able to establish its Gas

Company, improved waterworks and electric power plant in the late 1800s. But as a whole, the changes brought about by the ports are small. Aside from local resistance, the commerce between ports included only raw materials, so there was little technology transfer. Another was the development of the comprador system, dominated by the compradores (Chinese merchant and manager of foreign firms). This slowed down the introduction of Western ideas into the industry. Instead of being helpful, the treaty ports were looked upon as enemies of the government, accusing the settlements as refuge for criminals and republicans.  The Chinese officialdom’s reaction to innovations brought about by the ports is not based purely on their idealistic nature though, but also from the realities of  the treaty ports culture. In their refusal to sanction the dredging of Woosung Bar, Shanghai, they saw Chinkiang and Hankow growing, but at the expense of  Shanghai. When the designing of the railway linking Shanghai and Soochow was started, the officials’ delayed aid for the foreigners was due to conflicts in policies. Fortunately, in 1882, supports for the construction of the railway were improved after satisfying criteria like employing Chinese labor. Still, the project’s progress turned out very slow. The effect of the railway in the Chinese economy was little on the positive side since the foreign capital exerted control over the system. In conclusion, the small size of the systems established in China was not only due to the traditional ways of the Chinese, but also the negative effects of the Western attempt for industrialization.

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ENLARGED INTERCOURSE – INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN India and China had much in common Both large in population Suffered threat and invasion Developed military despotisms Numerous languages, dialects, ignorance etc. hindered the emergence of either nationalism or entrepreneurship Under the right conditions, regions industrialized in a manner analogous to advancing areas of Europe and Russia in the late nineteenth century “China was too large as to absorb into itself without trace the modernization which stemmed from the treaty ports.” The history of Manchuria in the early 20 th century suggests that there was little in Chinese culture which prohibited economic modernization. Traumatic shocks to existing economic and political systems merely reduced the efficiency of social control mechanisms and in the case of India and China loss of  sovereignty over decision making in the economic sphere. There was disestablishment of rural by-employments in China and India. The Japanese government concentrated its efforts upon the wholesale use of  western techniques and personnel as a prelude to the indigenisation of knowledge and decision making. 1880- the local mines of Takashima were taken over by Mitsubishi; water wheels for drainage and techniques for excavation were introduced The introduction of western technologies into the 43 government metal mines

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(1868-75) redefined the effective resource base. < for more examples refer to the article by Inkster> Of the three nations (China, India, Japan), China seems to stand as an intellectual contender to the West, and Japanese science was basically Chinese science for most of the nation’s history, yet Japan used the artifacts of Western Science to escape from remaining a second-class citizen of the world.