1 - General Chemistry (MANOR 2017)

 

MODULE 1 GENERAL CHEMISTRY I. II. III.

Matter Types of Reaction Structure of Atoms

IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI.

Quantum Numbers Periodic Table Chemical Bonds Thermochemistry Chemical Kinetics Chemical Equilibrium Acids and Bases Radioactivity

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I. MATTER General Chemistry: study of matter (structures, composition, changes, energy) Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass or volume Properties of Matter

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. Intensive / Intrinsic Properties

: Dependent structure or composi composition tion arrangement of atoms : Not dependent on amount or mass : Example: Melting Point, Freezing Point, Optical Activity

2. Extensive / Intrinsic Properties   : Dependent on the amount or mass : Example: Mass, Weight, Volume, Heat Content Classif Classification ication of Matter Based on Physical Properties: SOLID

Volume Shape Forces of Attraction

Definite Defini Definite te Strongest

LIQUID

GAS

Definite Indefinite Strong

Indefinite Indefini Indefinite te Weakest

Molecular Motion Vibration Gliding Entropy (s) Lowest Low * Entropy –  Entropy –   thermodynamic ffunction; unction; degree of randomn randomness; ess; degree of disorder Liquid Crystal  : 4th state of matter : Crystalline structure (solid) : Flow properties (liquid)

Constant random movement Highest

Plasma   : is an ionized gas

Based on Composition

Matter Pure Substance Elements

Mixture / Impure Substance Compounds

Homogeneous

Solution Soluti on

Heterogeneous

Colloid

Suspensi Suspension on

Pure Substance 

: Has defini definite te composition; Distinct properties : Composed on only one (1) type of particle

Element 

: Cannot be separated by chemical means : Represented by Symbols (H, O, N, F)

Compound 

: Two or more element chemically combined in a fixed proport ion : Represented by a Chemical Formula (NaCl, NaOH, H2O)

IUPAC 

: International International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry MI C H A E L A S A C A Y B E R N D T

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Laws Governing Compounds Law of Definite Proportion 

: Elements combine in a fixed ratio of whole numbers : H + O 2:1 → H2O : C + O 1:1 → CO

Law of Multiple Proportion  

: Elements may combine in a different ratios to form compound compoundss : H + O 2:2 → H2O2 : C + O 1:2 → CO2

Mixture or Impure Substances 

: Physical combinat combination ion of 2 or more substances which identities are retained : NaCl + H2O → NaCl solution

Homogeneous 

: Single phase system : Solution –  Solution –  smallest   smallest particle size : Suspension –  Suspension –  largest   largest particle size : Colloid

Heterogeneous 

: Two or more phase system

Properties of Colloid 1)  Tyndall Effect   2)  Brownian Movement 

3)  Electrically Electrically Charged  4)  Adsorption 

Suspension •  Ideal  •  Non-Ideal 

: Light scattering effect (see path of light) : Zigzag motion : Bumping to transfer kinetic energy and coll co lloidal oidal particle remain suspended : Electrophoresis  –  –  use  use of o f electricity electricity to breakdown breakdown,, separate or decompose lipids : Cathode (-) : where cations go (Reduction) : Anode  (+) : where anions go (Oxi (Oxidation) dation) : Attachmen Attachmentt of the surface

: Insoluble Insoluble particle suspended in a liquid : Caking  –  –  compacted  compacted suspended particles

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II. Types of Reaction 1. Phase Change / Phase Transformation Transformation

2. Chemical Change

a. Direct Union / Synthesis / Composition  : F Fee + S → FeS : Mg + O → MgO : S + O2  → SO2  : Metal + H2O → Basic Oxides  : Nonmetal + H2O → Acidic Oxides 

MgO + H2O → Mg (OH)2  SO2 + 2H2O → H2SO4  + H2 ↑ 

 b. Decomposition / Analysis 

: Breakdown of complex substance into simpler substance : 2NaHCO3 → Na2O + 2CO2 + H2O : 2H2O → H2 ↑ + O2 ↑ 

c. Single Displacement 

: A + BC → AC + B : 2Na + HCl → 2NaCl + H2 ↑ 

Activity Series Lithium : Most Reactive •  •  Gold  : Least Reactive Metals  Non Metals 

: Li + NaCl → LiCl + Na : Na + LiCl → No Reaction

: Li, Rb, K, Cs, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au : F, Cl, Br, I, S

d. Double Displacement / Metathesis 

: AB + CD → AD + CB : NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO  

Special Type of Double Displacement is Neutralization    HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O •

e. Redox Reaction 

: Dependent on pH and concentrati concentration on : MnO3 in acidic medium will form Mn2+ ( colorless) : MnO3 in basic medium will form MnO2 ↓ (brown precipitate) REDUCTION

Gain of electrons Decrease in Oxidation State / Valence (+7 Addition of H Removal of O Oxidizing Agent

OXIDATION → +2)

Loss of electrons Increase in Oxidation State / Valence (+2 Removal of H Addition of O Reducing Agent

→ +7)

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III. STRUCTURE OF ATOMS 1. Democritus 

: “Atomos” –  tiny  tiny invisible particles

2. John Dalton 

: “Atoms” –  smallest  smallest particle of matter  –  hard  hard indestructible indestructible sphere : Billiard Board Model  –  : Accepted for 100 years until the discover of Subatomic Particles (Proton, Neutron Neutron,, Electron)

Subatomic Particles   Protons   Electrons    Neutrons

: (+) Charged : (-) Charged : Neutral Charged

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Atomic Number Atomic Mass / Mass Number

: Eugen Goldstein (Anode); Ernest Rutherford : JJ Thomsom : James Ch Chadwick adwick

: # of Protons or Equal to the number of Protons : # of Protons + # of Neutrons

 Neutral : # of Protons = # of El Electrons ectrons (+) : # of Protons > # of Electrons (-) : # of Protons + # of Electrons Isotopes : Same atomic number = Same Number of Protons : Different Mass Number = Different Number of Neutrons Carbon 12: most abundant Carbon 13: NMR Active Carbon 14: Carbon Dating (t ½ = 5700 years)  NMR Active Active  NMR Inactive Inactive

: mass num number ber of odd numbe numbers rs : mass number number if even n numbers umbers

Isobars Isotones Isomers

: Different elements, Same Mass Number : Different elemen elements, ts, Same Number of Neutrons : Not included because it is Optically Activity

3. JJ Thomson 

: Raisin Bread Model / Plum Pudding Model   : Atom is a sphere of (+) particle to which (-) particles are embedded

Theory  4. Ernest Rutherford : Disapproved Thomson’s Theory  : Gold Foil / Film Theory / Nuclear Theory     Atom is an empty space   Most of the mass and (+) charge particles are concentrated in a small region called  Nucleus   Atom : football field    Nucleus : coin • •

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5. Neil Bohr 

: Planetary Model   : Electrons move in a circular path called Orbitals  : Energy of orbitals are Quantized (definite quantity)

6. Erwin Schrodinger: The Quantum Mechanical Model   : Electrons moves in 3D Space which is called Electron Clouds    3 Main Levels: Main Energy E nergy Level, Sublevel/Subshell Sublevel/Subshell,, Orbitals   Orbitals Orbitals –   –  regions   regions in space where there is highest probability to find an electron •

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IV. QUANTUM NUMBERS Quantum Numbers : set of o f numbers used to described electrons Symbol n

1. Principal

2. Angular Momentum

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Value

1 –  K  K Shell (closest to nucleus nucleus)) 2 –  L  L Shell 3 –  M  M Shell 4 –   N –  N –  Shell   Shell 0 to n = 1

l

Azimuthal

(small letter L)

m

3. Magnetic

n=1 n =2 n =3 n =4

s/ms 

Shape of electron cloud Subshell / Sublevel

;l=0 ; l = 0, 1 ; l = 0, 1, 2 ; l = 0, 1, 2, 3

0 = S Subshell 1 = P Subshell 2 = D Subshell 3 = F Subshell Orientation of electron cloud Orbital

-1 to + 1 (small letter L) n=1 n=2

l=0 l=1 l=1

m=0 m=0 m = -l + l

n=3

l=0 l=1 l=2

m=0 m = -l, 0, +1 m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 m=0 m = -l, 0, +1 m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 m = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3

n=4

4. Spin

Function Size of electron cloud Total energy of electrons Main energy level

1, 2, 3, 4

l=0 l=1 l=2 l=3 l=4

+ ½ (spin up) - ½ (spin down)

0 = S = 2e = 1 orbitals 1 = P = 6e = 3 orbitals 2 = D = 10e = 5 orbitals 3 = F = 14e = 7 orbitals

Direction of electron cloud

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Pauli’s Exclusion Principle   : No electrons can have the same set of quantu quantum m numbers        

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Aufbau Principle  

Hund’s Rule 

Same n = Same energy level Same 1 = Same S Same ame subshell Same m= orbital Same s = ↿⇂ (yes); ↿↿ (not possible), ⇂⇂  (not possible)

: Lower electron 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 4p6 5s2 5p6 6s2 6p6

orbitals are filled first

3d10 4d10 5d10 6d10

4f14 5f14 6f14

: If 2 or more orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons will occupy them singly  before filling filling them iin n pairs e = 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5 MI C H A E L A S A C A Y B E R N D T

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V. PERIODIC TABLE 1. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

: 1st extensive list of elements : Separated metals and non metals   Gases: O, N, H   Metals: Fe, Ni, Mg, Ca •

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: “Triads” “Triads”     Li, Na, K   Ca, Ba, Sr   Cl, Br, I   S, Se, Te

2. Dobereiner

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3. John Newlands

: Law of Octaves : When elements are arranged in order of o f atomic weight, every 8 th element had similar  properties  properti es

4. Julius Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev : 1 st Periodic Law : The physical and chemical properties of elements are functions of atomic weights   K = noble gas   Ar = Alkaline Earth Metal •

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5. Henry Moseley

: Elements Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers; increasin increasing g atomic numbers D+F

= Transition Elements

Group

= Column (top to bottom) = 18 (excluding the F block)

Period

= row (left (left to right) =7 Increase IEE

Elements 118 as of 2016   113 Nh Nihonium   115 Mc Moscovium   117 Ts Tennessine   118 Og Oganesson •

Increase RM

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1st 14 Elements: Rare Earth Metal (Lanthanoids / Lanthanide) 2nd  14 Elements: Heavy Rare Earth Metals (Actinoids, Actinide)

Periodic Trends 1. Atomic Radius / Size

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2. Ionizati Ionization on Energy

: energy required to remove electrons from the outermost shell to form (+) ions

3. Electron Affinity

: energy released when neutral atom accept acceptss an electro electron n to convert to a (-) ion

4. Electron Electronegativity egativity

: the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself

5. Metallic Property Propert y

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VI. CHEMICAL BONDS Chemical Bonds : atomi atomicc quest for stability stability to noble gas gas Electron Electro n Transfer

Ionic bond Metal + Nonmetal

Electron Electro n Sharing

Covalent Bond Nonmetals

How to determine polarity Differentiate in Electronegativity Differentiate    Near  Near –   –  non  non polar   Far Far –   –  polar  polar • •

Symmetry   Equal Equal –   –  non  non polar   Unequal Unequal –   –  polar   polar •

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VII. THERMOCHEMISTRY Thermochemistry Thermochemi stry : study of o f heat change in chemical reactions Energy : capa capacity city to do work System : part of the un universe iverse that is is of interest interest in the study Types of System

1)  Open : allows exchange of matter and energy 2)  Closed : allows exchange of energy 3)  Isolated : does not all allow ow exchange of matter and energy Types of Reaction 1)  Exothermi Exothermicc : energy is released (system to surrounding) 2)  Endothermi Endothermic: c: energy is absorbed (surrounding (surrounding to system) Entropy (S) Enthalpy (H)

Hess Law

: measure of randomness / disorder disord er : heat content of the system : H = U + PV U = internal energy

P = Pressure

V = Volume

: the change in enthalpy enthalp y is the same whether the reaction takes place in single or multiple steps

Specific Heat (s) : heat required to raise the raise temperature temperature of 1g of substances by 1°C Heat Capacity (c) : heat required to raise the temperature t emperature of a given amount of o f substance by 1°C First Law of Thermodynami Thermodynamics cs Second Law Law of Th Thermodynamics ermodynamics Third Law of Thermodynamics Thermodynamics

Gibb’s Free Energy (G)  (G)  

: En Energy ergy can be converted from one form form to another another but itit ca cannot nnot be be created / destroyed : The en entropy tropy of the universe increases increases in a spontaneous process process and remain unchanged unchanged in an equilibrium : Entropy Entropy of pure crystalline substance iiss ze zero ro at absolu absolute te zero temperature (Kelvin)

: amount of reversible work : If (+) reaction is nonspontaneous : If (-) reaction is spontaneous : If 0 reaction is in equilibrium

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VIII. CHEMICAL KINETICS Chemical Kinetics

: change in concentration of reactants or product wi with th time

Theories:

1. Colli Collision sion Theory

: rate of reaction is directly proportional to the number of effective collisions per unit time : Orientation Activation Energy

2. Transition State Theory : rate of reaction is directly proportional to the activation energy require to form intermediate state

Factors Reacting Reaction Rate 1)   Nature of Reactants Reactants 2)  Surface area 3)  Catalyst 4)  Temperature of Reactants

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IX. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM Chemical Equilibrium

: is achieved when rate forward = rate backward : Concentration of R + P are constant

Law of Mass Action   A + B → C + D   If K > 1 proceed with forward   If K < 1 proceed with backward •

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Le Chateliers Principle

: iiss an external externa l stress is applied to a system, the system adjust in such as way that the stress is  partially relieved

Changes in Concentration    N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3   Increase N2 = forward   Increase NH3 = backward •

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Changes in Volume and Pressure   Increase volume → shift to more moles   Decrease volume → shift to less moles   Increase pressure → shift to less moles = forward   Decrease pressure → shift to more moles = backward •

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Changes in Temperature   Endothermic: A + B + heat → C   Increase temperature = forward   Decrease temperature = backward   Exothermic: A + B → C + Heat   Increase temperature = backward   Decrease temperature = forward •

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Addition of Catalyst   Does not shift the position po sition of equilibrium   System will equilibrium faster •

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X. ACIDS AND BASES Arrhenius

Acid: produc producee H+ ions in water Base: produce OH- ions in water

Bronsted

Acid: proton donor Base: proton acceptor

Lewis

Acid: electro electron n acceptor Base electron donor

 pH –   pH  –  measure  measure of acidity; power of hydrogen    pH = 14 –  14 –  pOH  pOH •

Water Kw

: auto-ioniz auto-ionized ed : ionizati ionization on constant of water = 1x10-14

Strong Acid Strong Base

: pH = -log [H+] : pOH = -log [OH-] : pH = pKw –  pKw –  pOH  pOH

Henderson Hasselbalch: Weak Acid

: pH + log [salt] / [weak acid] : pKa = -log Ka

Weak Base

: pH = pKa + log [weak base] / [salt] : pKa = pKw –  pKw –  pKb  pKb

Buffer

: composed of weak acid/base and the salt of a weak aacid/base cid/base : ability to resist change in pH : Maximum buffer capacity when pH = pKa

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XI. RADIOACTIVITY Radioactivity Radioactivi ty

: spontaneous emissi emission on of particles by unstable nuclei of heavier elements : depends on nuclear stability stability (n/p)

 Natural Radioactivity Radioactivity 1)  Alpha Radiation Radiation : highest ionizing ionizing power / radiation : capacity to produce ions : lowest penetrating power (difficulty in penetrating cells) : 42He or 42 Alpha : high ionizing power : high penetrating power : 0 -1 e or 0 -1 B 3)  Gamma Radiation: lowest ionizing power : highest penetrating power

2)  Beta Radiati Radiation on

Artificial Radioactivity Artificial Radioactivity 1)  Positron Emissi Emission on 2)  K-electron Capture Units of Radioactivity 1)  Curie (Ci) 2)  Becquerel

: happens to nuclei with too many protons : capture of 1s electron by nucleus of unstable nuclei

: Amount of radioactive radioact ive material emitting 2.22 x 1012 DPM : DPM –  DPM –  Disintegration   Disintegration per minute : 1 DPS –  DPS –  Disintegration  Disintegration per second

Units of Exposure 1)  Roentgen (R) (1R): quantity of gamma / x-ray that will produce ions carrying a charge of 2.58x10 -4 c/kg of air : C = Coulumb 2)  Radiation Absorb Dose (RAD) : unit of absorbed dose 3)  Gray : 1 Gray = 100 rads 4)  Radiation Equivalent Man (REM): unit of human exposure 5)  Sievert (Sv) : Sv = 100 rems

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