1. First 7 Lessons About Paragraph (Writing)

Unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO PARAGRAPH What is a paragraph ? What is a paragraph? One way to answer this question is to talk about words and sentences. You know what a word is____a word represents an idea. It is composed of one or more letters. A word alone, however, is usually not enough to express thoughts. To communicate ideas, writers use sentences. A sentence is a collection of words that expresses a complete thought. A sentence usually consists of a subject and a verb. The illustration below shows the relationship of the writing terms letter, word, sentence, paragraph, and essay. Letters can be combined into a word. Words can be combined into a sentence. Sentences can be combined into a paragraph. Eventually, paragraphs can be combined into an essay. You will study paragraphs and essays in this book.

Letters Words Sentences Paragraphs The focus of this book

Essays  A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develops one main idea.  A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly.  A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as a chapter of a book or an essay. You will first learn how to write good paragraphs, and then you will learn how to combine and expand paragraphs to build essays.

I. The Three Parts of a Paragraph A paragraph has three major structural parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence.

1. The topic Sentence

The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the controlling idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the model paragraph below states both the topic and the controlling idea.

2. Supporting Sentences Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain the topic sentence by giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and quotations. 3. The concluding sentence The concluding sentence signals of the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to remember. Generally, the concluding sentence serves three purposes: - It signals the end of the paragraph. - It summarizes the main points of the paragraph. - It gives a final comment on your topic and leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think about. The following words in the paragraph are usually used to introduce the concluding sentence.  These are followed by a comma. Finally, In conclusion, In summary, Therefore, Thus, As a result, Indeed,  These are not followed by a comma. We see that…………………….. It is clear that………………………

Model paragraph GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility. In the model paragraph given on page 4, it contains all the elements of a good paragraph. Read it carefully two or three times, and try to analyze its structure. You can see clearly a topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence.  Topic Controlling Idea Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.  Supporting Sentences -First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.

☆ For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. -Another important characteristic of gold is its utility in industry and science.

☆ The most recent application of gold is in astronauts’ suits.  Concluding Sentence In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

In addition to the three structural parts of a paragraph, a good paragraph also has the elements of unity and coherence.

4. Unity Unity means that you discuss only one main idea in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea. If, for example, you announce in your topic sentence that you are going to discuss two important characteristics of gold, discuss only those. Do not discuss anything else such as the price of gold, history of gold, or gold mining.

5. Coherence Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because: 1. your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order and 2. your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals. For example, in the paragraph about gold, there are two supporting ideas: Gold is beautiful, and gold is useful. Each of these supporting ideas is discussed, one after the other, and an example is given for each one. This is one kind of logical order. Furthermore, the relationship between the ideas is clearly shown by using appropriate transition words and phrases such as first of all, for example, another important characteristic, and in conclusion. In summary, a well-written paragraph contains five elements: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, a concluding sentence, unity, and coherence.

II. The Writing Process: An Overview Writing, like many other skills, is not a single-step process. Think of the game of football, for instance. Football players do not simply put on uniforms and rush onto the turf. Instead, they spend a great deal of time planning, developing offensive strategies, devising and trying out new plays, revising existing plays, and practicing. Writing involves similar planning and preparation. It involves testing ideas and working out the best way to express them. Writer often explore how their ideas might “play out” in several ways before settling upon one plan of action. People have many individual techniques for writing, but all writing involves five basic steps: 1 Generating ideas 2 Organizing your ideas 3 Writing a first draft 4 Revising 5 Proofreading

1. Generating ideas Before you can write about a topic, you have to collect ideas to write about. Three helpful techniques to stimulate your ideas are (1) free-writing, (2) brainstorming, and (3) branching. 2. Organizing your ideas Once you have collected ideas about your topic, the next step is to decide how to organize them. Ideas in paragraph or essay should be logically organized. To achieve a logical organization, you will need to test various ways to group and arrange your ideas. 3. Writing a First Draft A first draft expresses your ideas in sentence and paragraph form. Think of it as your first attempt to get your ideas down on paper without worrying about spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and grammar. 4. Revising

Revising is a process of rethinking your ideas. When you revise, you examine what you have written and make it better, clearer, more complete, and more interesting. Revising often involves changing, adding, deleting, and rearranging your ideas and words. You might revise a paragraph or essay several times, going through several drafts, before you feel it has reached its final form. 5. Proofreading Proofreading is checking an error. Think of it as a final polishing of your work. Look for errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. Errors such as these can distract your reader from your ideas.

Practice I. Read the paragraph that follows. Then answer the questions. It is not often that people are fired from their jobs because the quality of their work is poor. Instead, more people lose their jobs for such things as failing to show up for work or simply not doing their job. Employers have little tolerance for workers who visit so much their co-workers that they can not complete their work. Managers need to know that they can count their workers to be on the job as scheduled. A good worker is someone who understands the importance of keeping absences to a minimum and of accomplishing job goals. a. What is the paragraph about? .............................................................................................................................. .......................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................... b. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………… c. List some supporting details. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………

II. Read the paragraph that follows. Then answer the questions. You can actually be paid to report information that you may have about crimes that have been committed. A national organization will pay a reward to anyone who reports information leading to the arrest and conviction of a person who has committed a felony. The identity of the informant is kept secret so that no harm will come to a person who has a courage to report such information. Funds to support the crime stoppers program come from tax dollars as well as private contributions. This effort has contributed significantly to solving criminal cases in many communities. a. What is the paragraph about? .............................................................................................................................. .......................................................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................... ........................................... b. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………… c. List some supporting details. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………

III. The following paragraph consists of supporting details. Select the best topic sentence from the three choices listed below the paragraph and write it in the space provided. Ask yourself which topic sentence is the best developed by the details in the paragraph. Many companies put coupon or rebate in or on their products packages. They hope consumers will buy their products with these offers. Other companies put coupon or rebate offers in newspaper or sent them through the mail. To use a coupon, the value of a coupon is subtracted from the cost of the item of the time of purchase. To get a rebate, consumers mail in their paid receipts and product labels for a particular product to the company and receive a refund through the mail. Shoppers can save money by taking advantage of these manufacturers’ incentives. a. Consumers can make “ends meet” by buying generic brand and advantage of coupon offers. b. Many manufactures attempt to increase the cost of their products sales by offering money saving coupon or rebates. c. Manufactures should simply increase the cost of their products rather than use coupon offers as gimmicks to get shoppers to buy their products. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………

IV. Here’s another group of supporting details. Again select the best topic sentence for them from the list below. Write your topic sentence in the space provided. Exercise has been proven to decrease stress and alleviate depression. It can lower cholesterol levels in the blood and aid in weight loss. Some studies indicate that exercise can stop calcium lost from the bones and can, therefore, help prevent osteoporosis in again women. With all these positive benefits, it is a wonder why more people don’t exercise daily. a. People over the age of forty should check with their doctors before beginning an exercise program b. Exercise is big business in America.

c. Exercise is great preventive medicine. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………

V. Again select the best the topic sentence from the list below to add to the supporting given in the paragraph. Write your topic sentence in the space provided. Two hundred year ago, few people could read or write. People could get a job and make a living without having to be able to write their names. But over time, our lives and jobs have become more complex and sophisticated. Machinery has done away with the need for human labor to perform many tasks. The ability to think has become as important as the ability to do manual labor. Jobs that require the ability to read, write, compute, and think have become the norm. a. There will always be a place in the job market for workers with little or no education. b. Because of the extensive use of computers in modern business, workers must have a good education. c. More than over before, knowing how to read and write well are important skills that all adults need. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………

VI. Write a topic sentence for the paragraph that follows. It is widely believe that smoking cigarettes is bad for your health. In fact, tobacco use in any form had been proven harmful. Thousands of Americans die each year of lung cancer, and thousands of other die from heart disease that is linked to smoking. In addition, smoking is an expensive habit. Heavy smokers spend as much as $3.50 per day on cigarettes. That adds up to about $100 per month! Think all of the things a person could buy with $100 a month. When then do people continue to smoke? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………

VII. Write a topic sentence for the paragraph that follows. There are consumer groups to whom you can go for help. They will review your finances and advise you on how to reduce your debt, or they will even tell you if your financial situation is so complicated that you need to see an attorney. People whom you owe will work with you as well. They will reduce the required monthly payments so that you can afford to pay them. Although these groups can give you advice, you must learn to live within your means.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………

VIII. Write a paragraph on one of the following topics. 1. Advantages of Learning English Language 2. The importance of A.E.I. ‘s library 3. Your best friend 4. A famous person you know, a leader, or someone important to you 5. Advantages of living in Phnom Penh 6. Disadvantages of living in Phnom Penh 7. Advantages of living in countryside 8. Disadvantages of living in countryside 9. An outstanding student 10. Drinking beer 11. jogging 12. Causes of air pollution 13. Causes of traffic accidents in Phnom Penh 14. Traffic congestion in Phnom Penh 15. Causes of water pollution 16. Advantages of money 17. Disadvantages of money 18. Pollution 19. Recycling 20. Drug 21. Television 22. Computer 23. Reading 24. Ways of improving your listening 25. Ways of improving time management

The End of Unit 1!

Unit 2: PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION A good paragraph is a unified piece of writing. It usually contains between six or twelve sentences. We say that it is unified because it has one central idea. The central idea is expressed in the topic sentence. In English paragraphs, the topic sentence may be at the beginning, at the end, or in the middle of the paragraph. Sometimes, it is implied. This means that it is not stated at all. It is in the writer’s mind; but it is not written down. The topic sentence always contains controlling idea. This controlling idea is the signpost which directs the rest of the paragraph. It helps the student write a good paragraph. Moreover, it helps the reader understand the paragraph easily. All the sentences should be about the subject mentioned in the topic sentence. They should follow the plan which controlling idea stated, they would be liked in some way. Then the paragraph will have unity. It will be a unified piece of writing. Here is a topic sentence. The controlling idea is in boldface. “In Kratie Province, there are many sights to interest tourists.” The writer has stated the plan: s/he plans to describe some of the sights. The readers can expect to read about these sights. Here is another topic sentence: “Animals can be classified into two groups.” As we saw, the controlling idea directs the plan of the paragraph. The controlling idea may be expressed in such phrases as: Two main types Three main causes Two classes Several problems Several requirements

several ways two aims these effects three advantages many duties

several reasons three characteristic the following results three disadvantages separate responsibilities

three groups three kinds three routes these effects four sectors

The controlling idea may also be expressed in such adjectives as: Suitable Busy Ugly

unsuitable beneficial healthy

good harmful unhealthy

bad fortunate emotional

successful unsuccessful unfortunate beautiful enjoyable interesting

Here is a model paragraph. The topic sentence with its controlling idea is in boldface. Smoking is harmful for four reasons. Firstly, it is a very expensive habit. Frequently, the price of cigarettes rises. Secondly, it is bad for the respiratory system. Smokers get colds which last for a long time. As well, they get bronchitis and pneumonia more easily than non-smoker. Thirdly, everyone knows that there is a connection between lung-cancer and smoking. Finally, smoking gives you bad breath. Most non-smokers hate the smell of tobacco and they do not want to sit near someone who will puff smoke all over them. In my opinion, it is better not to start smoking.

The topic sentence: Smoking is harmful for four reasons. Controlling idea: harmful for four reasons.

Major and Minor Supporting Sentences In term of organization, especially of expository paragraphs, there are two types of supporting sentences: major supporting sentences and minor supporting sentences. The major supporting sentences are the main details that tell us about the topic sentence. The minor supporting sentences tell us more about the major supporting sentences. Look at the paragraph “Ways to Celebrate New Year’s Eve” below.

Ways to Celebrate New Year’s Eve People in the United States celebrate New Year’s Eve in many ways. The most common way may be going to a big party with lots of friends, music, and dancing. At the stroke of midnight, people at these parties grab their sweetheart and spend the first seconds of the New Year kissing them. Another way to spend New Year’s Eve is with the significant other in your life. The New Year is greeted with a champagne toast to the relationship. Sometimes, families with children like to spend the evening together, letting the “kids” stay up until midnight. Finally, some people like to spend the evening by themselves. They use this time to evaluate the past year and to make resolutions and plans for the coming year. It is a time of reflection that can only happen when one is alone. In short, New Year’s Eve is a special time that can be spent with friends, with families or even alone. Look at the paragraph “Way to Celebrate New Year’s Eve” on page 10. Below, it has been diagrammed to show the parts of a paragraph, including the major and minor supporting sentences. 1. Topic sentences (TS) People in the United States celebrate New Year’s Eve in many ways. 2. Supporting Sentences Major Supporting Sentence (SS) The most common way may be going to a big party with lost of friends, music, and dancing. • Minor Supporting Sentence (SS) At the stroke of midnight, people at these parties grab their sweethearts and spend the first seconds of the New Year kissing them. Major Supporting Sentence (SS) Another way to spend New Year’s Eve is with significant other in your life. • Minor Supporting Sentence (SS) The New Year is greeted with a champagne toast to the relationship. Major Supporting Sentence (SS) Sometimes, families with children like to spend the evening together, letting the kids stay up until midnight. Major Supporting Sentence (SS) Finally, some people like to spend the evening by themselves. • Minor Supporting Sentence (SS) They use this time to evaluate the past year and to make resolution and plans for the coming year.

• Minor Supporting Sentence (SS) It is a time of reflection that can only happen when one is alone. 3. Concluding Sentence (CS) In short, New Year’s Eve is a special time that can be spent with friends, with family, or even alone. It is important to note that all major supporting sentences. In fact, sometimes you will not have the same number of minor supporting sentences at all. PRACTICE I. Here are some note topic sentences. Underline the controlling idea in each one. 1. Living in a city has three advantages. 2. I always run into problems when I try to study at home. 3. There are only two ways of getting thin. 4. I usually work harder at weekends than I do during the week. 5. Last weekend, I had a busy time. 6. I get from my house to the Olympic Stadium by three different routes. 7. I think it is a good idea for everyone to study a foreign language. 8. Everyone should have a chance to travel overseas for these reasons. 9. The use of chemical pesticides can be harmful for animals and plants. 10. English language has four benefits. 11. Studying Writing Skills is useful for three reasons. 12. You must have three main tasks in order to be a good kid. 13. I have been a teacher of English for three reasons. 14. I have two goals in studying English. 15. There are two kinds of friends. 16. Driving on freeways require nerves of steel. (very strong nerves) 17. Owning an automobile is a necessity for me. 18. Living in an American college dormitory can be stressful experience for newly arrived international students. 19. The spread of AIDS can be showed by education in the public. 20. A major problem for international students is taking essay examinations. 21. River rafting is a challenging sport with important requirements. 22. Living in Phnom Penh has four important advantages. 23. Motor racing seems to be a dangerous sport. 24. My eleventh birthday was the best of my childhood. 25. There are many ways that societies welcome children into adulthood. II. Here are some paragraphs. Above each paragraph, there are three possible topic sentences. Choose one from the group to begin each paragraph. Make sure it contains a controlling idea. Write one of the topic sentences in the space provide below: 1 a. Some teachers have very bad tempers. b. There are three different types of teachers. c. It would be better to be taught by a moderate teacher. . Firstly, there are the “screamers”. There are usually teachers who have very bad tempers and shout loudly in the class whenever they are angry. This happens in almost every lesson because they lose their tempers quickly. The next group is the “smilers”. They usually smile no matter what happens in class. When students are lazy, they smile. When students are noisy, they smile also. They never seem to be angry and do not try to

discipline their students. The third group of teachers has a much more moderate style than the other two. They respect the students and do not get angry or shout very often. However, they can be firm when necessary. Students usually study best when they are taught by teachers from the last group. 2 a. Picnics are the cheapest way to relax on holidays. b. Going to picnic is more fun than going to a disco. c. There are several reasons why picnics are very popular . For one thing, it is very pleasant to go to the countryside instead of staying in town. The air is fresh and you have a chance to enjoy nature. In addition, picnics are good opportunities to spend time relaxing with family and friends. Moreover, it is good for us all to escape from work and to forget the problem of the world. Many busy people think it is the most relaxing way to spend a holiday. 3. a. Assignments are a very important part of a student’s life. b. Some students enjoy doing an assignment for these reasons. c. These are the steps to follow when you are doing an assignment. . Firstly, look for all the information you need. You should go to the library catalogue. Then look at all the books that might have something on the topic. Often librarian is able to make a suggestion. After that, you must take notes from all the books, articles, and encyclopedias that you have found. Next, draw up a plan for your assignment. Finally, write or type your assignment. Be sure to add a bibliography of all the materials you have used before you hand it in. 4. a. A university professor has many duties. b. A science instructor is a professor who conducts laboratory experiments. c. A university professor spends many hours doing a research project. . In the classroom, he or she lectures to the students and answers questions. If the professor is a science instructor, he or she also conducts laboratory experiments. During office hours, students are free to visit the professor to get help on difficult material or problem. In addition, a professor may often work for many hours in a laboratory doing a research project. Another professor might spend his or her time writing a scholarly paper for a professional journal. Still another one might spend time writing a book. In conclusion, a professor is also a very busy person. However, he or she enjoys his or her work. III. Remember, the topic sentence indicates the main idea of a paragraph, and it is the most general statement in the paragraph. Step1 Decide which of the following sentence is the topic sentence of the paragraph. Step2 Write TS on the line next to that sentence. Step3 Decide the order of the supporting sentences and number them SS1, SS2, SS3, and so on. Paragraph 1 a. Driving a standard-shift vehicle is easy if you follow these steps. b. After that, give the car some gas; and slowly release the clutch pedal until you start moving. c. Next, move the gearshift into first gear. On most cars, this is the straight-up position. ______d. Finally, be ready to shift into higher gears-second, third, and so on depending on the make of car. A diagram of where to find each gear usually appears on the gearshift

knob. With practice, you will learn to start up smoothly and shift without the car making grinding noises of the lurching. e. First, push clutch pedal down. The clutch is the pedal on the left. Then start the car. Paragraph 2 a. They believe that if they are wealthy, they will be able to do everything they want, and so they will be happy. b. For example, some people believe that if they have much money or many things, they will be happy. c. On the other hand, some people believe that money is not the only happiness. d. Happiness means different things to different people. e. I am happy if my wife and children live in harmony. f. Although the different definition of happiness depends on each individual, my “wealth” of happiness is in my family. g. For me, happiness is closely tied to my family. h. When all members of my family share good and sad times, and when my children communicate with each other and work together, I am happy. i. These people value their religion, or their intelligent, or their health; these make them happy. Paragraph3 a. It enable customer to do several banking transitions twenty-four hours day. b. In addition, a customer can transfer funds between account or get a cash advance on a credit card. c. An automated teller machine (ATM) is a convenient miniature back. d. For example, a customer can use an ATM to deposit money and withdraw a limited amount of cash. Paragraph4 a. Next, add antifreeze to your windshield washer fluid; otherwise, the fluid will freeze and possible break the container. b. First, put on snow ties if you plan to drive on snowy, icy roads very often. c. Driving in winter, especially on snowy, icy roads can be less troublesome if you take a few simple precautions. d. Finally, it is also a good idea to carry tie chains, a can of spray to unfreeze door locks and a windshield scraper in your car when driving in winter weather. e. Second, check the mount of antifreeze in your radiator and add more if necessary. Paragraph5 a. Later, people began to write on pieces of leather, which were rolled into scrolls. b. In the earliest times, people carved or painted messages on rocks. c. in the middle ages, heavy paper called parchment was used for writing; books were laboriously copied by hand. d. With the invention of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century, the modern printing industry was born. e. Some form of writing communication has been used throughout the centuries. IV. Choose the best sentence for each of the following paragraphs. Circle the one that your think it is correct. Paragraph1

First of all, cats are cleaner. They stay very clean and they do not make the house dirty. Cats are also quieter than dogs. They usually do not make a lot of noises. Cats are safer, too. Dogs sometimes bite people, but cats almost never do. Finally, cats are easier to take care of. You do not to spend much time with a cat. In fact, many cats prefer to be alone. a. Some people prefer cats as pets. b. Cats do not make a lot of noise. c. Cats are nicer than dogs in some ways. Paragraph2 Solitary types can enjoy sunbathing or reading undisturbed. Social people usually find someone to talk to take a walk with. Curious individuals can collect seashells or study the habits of seashore creatures such as sand crabs or seagulls. Athletes can swim, surf, jog or play football or volleyball. Every type of person can find employment at the beach. a. Beaches offer different pleasures to different kinds of people. b. People can collect seashells to study habits of seashore creatures at the beaches. c. Beaches are idea places for people who are interested in sport. Paragraph3 For one thing, drinking is an expensive habit and I have to spend much money or beer. Another reason is that drinking makes me weaker and easily tied. When drinking, I can not run as in long distance as my friend does, and I am very exhausted. Finally, I used to have a serious accident. Although I am ok now, but I had to stay in hospital for a couple of weeks and I could not walk and ride my motor for many months. I think that everyone should kick off his drinking habit. a. I don’t drink beer because I used to have a serious accident. b. I don’t drink beer because of three main reasons c. I spend much money on drink. V. Diagram the paragraph “Valentine’s Day Overload” below. Indicate the major supporting sentences and minor supporting sentences. Use the example given on page 11.

Usually three or four week before Valentine’s Day, you begin to see too reminders of his only-for lovers holidays almost everywhere. For example, you see red hearts and cupids in ever shot and restaurant. Shops want you to buy a gift for your Valentine’s Day, and the restaurant hope that you will tread yourself and your Valentine to an expensive dinner. You also seem to see more pictures of people in love and more people on the streets who are obviously in love. They walk hand-in-hand and gaze into each other’s eyes lovingly. Another example of Valentine’s Day reminders is seeing the commercials on TV, which tell you about all the wonderful presents and cards that you can buy for that “special someone” In short, we are constantly reminded of Valentine’s Day for several weeks each year.

The End of Unit 2!

Unit 3: THE TOPIC SENTENCE I. Introduction to the Topic Sentence Every paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph. It is a complete sentence. It is usually (but not always) the first sentence in the paragraph. A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. It briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss. For this reason, the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both writer and reader. The writer can see what information to include (and what information to exclude). The reader can see what the paragraph is going to be about and is, therefore, better prepared to understand it. There are three important points to remember about a topic sentence. 1. A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains a subject, a verb and (usually) a complete sentence. The following are not complete sentences because they are not complete thoughts. -Driving on freeways. -The importance of gold. -How to register for college classes. 2. A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea. It names the topic and limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph. The following examples show how a topic sentence states both the topic and the controlling idea in a complete sentence. -Driving on freeways requires skill and alertness. -Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. -Registering for college classes can be a frustrating experience for new students. 3. A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the main idea. It does not give any specific details. The following is an example of a general statement that could serve as a topic sentence: -The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious. The following sentence, on the other hand, is too specific: -The slang expression so long (meaning “goodbye) is probably a corruption of the Arabic Salaam. Sentence such as the following may be too general: -English is difficult language to learn. Generally, an effective sentence must (1) identify what the paragraph is about (the topic) and (2) make a point (an idea) about the topic. II. Writing topic sentences When you write a topic sentence, remember these two points. 1. A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific. If it is too general, the reader can not tell exactly what the paragraph is going to discuss. If it is too specific, the writer may not have anything left to write about in the rest of the paragraph. Think of the topic sentence as being like the name of a particular course a restaurant menu. When you order food in a restaurant, you want to know more about particular course that just “meat” or “soup” or “salad.” You want to know generally what kind of salad it is.

Potato salad? Mixed green salad? Fruit salad? However, you do not necessarily want to know all of its ingredients. Similarly, the reader of the paragraph wants to know generally what to expect in a paragraph, but s/he does not want to learn all of the specific details in the first sentence. Too general : American food is terrible. Too specific : American food is tasteless and greasy because Americans use too many canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods and because everything is fried in oil or butter. Good : American food is tasteless and greasy. 2. Do not include too many unrelated ideas in your topic sentence, if you do, your paragraph will not be unified. Too many ideas: San Francisco is famous for its temperate climate, its many tourist attractions, and its cosmopolitan atmosphere. The three parts of this controlling idea are too unrelated for a single paragraph. They would require three separate paragraphs. Good : San Francisco is famous for its cosmopolitan atmosphere. III. Position of Topic Sentence The topic sentence may be the first or last sentence in a paragraph. The topic sentence may also be the first and last sentence of the paragraph___“sandwich-style.” A sandwichstyle paragraph is especially helpful to your reader if the paragraph is very long. The second topic sentence in the sandwich-style paragraph also serves as a concluding. Study the following three paragraphs. Notice the different positions for the topic sentence in each paragraph. The topic sentences are underlined.

HURRICANES Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles per hour or more. Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout the world in one year. MEDICAL MIRACLES TO COME By the year 2009, a vaccine against the common cold will have been developed. By the same year, the first human will have been successfully cloned. By the year 2014, parents will be able to create designer children. Genetic therapy will be to manipulate genes for abilities, intelligence, and hair, eye, and skin color. By 2020, most disease will be able to be diagnosed and treated at home and by 2030, cancer and heart disease will have been wiped out. These are just a few examples of medical miracles that are expected in the next few decades. SYNONYMS Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean “careful with money.” However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonymous at all. IV. The Two Parts of a Topic Sentence

A topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic is the subject of your paragraph. It is what you are writing about. The controlling idea makes a specific comment about the topic, which indicates what the rest of the paragraph will say about the topic. It limits or controls the topic to a specific aspect of the topic to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph. Look at these examples: 1. New York is a fun place to be on New York’s Eve Topic

controlling idea

2. New York has great entertainment Topic

controlling idea

3. New York is the world’s most famous city Topic

controlling idea

Each of these topic sentences has the same topic, New York, but a different controlling idea. Each one would introduce a distinct paragraph with different ideas and information. The possibilities for writing about New York are practically endless, so this one topic could have many controlling idea. Therefore, you write many different paragraphs about New York. It is important to keep in mind that most academic writing is done to persuade the reader that a point of view is reasonable. Therefore, another important part of writing topic sentence is to write a sentence that has a clean point of view. This usually means that the topic sentence contains the opinion or attitude of the writer. A statement of fact is not effective topic sentence because there is nothing more that can be said about it and, therefore, nothing to write in your paragraph. Look at these two sentences. 4. Twenty-five people attend the company’s Halloween party. 5. The company’s Halloween party was a bore, as usual. Sentence (4) is not effective topic sentence because it is a fact. It is difficult to write more about facts because they are neither true nor false. However, since sentence (5) is an opinion, there is a lot of writer could say to convince the reader that the party was a bore. Therefore, it is an acceptable topic sentence. Another common way to write a topic sentence is to divide a topic into different parts. Look at these sentences. 6. Ramada has three important days within the month of fasting 7. There are three main kinds of holidays. 8. Planning a good Fourth of July party requires five specific steps. For each of these topic sentences, the writer explains the division of the topic into parts.

PRACTICE I. Identifying Topic and Controlling Ideas: Read each sentence and then underline the topic and circle the controlling idea. 1. Alcohol is harmful to your health. 2. The Western world should have a holiday to recognize senior citizens.

3. The colors of the U.S. flag have unique symbolic meanings. 4. A camping vacation sounds like a punishment to me. 5. Weeds can ruin a vegetable garden. 6. American education has five states. 7. Writing a good resume takes a lot of hard work. 8. Jack is Kate’s best friend. 9. You need four ingredients to make peanut butter. 10. There are many reasons to visit San Francisco. 11. While staying in Vietnam, I have noticed several interesting things. 12. Vietnamese teenagers are different from Khmer teenagers for several acts. 13. Vietnamese police seem to be stricter than Khmer police. 14. There are several reasons why provincial dwellers flock to Phnom Penh. 15. Living in Phnom Penh city has several harmful disadvantages. II. In each of the following pairs of topic sentences, place a check mark in the blank before the sentence that is more effective (neither too broad nor too narrow). 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

a. Power tools can be dangerous. b. To avoid injury, users of power saws should follow several safety precautions. a. Learning keyboarding skills requires regular practice. b. Learning a new skill requires regular practice. a. Children’s toys should be fun. b. A toy should stimulate a child’s imagination. a. Many things make to learning English difficult. b. What makes English particularly difficult. a. Enrolling in a college is not an easy task. b. Registration at State College is a painful process. a. Gone with a Wind may be an old movie, but it is still a good movie. b. The acting in Gone with the Wind was superb. a. The wide variety of merchandise makes Sears convenient. b. Sears is a convenient place to shop. a. The architecture in Chicago reflects trends in modern design. b. Chicago is interesting city. a. Drinking coffee is bad. b. Drinking over four cups of coffee a day can be harmful to pregnant. a. Drunk driving is illegal. b. One of the major causes of road accidents is drunk driving.

III. Read the following weak topic sentences. Rewrite each one to make it more specific. You can narrow down the topic and/ or the controlling idea. The first one is done for you. Example: The Honda Civic is an excellent automobile. The Honda Civic is economical to maintain. 1. My hometown is a wonderful place.

2. She has many problems. 3. Exercise is good for you. 4. Driving a car can be hazardous. 5. There are many interesting things to do at the park. 6. Pollution is a serious environmental problem. 7. Studying Writing Skill is difficult. 8. River rafting is a challenging sport. 9. Living in a city is better than living in the countryside. 10. Learning a foreign language is good.

IV. Read each paragraph below. Mark the best topic sentence with a “T”. Paragraph 1 My car smells like exhaust fumes. I’ve had two flat tires this year. Sometimes it won’t even start in the morning. a. My car smells, has flat tires, and won’t start. b. So it’s time to get a new car. c. Magnetic tape has been used with computers. Paragraph 2 Thirty year ago, magnetic tape was used only to record music and voices. Latter, it was also used to record computer programs and data. The biggest use today, however, is for videotape recording. a. The uses of magnetic tape have great increased. b. Magnetic tape is good. c. Magnetic tape has been used with computers. Paragraph 3 A long time ago, the apple was a symbol of forbidden knowledge because of the story of Garden of Eden in the Bible. Later, it became a traditional gift for teachers. These days, many people think of the computer with the same name when they hear the word “apple”. a. Apples taste good, too. b. The apple has been a symbol of many things. c. An apple represents forbidden knowledge because of the Bible, school because it was a traditional gift, and a computer because it has the same name. V. Study the following pairs of sentences and check the one you think would be a good, clear topic sentence of a paragraph. The first one is done for you.

Explain your voice. 1 a. snow skiing on the highest mountainside requires great skill. b. Snow skiing is fun. 2 a. Exercise is healthful. b. Jogging is healthful for several reasons. 3 a. Camping is a great outdoor activity. b. Camping requires a variety of special equipments. 4 a. The legal age for drinking alcoholic drinks should be twenty-one for several reasons. b. Drinking is dangerous for your health. 5 a. Smoking is a bad habit. b. It is difficult to quit smoking for three reasons. 6 a. Small cars are popular. b. Driving a VW Rabbit saves money. 7 a. Studying in a foreign country is difficult. b. Studying in a foreign country is difficult for several reasons. 8 a. Hong Kong is an exciting city. b. Hong Kong is a shopper’s dream world. 9 a. The violence on the TV can effect children’s emotional well being. b. Watching TV is a waste of time. 10 a. When studying, one should not have a girlfriend. b. When studying, one should not have a girlfriend for several reasons. VI. With a partner or a small group, write a topic sentence on the following topic. Ask the wh-question to limit the topic and controlling idea. Example: Camping To set up camp requires a variety of specify equipment. 1. sport heroes (who? which sport? why?)

2. spectator sports

3. water sports

4. Olympic sports

5. watching sports on TV

6. foreign language

7. drunk driving

8.arranged marriage

9. friend

10. the oldest and only child.

VII. Write your own topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs. 1 . For one thing, I haven’t got a quiet room to study. There are many people living in our house and it is usually noisy. For another thing, I have a lot of homework to do after class. And, finally, we do not have electricity at our place, so it is difficult to study at night. Everyone needs to have a peace and quiet and enough light when he is studying. 2 . Firstly, it increases your knowledge of other places. Secondly, it is interesting to talk to people from a different culture. Thirdly, travel really makes you appreciate your own country. Therefore, you can see why I believe that travel is good experience for everybody. 3 .Many people now ride motorbikes and cars. The traffic is quiet dangerous, so there are many accidents in the city. Also the motor vehicles pollute the air, so the air in the city is not healthy as good, fresh country air. Moreover, living in thee city is expensive because the food prices are much higher than in the countryside, and there are extra things like electricity to pay for. Personally, I think it is much better to live in a rural area. 4 . Some children were playing by the lake. Others were swimming in Tonle Bati. A lot of families were unpacking their picnic baskets in the little shelters near the water. At the same time, the food sellers were getting a lot of business. Everyone at Tonle Bati seemed happy and relaxed that day.

5 . The first advantage is that bicycles are quite cheap to buy. They cost much less than cars or motorbikes. The second reason is that you do not ness to buy noise, so they are much better than our environment. Lastly, riding bicycles is very good exercise and therefore bicycle riders are generally fit and healthy people. So, even though they may not be fast or convenient as other forms of transport, I am very much in favour of bicycles. 6 . One benefit is that it helps you relax after you have been studying or working hard. Secondly, it can keep you informed about local news and also what is happing in other parts of the country. Finally, I think there are educational benefits as well. You van see many interesting programs on TV that tell you about other people and about nature. You can learn about places in the world too. The people who have a RC set have a lot of advantages. 7 . First, English can help you find a well-paid job. When you know English well, you can apply for a good job and then you will be offered the job. Second, if you know English, you can travel widely around the world and it is also easy to communicate with other people. Third, you van pursue you study to get master’s degree or doctoral degree in your own country or in many foreign country. Finally, you van know information around the world. When you watch TV like CNN or BBC, you van learn got information from that radio; and when you read book, you can also learn something interesting from the book. In summary, English is very useful. I think that everyone should learn English. 8 . For one thing, I can write correctly. I made many mistakes before I standard the course; but after having been studying this course doe several months. I can reduce some mistakes. For another thing, I can improve my speaking skill. Previously, I spoke badly and made many mistakes; but now I can speak better than I did before. For example, I used to say, “I go to market yesterday.” This is the wrong sentence. I should have said, “I went to market yesterday.” Finally, my listen comprehension seems to be better. In conclusion, I think that we should learn this skill because it will be useful to us in the future. 9 . The first positive point is that love can make one happy when he has problem or he bored. Secondly, it can urge him to study harder. You can see that sometimes you do not want to study, but you might change when your lover persuades you to work harder. Another thing is that the affection can keep a person active. When you are tired or exhausted, you are unwilling to study or work. However, when you are motivated by your special one, you will become energetic and powerful. So, one can become a successful person because of love. 10 . At about 10 o’clock, I, with my niece, saw Choeng Ek Killing Field in a distance. When I came closer, I saw a big monument with many hundreds of people’s skulls kept on the floors. Then, I went to a small cottage on the right side. On the wall of the cottage were photos of skinny children tied to each other and of the mass graved with dead bodies piled on each other. After that, I went to the back area of the killing field. While walking with my niece, I saw a small wooden sign, which reads 8985 people were killed and buried here. Later,

we went to get share under a big tree. When reaching the tree, I saw another terrible sign. It reads that Pol Pot’s soldiers killed children by smashing their reads against this Chan Kiri tree. Finally, I saw a small pile of bones under the tree, and it shocked me terribly. In short, Choeng Ek Killing field id ht first killing center, at which I have ever spent my time.

The End of Unit 3!

Unit 4: SUPPORTING SENTENCES

I. Introduction to Supporting sentences The supporting sentences, which are the next parts of the paragraph, are used to support the topic sentence. They develop details to supporting the topic sentence, rephrase it as a question, and then answer that question with your supporting sentences. For example, in the model paragraph on page 10, you read about smoking to topic sentence is. Smoking is harmful for four reasons. If you turn that statement into a question, it will say. What are the harmful four reasons for smoking? The supporting sentences in the paragraph must answer this question by explaining what the four harmful reasons for smoking are. Look back at the model paragraph on page10 and complete list of harmful reasons. 1. Firstly, it is really very expensive habit. 2. 3. 4 You can see that the supporting sentences list the four harmful reasons smoking. Another question you can ask about your topic sentence is this one: How can I provide this? Your supporting sentences should give one facts or example that. For example, suppose you wrote this topic sentence: Traditional American family relationships have changed greatly in the last thirty year.

You could then ask yourself: How can I provide that this is true? You could prove or support it by giving facts such as these: 1. x out of x marriages end in divorce (in the United States). 2. x out of children live in homes with only one parent. 3. x percent of couples living together are not legally married. Still another way to develop your topic sentence is to give examples. Suppose you wrote this topic sentence: Valentine’s Day is a very expensive holiday. You then ask yourself: How can I prove it? You could prove or support this sentence by giving such as these: ANwith EXPENSIVE HOLIDAY 1. People who are in love each other exchange expensive gifts. 2. The gifts often cost a lot of money, sometimes as much as $100. Valentine’s Day is a dinner very expensive areper inperson love with each 3. A romantic at a nice holiday. restaurantTypically, may cost people $100 orwho more other exchange gifts. The gifts often cost a lot of money, sometimes as much as $100. In someat cases, if you do not spend Look the model paragraph below.that much, your sweetheart might think you do not care. Some less expensive gifts that people often give are chocolate and flowers. One pound of good chocolate may cost $10 to $15, and when you add up all of the chocolate that is sold on Valentine’s Day, the total is probably well over $1 million. Flowers cost more that chocolate, so sales of flowers may amount to $5 million. Also, it is often expected that you and your sweetheart will go out to dinner on that evening. A romantic dinner at a nice restaurant may cost $100 or more per person. It seems to me that Valentine’s Day is one of the most expensive days of the year.

In short, in order to develop your topic sentence, you must write supporting sentence that prove, or support, your ideas. An easy way to do this is to rephrase your topic sentence as a question or to ask yourself: How can I prove that? You should, moreover, know that the sentences that you select to support the topic sentence of your paragraph depend on The audience The purpose of the paragraph As you write a paragraph, you should ask yourself: 1. Which technique would best support my topic sentence? 2. Which technique would best convince my audience that my topic sentence is valid? I. Developing ideas Many students writers agree that telling is easier than showing. Developing details to Topic:and Generally, are many words thatconsuming mean “to eat” in Fortunately, Thai culture but one explain supportthere an idea is often a time task. there areshould several know how to use them correctly. strategies that student writers have found successful in generating details. Look at the SA-WOUL -King’s family paragraph below. Each student writer has used a different planning and generating strategy to PUR-PRA-TARN write a successful paragraph. RUP-TRAN -General and polite To eat

Body

TARN CHANT KIN

-Monk -General

-The world sa-woul is a particular one for the monarch’s family only. -If you want to serve some meal to the monks, you are supposed to say chant, a meal which is designated for the monks. -In general, one will use rup-pra-tarn or rup-tarn or tarn for everyone. These words mean to eat in terms of politeness. -If you want to talk with anybody who is close to you and easy, you also can use the word kin. However, there are a lot of words to mean “to eat” which is dependent on each section of the country. TO EAT Generally there are several words that mean “to eat” in Thai culture, but one should know how to use them correctly. Thailand is one of few countries in the world that has a monarch system. To show our respect to the king’s family, we should use some special words when we want to discuss them. For instance, the word SA-WOUL is a particular one that means “to eat” for royalty. In terms of Buddhism, we also have a lot of words for the monks. The word CHANT means “to eat” for them. We will only use it if we want to invite the monk to have a meal. In addition, the Thai will say RUB-PRA-TARN or RUPTARN or TARN which are polite ways of saying “to eat” we also use the word KIN to ask anyone who is close to us, such as our family, or friends, to eat. There are a lot more local words that mean “to eat” that depend on the part of the country.

General Strategy 2: BRANSTOMING We have several discriminate slang terms for a single woman who can’t get married until her late 20’s in Japanese. In Japan career woman are increasing, and the marriage age is going to be high; on the country, many women still try to get married until 25 years old; otherwise, they are often hurt the discriminate words. First, “old Miss” is the most widespread word. “Miss” is a title used before the name of an unmarried woman, but in Japanese it means a young unmarried woman, hence, a single woman who is not young is called “old Miss.” Second, (unenokiri) is also a discriminate word for unmarried woman. The original meaning is the unsold thing like a woman who can’t get married until her late 20’s [because] near the Christmas thousands of Christmas cakes are displayed in the stores, but they are never sold out and become old and go staple.

SLANG TERMS FOR A SINGLE WOMAN We have several discriminate slang terms in Japanese for a woman who doesn’t get married until her late twenties. In Japan, the number of career women is increasing and the marriage age is getting older, however, many women still try to get married before they are twenty-five year old. Otherwise, they are often hurt by embarrassing labels. First, an older unmarried woman may be called an “old miss” the most widespread slang word. Every Japan person knows that noun. “Miss” is a title used before the name of the unmarried woman in English, but in Japan it means a young unmarried woman, so a slang woman who is not young is called an “old miss” another discriminatory word is urenokori. The original meaning is “an unsold thing” and it means a woman who has been left on the shelf. Finally, the term “Christmas cake” has the same meaning. Like the leftover Christmas cakes that grow old and stale after the Christmas season has passed, the older single woman is labeled in this derogatory manner. In Japan, getting married is more important for a woman than having a job and being independent, so many discriminatory words for an unmarried woman exist.

Generating Strategy 3: CLUSTERING

Cheap workers Family enterprise

Expand company Kenex Company Good materials Produce everything Good reputati on

Produce on time

Good quality

THE THEKENEX KENEXCOMPANY COMPANY

From Taiwan to world

There There are are three three reasons reasons that that the the Kenex Kenex Tennis Tennis Company Company isis so so successful successful in in Taiwan. First, the company was started as a family enterprise. The family on Taiwan. First, the company was started as a family enterprise. The family on worked, worked, so so they they saved saved aa lot lot of of money money in in salaries. salaries. That That money money allowed allowed them them to to expand expand the the company company rapidly. Second, the Kenex company buys good raw materials, so the products-tennis rapidly. Second, the Kenex company buys good raw materials, so the products-tennis shoes, shoes, tennis tennis balls, balls, tennis tennis racquets-are racquets-are high high quality. quality. That That makes makes their their products products marketable marketable all over the world because the company has a good reputation. They produce on all over the world because the company has a good reputation. They produce ontime, time,and and they theydeliver delivertheir theirproducts productsquickly quicklyand andefficiently efficientlyand andbetter betterin inthe thefuture. future.

Generating Strategy 4: OUTLINING HOW I PREPARED TO COME TO THE U.S. In a refugee camp____wrote letters to countries A. Immigration interview 1. difficult to complete history -very young -couldn’t remember 2. frightened B. Waiting C. Immigration called 1. found parents for me. 2. arranged my trip D. Worrying 1. about my English 2. about my new family Arrived___nice family

HOW I PREPARED TO COME TO THE U.S. In 1980, I spent two years in a refugee camp in Thailand, and I decided to write letters to all the countries in the world, asking them if they would accept me into their country. Finally, the Immigration Office of the United Sates interviewed me. That test was very difficult for me because I had to complete a history about my parents, my family, and my relatives and my family. After my interview, I waited for a response. I knew that the Immigration Office would decide whether or not. I should come to the U.S. I waited for about four months; then they called my name, and they made a photograph for my passport. I was so excited about the trip, but during that time I was worried, too, because I didn’t speak English, and I wondered who my new parents would be. I didn’t prepare anything for my trip because I didn’t know I was going to go to the U.S. until the last minute. They are very friendly and happy all the time.

Farid Soeu (Cambodia)

Generating Strategy 5: TREEING Clothing Basic needs

Food Housing

Limited iterms Medical care Better lives

Indonesia

Transportation Family planning

½ hour blocks Special times for ads Advertisements in Indonesia

Twice a day Before news program

and the U.S.

Every kind of product

New films Coca-cola Cars Restaurant

U.S.

Toys In the middle of news programs Ads throughout programs

During regular programs During television films

TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS IN INDONESIA AND THE U.S Although television advertisements in both Indonesia and the United States have the same goal (to attract people to buy products), there are difference between advertisements in the two country. In Indonesia, the government has the authority to control the items advertised, and they also control the time those advertisements are presented. Generally, the items advertised are for basic needs of the people, such as food, clothing, and housing, or for their well-being, such as material treatment, transportation, and family planning. These ads are presented in half-hour periods. For example, food items are advertised at 6.30 p.m., just before the nation news, while advertisements for family planning are broadcast from 8.30 to 9 p.m., just before the international news. In contrast, U.S advertisements are not controlled by the government, and the advertisements are broadcast throughout the 24 hour programming day. Every kind of product is advertised, from restaurants to automobiles ,and from vacation places to new films. These advertisements occur for about twenty minutes of every hour, but they usually appear for two or three minutes every ten minutes. In the middle of a new program, for example, we can see a two-minute advertisement for dishwashing detergent or Coca-Cola; during a television film, we can see advertisement for vitamins or children’s toys. In conclusion, the difference between advertisement in the United Sates and Indonesia are probably due to the government control for advertisements in Indonesia. I.R Stutadi (Indonesia)

Generating Strategy 6: FLOW CHART

SUBJECT Automobile Accidents (cases/effects) Body balance Dizziness Alcohol

Asleep

Drunkenness

Lack of attention Exceed speed Limit Swerving

Automobi le accident s

Loss of control

ATUMOBILE ACCIDENTS The majority of automobile accidents result from Alcohol. A person who has drunk to much beer gets into strange state called drunkenness. This state is marked either by an unpleasant feeling of loss of balance, or by falling asleep. Either of these problems is dangerous for drivers. On the other hand, a drunk driver is too dizzy to pay attention to traffic signs, and his lack of control may him to run a Stop sign, exceed the speed limit, or swerve his car. As a result, he may either hit another car or a person. It is very likely that he will crash his car, and often he will kill or injure himself and others. Therefore, the government has established stricter laws against drunk drivers. Komba Elukessu (Nigeria)

Practice I. First, read each topic sentence. Then add two more supporting points to each list. 1. Topic sentence: Zoos are scientific centers with living laboratories. Supporting sentences: a. Scientists conduct important research in reproductive program in an attempt to preserve some species. b. Zoologists can observe the animals mating and giving birth. c. d. 2. Topic sentence: Smoking in restaurants should be prohibited for several reasons. Supporting sentences a. It pollutes the air. b. It can affect dinner’s appetites. c. d. 3. Topic sentence: International students have difficulty taking notes in class for several reasons. Supporting sentences: a. The teacher talks too fast. b. The students have poor listening skills.

c. d. 4. Topic sentence: everyone should consider several criteria before choosing a sport. Supporting sentences: a. They need to decide whether they enjoy exercising alone or with others. b. They need to decide whether they want to enjoy a sport for recreation or for fitness.

c. d. 5. Topic sentence: As people have more time and money to spend on recreation, new sports are developed. Supporting sentences: a. Traditional sport such as racing-on foot, houses, and skis, and in boats, cars, and airplanes-are still popular. b. Twenty-five years ago, no one had ever heard of windsurfing. Now it is the rage at beach resorts everywhere. c. d. 6. Topic sentence: Americans love their pet dogs. Supporting sentences: a. They do many things for them. b. They treat their dogs like human being. c. They like to talk to their dogs and treat them like children. d. e.

II. Read the paragraphs below. Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. Circle the words or phrases of physical description. Paragraph 1 Once I went hiking with a group from my school to the mountains near Riyadh. Before we started the hike, the sunlight was shining brightly. When we went into the woods, it was quite dark like the sun was no longer in the sky. We felt that we were walking in hallways because the trees were so big and tall that they prevented sunlight from coming through. It was absolutely quiet and silent like a sad and grim night. In the distance, we heard some birds cackling and some were bubbling here and there. Although the weather was extremely hot,

the water of the brooks was almost too cold to touch. After hiking four miles, we became exceeding tired. We felt that we had accomplished a great journey. Paragraph 2 The best place for me to forget all my worries is under a palm tree at dusk. When I am worried about a problem or just want to be alone, I will go to the beach around six in the afternoon and sit in the shade of a palm tree. The sand is a little hard to sit on, but this does not bother me. As the wind blows like a whistle, and the waves become softer as they reach the shore, the air will have a slight smell of the sea. The pelicans pass by in groups of seven before they disappear behind the horizon. Others float on the water, hoping to catch a fish before leaving. As time passes, there is an immense silence, the sun begins to descend, and the sky change from tones of dark blue to canary yellow and finally to deep orange. As the sun slips below the horizon, I leave behind my worries. III. Read each of the following paragraphs. Underline the topic sentence in each of the following paragraphs, and write down the supporting sentences one the list provided below. Paragraph 1 The reason I don’t think whiskey very often is because I had a bad experience with it. Eight months ago, I went drinking with my friend after a graduation ceremony at my university in Japan. The day was our last day as students. Everyone was aware that we wouldn’t be able to meet each other after this day, so everybody was going to enjoy this night drinking liquor. While reminiscing about my university times, I drank considerably whiskey. When I start to go home with some friends, I became aware that I had drunk too much. I don’t remember anything about getting home. One the following day, my friends said that I fell from the train platform, so my friends tired to help me, but they couldn’t help because they were also drunk. I asked why I was living now. Their response was that the train came to the opposite side of the platform. I swore not to drink too much after I heard this story.

Paragraph 2 Why don’t I like play? When I was only twelve years old, there was a play shown about the Algerian revolution during French Colonialism. That was a time in my country’s history when the French stayed in Algerian for 130 years. The play was written about a true story and was written by a French reporter who lived with the French army in Algeria. The play was

about what the French did with the Algeria people until the liberation. In the middle of the play, we saw two French soldiers coming out of a tavern. They went into the street, really drunk. Suddenly, they met an Algerian woman who was pregnant. One of them said, “I bet she has a baby.” The other said, “No, I swear it is a girl.” Then after an argument, they bet some francs and followed the woman. They caught her, and one of them took a dagger and pushed it into her belly. How cruel it was! I really could not stand the sight, and went out of the theatre, swearing not to see any more plays in my life.

Paragraph 3 Happiness means different things to different people. For example, some people believe that if they have much money or many things, they will be happy. They believe that if they are wealthy, they will be able to do anything they want, and so they will be happy. One the other hand, some people believe that money is not the only happiness. These people value their religion, or their intelligence, or family. I am happy if my wife and my children live in harmony. When all members of my family share good and sad times, and when my children communicate with each other and work together, I am happy. Although the definition of happiness depends on each individual, my “wealth” of happiness is in my family.

Paragraph 4 Mountain climbing is a very dangerous sport with special requirements and strict climbing rules. The first requirement is to complete a course in a certified climbing school, where you learn about mountains conditions and safe climbing. Another requirement is to wear special clothing that is appropriate for the season; a helmet and climbing boots complete your outfit. You must also carry special equipment: iron spikes to hammer into cracks for support and safety and special climbing ropes. In addition to the special requirements, there are also strict climbing rules for mountaineers. You can climber who slips from falling. You climb one foothold and handhold at a time. You must give exact commands and responses to your climbing partners, and when are tired, you need to find a ledge to rest on. Most mountain climbers would agree that mountains. Above you, the sky and the moving clouds are a

spectacular sight. Enjoy the glorious landscape, for that is your reward for living made it to the topic of the mountain! 1. Special requirements for mountain climbing a. b. c. 2. Strict rules for climbing reams a. b. c. d. e. Paragraph 5 Skydiving, a wild sport, requires strict training and special equipment and a plan for jumping out of the plane. This sport is for people of all ages who are in top physical condition and have strong nerves. If you qualify, contact a top professional skydiving school of instructions. Before you can sky dive, you must attend six hours of class lectures about safety and the use of equipment. First, you learn how to recognize and react to an emergency quickly. Then you do physical drills that copy the correct body position in the air. After that, you learn how to steer parachute. Finally, you learn how to land on the ground without getting injured. The special equipment for a skydiver includes wearing skydiving clothing: a jumpsuit, a safety helmet, and ankle-high boots, and a main chute and a second back-up chute. After you complete the course, you are ready to jump out of the plane. You board a small plane with several altitude of about four thousand feet. Once you are outside the plane, you follow the jumpmaster’s instructions: after you let go of the metal pole on the wing, you fall with per hour. When you pull the cord, the nylon parachute opens. As you float gently toward the ground, you enjoy the quiet and beauty of your surroundings and hope you remember the jumpmaster’s final instructions for a happy landing! 1. You must attend six hours of class lectures. a. b. c. d. 2. The special equipment for skydiving includes the following. a. b. c.

d. e. 3. Outside the plane, you follow the jumpmaster’s instructions. a. b. c. d.

The End of Unit 4!

Unit 5: THE CONCLUDING SENTENCE I. Introduction to the Concluding Sentence After you have finished the last supporting sentence the main point of a paragraph, you must end the paragraph with a concluding sentence. This sentence tells the reader that the paragraph is finished, and it completes the development of the subject of the paragraph. The concluding sentence is like the topic sentence because both are general statements. However, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence, the general statement that introduces the topic to be discussed in the paragraph. The concluding sentence is also a general statement, but it is last sentence and the ends paragraph. The concluding the sentence reminds the reader of the topic sentence. In fact, the concluding sentence can be written like the topic sentence but in different words. When you write a concluding sentence, you can use one of the following methods.  State the topic sentence in different words. Do not just copy the topic sentence.  Summarize some (or all) of the points in the paragraph.  A concluding sentence serves three purposes: 1. It signals the end of the paragraph. 2. It summarizes the main points of the paragraph. 3. It gives a final comment on the topic and leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think about. You may begin the concluding sentence with a phrase that tells the reader that the paragraph is completed: These are followed by a comma. Finally, … In conclusion, … In summary, … Therefore, … Thus, … As a result, … For these reasons, … Indeed, … In brief, … In short, …

These are not followed by a comma. We can see that… It is clear that… These examples show that… There can be no doubt that… The evidence suggests that…

The examples that follow demonstrate two different types of concluding sentences. The first one paragraph the topic sentence; that is, concluding sentence repeats the main idea of the topic sentence in different words. The second example summarizes the two main points of the paragraph which were specially stated in the topic sentence. The topic sentence and the concluding sentence in the paragraphs below are underlined. Read each of the topic sentences and concluding sentences carefully.

Model Paragraph 1 SYNONYMS Synonyms , words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean “careful with money”. However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be a slender but not skinny, and aggressive but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonymous at all.

Model Paragraph 2 Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three countries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronaut’s suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In concluding, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

II. The Concluding Comment After the concluding sentence of a paragraph, you may add a concluding comment. This sentence is the writer’s final comment or thought about the subject of the paragraph. The purpose of the final comment is to give the reader sometimes to think about and to remember about the paragraph. In the following example, the second last sentence that is italicized is the concluding sentence and the last sentence that is underlined is the writer’s final comment about river rafting. RIVER RAFTING River rafting is a challenging sport with importance to requirements. First of all, planning your trip carefully ensures your safety at all times. Therefore, the river rafting company you choose should have a good safety record. You can select a river rafting trip from level 1 (no experience) to level 6 (the most experience). At level 1, the river moves slowly and does not have many dangerous rocks and boulders, so you can actually enjoy the scenery. At each level up the scale, there is an increasing number of powerful waves and dangerous rocks. When the river is high from melting snow, the current is fast, and the ride is rough. Therefore, it is only for the most experienced river runner. In addition, river rafting requires special equipments. You ride an inflatable rubber boat with an expertly trained equipments guide and group of six to eight people. Everyone must wear a life jacket and a helmet and be able to use a paddle at the more difficult levels. Finally, you must be alter at all times. You must stay safety in the raft as it makes its way down the raging river. The guide will shout instructions, and the passenger must obey instantly and work as a team to avoid disaster. The chances of falling overboard are great. Because river conditions can be dangerous at the higher levels of difficulty, the wild, exciting adventure is only for the courageous and experienced. In short, if you are fearless and in good physical condition and can react quickly, river rafting is the ideal outdoor sport for you.

PRACTICE I. Write a concluding sentence for each of the following topic sentences.

1. Valentine’s Day makes people feel bad if they are alone.

2. In my opinion, people should be at least eighteen years old before they are allowed to get a driver’s license.

3. The cafeteria is an expensive place to eat.

4. The old bookcase was very cluttered.

5. Everyone is the car should fasten his or her safety belt.

6. My first little kitten has turned into a mischievous and beautiful feline.

7. My eleventh birthday was my best of my childhood.

8. English is a difficult language for me to learn for three reasons.

9. It is difficult to quit smoking for these reasons.

10. Jogging is healthful for several reasons.

11. Snow skiing on the highest mountains requires great skills.

12. The legal age for drinking alcohol drinks should be twenty-one for several reasons.

13. Everyone set up their plan for their future.

14. Doing football pool is not a good way to make money.

15. Listening to music can sort out your stress.

II. Read the following topic sentences. Circle the letter of the most appropriate concluding sentence. Notice that most of the concluding sentence being with transition signals although it is not always necessary that they do. 1. My greatest problem in learning English is oral communication. a. Indeed, learning to read and write English is difficult. b. Indeed, because I do not speak English enough, my listening and speaking skills have not improved. c. Indeed, everyone should practice speaking English more. 2. Smoking is unhealthy because it can cause heart and lung disease; moreover, it is expensive. a. In brief, smoking cigarettes is a bad idea. b. In brief, smoking is affects your health, and it is also a waste of money. c. In brief, smoking if a bad habit. 3. In my opinion, college grads are necessary because they motivate students to do their homework and to attend class regularly. a. Therefore, college grads are important. b. Therefore, students should be graded for their own good. c. Therefore, college grads are important because they cause students to be more serious and to try harder. 4. My major goals are getting a part-time job and mastering the use of the English language. a. In short, my major goals are getting a part-time job and master the use of the English language. b. In short, if I do not reach my goals, I will be unhappy. c. In short, finding a job and using English well are important to me. 5. London has excellent bus and subway system. a. It is clear that the publish transportation system in London provides reliable service at all times. b. It is clear taking a bus in London in convenient. c. It is clear taking a publish transportation in a good was to get around in London. III. Choose the best ending for each paragraph. Choose your answer a, b, c, or d. 1. When Christopher Columbus sailed west from Spain in 1492, he wanted to reach Asia. He did not know there was another continent in between Europe and Asia. In fact, when he died, he still believed that the land he had found was…… a. Spain. b. America. c. Another continent d. Asia.

2. The yew tree grows very slowly and can live for hundreds of years. In southern England one year, a terrible storm blew many tall, old yew trees. Some of these splendid trees were more than 300 years old. New yew trees have been planted, but they will…… a. grow more quickly. b. never be as splendid as the old trees. c. only live for a few years. d. be tall and splendid only after many years. 3. Fog is a major cause of accidents on highways in some areas. Every year many thousands of people lose their lives because fog can dangerously reduce visibility. The driver cannot see very far ahead so they……. a. do not have time to avoid accidents. b. go faster to avoid accidents. c. have more time to read the signs d. do not have time to have accidents. 4. Scottish people like to think that golf is a Scottish sport. The game did not come from Scotland, however. It was first played in Holland in the 14 th century. Only later did it become…… a. popular with the Dutch b. popular in Scotland. c. a real sport. d. an Olympic sport. IV. Read the following conclusions. Circle the letter of the most appropriate final thought for each one. Notice the transition signals that introduce the writer’s final thoughts. 1. In short, television provides many hours of good, free entertainment that the whole family van enjoy. a. However, television can also take over our lives if we do not know when to turn it off. Therefore, we must not watch television at the expense of other activities. b. However, violence on television can have a very negative effect on children because they cannot separate make believe firm the real world. c. in fact, I like to watch about four hours of television every night. 2. Smokers on the job make it uncomfortable for their co-workers; furthermore, they are less productive on the job that nonsmokers. a. Therefore, smoking is bad for everyone’s health. b. Therefore, it smokers want to get along with their co-workers and improve their work performance; they should stop smoking on the job. c. Therefore, if smoking should outside the workplace only. 3. These examples have shown that it is no longer unusual to see men working as nurses, secretaries, and elementary school teachers. a. Indeed, there is less sexism in the working world as men have proven themselves to be as capable as women. b. So, young boys should become airline pilots, bridge construction workers, and symphony conductors. c. Therefore, women should become airline pilots, bridge construction workers, and symphony conductors.

The End of Unit 5!

Unit 6: UNITY Another important element of a good paragraph is Unity. Every good paragraph has unity, which means that only one main idea is discussed. For instance, if your paragraph is about the disadvantages of smoking or the cost of smoking, discuss only those. Do not mention the advantages of smoking or cost of smoking. Moreover, it is a good idea for beginning academic writers to talk about to illustrate another disadvantage, start a new paragraph. Sometimes it is possible to discuss two or even three or four aspects of the same idea in one paragraph if they are closely related to each other. (See paragraph about smoking in unite 2 on page 11.) For example, you can describe about the disadvantages of smoking on respiratory system and bad breath because they are closely related, but you should not refer to bad breath and the prices of cigarettes because they are far different. The second part of the unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea that is stated in the topic sentence. Do not include any information that does not directly support the topic sentence. Sometimes students write supporting sentences that are “off the topic”. These are called irrelevant sentences. For example, if you are writing a paragraph about high cost of college tuition, you could mention inflation as a factor. However, if you write several sentences about inflation, you are getting off the topic, and your paragraph will not have unity. Study the three paragraphs that follow. All of them discuss the same topic. In your opinion, which paragraph has unity and which two do not? Which paragraph talks much more than one topic? Which paragraph has irrelevant sentences? Paragraph 1 The Usefulness of English Studying English is useful for three main reasons. Firstly, we find it easy to communicate with the world because English is spoken worldwide. Secondly, we have the priority to pursue our high education abroad. As you can see most universities in the world, especially those in America, require students to have good English. In addition, it is easy for us all to pursue our high education abroad as well if we know French clearly. Finally, we can do the research easily if we know English, for most books related to environment, science, philosophy, education, and so on are written in English. In conclusion, English can give us three main benefits: worldwide communication, high education opportunities, and easy way to do research. Phan Ratana ( Cambodia)

Paragraph 2 The Usefulness of English Studying English is useful for three main reasons. Firstly, we find it easy to communicate with the world because English is spoken worldwide. Secondly, we have the priority to pursue our high education abroad. As you can see most universities in the world, especially, in America, require student to have good English. Finally, we can do the research easily if we know English, for most books related to environment, science, philosophy, education and so on are written in English. In conclusion, English can give us three main benefits; worldwide communication, high education opportunities, and easy way to do research.

Paragraph 3 ,

The Usefulness of English Studying English is useful for three main reasons. Firstly, we find it easy to communicate with the world because English is spoken worldwide. Secondly, we have priority to pursue our high education abroad. As you can see most universities in the world, especially, those in America, require student to have good English. In contrast, studying English is also has two main disadvantages. The initial disadvantage is that you have to spend much money studying English. another disadvantage is that you have to spend much time. For example, you may spend one, two or three hour every weekday for a long time to master the English language. Finally, we can do the research easily if we know English, for most books related to environment, science, philosophy, education and so on are written in English. In conclusion, English can give us three main benefits; worldwide communication, high education opportunities, and easy way to do research.

Look at the following paragraph. The topic sentence has already been underlined. Read each of the supporting sentences carefully and then answer the questions that follow. A National Treasure The Smithsonian Institute, located in Washington, D.C., was established in 1846 for two reasons. The first was to do fundamental research and then publish the findings of this research. This research is used by the historians and scientists all over the world. The second reason was to preserve the history and culture of United States. The Smithsonian Institute established a museum to do this. The original building still stands to day and it called the Smithsonian Museum. Since that first museums are the National Air and Space Museum, the National Gallery of Art, and the National Museum of Nation History. The president of United States also lives in Washington, D.C. These two functions of the Smithsonian Institute continue to be very important to the America people.

1. Does the paragraph A National Treasure have Unity? Why? Why not?

2. If it doesn’t have Unity, what is the sentence that marks this paragraph lack of unity? Write the sentence in the space below.

Since this is a paragraph about the Smithsonian Institute, all the sentences should talk about that. However, the sentence about the president of the United States is not about the Smithsonian Institute. Therefore, it does not belong in this paragraph and should be crossed out. A sentence that does not belong in a paragraph is called an irrelevant sentence. PRACTIC I. Finding irrelevant sentences: Find the irrelevant sentences and cross them out so that the paragraph will be unified. Paragraph 1 Two Similar Canals The Suez Canal and the Panama Canal have similar histories. Today, many tourists visit both canals. The same Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps, controlled the initial building of both canals. The Suez Canal was begun in 1859 by the Suez Canal Company. This company, which completed the projects in1869, was controlled by French. Likewise, the French bought a Colombian canal building company in 1881 in order to build the Panama Canal. Americans finally, finished that canal. In the end, however, both canals finally came under control of the countries in which they are located. Egypt gained control of the Suez Canal in 1957 by fighting France and Britain. Panama gained control over its canal peaceably in 1977. These similar events took palace about twenty years apart and provided the world with two important waterways. Paragraph 2 A Woman of Strength The strength of character that Eleanor Roosevelt possessed was obvious in her face. One her head, which was always help high, her light hair was styled in a non-nonsense way and did not cover her forehead or eyes. Her eyebrows were thick and natural, and under these were intense eyes, which revealed her intelligent mind. Her nose was straight, and, as she aged, her checks sagged in a bit and formed the common wrinkles that make a triangle out of the nose and edges of the mouth. She was serious woman, but, when she smiled, her smile showed sincerity and genuine pleasure. She was a great asset to her husband, Franklin, who was president of the United States from 1932 to 1945. In short, it was clear from the first impression that Eleanor Roosevelt was a strong woman.

Paragraph 3 New Sports The people have more time and money to spend on recreation, new sports are developed. Traditional sports such as racing-on foot, horses, and skis, and in boats, cars, and airplanes-are still popular. Twenty-five years ago, no one had ever heard of windsurfing. Now it is the rage at beach resorts everywhere. Thirty years ago, who would have thought that intelligent men and women would jump out of airplane for fun, as they do in the sport of skydiving? Twenty years ago, not many people believe that humans would be able to glide through the air like birds, as they do in the popular sport of hang gliding. Paragraph 4 Modern Zoos Zoos are scientist centers with living laboratories. Scientists conduct important research in reproductive programs in an attempt to preserve some species. Zoologist can observe the animals mating and giving birth. The natural living condition of the various species is duplicated. Moreover, scientists can study the habits, disease, and behavior patterns of the animals at different stages in their lives. That knowledge is used to keep them healthy and contented. The temperature in the enclosed habitats is controlled although the outside temperatures vary. Obviously, such scientific studies in zoos are very beneficial for all of the animals. Paragraph 5 Automated Customer Service Today people have fewer human contacts as they go about their personal business. To buy gas, you can pull up the alongside a gas pump, insert a credit card, and fill the tank without the help of an attendant. The charge is made automatically to your credit card. You can pay for your purchase inside the station office. If you want to make a deposit or withdraw some money from the bank, you can step up to an automated teller machine (ATM) to complete your business without talking to a public lot, you drive alongside a ticket dispenser machine, from which an automated voice explains what you should do. The gate machine then opens, and allows the car in. when you leave, you insert the ticket in a automate customer service? Paragraph 6 The Spread of HIV/AIDS Epidemic The HIV/AIDS epidemic is still growing explosively in most parts of the world. In central and Eastern Europe, HIV is spreading rapidly in countries that had almost no cases a few years ago. In China, there were an estimated 10,000 HIV infected persons at the end of 1993, and this total grew ten-fold, to 100,000, by the end of 1995. There is evidence that in

the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, HIV, infection rates are declining, at least among males. This is the combination of prevention methods. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the HIV/AIDS epidemic rages on. In Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, percent of women visiting postnatal clinics in urban areas are infected with HIV, and in some areas, the rate is 40 percent. Although there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, new medicines are available that prolong the lives of people with HIV. Paragraph 7 The convenience and Economy of small Cars The convenience and economy cars account for their popularity. They are easy to park quickly and take smaller parking space. Small cars are also a means of conserving energy because they use less gas than big car. Small cars are inconvenient and uncomfortable on long trips, however, because of the limited passenger and trunk space. They are also more economical to operate and maintain, and they cost less. Because of all these advantages, the next car I buy is going to be an Econo-Midget. Paragraph 8 Hawaii’s Leading Industry Tourism is the states of Hawaii’s leading industry. Every year, some million tourists visit the island. During the popular winter months, a planeload or shipload of tourists arrives every fifteen minutes. New hotels, new resorts, new restaurants are being build every year to accommodate the increasing numbers of visitors. Sugar cane and pineapples are also important industries in Hawaii. Paragraph 9 The retirement of the sixty-five year old employee The sixty-five year old employee was depressed at the thought of retirement. His boss told him that he has to retire because he was at retirement age, but he didn’t want to retire. Therefore, he became depressed. In addition, he had load of work to complete in just a short time. He thought that his days would be depressing from then on because he was retired. In fact, he was so depress that his wife made him find another job with a company that didn’t have retirement age. He wasn’t depressed after that. Paragraph 10 Naren on her wedding day Naren looked picture-perfect on her wedding. Her long, dark hair had been curled for the occasion, and on the top of it rested a small veil. Under her naturally arched eyebrows, her warm brown eyes reflected serenity. Her eyes had only slightest bit of makeup on them, as usual. Her cheeks were rosy, and her lips were naturally red and full. She stood straight ad an arrow as she walked down the aisle on the arm of he father. She wore a short, white,

elegant dress and help a bouquet of white gardenias for her yesterday. Her stride was confident, yet formal, and made in white sandals. In deed, Naren looked beautiful as she walked toward her new husband and her new life. II. Evaluating Paragraphs for Unity: This exercise is similar to the previous one, but it is a little bit more difficult. Continue to look for irrelevant sentences, but note that there may be more than one in each paragraph or there may not be any. Cross out all the irrelevant sentences that you find. Paragraph 1 Difficult Years My father grew up during a difficult time in U.S. history called the Depression. It occurred after the cash of the stock market in 1992, when my father was ten years old. Many people lost their business and their money, and my father’s family was no different. The restaurant they owned closed because no one could afford to eat out. They had very little money, and my father often had little or nothing to eat during the day. Some millionaires killed themselves because they lost all their money. He had one pair of shoes, which he had gotten from his father. He wore the shoes for many years and put cardboard or newspaper in the soles when they got holds in them. During this time of economic hardship, like many people, my father and his parents lost their home, too. They had to live in a two-room apartment with his aunt and uncle and their three kids. All in all, the Depression years were hard for most people, including my father. Paragraph 2 A Beacon of Freedom The Statue of Liberty must have been a welcoming sight for the many immigrants who came to the United States at the end of the nineteenth century. She stands in the middle of New York Harbor and is over 300 feet tall. Her right hand is raised as far as it can be and is holding a torch that is made of gold, so it looks like a light at the end of a long journey. One top of her head is a crown with several spikes around the edge of the crown. It almost looks like a halo, and indeed, she was considered as an angle to many foreigners seeking a new life. The look on her face is strong and loving and, to some, may have the look of a mother welcoming her children home. In her left hand, she holds a book, and at her feet are broken chains, which symbolized the freedom that so many immigrants came to this country looking for. Even the message carved on the pedestal holding the stature is one that calls people from all over the world to come to this land. The Statue of Liberty certainly must have made a lasting impression on all the people who came to the United States looking for a better life.

The End of Unit 6

Unit 7: CORERENCE

After you have learnt unity in unit 6, you will learn about coherence, which is another necessary element of a good paragraph. The Latin verb cohere means “hold together.” In order to have coherence in writing, the sentence must hold together, that is, the government from one sentence, to the next (and in longer easy, from one paragraph to the next) must be logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each sentence should flow smoothly into the next one. There are four ways to achieve coherence. The first two ways involve repeating key nouns and using pronouns that refer to back key nouns. The third way is to use transition signals show how one idea is related to the next. The fourth way is to achieve coherence arrange your sentence in logical order. You will practice the four ways to achieve coherence in this unit. I. Repetition of Key Nouns The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your paragraph. Look at the model paragraph about gold to see how it uses this technique to achieve coherence. The key noun in this paragraph is gold. Circle the world gold and all pronouns that refer to it. Paragraph about Gold with Coherence GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristic. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty there is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purpose. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three countries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

You should have circle the noun gold seven times, the pronoun it twice, and the pronoun it three times. (The world it in line 6 refers to coin, not gold, so you should not have circled it.) There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when substitute pronouns. At the very least, you need to repeat a key noun instead using a pronoun when the meaning is not clear. Throughout the paragraph on the next page, the world gold has been replaced by pronouns, making the paragraph much less coherent.

Paragraph about Gold with Coherence

Gold Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, it has a lustrous beauty there is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coin, and ornamental purposes. It never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian remains as untarnished today as the day it was-three centuries ago. Another of its important characteristic is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. It most recent use is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, it is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

II. Use if Consistent Pronouns When you use pronouns instead of key nouns, make sure that you use the same person and number throughout your paragraph. Don’t change from you or he to she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number). In the following Paragraph, the pronouns are not consistent. Correct them to make this paragraph more coherent.

Olympic Athletes Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of all, if you hope to compete in an Olympic sport, you must be physically strong, furthermore, aspiring Olympic must train rigorously for many years. For the most demanding sport, they train several hours a day, five or six days a week, for ten or more years. In addition to being physically strong, he or she must also be mentally tough. This means that you have to be able to withstand the intense pressure of international competition with its attendant media coverage. Finally, not everyone can win a medal, so they must possess the inner strength to live with defeat.

The following paragraph has already been corrected. Therefore, it is more coherent than the one you have read on page 47. Olympic Athletes Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of all, if they hope to compete in an Olympic sport, they must be physically strong. Furthermore, aspiring Olympic must train rigorously for many years. For the most demanding sports, they train several hours Signals a day, five or six days a week, for ten or more years. in addition to being III. Transition physically strong, they must also be mentally tough. This means that they have to be totally dedicated to their sport, often giving up a normal school, family, and social life. Being mentally strong also means that they must be able to withstand the intense pressure of international competition, so they must possess the inner strength to live with defeat.

Transition signals are words such as first, second, next, then, also, finally, therefore, consequently, thus, and however, or phrases such as in my opinion, as a result, in conclusion, on the other hand, and we can see that. Think of transition signals at traffic sighs that tell your reader when to go forward, turn, slow, and stop. In other words, they tell the reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly, moreover, furthermore, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, however, in contrast), an example (for example, for instance), a result (as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion, in my opinion, in brief). Using transition words as a guide makes it easier for your reader to follow your ideas. The transition signals give your paragraph coherence. There is a table of transition signals for general use on page 59.) Compare paragraphs 1 and 2 that follow. Both paragraphs give the same information, yet one paragraph is easier to understand than the other because contains transition signals to lead the reader from one idea to the next. Which paragraph contains transition signals and is more coherent? Circle all of the transitional signals that you can identify. Paragraph 1 A different among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones. The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline seawater. Paragraph 2 Another different among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the consequently, does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, on the melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

Here is a table of transition signals Sentence Connectors

Clause Connectors

Meaning Function

Transition Phrases

Conjunctive Adverbs

Subordinating Conjunctions

To introduce an additional idea

in addition

furthermore moreover besides also too

and

Subordinating Conjunctions

others another (+noun) an additional (+ noun)

To introduce An opposite Idea To introduce a choice or alternative To introduce a restaurant or explanation To introduce an example To introduce a conclusion or summary To introduce a result

on the other hand in contrast

in fact indeed

however nevertheless instead still nonetheless Otherwise

but yet

or

although though even though whereas while if unless

that is

for example for instance in conclusion in brief in short indeed accordingly as a result as consequence

an example of (+noun) such as (+noun)

So

IV. LOGICAL ORDER

In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order. Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on your topic and on your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph. The important to point remember is to arrange your idea in some kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing. Some common kinds of the logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of ideas, and comparison/contrast. In this book, you will learn recognize some of the logical orders; in Academic Writing Skills 2, you will learn to write them.

Each kind of order has it own special words and phrase to show the relationship among the ideas. For example, in a piece of writing using chronological order, you would expect to find a lot of time expression: First, second, next, then, after, that, before the last semester, after 1979, since then, in 1979, while working in the office, etc.

In paragraph showing differences (contrast), you would find these expressions: The most noticeable difference, larger than, unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, different from

In a paragraph showing similarities (comparison), you find these expressions: Similarity, similarly, as interesting as, just as, just like, compare with, in comparison

Logical division of ideas is another common method of organizing ideas to give paragraph coherence. Ideas are put into groups, and each group is discussed one after the other. Transition words such as first, second, third introduce each group.

PRACTIC I. In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replaced the pronoun it with the key noun English wherever you think doing so would make the paragraph more coherent.

ENGLISH English has almost become an international language. Except for Chinese, more people speak it than any other language. Spanish is the official language of more countries in the world, but more countries have it as their official or unofficial second language on the Internet. In international business, it is used more than any other language, and it is the language of airline pilots and air traffic controllers all over the world. Moreover, although French used to be the unless you plan to spend your life alone on a dessert island in the middle of pacific Ocean, it is a useful language to know. II. In the following passage about dolphins, replace some of the pronouns with appropriate singular or plural nouns.

DOLPHINS Dolphins are interesting because they display almost human behavior at times. For example, they display the human emotions of joy and sadness. During training, when they do something correctly, they squeal excitedly and race toward their trainer. When they make a mistake, however, they drop noticeable and mope around their pool. Furthermore, they help each other when they are in trouble. If one is sick, it sends out a message, and others in the area swim to help it. They push it to the surface of the water so that is can breathe. They stay with it for days or weeks-until it recovers or dies. They have also help trapped or lost whales navigate their way safety out to the open sea. They are also intelligent and helpful, in fact, that the U.S. Navy is training them to become underwater bomb disposal experts. III. Circle all of the transition signals in the following paragraphs and then punctuation the transition signals if necessary. Genetic Engineering Genetic research has produced both exciting and frightening possibilities. Scientists are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory due to the development of gene splicing. On the one hand the ability to create life in the laboratory could greatly benefit humankind. For example, it is very expensive to obtain insulin from natural sources but through genetic research, scientists have now developed a way to manufacture it inexpensively in the laboratory. Another beneficial application of the gene splicing is in agriculture. Genetic engineers have created a new tomato that doesn’t spoil quickly. Consequently tomato farmers can now let the tomatoes ripen on the plant and develop full flavor and color before they are picked-no more green, flavorless tomatoes in grocery stores!

In addition genetic engineers have created larger fish, frost-resistant strawberries, and more productive cows. On the other hand not everyone is positive about gene-splicing technology. Some people feel that it could have terrible consequence. A laboratory accident for example might cause an epidemic of an unknown disease that could wipe out humanity. Furthermore the ability to clone human being is a possibility that frightens many people. In 1993, a researcher at George Washington University Medical Center cloned human embryos can be frozen and used at a later date, it could be possible for parents to have a child and then, years later, to use a cloned, frozen embryo to give birth to its identical twin. IV. Choosing Transition Signals: Circle the transition signal that best shows the relationship between the sentences in each group from the choices given in parentheses. Note: All of the transition signals in this practice are sentence connectors. This is give you more practice in using and punctuating this type of transition signal correctly. 1. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find. (However/for example/Therefore), the cure for inflation was not easy to prescribe. 2. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of inflation; (however/therefore/for example), the government should take action to control wages. 3. In physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force with which the Earth attracts it. (Moreover/therefore/for example), a man weighs 150 pounds, this means that the earth pulls him down with a force of 150 pounds. 4. The farther away from the Earth a person is, the less the gravitation force of the Earth. (in conclusion/therefore/however), a man weighs less when he is 50,000 miles from the Earth than when he is only 5,000 miles away. 5. I read the book you suggested. I didn’t enjoy it, (although/however). 6. (In spite of, although) we warmed him, Harry still got lost. 7. (Although/however) I like it here, I won’t stay here long. 8. Cars are fast and convenient. (On the other hand/Whereas), they cause traffic problems in cities. 9. I didn’t have much time, (but/however) I managed to visit lost of places. 10. Kate won the race, (although/despite) falling over. 11. (Although/in spite of) the delay, the train arrived on time. 12. I didn’t manage to jump over the wall, (although/yet) I tired twice. 13. (Although/however) Time felt tired, he stayed up to finish his homework. 14. I found English hard at first. (However/still), I soon started enjoy it. 15. I’m not sure I agree with you. (Although/however), your ideas are worth discussing. V. Fill in each blank with an appropriate transition signal from the list provided in the box. Use each only once. Use correct punctuation. For instance However

moreover but

furthermore for example

in conclusion such as

Internationalization of Japan For many years, Japanese consumers have been very slow in accepting foreign foods, mainly because they are very selective and will only purchase high quality products. Lately the consumer market has been changing. According to a recent article in The Wall Street Journal, Kokusaika which is defined as “internationalization,” is influencing young Japanese consumers, who are very eager to purchase and enjoy products from country around the world. The greatest access into the Japanese market has been by the food industry. Traditional, the protein staple in Japan has been fish products, in the last decade or so, the Japanese have been consuming more beef. In fact, annual per capita consumption is excepted to be about seven kilos in the next decade. they have required a taste for imported beverage, both of the nonalcohol or alcohol varieties, like beer drinks and “light” wines imported from England, Germany, Weitzerland, the United States, and Australia. young people, especially woman who are aware of the important of health and fitness, are eating Western-style breakfast. they enjoy fruit, milk, and bran-type cereals imported from the United States. Not only Western countries but also Asian nations South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Thailand have been benefiting from the changing diet of the Japanese consumer. Japan is importing eels(fish) from the Philippines. Japanese trend toward internationalization should become even greater as we approach the twenty-first century. It will certainly increase international trade, which will definitely be advantageous to many countries in the world. VI. Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph with the appropriate transition words from the box below. Some transition words are not used. a. first f. however j. one n. for example

b. next g. second k. therefore

c. in addition h. also l. despite

d. in fact e. finally i. as you can see m. although

Shopping at Sorya’s Clothing Supermarket can be rewarding;…………(1)……, you have to know what you’re doing or you’ll miss the bargains……..(2)…….,take some time to study their sales in the newspaper each week. They always have certain brands on sales; ……..(3)……., many items have been marked down up to 75 per cent, so you can get great bargains……..(4)……, I bought a shirt one day for $7.95 that retailed for $25………(5) ……..,I bought a pair of designer jeans for $9.99 that retailed for $30……..(6) ……..shopping at Sorya’s can be rewarding;…………(7)…….., suggest you give it a try. Write your answers here! 1

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The End of Unit 7!

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