071 Operational Procedures (JAA ATPL Theory)

071 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

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COPYRIGHT All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author. This publication shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the author's prior consent. Produced and Published by the CLICK2PPSC LTD EDITION 2.00.00 2001 This is the second edition of this manual, and incorporates all amendments to previous editions, in whatever form they were issued, prior to July 1999. EDITION 2.00.00

© 1999,2000,2001

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The information contained in this publication is for instructional use only. Every effort has been made to ensure the validity and accuracy of the material contained herein, however no responsibility is accepted for errors or discrepancies. The texts are subject to frequent changes which are beyond our control.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Operation of Aircraft International Commercial Air Transport Operations JAR-OPS Requirements Navigation Requirements for Long Range Flights Transoceanic (North Atlantic) Procedures Polar Navigation Special Operational Procedures Windshear

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Wake Turbulence Security Emergency and Precautionary Landings Fuel Jettison Transport of Dangerous Goods Contaminated Runways

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Introduction Operational Procedure extends the syllabus into areas that previously were covered mainly at the type conversion stage of training. The subject matter includes both ICAO and JAR standards and requirements as well as safety and other special procedures. Some aspects of Operational Procedures overlap other areas of the syllabus, however, to provide continuity, these notes are intended to be self contained.

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071 Operational Procedures

Operation of Aircraft

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Operation of Aircraft

1

Operation of Aircraft

This Chapter is based on ICAO Annex Part 1.

Definitions 1.

The following definitions are relevant to operation of aircraft:

Aerial work.

An aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialised services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial advertisement, etc.

Aerodrome.

A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft.

Aerodrome operating minima.

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The limits of usability of an aerodrome for:

(a)

take-off expressed in terms of visibility or runway visual range (RVR), and if necessary, cloud conditions;

(b)

landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or RVR and decision altitude/height (DA/H) as appropriate to the category of the operation; and

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Operation of Aircraft (c)

landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or RVR, minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H) and if necessary cloud conditions.

Aeroplane.

A power-driven heavier-than-aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.

Aeroplane flight manual.

A manual, associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containing limitations within which the aeroplane is to be considered airworthy, and instructions and information necessary to the flight crew members for the safe operation of the aeroplane.

Aircraft operating manual.

A manual acceptable to the State of the Operator containing:

(a)

normal operating procedures;

(b)

abnormal and emergency procedures;

(c)

checklists;

(d)

aircraft limitations;

(e)

aircraft performance information;

(f)

details of aircraft systems;

(g)

other material relevant to the operation of the aircraft.

Note. The aircraft operating manual is part of the operations manual.

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Operation of Aircraft Aircraft. Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface. Air operator certificate (AOC).

A certificate authorising an operator to carry out specified

commercial air transport operations.

Alternate aerodrome.

An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes impossible or inadvisable to proceed or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include the following: •

Take-off alternate. An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land should this become necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure.

•

En-route alternate. An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land after experiencing an abnormal or emergency condition while en-route.

•

ETOPS en-route alternate. A suitable and appropriate alternate aerodrome at which an aeroplane would be able to land after experiencing an engine shut-down or other abnormal or emergency condition while en-route in an ETOPS operation.

•

Destination alternate. An alternate aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed should it become impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of intended landing.

NOTE: The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an en-route or a destination alternate aerodrome for that flight.

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Operation of Aircraft Cabin attendant. A crew member who performs in the interest of safety of passengers, duties assigned by the operator or pilot-in-command of the aircraft, but who must not act as a flight crew member. Commercial air transport operation. An aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo or mail for remuneration or hire. Configuration deviation list (CDL).

A list established by the organisation responsible for the aircraft type design with the approval of the State of Design which identifies any external parts of an aircraft type which may be missing at the commencement of a flight, and which contains, where necessary, any information on associated operating limitations and performance corrections.

Crew member.

A person assigned by an operator to duty on an aircraft during flight time.

Cruising level.

A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.

Dangerous goods.

Articles or substances which are capable of posing significant risk to health, safety or property when transported by air.

Decision altitude/height (DA/H).

A specified altitude or height (A/H) in the precision approach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established.

NOTE: Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL) and decision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.

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Operation of Aircraft NOTE: The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area which should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to have made an assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of position, in relation to the desired flight path.

Emergency locator transmitter (ELT).

A generic term describing equipment which broadcast distinctive signals on designated frequencies, and depending on application may either sense a crash and operate automatically or be manually activated.

Flight crew member. A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during flight time. Flight duty period. The total time from the moment a flight crew member commences duty, immediately subsequent to a rest period and prior to making a flight or a series of flights, to the moment the flight crew member is relieved of all duties having completed such flight or series of flights. Flight plan.

Specified information provided to air traffic services units, relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.

Flight recorder.

Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of complementing accident/incident investigation.

Flight time.

The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of taking-off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight.

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Operation of Aircraft NOTE: Flight time as here defined is synonymous with the term ‘block to block’ time or ‘chock to chock’ time in general usage which is measured from the time the aircraft moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point.

General aviation operation.

An aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation.

Human factors principles.

Principles which apply to aeronautical design, certification, training, operations and maintenance and which seek safe interface between the human and other system components by proper consideration to human performance.

Human performance.

Human capabilities and limitations which have an impact on the safety and efficiency of aeronautical operations.

Instrument approach and landing operations. Instrument approach and landing operations using instrument approach procedures are classified as follows: •

Non-precision approach and landing operations. An instrument approach and landing which does not use electronic glide path guidance.

•

Precision approach and landing operations. An instrument approach and landing using precision azimuth and glide path guidance with minima as determined by the category of operation.

Categories of precision approach and landing operations are:

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Operation of Aircraft (a)

Category I (CAT I). A precision approach with a decision height not lower than 60m (200ft) and with either a visibility not less than 800m or an RVR of note less than 550m;

(b)

Category II (CAT II). A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than 60m (200ft) but not lower than 30m (100ft), and an RVR not less than 350m (but, note JAR-OPS 1 specifies 300m)*.

(c)

Category IIIA (CAT IIIA). A precision instrument approach and landing with:

(d)

(e)

(i)

a decision height lower than 30m (100ft) or no decision height; and

(ii)

an RVR not less than 200m;

Category IIIB (CAT IIIB). A precision instrument approach and landing with: (i)

a decision height lower than 15m (50ft) or no decision height; and

(ii)

an RVR less than 200m but not less than 50m (but, note JAR-OPS 1 specifies 75m)*.

Category IIIC (CAT IIIC). A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no RVR limitations.

* Minima quoted in either Annex 6 or JAR-OPS may be used in JAR-FCL examinations.

Large aeroplane.

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An aeroplane of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700kg.

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Operation of Aircraft Maintenance.

Tasks required to ensure the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any one or combination of overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement, modification or defect rectification.

Minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H).

A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which a descent must not be made without the required visual reference. Note 1. MDA is referenced to mean sea level (msl) and MDH is referenced to the aerodrome elevation or to the threshold if it is more than 2m (7ft) below aerodrome elevation. Note 2. In the case of a circling approach the required visual reference is the runway environment.

Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).

Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the minima specified for visual meteorological conditions.

Master minimum equipment list (MMEL).

A list established for a particular aircraft type by the organisation responsible for the type design approval of the State of Design containing items, one or more if which is permitted to be unserviceable at the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated with special conditions, limitations or procedures.

Maximum mass.

Maximum certificated take-off mass.

Minimum equipment list (MEL).

A list which provides for the operation of aircraft, subject to specified conditions, with particular equipment inoperative, prepared by an operator in conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MMEL established for the aircraft type.

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Operation of Aircraft Night.

The hours between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight or such other period between sunset and sunrise, as may be prescribed by the appropriate authority.

NOTE: Civil twilight ends in the evening when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon, and aligns in the morning when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon.

Obstacle clearance altitude/height (OCA/H).

The lowest altitude (OCA), or alternatively the lowest height above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or above the aerodrome elevation as applicable (OCH), used in establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance criteria. Note 1. Obstacle clearance altitude is referenced to mean sea level (msl) and obstacle clearance height to the threshold elevation or, in the case of non-precision approaches to the aerodrome elevation (or threshold elevation if it is more than 2m (7ft) below aerodrome elevation. OCH for a circling approach is referenced to aerodrome elevation.

Operational control.

The exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation, diversion or termination of a flight in the interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of the flight.

Operational flight plan.

The operator’s plan for the safe conduct of the flight based on considerations of aeroplane performance, other operating limitations and relevant expected conditions on the route to be followed and at the aerodromes concerned.

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Operation of Aircraft Operator.

A person, organisation or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft

operation.

Pilot-in-Command.

The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during

flight time.

Pressure-altitude. An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude which corresponds to that pressure in the Standard Atmosphere. RNP type. A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended position within which flights would be for at least 95% of the total flying time. Rest period.

Any period of time on the ground during which a flight crew member is relieved of all duties by the operator.

Required navigation performance (RNP).

A statement of the navigation performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace.

Runway visual range.

The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line.

Small aeroplane.

An aeroplane of maximum certificated take-off mass of 5700kg or less.

State of the Operator.

The State in which the operator’s principal place of business is located or, if there is no such place of business, the operator’s permanent residence.

State of Registry.

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The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.

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Operation of Aircraft NOTE: In the case of the registration of aircraft of an international operating agency on other than a national basis, the States constituting the agency are jointly and severally bound to assume the obligations which, under the Chicago Convention, attach to a State of Registry.

Synthetic flight trainer.

Any one of the following three types of apparatus in which flight conditions are simulated on the ground:

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•

A flight simulator - which provides an accurate representation of the flight deck of a particular aircraft type to the extent that the mechanical, electrical, electronic, etc., aircraft systems control functions, the normal environment of flight crew members, and the performance and flight characteristics of that type of aircraft are realistically simulated.

•

A flight procedures trainer - which provides a realistic flight deck environment, and which simulates instrument responses, simple control functions of mechanical, electrical, electronic, etc. aircraft systems, and the performance and flight characteristics of aircraft of a particular class.

•

A basic instrument flight trainer - which is equipped with appropriate instruments, and which simulates the flight deck environment of an aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions.

•

Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, equal to or better than specified minima.

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Operation of Aircraft

Applicability of ICAO Standards 2. ICAO Annex 6 contains the Standards and Recommended Practices applicable to the operation of aircraft. Part 1 of the Annex which is relevant to this syllabus concerns the operation of aircraft for international commercial air transport. The Standards contained in Annex 6 are mandatory unless a Contracting State has notified a difference to ICAO.

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071 Operational Procedures

International Commercial Air Transport Operations General Flight Operations Aeroplane Performance and Operating Limitations Aeroplane Instruments, Equipment and Flight Documents Aeroplane Communication and Navigation Equipment Aeroplane Maintenance Aeroplane Flight Crew Manuals, Logs and Records Security Lights To Be Displayed By Aeroplanes

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

International Commercial Air Transport Operations 2

This Chapter is based on ICAO Annex 6 Part 1. Note. The term Authority used in this Chapter means the official body having responsibility for the administration of civil aviation on behalf of a State (e.g. in the UK the CAA are the Authority).

General Operator Responsibilities 1. Knowledge of Laws of other States. An operator shall ensure that all employees when abroad know that they must comply with the laws, regulations and procedures of those States in which operations are conducted. 2. Flight crew knowledge. An operator shall ensure that all pilots and other members of the flight crew of an aeroplane are familiar with the laws, regulations and procedures, pertinent to the performance of their duties, prescribed for the areas to be traversed, the aerodromes to be used and the air navigation facilities relating thereto. 3. Control of operations. An operator or a designated representative shall have the responsibility for operational control.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 4. Emergency violation of local regulations. The local Authority must be informed, without delay, by a pilot-in-command when in taking action to avoid danger, local regulations or procedures are violated. If required, the pilot-in-command must submit a report to the local Authority, with a copy to the State of the Operator. Such reports shall be submitted as soon as possible and normally within ten days. 5. Provisions of search and rescue information. Operators shall ensure that pilots-in-command have available on board the aeroplane all the essential information concerning the search and rescue services in the area over which the aeroplane will be flown. 6. Accident prevention. An operator shall establish and maintain an accident prevention and flight safety programme. 7. Dangerous Goods. The responsibilities of the operator with regard to the safe transportation of dangerous goods are contained in ICAO Annex 18.

Flight Operations Operating Facilities 8. An operator shall ensure that a flight will not be commenced unless it has been ascertained by every reasonable means available that the ground facilities available and directly required on such flight, for the safe operation of the aeroplane and the protection of the passengers, are adequate for the type of operation under which the flight is to be conducted and are adequately operated for this purpose.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 9. Subject to their published conditions of use, aerodromes and their facilities shall be kept continuously available for flight operations, during their published hours of operations, irrespective of weather conditions.

The Air Operator Certificate 10. An operator shall not engage in commercial air transport unless in possession of a valid air operator certificate or equivalent document issued by the State of the Operator. 11. The issue of an operator certificate or equivalent document by the State of the Operator shall be dependent upon the operator demonstrating an adequate organisation, method of control and supervision of flight operations, training programme and maintenance arrangements consistent with the nature and extent of the operations specified. 12.

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The air operator certificate or equivalent document shall contain at least the following: (a)

Operator’s identification (name, location);

(b)

Date of issue and period of validity;

(c)

Description of the types of operations authorised;

(d)

The type (s) of aircraft authorised for use; and

(e)

Authorised areas of operation or routes.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Operations Manual 13. An operator shall provide, for the use and guidance of operations personnel concerned, an operations manual.

Operating Instructions – General 14. An operator shall ensure that all operations personnel are properly instructed in their particular duties and responsibilities and the relationship of such duties to the operation as a whole. 15. An aeroplane shall not be taxied on the movement area of an aerodrome unless the person at the controls:

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(a)

Has been duly authorised by the operator or a designated agent;

(b)

Is fully competent to taxi the aeroplane;

(c)

Is qualified to use the radio telephone; and

(d)

Has received instruction from a competent person in respect of aerodrome layout, routes, signs, markings, lights, air traffic control (ATC) signals and instructions, phraseology and procedures, and is able to conform to the operational standards required for safe aeroplane movement at the aerodrome.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

In-flight Simulation of Emergency Situations 16. An operator shall ensure that when passengers are being carried, emergency situations affecting the flight characteristics of the aeroplane shall not be simulated and shall instruct all flight crew and operations personnel to this effect.

Checklists 17. Checklists shall be used by flight crews prior to, during and after all phases of operations, and in emergency, to ensure compliance with the operating procedures contained in the aircraft operating manual and the aeroplane flight manual, or other documents associated with the certificate of airworthiness and otherwise in the operations manual.

Minimum Flight Altitudes 18. An operator shall be permitted to establish minimum flight altitudes for those routes flown for which minimum flight altitudes have been established by the State flown over, provided that they shall not be less than those established by that State. 19.

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Factors to be considered in establishing minimum flight altitudes are: (a)

the accuracy and reliability of the aircraft’s navigation system;

(b)

the inaccuracies of the altimeter;

(c)

the characteristics of the terrain (e.g. sudden changes of elevation);

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (d)

the probability of encountering adverse meteorological conditions (e.g. severe turbulence and downdraughts);

(e)

the possible inaccuracies in aeronautical charts;

(f)

airspace restrictions

These minimum flight altitudes shall not be established at a lower level than the minimum level for IFR flights as specified in ICAO Annex 2.

Aerodrome Operating Minima 20. The State of the Operator shall require that the operator establish aerodrome operating minima for each aerodrome to be used in all operations, and shall approve the method of determination of such minima. Such minima shall not be lower than any that may be established for such aerodromes by the State in which the aerodrome is located, except when specifically approved by that State. 21. The State of the Operator shall require that in establishing the aerodrome operating minima which will apply to any particular operation, full account shall be taken of:

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(a)

the type, performance and handling characteristics of the aeroplane;

(b)

the composition of the flight crew, their competence and experience;

(c)

the dimensions and characteristics of the runways which may be selected for use;

(d)

the adequacy and performance of the available visual and non-visual ground aids;

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (e)

the equipment available on the aeroplane for the purpose of navigation and/or control of the flight path during the approach to landing and the missed approach;

(f)

the obstacles in the approach and missed approach areas and the obstacle clearance altitude/height for the instrument approach procedures;

(g)

the means used to determine and report meteorological conditions; and

(h)

the obstacles in the climb-out areas and necessary clearance margins.

Passengers 22. Emergency and other equipment and exits. An operator shall ensure that passengers are made familiar with the location and use of:

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(a)

seat belts and when they must be fastened;

(b)

emergency exits;

(c)

life jackets, if the carriage of life jackets is prescribed and when and how to use them;

(d)

oxygen dispensing equipment, if the provision of oxygen for the use of passengers is prescribed; and

(e)

other emergency equipment provided for individual use including passenger briefing cards;

(f)

emergency exits

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 23. The operator shall inform the passengers of the location and general manner of use of the principal emergency equipment carried for collective use. 24. Seat belts. The operator shall ensure that during take-off and landing and whenever, by reasons of turbulence or any emergency occurring during flight, the precaution is considered necessary, all passengers on board an aeroplane shall be secured in their seats by means of the seat belts or harnesses provided.

Flight Preparation 25. A flight shall not be commenced until flight preparation forms have been completed certifying that the pilot-in-command is satisfied that:

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(a)

the aeroplane is airworthy;

(b)

the appropriate instruments and equipment for the particular type of operation to be undertaken, are installed and are sufficient for the flight;

(c)

a maintenance release has been issued in respect of the aeroplane;

(d)

the mass of the aeroplane is such that the flight can be conducted safely, taking into account the flight conditions expected;

(e)

any load carried is properly distributed and safely secured;

(f)

a check has been completed indicating that the operating limitations can be complied with for the flight to be undertaken; and

(g)

the operational flight planning (see below) has been completed.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 26.

Completed flight preparation forms shall be kept by an operator for a period of three months.

Operational Flight Planning 27. An operational flight plan shall be completed for every intended flight. The operational flight plan shall be approved and signed by the pilot-in-command and, where applicable, signed by the flight operations officer, and a copy shall be filed with the operator or a designated agent, or, if these procedures are not possible, it shall be left with the aerodrome authority or on record in a suitable place at the point of departure. 28. The content and use of the operational flight plan must be described in the operations manual.

Alternate Aerodromes Take-Off Alternate Aerodrome 29. Requirement for take-off alternate. A take-off alternate aerodrome shall be selected and specified in the operational flight plan if the weather conditions at the aerodrome of departure are at or below the applicable aerodrome operating minima (for landing) or, it would not be possible to return to the aerodrome of departure for other reasons. 30. Location. The take-off alternate aerodrome shall be located within the following distance from the aerodrome of departure: (a)

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for aeroplanes having two power-units. Not more than a distance equivalent to a flight time of one hour at the single-engine cruise speed; and

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (b)

for aeroplanes having three or more power-units. Not more than a distance equivalent to a flight time of two hours at the one-engine inoperative cruise speed.

31. Conditions at the alternate aerodrome. For an aerodrome to be selected as a take-off alternate the available information shall indicate that, at the estimated time of use, the conditions will be at or above the aerodrome operating minima for that operation.

En-route Alternate Aerodromes 32. En-route alternate aerodromes, required for extended range operations by aeroplanes with two turbine power-units, shall be selected and specified in the operational and ATS flight plans.

Destination Alternate Aerodrome 33. For a flight to be conducted in accordance with IFR instrument flight rules, at least one destination alternate aerodrome shall be specified in the operational and ATS flight plans, unless:

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(a)

the duration of the flight and the meteorological conditions prevailing are such that there is reasonable certainty that, at the estimated time of arrival at the aerodrome of intended landing, and for a reasonable period before and after such time, the approach and landing may be made under visual meteorological conditions; or

(b)

the aerodrome of intended landing is isolated and there is no suitable destination alternate aerodrome.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Weather Conditions 34. VFR. A VFR flight shall not be commenced unless current meteorological reports or a combination of current reports and forecasts indicate that the meteorological conditions along the route or that part of the route to be flown under the visual flight rules will, at the appropriate time, be such as to render compliance with these rules possible. 35. IFR. An IFR flight shall not be commenced unless information is available which indicates that conditions at the aerodrome of intended landing or, where a destination alternate is required, at least one destination alternate aerodrome will, at the estimated time of arrival, be at or above the aerodrome operating minima. 36. Icing. A flight to be operated in known or expected icing conditions shall not be commenced unless the aeroplane is certificated and equipped to cope with such conditions.

Fuel and Oil Supply 37. All aeroplanes. A flight shall not be commenced unless, taking into account both the meteorological conditions and any delays that are expected in flight, the aeroplane carries sufficient fuel and oil to ensure that it can safely complete the flight. In addition, a reserve shall be carried to provide for contingencies.

NOTE: Where we have used the term destination in the following paragraphs this means the aerodrome to which the flight is planned.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Propeller-driven Aeroplanes The fuel and oil required in the case of propeller-driven aeroplanes depends on whether a destination alternate is required or not. 38. Propeller-driven aeroplanes - destination alternate required. The aeroplane must have sufficient fuel and oil either to: (a)

fly to the destination and then on to the most critical alternate (in terms of fuel and oil) specified in the operational and ATS flight plan plus another 45minutes; or,

(b)

fly to the alternate via any pre-determined point plus another 45 minutes, provided this is not less than the amount required to fly to the destination plus either: (i)

45 minutes plus 15% of the cruising flight time; or

(ii)

2 hours; whichever is less.

39. Propeller-driven - destination alternate is not required. The aeroplane must have sufficient fuel and oil to: (a)

fly to a destination where a VMC approach and landing can be expected plus another 45 minutes; or

(b)

fly to an isolated destination from which there is no suitable alternate available plus: (i)

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45 minutes plus 15% of the cruising flight time; or,

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (ii)

2 hours; whichever is less.

Turbo-jet Aeroplanes The fuel and oil required in the case of turbo-jet aeroplanes depends on whether a destination alternate is required or not. 40. Turbo-jet aeroplane – destination required. The aeroplane must have sufficient fuel and oil either to: (a)

fly to and execute an approach, and a missed approach, at the destination and thereafter:

(b)

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(i)

fly to the alternate specified in the operational and ATS flight plans; plus,

(ii)

30 minutes holding at 1500ft at the alternate in ISA conditions, and approach to land; plus,

(iii)

contingency fuel to allow for any occurrences, specified by the operator and agreed by the State of the Operator, which might result in increased consumption; or,

fly to the alternate via any predetermined point and thereafter for 30 minutes at 1500ft at the alternate plus a contingency amount specified by the operator (as in previous sub-paragraph) provided that in total this is not less than the fuel required to fly to the destination plus 2 hours at the normal cruise consumption.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 41. oil:

Turbo-jet aeroplanes – destination not required. The aeroplane must have sufficient fuel and (a)

in the case of a destination where a VMC approach and landing can be expected, to fly there and in addition: (i)

30 minutes holding at 1500ft at the alternate in ISA conditions; plus,

(ii)

contingency fuel (as specified above); or,

(b)

in the case of an isolated destination from which there is no suitable alternate, to fly there plus an 2 hours at normal cruise consumption.

42. Factors to be considered in computing fuel required. In all cases the following factors must be considered:

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(a)

meteorological forecast;

(b)

expected ATC routings and traffic delays;

(c)

for IFR flight, one instrument approach at destination, including a missed approach;

(d)

engine failure en-route and where applicable loss of cabin pressurisation;

(e)

any other reasons for delaying landing or increasing fuel/oil consumption.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Note. Nothing in Annex 6 concerning fuel/oil requirements precludes the amendment of a flight plan in flight in order to replan the flight to another aerodrome, provided that the requirements of the foregoing paragraphs can be complied with from where the flight has been replanned.

Refuelling with Passengers On Board 43. An aeroplane shall not be refuelled when passengers are embarking, on board or disembarking unless it is properly manned by qualified personnel ready to initiate and direct an evacuation of the aeroplane by the most practical and expeditious means available. 44. When refuelling with passengers embarking, on board or disembarking, two-way communication shall be maintained by the aeroplane’s inter-communication system or other suitable means between the ground crew supervising the refuelling and the qualified personnel on board the aeroplane. Note 1. The provisions outlined above do not necessarily require the deployment of integral aeroplane stairs or the opening of emergency exits as a pre-requisite to refuelling. Note 2. Additional precautions are required when refuelling with fuel other than aviation kerosene or when refuelling results in a mixture of aviation kerosene with other aviation turbine fuels, or when an open line is used.

Oxygen Supply Note. Approximate altitudes in the Standard Atmosphere corresponding to the values of absolute pressure used in the text are as follows:

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Absolute pressure

Metres

Feet

700 hPa

3000

10 000

620 hPa

4000

13 000

376 hPa

7600

25 000

45. Aeroplanes without cabin pressurisation. A flight to be operated at altitudes at which the atmospheric pressure in personnel compartments will be less than 700 hPa shall not be commenced unless sufficient stored breathing oxygen is carried to supply: (a)

all crew members and 10% of the passengers for any period in excess of 30 minutes that the aeroplane is between 10,000 ft and 13,000 ft; and

(b)

the crew and passengers for any period that the aeroplane is above 13,000 ft.

46. Aeroplanes with cabin pressurisation. A flight to be operated with a pressurised aeroplane shall not be commenced unless a sufficient quantity of stored breathing oxygen is carried to supply all the crew members and a proportion of the passenger’s, as is appropriate to the circumstances of the flight being undertaken, in the event of loss of pressurisation, for any period that the aeroplane is above 10,000 ft. In addition, a further 10 minutes oxygen is required for passengers when an aeroplane is operated above 25,000 ft or when below 25,000 ft but unable to descend safely to 13,000 ft within 4 mins.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

In-flight Procedures Aerodrome Operating Minima 47. A flight shall not be continued towards the aerodrome of intended landing, unless the latest available information indicates that at the expected time of arrival, a landing can be effected at that aerodrome, or at least at one destination alternate aerodrome, in compliance with established aerodrome operating minima. 48. Except in case of emergency, an aeroplane shall not continue its approach-to-land at any aerodrome beyond a point at which the limits of the operating minima specified for that aerodrome would be infringed.

Flight Crew Members at Duty Stations 49. Take-off and landing. All flight crew members required to be on flight deck duty shall be at their stations. 50. En-route. All flight crew members required to be on flight deck shall remain at their stations except when their absence is necessary for the performance of duties in connection with the operation of the aeroplane or for physiological needs. 51.

Seat belts. All flight crew members shall keep their seat belts fastened when at their stations.

52. Safety harness. Any flight crew member occupying a pilot’s seat shall keep the safety harness fastened during the take-off and landing phases; all other flight crew members shall keep their safety harnesses fastened during the take-off and landing phases unless the shoulder straps interfere with the performance of their duties.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Note. Safety harness includes shoulder straps and a seat belt which may be used independently.

In-flight Operational Instructions 53. Operational instructions involving a change in the ATS flight plan shall, when practicable, be co-ordinated with the appropriate ATS unit before transmission to the aeroplane. Note. When the above co-ordination has not been possible, operational instructions do not relieve a pilot of the responsibility for obtaining an appropriate clearance from an ATS unit, if applicable, before making a change in flight plan.

Duties of Pilot-in-Command 54. Responsibility for operation and safety. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for the operation and safety of the aeroplane and for the safety of all persons on board, during flight time. 55.

Checklists. The pilot-in-command shall ensure that checklists are complied with in detail.

56. Accident notification. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for notifying the nearest appropriate authority by the quickest available means of any accident involving the aeroplane, resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to the aeroplane or property. 57. Reporting defects. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for reporting all known or suspected defects in the aeroplane, to the operator, at the termination of the flight. 58. Journey log book/general declaration. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for the journey log book or the general declaration.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Duties of Flight Operations Officer 59.

A flight operations officer shall: (a)

assist the pilot-in-command in flight preparation and provide the relevant information required;

(b)

assist the pilot-in-command in preparing the operational and ATS flight plans, sign when applicable and file the ATS flight plan with the appropriate ATS unit;

(c)

furnish the pilot-in-command while in flight, by appropriate means, with information which may be necessary for the safe conduct of the flight; and,

(d)

in the event of an emergency, initiate such procedures as may be outlined in the operations manual.

60. A flight operations officer shall avoid taking any action that would conflict with the procedures established by:

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(a)

air traffic control;

(b)

the meteorological service; or

(c)

the communications service.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Aeroplane Performance and Operating Limitations General 61. Aeroplanes are required to be operated in accordance with a comprehensive and detailed code of performance established by the state of Registry in compliance with the applicable Standards defined in ICAO Annex 6.

Performance Requirements for Public Transport Aeroplanes 62. A public transport flight may not commence unless the performance information provided in the flight manual indicates that the performance standards prescribed in Annex 6 can be complied with.

Factors Affecting Performance 63.

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Factors that are deemed to affect significantly aircraft performance are: (a)

mass;

(b)

operating procedures;

(c)

pressure altitude appropriate to the elevation of the aerodrome;

(d)

temperature;

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (e)

wind;

(f)

runway gradient;

(g)

condition of the runway i.e. presence of slush, water and/or ice.

Due account of these factors must be taken either, directly as operating parameters or, indirectly by means of allowances or margins, in the scheduling of performance data for the aeroplane being operated.

Limitations – Take-off Mass 64. The mass of the aeroplane at the start of take-off must not exceed the mass at which the aeroplane shall be able, in the event of a critical engine failing at any point in the take-off either, to discontinue the take-off and stop within the accelerate-stop distance available or, to continue the take-of and clear all obstacles along the flight path by an adequate margin until the aeroplane is in a position to comply with en-route criteria.

Limitations – Landing Mass 65. The mass of the aeroplane must be such that the aeroplane shall, at the aerodrome of intended landing and at any alternate aerodrome, after clearing all obstacles in the approach path by an safe margin, be able to land with assurance that it can stop within the landing distance available.

Multi-Engine Aeroplanes - Performance Operating Limitations 66. Take-off. The performance of the aeroplane as determined from the flight manual is required to ensure that:

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

67.

68.

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(a)

the accelerate stop distance required does not exceed the accelerate stop distance available;

(b)

take-off distance required does not exceed the take-off distance available;

(c)

all obstacles within a specified distance of the take-off flight path are cleared by at least 35ft or 50ft (depending on performance category) within the take-off distance available.

En-route. (a)

One engine inoperative. At all points along the route or any planned diversion therefrom the aeroplane must be capable of a steady rate of climb at the minimum flight altitude (i.e. at least 1000ft above terrain adjacent to and along the flight path)

(b)

Two engines inoperative (applicable to four engine aeroplanes only). When at more than 90 minutes flying time (at 4 engine cruising speed) from an en-route alternate if two engines fail the aeroplane must be able to reach an alternate aerodrome without coming below the minimum flight altitude.

Landing distance.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (a)

Destination. The landing distance required at the aerodrome of intended landing, as determined from the flight manual, must not exceed a specified percentage of the landing distance available, (eg. for performance A aeroplanes it is 60% for turbo-jet; 70% for turbo-propeller powered aeroplanes). (Note. In terms of landing distance available (LDA), this means that the LDA for a turbo-jet aeroplane must be x 1.7 of the landing distance required and for a turbopropeller aeroplane, it must be x 1.43of the landing distance required).

(b)

Alternate. The landing distance at any alternate aerodrome must not exceed a specified percentage of the landing distance available, (eg. for performance A aeroplanes it is the same as for destination).

Aeroplane Instruments, Equipment and Flight Documents 69. Applicability. In addition to the minimum equipment necessary for the issuance of a certificate of airworthiness, the instruments, equipment and flight documents prescribed in Annex 6 must be installed or carried, as appropriate, in aeroplanes according to the aeroplane used and to the circumstances under which the flight is to be conducted. 70. Minimum equipment list. The operator shall include in the operations manual a minimum equipment list, approved by the State of the Operator which will enable the pilot-in-command to determine whether a flight may be commenced or continued from any intermediate stop should any instrument, equipment or systems become inoperative.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 71. Operating manual. The operator shall provide operations staff and flight crew with an aircraft operating manual, for each aircraft type operated, containing: (a)

normal operating procedures

(b)

abnormal and emergency operating procedures

(c)

details of aircraft systems

(d)

checklists to be used

(e)

the design of the manual must observe Human Factor principles.

Requirements for all Aeroplanes on all Flights 72. Instruments. An aeroplane shall be equipped with instruments which will enable the flight crew to control the flight path of the aeroplane, carry out any required procedural manoeuvres and observe the operating limitations of the aeroplane in the expected operating conditions. 73. Medical supplies. An aeroplane must carry accessible and adequate medical supplies appropriate to its passenger carrying capacity which should comprise:

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(a)

one or more first-aid kits; and

(b)

a medical kit, for the use of medical doctors or other qualified persons in treating inflight medical emergencies for aeroplanes authorised to carry more than 250 passengers.

© G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

International Commercial Air Transport Operations 74. Portable fire extinguishers. An aeroplane must carry portable fire extinguishers of a type which, when discharged, will not cause dangerous contamination of the air within the aeroplane. At least one shall be located in:

75.

(a)

the pilot’s compartment; and

(b)

each passenger compartment that is separate from the pilot’s compartment and that is not readily accessible to the flight crew.

Seats and seat belts. An aeroplane must be equipped with: (a)

a seat or berth for each person over an age to be determined by the State of the Operator.

(b)

a seat belt for each seat and restraining belts for each berth; and

(c)

a safety harness for each flight crew seat. The safety harness for each pilot seat shall incorporate a device which will automatically restrain the occupant’s torso in the event of rapid deceleration. The safety harness for each pilot seat should also incorporate a device to prevent a suddenly incapacitated pilot from interfering with the flight controls.

Note. Safety harness includes shoulder straps and a seat belt which may be used independently. 76. Passenger information. The aeroplane must be equipped with the means of ensuring that the following information and instructions are conveyed to passengers: (a)

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when seat belts are to be fastened;

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (b)

when and how oxygen equipment is to be used if the carriage of oxygen is required;

(c)

restrictions on smoking;

(d)

location and use of life jackets of equivalent individual flotation devices where their carriage is required; and

(e)

location and method of opening emergency exits; and

77. Fuses. Spare electrical fuses of appropriate ratings for replacement of those accessible in flight must be carried. 78.

Documents. An aeroplane must carry: (a)

the operations manual, or those parts of it that pertain to flight operations;

(b)

the flight manual for the aeroplane, or other document containing performance data and any other information necessary for the operation of the aeroplane within the terms of its certificate of airworthiness, unless this data is in the operations manual; and

(c)

current and suitable charts to cover the route of the proposed flight and any route along which it is reasonable to expect that the flight may be diverted.

Marking of Break-In Points 79. If areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by rescue crews in emergency are marked on an aeroplane such areas shall be marked as shown in Figure 2-1.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 80. The colour of the markings shall be red or yellow, and if necessary they shall be outlined in white to contrast with the background. 81. If the corner markings are more than 2 m apart, intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm shall be inserted so that there is no more than 2 m between adjacent marks.

FIGURE 2-1

Flight Recorders 82. Flight recorders comprise two systems, a flight data recorder (FDR) and a cockpit voice recorder (CVR).

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Flight Data Recorders 83.

Parameters to be recorded. A flight data recorder must be capable of recording: (a)

time;

(b)

altitude;

(c)

airspeed;

(d)

normal acceleration;

(e)

heading.

In addition, depending on the date of first issue of the Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A) a FDR should also be capable of recording parameters to determine pitch attitude, roll attitude, radio transmission keying and power on each engine. 84. Preservation of data. An FDR must with one exception be capable of retaining the last 25 hours of recording (usually achieved by running on a continuous 25 hour loop). The exception is the type known as Type IIA fitted on aircraft of maximum certificated take-off mass 27, 000kg or less which must be able to retain at least the last 30 minutes of recording. The operator is responsible for ensuring to the extent possible that if an aeroplane becomes involved in an accident or incident the FDR and recordings are retained in safe custody pending any accident inquiry/investigation.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 85. Construction, location and installation. Flight data recorders must be constructed, located and installed so as to provide maximum practical protection for the recordings in order that the recorded information may be preserved, recovered and transcribed. 86. Operation. Flight recorders must not be switched off during flight time but must be deactivated on completion of flight time or following an accident or incident.

Cockpit Voice Recorders 87. Objective of cockpit voice recorder. The objective of the cockpit voice recorder is the recording of the aural environment on the flight deck during flight time. 88. Preservation of records. A cockpit voice recorder must be capable of retaining information recorded in the last 30 minutes of its operation. 89. Construction and operation. The requirements for cockpit voice recorders are as for flight data recorders.

Equipment Required on Specific Types of Aeroplanes Flights VFR Flights 90.

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All aeroplanes when operated as VFR flights shall be equipped with: (a)

a magnetic compass;

(b)

an accurate time-piece indicating the time in hours, minutes and seconds;

(c)

a sensitive pressure altimeter;

© G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

International Commercial Air Transport Operations (d)

an airspeed indicator, and

(e)

such additional instruments or equipment as may be prescribed by the appropriate authority.

91. In addition, those VFR flights which are operated as controlled flights shall be equipped in accordance with IFR requirements.

IFR Flights 92. All aeroplanes when operated in accordance with IFR, or when the aeroplane cannot be maintained in a desired attitude without reference to one or more flight instrument, shall be equipped with: (a)

a magnetic compass;

(b)

an accurate timepiece indicating hours, minutes, and seconds;

(c)

two sensitive pressure altimeters (not 3 pointer nor drum pointer types);

(Note. The requirements of a, b) and c) may be met by combinations of instrument or by integrated flight director systems provided that the safeguards against total failure, inherent in the three separate instruments, are retained).

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(d)

airspeed indicating system with means of preventing malfunctioning due to condensation or icing;

(e)

a turn and slip indicator;

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (f)

an attitude indicator (artificial horizon);

(g)

a heading indicator (directional gyroscope);

(h)

a means of indicating whether the power supply to the gyroscopic instrument is adequate;

(i)

a means of indicating in the flight crew compartment the outside air temperature;

(j)

a rate-of-climb and descent indicator.

93. All aeroplanes over 5 700 kg – Emergency power supply of electrically operated attitude indicating instruments. 94. All aeroplanes of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5 700 kg newly introduced into service after 1 January 1975 shall be fitted with an emergency power supply, independent of the main electrical generating system, for the purpose of operating and illuminating, for a minimum period of 30 minutes, an attitude indicating instrument (artificial horizon), clearly visible to the pilotin-command.

Operating at Night 95.

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All aeroplanes, when operated at night shall be equipped with: (a)

all equipment specified under IFR Flight.

(b)

the lights required by Annex 2 for aircraft in flight or operating on the movement area of an aerodrome.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (c)

two landing lights;

(Note. Aeroplanes not certificated in accordance with Annex 8 which are equipped with a single landing light having two separately energised filaments will be considered to have complied with this requirement). (d)

illumination for all instruments and equipment that are essential for the safe operation of the aeroplane that are used by the flight crew;

(e)

lights in all passenger compartment; and

(f)

an electric torch for each crew member station.

Operating over Water - Land Planes 96. Requirement for life saving equipment. The carriage of life saving equipment is mandatory in the following cases:

Chapter 2 Page 32

(a)

Landplanes with two or more engines – when operating more than 93km (50nm) over water;

(b)

All other aeroplanes – when beyond gliding distance from land;

(c)

When taking off or landing at an aerodrome where, in the opinion of the State of the Operator, there is a likelihood of ditching in the event of a mishap occurring during take-off or approach.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 97. The equipment referred to above shall comprise one life jacket or equivalent individual floatation device for each person on board, stowed in a position easily accessible from the seat of berth of the person for whose it is provided.

All Aeroplanes on Long Range over Water Flights 98. In addition to the equipment prescribed previously the following equipment shall be installed in all aeroplanes when used over routes on which the aeroplane may be over water and at more than a distance corresponding to 120 minutes at cruising speed or 740 km (400 nm), whichever is the lesser, away from land suitable for making an emergency landing in the case of aeroplanes with 2 or more engines, and for all other aeroplanes, 30 minutes or 185 km (100 nm), whichever is the lesser: (a)

Life-saving rafts - in sufficient number to carry all persons on board, stowed so as to facilitate their ready use in emergency, provided with such life-saving equipment including means of sustaining life as is appropriate to the flight to be undertaken (e.g. food, water, protective clothing) and equipment for making the pyrotechnical distress signals described in Annex 2; and

(b)

Emergency locator Transmitter (ELT). All aeroplanes on long range over water flights must be equipped with at least two ELT(s).

99. Life Jackets. Each life jacket and equivalent individual floatation device, when carried shall be equipped with a means of electric illumination for the purpose of facilitating the location of persons.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Flights over Designated Land Areas 100. Aeroplanes when operated across land areas which have been designated by the State concerned as areas in which search and rescue would be especially difficult, shall be equipped with such signalling devices and life-saving equipment (including means of sustaining life), as may be appropriate to the area overflown. In addition, Annex 6 requires that at least one ELT shall also be carried.

High Altitude Flights 101. An aeroplane intended to be operated with atmospheric pressures less than 700 hPa in personnel compartments shall be equipped with oxygen storage and dispensing apparatus capable of storing and dispensing oxygen as described under ‘OXYGEN SUPPLY’.

Flight in Icing Conditions 102. All aeroplanes shall be equipped with anti-icing and/or de-icing devices when operating in circumstances in which icing conditions are reported to exist or are expected to be encountered.

Pressurised Aeroplanes when Carrying Passengers – Weather Radar 103. Pressurised aeroplanes when carrying passengers should be equipped with operative weather radar whenever such aeroplanes are being operated in areas where the thunderstorms or other potentially hazardous weather conditions, regarded as detectable with airborne weather radar, may be expected to exist along the route either at night or under instrument meteorological conditions.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations All Aeroplanes Operated above 15000m (49000 ft) - Radiation Indicator 104. All aeroplanes operated above 15,000 m (49,000 ft) shall carry equipment to measure and indicate continuously the dose rate of total cosmic radiation being received, and the cumulative dose on each flight. The display unit of the equipment shall be readily visible to a flight crew member.

All Aeroplanes Complying with the Noise Certification Standards 105.

An aeroplane shall carry a document attesting noise certification.

Note. The attestation may be contained in any document, carried on board, approved by the State of Registry.

Aeroplanes Requiring Mach Number Indicator 106. All aeroplanes with speed limitations expressed in terms of Mach number, shall be equipped with a Mach number indicator. Note. This does not preclude the use of the airspeed indicator to derive Mach number for ATS purposes.

Aeroplanes Requiring Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS) 107.

Aeroplanes in the following categories are required by Annex 6 to be equipped with GPWS: (a)

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Turbine-engined aeroplanes of more than 15000kg maximum certificated take-off mass or authorised to carry more than 30 passengers with a C of A issued on or after to 1 Jul 79;

© G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

International Commercial Air Transport Operations (Note. Annex 6 recommends that aeroplanes with a C of A issued prior to that date should have GPWS). (b)

Turbine-engined aeroplanes with a maximum certificated take-off mass of more than 5700kg or authorised to carry more than 9 passengers from 1 Jan 99;

(Note. Annex 6 recommends that this requirement should also apply to piston-engined aeroplanes meeting the same criteria). Information provided by GPWS. From 1 Jan 99, a GPWS must provide, as a minimum, warnings of the following:

Chapter 2 Page 36

(i)

excessive descent rate;

(ii)

excessive terrain closure rate;

(iii)

excessive altitude loss after take-off or go-around;

(iv)

unsafe terrain clearance while not in the landing configuration;

(v)

gear not locked down;

(vi)

flaps not in landing position;

(vii)

excessive descent below instrument glide path.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) 108. Master minimum equipment list (MMEL). The organisation responsible for the type design of an aircraft in conjunction with the State of Design is responsible for the production of a master minimum equipment list (MMEL). 109. MEL. The State of the Operator should require the operator to prepare a minimum equipment list (MEL) designed to allow operation of the aircraft with systems or equipment inoperative provided an acceptable level of safety is maintained. 110. Approval of MEL. The State of the Operator should indicate, through the approval of an MEL, those systems and items of equipment that may be inoperative for certain flight conditions but not for any other than those specified. 111. Multiple MEL items inoperative. Operators must ensure that no flight is commenced with multiple MEL items inoperative without determining that any interrelationship between inoperative systems or components will not result in an unacceptable degradation in the level of safety and/or undue increase in flight crew workload. 112. Placarding. Systems or equipment accepted as inoperative for such a flight should be placarded where appropriate and all such items noted in the aircraft technical log.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Aeroplane Communication and Navigation Equipment Communication Equipment 113.

An aeroplane shall be provided with radio communication equipment capable of: (a)

conducting two-way communication for aerodrome control purposes;

(b)

receiving meteorological information at any time during flight;

(c)

conducting two-way communication at any time during flight with at least one aeronautical station and with such other aeronautical stations and on such frequencies as may be prescribed by the appropriate authority.

114. The radio communication equipment required in accordance with the previous paragraph shall provide for communications on the aeronautical emergency frequency 121.5 MHz.

Navigation Equipment 115.

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An aeroplane shall be provided with navigation equipment which will enable it to proceed: (a)

in accordance with its operational flight plan; and

(b)

in accordance with prescribed RNP types; and

© G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

International Commercial Air Transport Operations (c)

in accordance with the requirements of air traffic services except when, if not so precluded by the appropriate authority, navigation for flights under the visual flight rules is accomplished by visual reference to landmarks.

116. Minimum navigation performance specification (MNPS). For flights in defined portions of airspace where, based on Regional Air Navigation Agreement, MNPS are prescribed, an aeroplane shall be provided with navigation equipment which: (a)

continuously provides indication to the flight crew of adherence to or departure from track to the required degree of accuracy at any point along that track; and

(b)

has been authorised by the State of the Operator for MNPS operations concerned.

Note. The prescribed minimum navigation performance specifications and the procedures governing their application are published in Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030). 117. Reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM). For flights in defined portions of airspace in which, by Regional Air Navigation Agreement, a reduced vertical separation minimum of 300m (1000ft) applies above FL 290, an aeroplane must be provided with equipment which is capable of:

Chapter 2 Page 39

(a)

indicating the FL being flown;

(b)

automatically maintaining a selected FL;

(c)

providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the selected FL. The threshold of detection of such a deviation must not exceed 90m (300ft); and,

(d)

automatically reporting pressure altitude.

© G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

International Commercial Air Transport Operations Such equipment must be authorised by the State of the Operator for operation in the airspace concerned. 118. Redundancy. The navigation equipment shall be so provided as to ensure that, in the event of the failure of one item of equipment at any stage of the flight, the remaining equipment will be sufficient to enable the aeroplane to continue in accordance with the above paragraphs. 119. Instrument Landing Systems. On flights in which it is intended to land in instrument meteorological conditions an aeroplane shall be provided with radio equipment capable receiving signals providing guidance to a point from which a visual landing can be effected. This equipment shall be capable of providing such guidance a each aerodrome at which it is intended to land in instrument meteorological conditions and at any designated alternate aerodromes. 120. The equipment installation shall be such that the failure of any single unit required for either communications or navigation purposes or both will not result in the failure of another unit required for communications or navigation purposes.

Aeroplane Maintenance Maintenance Release 121. The approved maintenance organisation is responsible for completing the required maintenance on a commercial aeroplane and indicating completion with a certificate called the ‘maintenance release’. The maintenance release is required to contain certification including:

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(a)

basic details of maintenance carried out;

(b)

date such maintenance was completed;

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (c)

when applicable, the identity of the approved maintenance organisation;

(d)

the identity of the person signing the release.

122. Responsibility of pilot-in-command. Annex 6 requires that a flight is not commenced until the pilot-in-command has checked that the maintenance release has been issued and that it contains all the details required.

Aeroplane Flight Crew Composition of the Flight Crew 123. The number and composition of the flight crew shall not be less than that specified in the operations manual. The flight crews shall include flight crew members in addition to the minimum numbers specified in the certificate of airworthiness of the aeroplane of the aeroplane flight manual or other document associated with the certificate of airworthiness, when necessitated by considerations related to the type of aeroplane used, the type of operation involved and the duration of flight between points where flight crews are changed. 124. Radio Operator. The flight crew shall include at least one member who holds a valid licence, issued or rendered valid by the state of Registry, authorising operation of the type of radio transmitting equipment to be used. 125. Flight Engineer. When a separate flight engineer’s station is incorporated in the design of an aeroplane, the flight crew shall include at least one flight engineer especially assigned to that station, unless the duties associated with that station can be satisfactorily performed by another flight crew member, holding a flight engineer licence, without interference with regular duties.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 126. Flight Navigator. The flight crew shall include at least one member who hold a flight navigator licence in all operations where, as determined by the State of the Operator, navigation necessary for the safe conduct of the flight cannot be adequately accomplished by the pilots from the pilot station.

Flight Crew Member Training Programmes 127. An operator shall establish and maintain a ground and flight training programme, approved by the State of the Operator, which ensures that all flight crew members are adequately trained to perform their assigned duties. 128. The requirement for recurrent flight training in a particular type of aeroplane shall be considered fulfilled by: (a)

the use, to the extent deemed feasible by the State of the Operator, of aeroplane synthetic flight trainers approved by that State for that purpose; or

(b)

the completion within the appropriate period of the proficiency check required in that type of aeroplane.

Qualifications 129. Recent Experience – Pilot-In-Command. An operator shall not assign a pilot to act as pilot-incommand of an aeroplane unless, on the same type of aeroplane within the preceding 90 days, that pilot has made at least three take-offs and landings.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 130. Recent Experience – Co-Pilot. An operator shall not assign a co-pilot to serve at the flight controls during take-off and landing unless, on the same type of aeroplane within the proceeding 90 days, that co-pilot has served as pilot-in-command or co-pilot at the flight controls or has otherwise demonstrated competence to act as co-pilot on a flight simulator approved for the purpose.

Pilot-In-Command Route and Airport Qualification An operator shall not utilise a pilot as pilot-in-command of an aeroplane on a route or route segment for which that pilot is not currently qualified until such pilot has complied with the following paragraphs. 131. of:

Route Knowledge. Each such pilot shall demonstrate to the operator an adequate knowledge (a)

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The route to be flown, and the aerodromes which are to be used. This shall include knowledge of: (i)

the terrain and minimum safe altitudes;

(ii)

the seasonal meteorological conditions;

(iii)

the meteorological, communication and air traffic facilities, services and procedures;

(iv)

the search and rescue procedures; and

(v)

the navigational facilities and procedures, including and long-range navigation procedures, associated with the route along which the flight is to take place; and

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (b)

Procedures applicable to flight paths over heavily populated areas and areas of high air traffic density, obstructions, physical layout, lighting, approach aids and arrival, departure, holding and instrument approach procedures, and applicable operating minima.

Note. The portion of the demonstration relating to arrival, departure, holding and instrument approach procedures may be accomplished in an appropriate training device which is adequate for this purpose. 132. Aerodrome knowledge. A pilot-in-command shall have made an actual approach into each aerodrome of landing on the route, accompanied by a pilot who is qualified for the aerodrome, as a member of the flight crew or as an observer on the flight deck, unless:

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(c)

the approach to the aerodrome is not over difficult terrain and the instrument approach procedures and aids available are similar to those with which the pilot is familiar, and a margin to be approved by the State of the Operator is added to the normal operating minima, or there is reasonable certainty that approach and landing can be made in visual meteorological conditions; or

(d)

the descent from the initial approach altitude can be made by day in visual meteorological conditions; or

(e)

the operator qualifies the pilot-in-command to land at the aerodrome concerned by means of an adequate pictorial presentation; or

(f)

the aerodrome concerned is adjacent to another aerodrome at which the pilot-incommand is currently qualified to land.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 133. Recency. An operator shall not continue to utilise a pilot as a pilot-in-command on a route unless, with the preceding 12 months, the pilot has made at least one trip between the terminal points of that route as a pilot member of the flight crew, or as a check pilot, or as an observer on the flight deck. (Note. In the event that more than 12 months elapse in which a pilot has not made such a trip on a route in close proximity and over similar terrain, prior to again serving as a pilot-in-command on that route, that pilot must requalify in accordance with the preceeding guidelines).

Pilot Proficiency Checks 134. Requirement for 6 monthly checks. An operator shall ensure that piloting technique and the ability to execute emergency procedures is checked in such a way as to demonstrate the pilot’s competence. Where the operation may be conducted under instrument flight rules, an operator shall ensure that the pilot’s competence to comply with such rules is demonstrated to either a check pilot of the operator or to a representative of the State of the Operator. Such checks shall be performed twice within any period of one year. Any two such checks which are similar and which occur within a period of four consecutive months shall not alone satisfy this requirement. Note. Flight simulators approved by the State of the Operator may be used for those parts of the checks for which they are specifically approved.

Flight Crew Use of Correcting Lenses 135. A flight crew member assessed as fit to exercise the privileges of a licence subject to the use of suitable correcting lenses, shall have a spare set of the correcting lenses readily available when exercising those privileges.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Manuals, Logs and Records Operations Manual 136. Annex 6 specifies the content of the Operations Manual that must be provided by the operator for the guidance of operations personnel (including crew/flight crew of a commercial aircraft). The manual must contain at least the information/instructions contained in the following list. (Candidates please note we consider the detailed sub-list at item (e) to be to long to memorise in detail for examination purposes and suggest it be regarded as general information only.) (a)

Responsibilities of personnel for the conduct of a flight including: (i)

checklists for emergency and safety equipment;

(ii)

minimum equipment list and any requirements regarding RNP airspace;

(iii)

refuelling safety precautions with passengers on board.

(b)

Accident prevention and flight safety. Details of policy and responsibilities.

(c)

Training. Details of flight and cabin crew training programmes.

(d)

Fatigue and flight time limitations. Details of rules and flight duty periods for flight and cabin crew.

(e)

Flight operations. Instructions pertaining operating matters such as: (i)

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flight crew required and designation of succession of command;

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

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(ii)

emergency and in-flight duties;

(iii)

fuel/oil calculations required including engine failure considerations;

(iv)

use of oxygen;

(v)

ground de/anti icing;

(vi)

operational flight plan specifications;

(vii)

checklists and their use, (normal, abnormal and emergency and systems information);

(viii)

standard operating procedures (SOP) for each phase of flight.

(f)

Aeroplane performance.

(g)

Route guides and charts.

(h)

Minimum flight altitudes. Method of determining the minimum flight altitude for the route flown.

(i)

Aerodrome operating minima (AOM). Details of minima to be used including after engine failure.

(j)

Search and rescue. Ground-air visual code and procedures to be followed by the pilotin-command observing an accident.

(k)

Dangerous goods. Instructions for carriage including action required in emergencies.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (l)

Navigation. List of navigation equipment to be carried including any RNP requirements.

(m)

Communications. Maintenance of radio listening watch.

(n)

Security.

(o)

Human factors.

Maintenance Release 137. A maintenance release shall contain a certification as to the satisfactory completion of maintenance work carried out in a accordance with the methods prescribed in the maintenance manual. The pilot-in-command is required to check that a certificate of maintenance release has been issued, where necessary as part of the flight preparation.

Journey Log Book 138. The Chicago Convention requires that each aircraft engaged in international air navigation must have a journey log book. The aeroplane journey logbook should contain the following items (and corresponding Roman numerals):

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(i)

Aeroplane nationality and registration.

(ii)

Date.

(iii)

Names of crew members.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations (iv)

Duty assignments of crew members.

(v)

Place of departure.

(vi)

Place of arrival.

(vii)

Time of departure.

(viii)

Time of arrival.

(ix)

Hours of flight.

(x)

Nature of flight (private, aerial work, scheduled or non-scheduled).

(xi)

Incidents, observations, if any.

(xii)

Signature of person in charge.

139. Entries in the journey logbook are to be made concurrently and are to be permanent in nature. 140. The Completed journey logbook should be retained to provide a continuous record of the last six months’ operations.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations

Records of Emergency and Survival Equipment Carried 141. Operators shall at all times have available for immediate communication to rescue coordination centres, lists containing information on the emergency and survival equipment carried on board any of their aeroplanes engaged in international air navigation. The information shall include as applicable: (a)

life rafts (number, colour and type);

(b)

pyrotechnics;

(c)

emergency medical supplies;

(d)

water supplies;

(e)

emergency portable radio equipment (type and frequencies).

Security Note. In the context of ICAO Annex 6, ‘security’ is used in the sense of prevention of illegal acts against civil aviation. 142. Security of the Flight Crew Compartment. In all aeroplanes which are equipped with a flight crew compartment door, this door should be capable of being locked from within the compartment only.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations 143. Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist. An operator shall ensure that there is on board a checklist of the procedures to be followed in searching for a bomb in case of suspected sabotage. The checklist shall be supported by guidance on the course to be taken should a bomb or suspicious object be found and information on the least-risk bomb location specific to the aeroplane. 144. Reporting Acts of Unlawful Interference. Following an act of unlawful interference the pilotin-command shall submit, without delay, a report of such an act to the designated local authority.

Lights To Be Displayed By Aeroplanes 145.

Terminology in relation to aircraft lights:

Angle of coverage. This is a specified angle through which an aircraft light must be visible.

Horizontal plane.

The plane containing the longitudinal axis and perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the aeroplane.

Longitudinal axis of the aeroplane. A selected axis parallel to the direction of flight at a normal cruising speed, and passing through the centre of gravity of the aeroplane. Making way.

An aeroplane on the surface of the water is ‘making way’ when it is under way and has a velocity relative to the water. (Note, the same term is used in relation to an airship with respect to the air).

Under command. An aeroplane on the surface of the water is "under command" when it is able to execute manoeuvres as required by the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea for the purpose of avoiding other vessels. (See note above under ‘Making way’.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Under way. An aeroplane on the surface of the water is "under way" when it is not aground or moored to the ground or to any fixed object on the land or in the water. Vertical planes. Visible.

Planes perpendicular to the horizontal plane.

Visible on a dark night with a clear atmosphere.

Navigation Lights to be Displayed in the Air 146.

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As illustrated in Figure 2-2, the following unobstructed navigation lights shall be displayed. (a)

a red light projected above and below the horizontal plane through angle of coverage 110°

(b)

a green light projected above and below the horizontal plane through angle of coverage 110°

(c)

a white light projected above and below the horizontal plane rearward through angle of coverage 140°

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations FIGURE 2-2 Navigation Lights

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations Self Assessed Exercise No. 1 QUESTIONS: QUESTION 1. List the components of aerodrome operating minima for take-off and landing. QUESTION 2. List the main contents of the aircraft operating manual. QUESTION 3. Define configuration deviation list (CDL) QUESTION 4. Define decision altitude/height QUESTION 5. Define flight time QUESTION 6. Describe the difference between precision and non-precision instrument approach systems QUESTION 7. List the ICAO minima for CAT I, II, III approaches.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 8. State which organisation is responsible for the MMEL. QUESTION 9. Describe the purpose of the operational flight plan. QUESTION 10. State the meaning of RNP 4. QUESTION 11. State the meaning of the term ‘Authority’ as used in ICAO Annex 6. QUESTION 12. State the main rule regarding the in-flight simulation of emergencies. QUESTION 13. List the factors to be considered in establishing minimum flight altitudes. QUESTION 14. List the factors to be taken into account in establishing aerodrome operating minima QUESTION 15. State when seatbelts must be secured by passengers.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 16. List the items to be checked by the pilot-in-command prior to flight. QUESTION 17. With regard to international commercial flights, state when a take-off alternate must be selected and specified in the operational flight plan. QUESTION 18. State the maximum distance of a take-off alternate for a twin engined aeroplane. QUESTION 19. State when a destination alternate is not required by an IFR flight. QUESTION 20. State the minimum fuel reserve required at the most critical alternate by a propeller driven aeroplane. QUESTION 21. Where an isolated destination has no suitable alternate, state the minimum fuel reserve at the destination. QUESTION 22. State the minimum reserve fuel at the alternate required by a turbo-jet aeroplane.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 23. State the minimum fuel required by a turbo-jet aeroplane at an isolated destination. QUESTION 24. State the precautions required to be observed when refuelling operations take place with passengers on board QUESTION 25. State the minimum amount of stored 02 required on an unpressurised aeroplane; for flight between 10,000 and 13,000ft for flight >13,000ft QUESTION 26. State when flight crew members are required to have their seat belts fastened. QUESTION 27. State when the pilot-in-command must report an aeroplane accident

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 28. State the minimum landing distance that must be available at the destination as a proportion of the landing distance required for: a turbo-jet aeroplane a turbo-prop aeroplane QUESTION 29. State, in which document, the MEL must be included. QUESTION 30. State the minimum requirement for the carriage of portable fire extinguishers. QUESTION 31. List the 5 basic parameters that a FDR must be capable of recording. QUESTION 32. State the length of time for which a FDR recording must be preserved. QUESTION 33. For what period of time must a cockpit voice recording be preserved. QUESTION 34. List the minimum equipment for a VFR flight.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 35. When must a VFR flight carry IFR equipment. QUESTION 36. State the minimum period that an emergency power supply for the altitude indicator must be available. QUESTION 37. State when the carriage of life saving equipment by landplanes equipped with two or more engines is mandatory. QUESTION 38. When must aeroplanes with two or more engines carry life-rafts. QUESTION 39. Above what altitude must cosmic radiation monitoring equipment be carried. QUESTION 40. When must turbine-engined aeroplanes carry GPWS. QUESTION 41. Who approves the MEL.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 42. State where MNPS procedures are published. QUESTION 43. State when ILS must be carried. QUESTION 44. List the contents of the certificate of maintenance release. QUESTION 45. State the minimum recency experience required to act as pilot-in-command. QUESTION 46. Commercial pilots are required to undertake proficiency checks at what intervals. QUESTION 47. List the contents of the journey log book. QUESTION 48. List the information on aeroplane emergency and survival equipment which the operator must be able to provide when required. QUESTION 49. Following an act of unlawful interference, what action must the pilot-in-command carry out.

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations QUESTION 50. Through what angle of coverage in azimuth navigation

ANSWERS: ANSWER 1. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071- Chapter 1-Para 1 Page 1-1 ANSWER 2. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-1/2 ANSWER 3. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-3 ANSWER 4. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-3

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 5. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-4 ANSWER 6. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-4 ANSWER 7. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-5 ANSWER 8. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-6 ANSWER 9. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-7

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 10. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-1-1 Page 1-7 ANSWER 11. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-1 Page 2-1 ANSWER 12. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-16 Page 2-3 ANSWER 13. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-19 Page 2-3 ANSWER 14. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-21 Page 2-4

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 15. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-24 Page 2-5 ANSWER 16. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-25 Page 2-5 ANSWER 17. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-29 Page 2-6 ANSWER 18. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-30 Page 2-6 ANSWER 19. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-33 Page 2-7

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 20. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-38 Page 2-8 ANSWER 21. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-39 Page 2-8 ANSWER 22. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-40 Page 2-9 ANSWER 23. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-41 Page 2-9 ANSWER 24. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-43/44 Page 2-10

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 25. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-45 Page 2-11 ANSWER 26. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-51 Page 2-11 ANSWER 27. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-56 Page 2-12 ANSWER 28. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-68 Page 2-15 ANSWER 29. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-70 Page 2-15

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 30. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-74 Page 2-16 ANSWER 31. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-83 Page 2-18 ANSWER 32. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-84 Page 2-19 ANSWER 33. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-88 Page 2-19 ANSWER 34. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-90 Page 2-19

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 35. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-91 Page 2-20 ANSWER 36. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-94 Page 2-20 ANSWER 37. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-96 Page 2-21 ANSWER 38. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-98 Page 2-22 ANSWER 39. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-104 Page 2-23

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 40. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-107 Page 2-23 ANSWER 41. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-110 Page 2-24 ANSWER 42. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-116 Page 2-26 ANSWER 43. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-119 Page 2-26 ANSWER 44. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-121 Page 2-27

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 45. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-129 Page 2-28 ANSWER 46. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-134 Page 2-30 ANSWER 47. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-138 Page 2-32 ANSWER 48. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-141 Page 2-33 ANSWER 49. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-144 Page 2-33

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International Commercial Air Transport Operations ANSWER 50. JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00 071-2-146 Page 2-34

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071 Operational Procedures

JAR-OPS Requirements Introduction General Requirements for Commercial Operation Information and Document Requirements Operator Certification and Supervision Requirements Operational Procedures - Operator Requirements All Weather Operations Requirements Instrument And Equipment Requirements Communication And Navigation Equipment Requirements Aeroplane Maintenance Requirements

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JAR-OPS Requirements

3

JAR-OPS Requirements

Introduction 1. The Civil Aviation Authorities of certain European countries have agreed common comprehensive and detailed aviation requirements, referred to as the Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) in order to harmonise aircraft Type Certification requirements, maintenance procedures, regulation of commercial air transport operations and to facilitate the export and import of aviation products. 2. ICAO Annex 6 has been selected to provide the basic structure of JAR-OPS added to where necessary by making use of existing European regulations and the Federal aviation Requirements of the USA where acceptable. 3. JAR-OPS Part 1 prescribes requirements applicable to the operation of any civil aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air transportation by any operator whose principal place of business is in a JAA Member State. The requirements of JAR-OPS Part 1 are applicable for operators of all aeroplanes from no later than 1 October 1999. (Note. In the following notes where information is extracted from JAR-OPS 1 the JAR-OPS reference number is quoted for information only).

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JAR-OPS Requirements

General Requirements for Commercial Operation 4.

Miscellaneous requirements prescribed in JAR-OPS 1 are:

JAR-OPS Minimum Equipment Lists - Operators Responsibilities (1.030). An operator is required to establish, for each aeroplane, a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) approved by the Authority (eg in the UK the Authority is the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). The MEL shall be based but no less restrictive than the relevant Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) (if this exists) produced by the organisation responsible for the type design of the aeroplane and accepted by the State of Registry.

JAR-OPS1.035 Quality System An operator shall establish one quality system and designate one quality manager to monitor compliance with, and adequacy of, procedures required to ensure safe operational practices and airworthy aeroplanes.

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(a)

The quality system must include a quality assurance programme that contains procedures designed to verify that all operations are being conducted in accordance with all applicable requirements, standards and procedures.

(b)

The quality system, and the quality manager, must be acceptable to the Authority.

(c)

The quality system must be described in relevant documentation.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS1.040 Additional Crew Members An operator shall ensure that crew members who are not required flight or cabin crew members, have also been trained in, and are proficient to perform, their assigned duties.

JAR-OPS1.075 Method of Carriage of Persons No person shall be in any part of the aeroplane in flight which is not a part designed for the accommodation of persons unless temporary access has been granted by the commander to any part of the aeroplane: (a)

For the purpose of taking action necessary for the safety of the aeroplane or of any person, animal or goods therein; or

(b)

In which cargo or stores are carried, being a part which is designed to enable a person to have access thereto while the aeroplane is in flight.

.

JAR-OPS 1.100 Admission to Flight Deck An operator must ensure that no person, other than a flight crew member assigned to a flight, is admitted to, or carried in, the flight deck unless that person is:

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(a)

An operating crew member;

(b)

A representative of the Authority responsible for certification, licensing or inspection if this is required for the performance of his official duties; or

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.100 Admission to Flight Deck (c)

Permitted by, and carried in accordance with instructions contained in the Operations Manual.

The commander shall ensure that: •

In the interests of safety, admission to the flight deck does not cause distraction and/or interfere with the operation of the flight; and

•

All persons carried on the flight deck are made familiar with the relevant safety procedures.

The final decision regarding the admission to the flight deck shall be the responsibility of the commander.

JAR-OPS1.105 Unauthorised Carriage An operator shall take all reasonable measures to ensure that no person secretes himself or secretes cargo on board an aeroplane.

JAR-OPS1.110 Portable Electronic Devices An operator shall not permit any person to use, and take all reasonable measures to ensure that no person does use, on board an aeroplane a portable electronic device that can adversely affect the performance of the aeroplane’s systems and equipment.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS1.120 Endangering Safety An operator shall take all reasonable measures to ensure that no person recklessly or negligently acts or omits to act: (a)

so as to endanger an aeroplane or person therein; or,

(b)

so as to cause or permit an aeroplane to endanger any person or property.

Information and Document Requirements 5.

Documentary requirements prescribed in JAR-OPS 1 are:

:

JAR-OPS1.125 Documents to be Carried An operator is required to ensure that the following documents or copies thereof are carried on each flight

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(a)

Certificate of Registration;

(b)

Certificate of Airworthiness;

(c)

Noise certificate (if applicable);

(d)

Air Operator Certificate;

(e)

Aircraft Radio Licence; and

(f)

Third party Liability Insurance Certificate.

(g)

Each flight crew member is required to carry a valid flight crew licence and appropriate rating(s) on every flight.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.130 Carriage of Manuals An operator is required to ensure that: (a)

the current parts of the Operation Manual relevant to the duties of the crew are carried on each flight in a position easily accessible to the crew; and

(b)

The current Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM) is carried in the aeroplane unless the Authority has accepted that the Operations Manual contains relevant information for that aeroplane.

JAR-OPS 1.135 Additional Information and Forms to be Carried An operator shall ensure that, the following information and form, relevant to the type and area of operation, are carried out on each flight:

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(a)

Operational Flight Plan;

(b)

Aeroplane Technical Log;

(c)

Details of the filed ATS flight plan;

(d)

Appropriate NOTAM/AIS briefing documentation;

(e)

Appropriate meteorological information;

(f)

Mass and balance documentation;

(g)

Notification of special categories of passenger such as security personnel, if not considered as crew, handicapped persons, inadmissible passengers, deportees and persons in custody;

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.135 Additional Information and Forms to be Carried (h)

Notification of special loads including dangerous goods including written information to the commander;

(i)

Current maps and charts and associated documents;

(j)

Any other documentation which may be required by the States concerned with this flight, such as cargo manifest, passenger manifest etc; and

(k)

Forms to comply with the reporting requirements of the Authority and the operator.

The Authority may permit the information detailed in sub-paragraph (a) above, or parts thereof, to be presented in a form other than on printed paper. An acceptable standard of accessibility, usability and reliability must be assured.

JAR-OPS 1.140 Information Retained on the Ground by the Operator An operator shall ensure that: (a)

(b)

At least for the duration of each flights or series of flights; (i)

information relevant to the flight and appropriate for the type of operation is preserved on the ground; and

(ii)

the information is retained until it has been duplicated at the place at which it will be stored; or, if this is impracticable,

(iii)

the same information is carried in a fireproof container in the aeroplane.

the information to be retained referred to in subparagraph (a) (i) above includes: (i)

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A copy of the operational flight plan where appropriate;

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.140 Information Retained on the Ground by the Operator (ii)

Copies of the relevant part(s) of the aeroplane technical log;

(iii)

Route specific NOTAM documentation if specifically edited by the operator;

(iv)

Mass and balance documentation if required (JAR-OPS 1.625 refers); and

(v)

Special loads notification.

JAR-OPS 1.145 Power to Inspect - Operators’ Responsibility An operator shall ensure that any person authorised by the Authority is permitted at any time to board and fly in any aeroplane operated in accordance with an AOC issued by that Authority and to enter and remain on the flight deck provided that the commander may refuse access to the flight deck if, in his opinion, the safety of the aeroplane would thereby be endangered.

JAR-OPS 1.150 Production of Documentation and Records The responsibilities of the operator and pilot-in command are (a)

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The operator shall: (i)

give any person authorised by the Authority access to any documents and records which are related to flight operations or maintenance; and

(ii)

produce all such documents and records, when requested to do so by the Authority, within a reasonable period of time.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.150 Production of Documentation and Records (b)

the pilot-in command shall, within a reasonable time of being requested to do so by a person authorised by an Authority, produce to that person the documentation required to be carried on board.

JAR-OPS 1.155 Preservation of Documentation An operator shall ensure that: (a)

any original documentation, or copies thereof, that he is required to preserve is preserved for the required retention period even if he ceases to be the operator of the aeroplane; and

(b)

where a crew member, in respect of whom an operator has kept a record of flight times, becomes a crew member for another operator, that record is made available to the new operator.

Leasing of Aircraft (JAR-OPS 1.165) 6. An operator is permitted to operate an aeroplane(s) for the purpose of commercial air transport only under the terms of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC). The AOC holder does not have to be the owner of the aeroplanes used provided they are leased in accordance with JAR-OPS requirements.

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JAR-OPS Requirements Terminology 7.

The principle terms used in leasing are: (a)

Dry Lease. In this case the aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessee.

(b)

Wet Lease. In this case the aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessor.

(c)

JAA Operator. This term describes an operator certificated under JAR-OPS 1 by a JAA member state.

Types of Lease 8.

9.

Leasing arrangements between JAA operators. (a)

Wet Lease-out. In this situation a JAA operator provides an aeroplane and complete crew to another JAA operator but retains all the functions and responsibilities prescribed for an AOC holder and remains the operator of the aeroplane. The prior approval of the Authority is not required in this case.

(b)

All Leases except Wet Lease-out. Prior approval by the Authority is required in all cases. Any conditions which are part of this approval must be included in the lease agreement.

Leasing between JAA and non-JAA operators. (a)

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Dry Lease-in by JAA Operator. The dry lease-in must be approved by the Authority and differences from the requirements for aircraft equipment specified in JAR-OPS must be notified to and approved by the Authority.

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JAR-OPS Requirements (b)

Wet Lease-in by JAA Operator. The wet lease-in must be approved by the Authority. Furthermore, the JAA operator is required to ensure that: (i)

the safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation are equivalent to JARs;

(ii)

the lessor holds an AOC issued by a State which is signatory to the Chicago Convention;

(iii)

the aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Authorisation issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8.

(iv)

any JAA requirement made applicable by the Lessees’ Authority is complied with.

(Note. A JAA operator is permitted to wet lease-in without prior approval if the situation is urgent. The lessor must hold an AOC issued by a Chicago Convention State, the lease must not exceed 5 consecutive days and the Authority must be informed immediately). (c)

Dry Lease-out by JAA Operator. A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane to any operator of a Chicago Convention signatory State providing: (i)

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the Authority has exempted the JAA operator from its relevant AOC responsibilities and after the Authority of the lessee has accepted responsibility for monitoring the maintenance and operation of the aeroplane, has removed it from the AOC and;

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JAR-OPS Requirements (ii) (d)

the aeroplane is maintained according to an approved maintenance programme.

Wet lease-out by JAA Operator. A JAA operator providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another non-JAA operator retaining all the functions and responsibilities as AOC holder remains the operator of the aeroplane.

Operator Certification and Supervision Requirements 10.

The JAR-OPS rules applicable to Air Operator Certification are:

JAR-OPS 1.175 General Rules for Air Operator Certification

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(a)

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air transportation otherwise, other than under, and in accordance with, the terms and conditions of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC).

(b)

An applicant for an AOC, or variation of an AOC, shall allow the Authority to examine all safety aspects of the proposed operation.

(c)

An applicant for an AOC must: (i)

not hold an AOC issued by another Authority unless specifically approved by the Authorities concerned;

(ii)

have his principal place of business, and, if any, his registered office located in the State responsible for issuing the AOC;

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.175 General Rules for Air Operator Certification (iii)

have registered the aeroplanes which are to be operated under the AOC in the State responsible for issuing the AOC; and

(iv)

satisfy the Authority that he is able to conduct safe operations.

•

that every flight is conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Operations Manual.

•

appropriate ground handling facilities are available to ensure the safe handling of its flights.

•

that its aeroplanes are equipped and its crews are qualified, as required for the area and type of operation.

•

it complies with the maintenance requirements, under the terms of its AOC.

•

the Authority is provided with a copy of the Operations Manual, and all amendments or revisions to it.

•

operational support facilities at the main operating base are maintained and are appropriate for the area and type of operation.

JAR-OPS 1.180 Issue, Variation and Validation of an AOC An operator will not be granted an AOC, or a variation to an AOC or a revalidation of an AOC unless: (a)

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its aeroplanes have standard C of A issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8 by a JAA member State

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.180 Issue, Variation and Validation of an AOC (b)

the maintenance system has been approved by the Authority;

(c)

the organisational, quality system, training and maintenance requirements can be maintained.

Operational Procedures - Operator Requirements 11.

The operators’ responsibilities are:

JAR-OPS1.195 Operational Control and Supervision An operator shall exercise operational control and establish and maintain a method of supervision of flight operations approved by the Authority.

JAR-OPS1.200 Operations Manual An operator must provide an operations manual of the approved type for the use and guidance of operations personnel.

JAR-OPS1.205 Training of Personnel An operator is responsible for training all personnel involved in ground or flight operations.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS1.210 Standardisation of Procedures An operator is required to establish: (a)

procedures and instructions, for each aeroplane type, for the duties of ground and flight operations personnel;

(b)

a checklist system to be used by crew members for all phases of operation under, normal, abnormal and emergency conditions as applicable in accordance with the operations manual;

(Note. An operator shall not require a crew member to perform any activities during a critical phase of flight other than those required for the safe operation of the aeroplane.)

JAR-OPS1.215 Use of Air Traffic Services An operator shall ensure that Air Traffic Services are used for all flights whenever available.

JAR-OPS1.230 Use of Instrument Departure and Approach Procedures

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(a)

An operator shall ensure that instrument departure and approach procedures established by the State in which the aerodrome is located are used.

(b)

Notwithstanding subparagraph (a) above, a commander may accept an ATC clearance to deviate from a published departure or arrival route, provided obstacle clearance criteria are observed and full account is taken of the operating conditions.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS1.230 Use of Instrument Departure and Approach Procedures (c)

Different procedures to those required to be used in accordance with sub-paragraph (a) above may only be implemented by an operator provided they have been approved by the State in which the aerodrome is located, if required and accepted by the Authority.

JAR-OPS 1.235 Noise Abatement Procedures An operator must establish noise abatement procedures in compliance with ICAO PANS OPS Vol 1(Doc 8168). The take-off climb procedures for noise abatement specified by an operator for any one aeroplane type should be the same for all aerodromes.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS1.240 Routes and Areas of Operation An operator is required to ensure that operations are only conducted along such routes or within such areas for which: (a)

ground facilities and services including meteorological services, are adequate for the flight;

(b)

aeroplane performance is adequate to comply with minimum flight altitudes;

(c)

the aeroplane is suitably equipped;

(d)

appropriate maps and charts are available;

(e)

if two-engined aeroplanes are used, adequate aerodromes are available within the time/distance limitations specified in JAR-OPS;

(f)

if single engined aeroplanes are used, surfaces are available that will permit a safe forced landing to be executed.

JAR-OPS1.260 Carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility

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(a)

An operator shall establish procedures for the carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility (PRMs).

(b)

An operator shall ensure that PRMs are not allocated, nor occupy, seats where their presence could:

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS1.260 Carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility

(c)

(i)

impede the crew in their duties;

(ii)

obstruct access to emergency equipment; or

(iii)

impede the emergency evacuation of the aeroplane.

The commander must be notified when PRMs are to be carried on board.

JAR-OPS 1.265 Carriage of inadmissible passengers, deportees or persons in custody An operator shall establish procedures for the transportation of inadmissible passengers, deportees or persons in custody to ensure the safety of the aeroplane and its occupants. The commander must be notified when such persons are to be carried on board.

JAR-OPS1.270 Stowage of baggage and cargo

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(a)

An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that only such hand baggage is carried into an aeroplane and taken into the passenger cabin as can be adequately and securely stowed.

(b)

An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that all baggage and cargo on board, which might cause injury or damage, or obstruct aisles and exits if displaced, is placed in stowage’s designed to prevent movement.

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JAR-OPS Requirements Appendix 1 to JAR-OPS1.270 Stowage of baggage and cargo Procedures established by an operator to ensure that hand baggage and cargo is adequately and securely stowed must take account of the following:

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1.

Each item carried in a cabin must be stowed only in a location that is capable of restraining it;

2.

Mass limitations placarded on or adjacent to stowage’s must not be exceeded;

3.

Underseat stowages must not be used unless the seat is equipped with a restraint bar and the baggage is equipped with a restraint bar and the baggage is of such size that it may adequately be restrained by this equipment.

4.

Items must not be stowed in toilets or against bulkheads that are incapable of restraining articles against movement forwards, sideways or upwards and unless the bulkheads carry a placard specifying the greatest mass that may be placed there;

5.

Baggage and cargo placed in lockers must not be of such size that they prevent latched doors from being closed securely;

6.

Baggage and cargo must not be placed where it can impede access to emergency equipment; and

7.

Checks must be made before take-off, before landing, and whenever the pilot-in-command illuminates the fasten seat belts signs (or otherwise so orders) to ensure that baggage is stowed where it cannot impede evacuation from the aircraft or cause injury by falling (or other movement) as may be appropriate to the phase of flight.

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JAR-OPS Requirements

JAR-OPS 1.280 Passenger Seating An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that passengers are seated where, in the event that an emergency evacuation is required, they may best assist and not hinder evacuation from the aeroplane.

JAR-OPS1.325 Security of passenger cabin and galley(s) (a)

An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that before taxying, take-off and landing all exits and escape paths are unobstructed.

(b)

The commander shall ensure that before take-off and landing, and whenever deemed necessary in the interest of safety, all equipment and baggage is properly secured.

JAR-OPS1.335 Smoking on board The commander shall ensure that no person on board is allowed to smoke;

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1.

Whenever deemed necessary in the interest of safety;

2.

While the aeroplane is on the ground unless specifically permitted in accordance with procedures defined in the Operations Manual;

3.

Outside designated smoking areas, in the aisle(s) and in the toilet(s);

4.

In cargo compartments and/or other areas where cargo is carried which is not stored in flame resistant containers or covered by flame resistant canvas; and

5.

In those areas of the cabin where oxygen is being supplied.

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JAR-OPS Requirements JAR-OPS 1.355 Take-off conditions Before commencing take-off, a commander must satisfy himself that, according to the information available to him, the weather at the aerodrome and the condition of the runway intended to be used should not prevent a safe take-off and departure.

JAR-OPS1.360 Application of take-off minima Before commencing take-off, a commander must satisfy himself that the RVR or visibility in the take-off direction of the aeroplane is equal to or better than the applicable minimum.

All Weather Operations Requirements Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM) Operators Responsibilities 12. An operator is required by JAR-OPS 1.430 to establish, for each aerodrome planned to be used, aerodrome operating minima that are not lower than the values specified in JAR-OPS. The method of determining such minima must be acceptable to the Authority and the minima must not be lower than any established by the State in which the aerodromes are located (except when specifically approved by that State.) 13. The requirements given above do not prohibit the in-flight calculation of minima for an unplanned alternate aerodrome if carried out in accordance with an accepted method.

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JAR-OPS Requirements Factors Considered in Calculating Minima 14. In establishing aerodrome operating minima for a particular operation the operator must take full account of:

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(a)

aeroplane type, performance and handling characteristics;

(b)

flight crew composition, competence and experience;

(c)

runway dimensions and characteristics;

(d)

visual and non-visual ground aids available;

(e)

aeroplane equipment available for navigation and/or control of the flight path during take-off, approach, flare, landing, roll-out and missed approach;

(f)

obstacles in the approach, missed approach and climb-out areas;

(g)

obstacle clearance altitude/height for the instrument approach procedures;

(h)

the means available to determine/report meteorological conditions.

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JAR-OPS Requirements Aeroplane Categories 15. The criteria taken into consideration for the classification of aeroplanes by categories is the indicated airspeed at threshold ( VAT ). This value is equal to the stalling speed ( V SO ) multiplied by 1.3 or, V S1G multiplied by 1.23, in the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing mass. If both methods are available the higher resulting V AT must be used. Aeroplane categories are shown in Figure 3-1.

FIGURE 3-1 Aeroplane Categories

Aeroplane category

VAT

A

Less than 91 kt

B

From 91 to 120 kt

C

From 121 to 140 kt

D

From 141 to 165 kt

E

From 166 to 210 kt

Definition of Terms Used in Approach Procedures 16. Circling. The visual phase of an instrument approach to bring an aircraft into position for landing on a runway which is not suitably located for a straight-in approach. 17. Low Visibility Procedures (LVP). Procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of ensuring safe operations during Category II and III approaches and Low Visibility Take-offs.

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JAR-OPS Requirements 18.

Low Visibility Take-off (LVTO). A take-off where the runway visual range (RVR) is 0°C

45

12-30

6-15

5-8

2-5

0 to -10

45

6-15

6-15

5-8

2-5

below -10

45

6-15

6-15

2-5

(Note, the lower time figure applies in the case of moderate precipitation and the higher figure in light precipitation.) 35.

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Figure 7-2 shows an example of a holdover time table for Type II fluids.

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Special Operational Procedures FIGURE 7-2 OAT

Approximate Holdover Time (minimum - maximum) in minutes

°C

Fluid mix Concentration Fluid%/Water%

Frost (hr)

Freezing Fog

Snow

Freezing Drizzle

Light Freezing Rain on Cold Rain Soaked Wing

>0

100/0

12hr

75-180

20-60

30-60

15-30

10-40

75/25

6hr

50-120

15-40

20-45

10-25

5-25

50/50

4hr

20-45

5-15

10-20

5-10

100/0

8hr

35-90

20-45

30-60

15-30

75/25

5hr

25-60

15-30

20-45

10-25

50/50

3hr

15-45

5-15

10-20

5-10

100/0

8hr

35-90

15-40

25-60

10-30

75/25

5hr

25-60

15-25

20-45

10-25

100/0

8hr

20-90

15-30

100/0

←no figures provided→

0 to -3

9 seats is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that it is equipped with: (a)

Chapter 7 Page 37

at least one crash axe or crowbar located on the flight deck; and

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Special Operational Procedures (b)

if the maximum approved passenger seating is >200, an additional crash axe or crowbar must be located in or near the most rearward galley area.

104. Crash axes and crowbars located in the passenger compartment must not be visible to passengers.

Types of Smoke Detectors 105. Freight holds, baggage compartments and equipment bays are fitted with smoke detectors which sample the air in the compartment and activate an alarm if certain parameters are exceeded. Smoke detectors are of four main types:

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(a)

Photo-electric cells. These detect the diffusion of a abeam of light which occurs when the beam is interrupted by smoke. The scattering of the light increases the conductance of the cell and its output is amplified to operate a warning circuit.

(b)

Alpha particle detectors. These are ionisation chambers which measure alpha radiation from radium. Alpha particles are absorbed by smoke, which reduces the ionisation current of the device, to operate an alarm.

(c)

Visual smoke indicators. These are usually only fitted as alarm verification devices.

(d)

Carbon monoxide detectors. Found mainly in aircraft of American manufacture, these devices detect concentration of CO and activate a warning system.

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Special Operational Procedures 106. Smoke detectors fitted in the toilet compartments of passenger aircraft provide an aural warning to alert the cabin crew, they are fully automatic and operate from the aircraft’s 28vDC power supply. The detector unit displays a green light to indicate that power is being supplied to it and a large red display illuminates in conjunction with the aural warning when smoke is detected. A reset switch enables cancellation of the warning, but the alarm will sound again if smoke is still present.

Problems Associated with Smoke 107. Smoke may contain toxic gases including carbon monoxide which can quickly incapacitate the flight crew. In addition, smoke can reduce visibility to the extent that it becomes impossible to read flight instruments.

Protective Breathing Equipment 108. JAR-OPS requires all commercial aircraft of MTOM >5700kg or passenger seating of >19, from 1 April 2000, to be equipped with protective breathing equipment (PBE) to provide smoke detection for eyes, nose and mouth and to provide oxygen for at least 15 minutes. In the cockpit, PBE must be located at each flight crew duty station and must be easily accessible for immediate use.

Smoke in the Cockpit - Actions 109. In the event of indications of electrical fire or smoke in the cockpit, the typical immediate actions required are:

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Special Operational Procedures

110.

(a)

crew don oxygen masks;

(b)

check supply to ‘on’ and diluter lever to 100%

(c)

put on smoke goggles (if required);

(d)

confirm crew communications.

}

or put on PBE

Subsequent actions depend on the circumstances and appropriate safety drills.

Air Conditioning Smoke Actions 111. If smoke is detected in the output of the air conditioning system, the following represents a typical list of immediate actions:

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(a)

crew don oxygen masks;

(b)

check supply to ‘on’ and diluter lever to 100%;

(c)

put on smoke goggles (if required);

(d)

confirm crew communications;

(e)

open all air conditioning pack valves;

(f)

select humidifier switches to ‘off’

(g)

switch off flight deck and recirculating fans (if installed).

© G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

}

or put on PBE

Special Operational Procedures 112.

Subsequent actions depend on circumstances and appropriate standard drills.

Smoke in the Passenger Cabin and Toilets 113. The additional problem presented by smoke in the passenger compartment, apart from the distress caused to passengers themselves is the need for the cabin crew to be able to move around either to supervise emergency drills or to fight a fire. To this end, JAR-OPS requires commercial aircraft as described in paragraph 94, to be equipped with portable PBE, sufficient for all required cabin crew. The PBE must be installed adjacent to each duty station. 114.

Additionally, a portable PBE must be located next to the fire extinguisher in each galley.

115. The toilet compartments present additional problems because the space is unsupervised and also because of the need for waste (paper) containers. In addition to warning passengers not to smoke in the toilet compartment, smoke detection and fire suppression devices are required. On large commercial aeroplanes, JAR requires that each lavatory is equipped with a smoke detector system which provides a warning light in the cockpit or provides a warning light or audible warning which could be detected by a cabin attendant. In addition, each lavatory must be equipped with a built in fire extinguisher which will discharge automatically into each waste receptacle in the event of a fire. 116.

PBEs must permit communication by intercom, radio and by megaphone when required.

Cargo Compartments 117. The presence of smoke and fire in cargo or baggage compartments introduces additional problems because of accessibility and location, the variation of materials carried and the risk of the fire spreading.

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Special Operational Procedures 118. JAR-OPS requires that a commercial aircraft is equipped with an easily accessible portable PBE located outside but near to the entrance to a cargo compartment. 119. Cargo compartments are classified for fire detection and suppression purposes, in accordance with the following requirements: (a)

(b)

(c)

Class A. A Class A cargo or baggage compartment is one in which: (i)

the presence of a fire would easily be discovered by a crew member at a duty station; and

(ii)

each part of the compartment is easily accessible in flight.

Class B. A Class B cargo or baggage compartment is one in which: (i)

there is sufficient access in flight to enable a crew member to reach any part of the compartment with the contents of a hand held fire extinguisher; and,

(ii)

during access, no hazardous quantity of smoke, flames or extinguishing agent will enter the cabin or flight crew compartments;

(iii)

there is a separate approved smoke or fire detector system to give warning to the pilot or flight engineer station.

Class C. A Class C cargo or baggage compartment is one which does not meet the requirements of A or B but in which: (i)

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there is remote indication at the pilot or flight engineer station of a fire detected in the compartment; and,

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Special Operational Procedures

(d)

(e)

Chapter 7 Page 43

(ii)

there is an approved built in fire extinguishing system, controllable by the pilot or flight engineer and hazardous quantities of smoke, etc. are prevented from entering the cabin;

(iii)

ventilation can be controlled to allow the fire extinguishant to have an effect.

Class D. A Class D cargo of baggage compartment is one in which: (i)

a fire in it will be contained without endangering the safety of the aeroplane or occupants;

(ii)

hazardous smoke etc. is excluded from the cabin;

(iii)

ventilation of the compartment can be controlled to prevent fire from spreading;

(iv)

the heating of adjacent critical areas has been taken into consideration;

(v)

the volume of the compartment is 1000 cubic feet or less.

Class E. A Class E cargo compartment is one on aeroplanes used only for the carriage of cargo and in which: (i)

there is a separate approved smoke or fire detector system to give warning to the pilot or flight engineer station;

(ii)

ventilating airflow in the cargo bay can be controlled from the crew compartment;

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Special Operational Procedures (iii)

there are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke etc. from the flight crew compartment; and,

(iv)

the required crew emergency exits are accessible under any cargo loading condition.

Overheated Brakes after Landing or Abandoned Take-Off 120. Brakes on modern large aeroplanes are fitted with overheat warnings but not fire extinguishers. The principal hazard which is present in fighting a brake fire on the ground is that of an explosion brought about by sudden cooling caused by the fire extinguishant. For this reason brake fires should be extinguished wherever possible using dry powder, or as a last resort, foam. 2

Water or CO extinguishers should never be used to fight brake fires. 121. If a wheel explodes, the majority of the blast is likely to be outwards from the hubs/axle area. Personnel fighting brake fires should therefore approach the wheels in a fore/aft direction avoiding the sides as far as possible. 122. The precise brake overheat drill depends on aircraft type but in general the handling pilot will bring the aircraft to rest as soon as practicable. Emergency services should be alerted quickly and the possibility of aircraft evacuation considered. The Operations Manual will contain more specific guidance on the actions required

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Special Operational Procedures

Decompression of the Pressurised Cabin Requirement for Supplemental Oxygen 123. Pressurised commercial aeroplanes are required to be equipped with oxygen equipment such that in the event of a decompression occurring the flight crew, cabin crew and passengers can be supplied with supplemental oxygen for a specified minimum time. 124. The operator of aeroplanes which operate at pressure altitudes above 10,000ft is required, by JAR-OPS, to ensure that such aeroplanes are equipped to provide the specified amount of supplemental oxygen when needed. 125. The amount of supplemental oxygen that must be available is calculated on the basis of the cabin pressure altitude, the flight duration, and the assumption that the decompression will occur at the most critical altitude and time. It is assumed that after a pressurisation failure, the pilot will descend the aeroplane, in accordance with emergency procedures specified in the aeroplane flight manual (AFM) to a safe altitude from which the flight may continue safely to destination or alternate. Supplemental oxygen must be available to provide adequately for this profile.

Flight Crew 126. The minimum amount of supplemental oxygen which is specified by JAR-OPS for flight crew positions is sufficient for the entire flight time when the cabin altitude exceeds 13,000ft and the entire flight time when it exceeds 10,000ft but does not exceed 13,000ft after the first 30 minutes at higher altitudes but, in no case must it be less than: (a)

Chapter 7 Page 45

30 minutes, for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes not exceeding 25,000ft; or,

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Special Operational Procedures (b)

2 hours, for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes greater than 25,000ft.

Cabin Crew 127. The minimum amount of supplemental oxygen which is specified by JAR-OPS for cabin crew members is: (a)

sufficient for the entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13,000ft but, not less than 30 minutes; and,

(b)

sufficient for the entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude is greater than 10, 000ft but does not exceed 13,000ft after the first 30 minutes at higher altitudes.

Passengers 128. A supplemental oxygen supply is specified for certain proportions of the passengers depending on the possible flight profile and cabin altitude, for example:

Chapter 7 Page 46

(a)

when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000ft, the supply must provide for 100% of the passengers for the entire flight time, but not less than 10 minutes;

(b)

when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 14,000ft but does not exceed 15,000ft, the supply must provide for 30% of the passengers for the entire flight time;

(c)

when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 10,000ft but does not exceed 14,000ft after the first 30 minutes at higher altitudes, the supply must provide for 10% of the passengers for the entire flight time.

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Special Operational Procedures

Types of Decompression Slow Decompression 129. A slow decompression is gradual reduction of cabin pressure and loss of pressure differential which is not immediately obvious to the crew. Cabin pressure altitude will increase and eventually activate the cabin altitude warning device. 130. A slow decompression can be caused by a malfunction in the automatic cabin pressure controller or an associated system (such as hydraulic leak which activates the undercarriage ‘squat’ switch and opens the outflow valves as if the aeroplane was on the ground). 131. The effects of a slow increase in pressure altitude to above 10,000ft is unlikely to very obvious to the passengers however the gradual onset of hypoxia is certain. The most active crew members are likely to be affected first. The initial symptoms are slight with minor behavioural changes (affected persons frequently become euphoric), judgement and self criticism reduce, a shortness of breath may become noticeable and at altitudes above about 12,000ft a severe headache may develop after about 20 minutes. As the hypoxia continues, mental and physical co-ordination degrade until ultimately the persons becomes unable to help themselves. 132. The time from the initial exposure to hypoxia that a person has available to assess and act on the situation is known as the time of useful consciousness. This period of time reduces rapidly with altitude and amount of activity required and is reduced markedly when the hypoxia results from a rapid decompression. 133.

Approximate times of useful consciousness are:

about 30 minutes at 18,000ft,

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Special Operational Procedures 2 – 3 minutes at 25,000ft, 30 – 60 seconds at 30,000ft, 15 – 30 seconds at 35,000ft. But, note, these times are likely to be halved when the decompression is rapid.

Rapid Decompression 134. A rapid decompression is the complete and sudden loss of cabin pressure. (Some authorities describe a rapid decompression as one in which cabin altitude reverts to an altitude above 20,000ft within 1.5 minutes). 135. The effects of the sudden decompression depend initially on the cause and especially the size of the rupture or hole in the pressure hull. A rapid decompression is likely to be accompanied by the sound of rushing air combined with the dense misting of the cabin as the pressure drop causes adiabatic cooling of the air and subsequent condensation. Persons on board are likely to suffer otic barotrauma and/or sinus barotrauma as ears and sinuses are unable to cope with the sudden pressure changes and depending on altitude, hypoxia will affect everyone not on oxygen. Cabin pressurisation instruments should indicate the extent of the pressure loss and audible warning is likely to be activated. The cabin pressure may reduce below ambient pressure due to aerodynamic suction.

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Special Operational Procedures 136. On large aeroplanes certificated to operate above 30,000ft, drop-down oxygen masks should operate automatically when cabin pressure altitude reaches a pre-set level (typically before reaching 15,000ft), but it has been estimated that less than 50% of passengers will not be able or know how to operate them (the mandatory pre-flight briefing notwithstanding). The crew must therefore have portable oxygen sets at or near to their crew station so that they can be on oxygen rapidly and able to assist passengers. 137. On aeroplanes operating at pressure altitudes above 25,000ft the flight crew oxygen masks must be of the quick donning type, and must be within immediate reach of flight crew members when at their duty stations. 138. The drill for the flight crew is to immediately don the oxygen mask at their position, check that oxygen is flowing and then establish communication and deal with the emergency using the approved check list as contained in the Operations Manual. 139. Subsequent actions depend on the circumstances but, in general, if the pressure loss cannot be contained, the aeroplane will be descended to a safe but lower altitude and a diversion carried out to the nearest suitable alternate aerodrome. Note. Information on oxygen requirements for unpressurised aircraft is contained in Chapter 2, Paragraph 45 (ICAO Annex 6).

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071 Operational Procedures

Windshear

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Windshear

8

Windshear

Background 1. Windshear is caused by variations in the direction and/or speed of the local wind with changes in height and/or horizontal distance, it is almost always present but normally does not cause undue difficulty to the pilot. It is the abnormal windshear that is dangerous. Short-term fluctuations in the wind (gusts) are common at low altitudes, and are unlikely to cause prolonged excursions from the intended flight path and target air speed. If these gusts are large and prolonged their effect on an aircraft may be similar to that caused by a windshear. 2. Windshear tends to displace an aircraft abruptly from its intended flight profile such that substantial control action is required.

Definition of Terms Used in Windshear 3. Low altitude windshear. This type of windshear is experienced along the final approach path or during the initial climb-out flight path. 4. Types of windshear. The following definitions are used in order to differentiate between three distinct types of windshear: (a)

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Vertical windshear. The change of horizontal wind vector with height (as might be determined by two or more anemometers at different heights on a mast).

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Windshear (b)

Horizontal windshear. The change of horizontal wind vector with horizontal distance (as might be determined by two or more anemometers mounted at the same height but at different locations).

(c)

Updraught/downdraught shear. Changes in the vertical component of wind with horizontal distance.

Meteorological Features Associated with Windshear 5. The main defence against windshear is avoidance and therefore it is necessary to recognise the meteorological features which cause, or are associated with it. These are:

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(a)

Thunderstorms (especially at the mature stage) and large cumulonimbus;

(b)

The passage of warm, cold or occluded fronts;

(c)

A marked temperature inversion;

(d)

A low level wind maximum or turbulent boundary layer;

(e)

Strong turbulence at the surface, especially when reinforced by strong winds and unfavourable topography or buildings.

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Windshear Thunderstorm 6. Figure 8-1 illustrates the two aspects of a thunderstorm most relevant to windshear. The downdraught or, in a severe storm the microburst, is an area where very potent downdraught windshear can be experienced. The cold air flows outwards close to the surface as a gust front, perhaps reaching 32 km from the storm, or further in the case of several storms forming a squall line. The vertical extent of this outflow may be 6000 ft and flying through it or descending into it is likely to result in vertical windshear.

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Windshear FIGURE 8-1 Air Flow Under and Near a Thunderstorm

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Windshear Passage of a Front 7. Vertical windshear can be present whenever an aircraft climbs or descends through a weather front. The more active the front the greater the risk of windshear. A front which is moving at 30 kt or more and across which there is a temperature difference of 5°C or more, or at which a sharp change in wind direction occurs, is likely to produce serious windshear problems. A vigorous cold front is likely to pose the greatest risk. The position of the aerodrome in relation to the surface position of the front is important. When landing (or taking off) at an aerodrome up to 30 nm ahead of a warm front or 20 nm or less behind a cold front the greatest risk of windshear exists, as shown at Figure 8-2. Crossing a front in level flight can result in horizontal windshear, which could present a problem at low level, for example during the early stages of a missed approach, where windshear induced changes in airspeed and/or rates of climb may well be masked by the changing aircraft configuration. 8. A sea breeze front is unlikely to create significant windshear problems, however the presence of such a front may well distort the outflow of air from a coastal thunderstorm and increase the severity of the windshear.

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Windshear FIGURE 8-2 Areas of Windshear associated with an Approach Path through a warm and cold front

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Windshear Inversions 9. A low level inversion effectively prevents mixing and decouples the retarded surface flow from the free stream air above the inversion. The shear boundary can be very low, especially on a cold clear winter night. Climbing or descending through such an inversion can give significant vertical windshear at a critical stage of flight, which is one reason why marked inversion warnings are issued at major aerodromes.

Low Level Wind Maximum 10. Low level wind maximums (sometimes referred to as low level jets) can occur near the top of an inversion, possibly in association with a nearby ridge or higher ground. Windshear may be encountered when passing through this wind maximum.

Turbulence 11. Strong mean surface winds usually generate greater differences between the gusts and lulls and may therefore result in windshear. In hotter climates intense surface heating can give rise to updraught/downdraught windshear. Significant changes in wind direction can also result from air flowing over or around obstacles as large as mountains or as small as hangars. Climbing or descending in the lee of high ground when the wind is strong can be particularly hazardous.

Indications and Warnings 12. It is possible that visual warnings of the likely presence of windshear may be seen, these include: (a)

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The topography.

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Windshear (b)

Smoke rising and levelling off, indicating an inversion.

(c)

Mist, fog or frost, again indicating an inversion.

(d)

A marked haze layer, again indicating an inversion.

(e)

Cumulonimbus clouds or active thunderstorms.

(f)

Wind indicators at different locations on the aerodrome showing differing wind velocities.

13. Another valuable indication of the possible presence of windshear is a significant difference between the aircraft computed wind velocity and the surface wind velocity given by ATC. In this respect INS based systems are of value since INS gives an instantaneous wind velocity. 14. Aerodrome Reports. Any pilots reports of windshear encounters are passed on to other traffic by ATC. However, some aerodromes forecast windshear. Within the UK only two aerodromes (Heathrow and Belfast Aldergrove) currently give windshear warnings in addition to marked inversion warnings. However, all ATC units are likely to relay reports of windshear which have been passed to them by pilots.

Measuring and Warning Systems for Low Level Windshear Airborne Systems 15. It is assessed that a pilot needs 10 to 40 seconds of warning to avoid windshear. Fewer than 10 seconds is not enough time to react, while more than 40 is too long, atmospheric conditions can change in that time. Three advance warning systems are under development:

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Windshear (a)

Microwave radar. A Microwave radar signal is projected ahead of the aircraft to detect raindrops and other moisture particles. The returning signal represents the motion of those raindrops and moisture particles, and this is translated into wind speed. Microwave radar works better than other systems in rain but less well in dry conditions. Because it points toward the ground as the plane lands, it picks up interfering ground returns, or ‘clutter.’

(b)

Doppler LIDAR. A laser system called Doppler LIDAR (light detecting and ranging) reflects energy from ‘aerosols’ (minute particles) instead of raindrops. This system can avoid picking up ground clutter (moving cars, etc.) and thus has fewer interfering signals. However, it does not work as well in heavy rain.

(c)

Infra-red. This system uses an infra-red detector to measure temperature changes ahead of the aircraft. The system monitors the thermal signatures of carbon dioxide to look for cool columns of air, which can be a characteristic of microbursts. This system is less costly and not as complex as others, but does not directly measure wind speeds.

Windshear-Alert Systems Using Ground-Based Radar 16. A Low-Level Wind-Shear Alert System (LLWAS) has been installed on the ground at more than 100 U.S. airports. Wind speed and directional sensors report to a central computer, and controllers can alert pilots in the event that windshear is detected. But such systems cannot forecast windshear.

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Windshear ATC Radars 17. Radars which are used for air traffic control purposes are designed to eliminate or reduce returns from weather. However, some specialised radars are specifically designed to detect the different air currents associated with thunderstorms in particular. This type of Doppler radar is being used more now to detect potential windshear situations.

The Effects of Windshear 18. The effects of a gradual change in headwind component on an aircraft’s approach or climb out gradient are well known. For example on the approach to land a decrease in headwind allows the groundspeed to increase and the descent gradient is reduced. An increase in headwind increases the descent gradient. Similarly for an aircraft climbing after take-off a gradual decrease in headwind will reduce the climb gradient. An increase in headwind resulting in a steeper climb gradient. However, when such changes occur suddenly, as is the case with windshear, the effects can be quite different. The effect of the inertia of the aircraft as it encounters the change in wind component manifests itself as an energy loss or energy gain, the effects of which are described in the following paragraphs.

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Windshear Energy Loss 19. An aircraft encountering windshear tends to maintain its speed over the ground due to its own momentum (the larger the aircraft the more momentum it will have). If the windshear is due to a reduction in headwind component (or increase in tailwind component) this reduction manifests itself as an energy loss and a reduction in indicated airspeed (and TAS). Lift is therefore reduced and the aircraft will, without correction, suffer a loss of height and an increase in rate of descent and descent gradient. This situation is illustrated at Figure 8-3. In a climb situation the aircraft will experience a decrease in rate of climb and climb gradient.

FIGURE 8-3 Effect of the Loss of Wind Speed during Descent

Energy Gain 20. An increase in headwind component (or decrease in the tailwind component) results in an energy gain and increase in indicated airspeed, as shown at Figure 8-4. For an aircraft in a climb, the effects of the energy gain are to increase the rate of climb and the climb gradient. In the case of an approach to landing the descent gradient would be decreased.

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Windshear FIGURE 8-4 Effect of the Increase in Windspeed during the Climb

These events become critical when the aircraft is being flown close to the ground during the final stages of an approach or shortly after take-off. In the energy loss case the engine reaction time when additional power is applied can be critical. 21. The energy gain/loss situations described above can occur as a result of either vertical windshear or as horizontal windshear, in other words the aircraft can either climb/descend or fly horizontally into air flowing at a different speed or from a different direction, in either event changing the head/tail wind component. In simple terms a change in the head/tail wind component will (in the short term) change the airspeed rather than the groundspeed of the aircraft.

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Windshear Downdraught 22. Figure 8-5 shows an aircraft taking off in the vicinity of a thunderstorm. The situation illustrated is the critical case where the headwind component decreases sharply and/or becomes a tailwind component shortly after take-off (energy loss). In this case, because of inertia, the groundspeed remains constant but the airspeed decreases sharply. The loss of lift associated with the resulting low airspeed may cause the aircraft to strike the ground.

FIGURE 8-5 Take-off in Downdraught Conditions

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Windshear Approach Under Thunderstorm 23. At Figure 8-6 an aircraft is approaching to land in the vicinity of a thunderstorm. Initially, at position A, the aircraft is stabilised on a 3° glideslope and is maintaining target airspeed. As the aircraft enters the gust front the previous slight tailwind component becomes a marked headwind component but, because of inertia, the groundspeed will momentarily remain constant. As a result the airspeed increases by an amount equal to the change in wind component. The amount of lift generated increases with the increased airspeed, and the aircraft will initially make a rapid excursion above the desired glidepath at point B in Figure 8-6. The natural reaction of the pilot in this situation is to reduce power and steepen the approach. However, as the aircraft flies closer to the thunderstorm (position C), the outflow which formed the gust front is likely to become a downdraught. The situation is now one of energy loss and is made worse by the aircrafts reduced power situation. Height loss is inevitable unless substantial power is applied and a go-around initiated.

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Windshear FIGURE 8-6 Landing in Downdraught Conditions - Effect of Windshear on the Approach Path

Actions Required to Counter the Effect of Windshear Energy Loss Situation 24. The energy loss situation in the circumstances described (loss of headwind component, increase in tailwind component or strong downdraught windshear) result in sudden loss of airspeed. Rapid action is required by the pilot to limit height loss and a further deterioration of the situation. The immediate actions of the pilot which are considered to be vital are: (a)

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increase power (to full go-around power if required) briskly;

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Windshear (b)

raise the nose of the aircraft to check descent;

(c)

coordinate power and pitch;

(d)

be prepared to carry out a missed approach.

25. The effects of an encounter with a microburst when making an approach are such that even more stringent action is required. If anticipation and avoidance have not succeeded, the pilot is faced with a very hazardous phenomenon. The actions recommended are:

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(a)

accept an initial energy gain from the outflow (gust-front) of the microburst;

(b)

anticipate the next stage (severe energy loss) by increasing to go-around power (be prepared to go to maximum power if necessary);

(c)

select a pitch angle consistent with a missed approach (typically about 15°) and hold it against turbulence and buffeting;

(d)

as the encounter with the downdraught proceeds, the true angle of attack may change. If the stick-shaker (if fitted) activates, adjust the pitch angle to just below stick shaker activation;

(e)

if further energy loss occurs where the downdraught is changing into a tailwind and a risk of striking the ground increases, even with maximum power, it may be necessary to increase the pitch angle further and hold a value which just produces stick-shaker activation.

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Windshear Energy Gain Situation 26. An energy gain situation might occur on departure when climbing into a sudden increase in headwind. Once again, if the risk of windshear, particularly from a microburst, is anticipated and can be avoided, perhaps by delaying the departure, this is the preferred course of action. However, if a microburst is encountered, it is likely that the initial energy gain will be followed by an energy loss. 27. The recommended course of action, in general, is to ignore noise abatement procedures, maintain high pitch angles but be prepared to ease the pitch angle if the stick-shaker activates. The recommended initial actions are: (a)

select maximum power as soon as possible;

(b)

adopt a pitch angle of around 15° and try to hold that attitude; do not chase airspeed;

(c)

be guided by stick-shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude, attempt to hold a pitch angle of just below stick-shaker activation.

Automatic Flight Control Systems 28. Autopilots and autothrottles, in the main, should cope with holding attitude in moderate windshear encounters but need to be monitored. The use of speed, height or rate of climb/descent locks is not recommended. 29. Autothrottles are unable to anticipate requirements in a changing situation, such that a rapid rise in airspeed may lead to an undesirable low throttle setting leading to a slow power recovery when it is needed most. In such circumstances it may be safer to revert to manual throttle control combined with an increased level of crew cooperation and instrument monitoring.

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Windshear 30. off.

Flight directors, unless designed to provide guidance during windshear should be switched

General Guidance 31. It should be apparent by now that low altitude windshear is a very serious hazard and wherever possible must be avoided. Pilots must be able therefore to:

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•

Recognise the situations where it occurs and the signs of its presence.

•

Avoid it by diverting or delaying the flight.

•

Anticipate the actions required at the onset of an encounter.

•

Apply the techniques recommended for the aircraft without hesitation.

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071 Operational Procedures

Wake Turbulence Wake Vortex Characteristics

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Wake Turbulence

9

Wake Turbulence

Wake Vortex Characteristics 1. Wake vortices, are present behind every aircraft, including helicopters when in forward flight, but are particularly severe when generated by heavy aircraft. They are most hazardous to aircraft with a small wing span during take-off, initial climb, final approach and landing phases of flight. 2. The characteristics of the wake vortex system generated by an aircraft in flight are determined by the aircraft’s mass, wingspan, airspeed, configuration and attitude. Subsequently these characteristics are altered by interactions between vortices and the ambient atmosphere and eventually, after a time varying according to the circumstances from a few seconds to a few minutes after the passage of an aircraft, the effects of the vortex become undetectable. 3. For practical purposes, the vortex system in the wake of an aircraft may be regarded as being made up of two counter-rotating cylindrical air masses trailing aft from the aircraft (Figure 9-1 and Figure 9-2). The vortices from an aeroplane are created by air transferring from the undersurface (high pressure) side of the wing to the overwing (low pressure) side, usually at the wingtips. The direction of the airflow within each vortex is based on this principle and when viewed in relation to the aeroplane’s direction of travel is clockwise from the port wingtip and anticlockwise from the starboard wingtip.

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Wake Turbulence 4. Typically the two vortices are separated by about three quarters of the aircraft’s wingspan and in still air they tend to drift slowly downwards and either level off, usually not more than 1000 ft below the flight path of the aircraft, or, on approaching the ground, move sideways from the track of the generating aircraft at a height approximately equal to half the aircraft’s wingspan (see Figure 9-3).

FIGURE 9-1 General View of Aircraft Trailing Vortex System

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Wake Turbulence FIGURE 9-2 Helicopter Vortices

FIGURE 9-3 Vortex Near the Ground in Still Air, Viewed from behind the Generating Aircraft

5. The maximum tangential airspeed in the vortex system, which may be as much as 300 ft/sec immediately behind a large aircraft, decays slowly with time after the passage of the aircraft and eventually drop sharply as the vortex system disintegrates.

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Wake Turbulence 6. Wake vortex generation begins when the nosewheel lifts off the runway on take-off and continues until the nosewheel touches down on landing.

FIGURE 9-4 Vortex Generation on Take-Off and Landing 7. Vortex strength increases with the weight of the generating aircraft. With the aircraft in a given configuration, the vortex strength increases with decreasing aircraft speed; and for a given mass and speed the vortex strength is greatest when the aircraft is in a clean configuration (hence, heavy, clean and slow is the worst combination). There is some evidence that for given mass and speed a helicopter produces a stronger vortex than a fixed-wing aircraft. 8. In a stable airflow, the wake vortex system will drift with the wind. Figure 9-5 shows the possible effect of a crosswind on the motion of a vortex pair close to the ground.

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Wake Turbulence FIGURE 9-5 Vortex Movement Near the Ground in a Light Crosswind, Viewed from Behind the Generating Aircraft 9. Wind shear causes the two vortices to descend at different rates and close to the ground, can cause one of the vortices to rise. In still air, the interaction of the vortices with the surface will tend to cause them to move outwards at about 5kt. On the other hand, turbulence and high winds close to the ground hasten the decay and disintegration of vortices. Special attention must be given to situations of light crosswind (5kt), when vortices may stay in the approach and touchdown areas of airports or sink to the landing or take-off paths of succeeding aircraft as illustrated in Figure 9-5. 10. In flight, the area up to 1000 ft below and behind a large aircraft should avoided, especially at low altitude where even a momentary wake vortex encounter could be hazardous for a smaller aircraft. When an aircraft is at cruise speed a vortex may persist at considerable distances behind. However, the highest proportion of reported wake turbulence incidents occur in the approach and to a lesser extent, the departure phases of flight.

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Wake Turbulence

Classification of Aircraft (ICAO) 11. The separation minima recommended by ICAO (in (PANS-RAC Doc.4444) are based on the aircraft wake turbulence categories according to the maximum certificated take-off mass as follows: (a)

Heavy (H) – all aircraft types of 136,000kg or more;

(b)

Medium (M) – aircraft types of less than 136,000kg but more than 7,000kg; and,

(c)

Light (L) – aircraft types of 7,000kg or less.

Note 1. There is some evidence that helicopters, when in flight, produce vortices which, per kg of aircraft mass, are more intense than those of aeroplanes. Note 2. The letters shown in brackets are entered on the air traffic flight plan in item 9 to indicate the aircraft’s wake turbulence category.

Wake Turbulence Separation Minima 12.

The following minima apply when radar-separation is not being used.

Arriving aircraft 13.

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When timed approaches are being used: (a)

Light arriving after a Medium or Heavy – separation 3 minutes;

(b)

Medium arriving after a Heavy – separation 2 minutes.

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Wake Turbulence Departing Aircraft 14.

Separation for departing aircraft, when taking off from:

•

the same runway; or,

•

from parallel runways less than 760m apart; or,

•

crossing runways or, parallel runways less than 760m apart, if the projected flight path of the second aircraft will cross that of the first at the same level or less than 1000ft below: (a)

Light or Medium departing after a Heavy – 2 minutes;

(b)

Light departing after a Medium – 2 minutes.

Note. These times are increased to 3 minutes when the second aircraft is taking off from an intermediate point on the same runway or a parallel runway separated by less than 760m

Displaced Landing Threshold 15.

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When operating on a runway with a displaced landing threshold the separation timing is: (a)

Light or Medium departing after a Heavy arrival – 2 minutes;

(b)

Light departing after a Medium arrival – 2 minutes; or,

(c)

Light or Medium arrival follows a Heavy departure – 2 minutes;

(d)

Light arrival follows a Medium departure – 2 minutes.

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Wake Turbulence Opposite Direction 16.

When aircraft are using opposite direction runways the required separation is: (a)

Light or Medium taking off or landing after a Heavy has carried out a low missed approach in the opposite direction – 2 minutes; or,

(b)

Light taking off or landing after a Medium has carried out a low missed approach in the opposite direction – 2 minutes.

Note. The same separation applies if the second aircraft is landing on a parallel opposite direction runway separated by less than 760m.

Wake Turbulence Radar Separation Minima

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17. for:

When radar separation is in operation the following wake turbulence separation is applicable

•

one aircraft operating directly behind another at the same altitude or within 1000ft below; or,

•

both aircraft using the same runway or parallel runways separated by less than 760m; or,

•

one aircraft is crossing behind another at the same level or less than 1000ft below: (a)

Light after Heavy – 6nm (11.1km);

(b)

Medium after Heavy – 5nm (9.3km);

(c)

Heavy after Heavy – 4nm (7.4km);

(d)

Light after Medium – 5nm (9.3km).

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071 Operational Procedures

Security JAR-OPS Requirements - Unlawful Interference ICAO (Annex 17) Requirements Preventative Security Measures

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Security

10

Security

JAR-OPS Requirements - Unlawful Interference Operator Responsibilities 1. The operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar with and comply with, the relevant requirements of the national security programmes of the State of the operator.

Training Programmes 2. The operator is required to establish, maintain and conduct approved training programmes which enable personnel to take appropriate action to prevent acts of unlawful interference such as sabotage or unlawful seizure of aeroplanes and to minimise the consequences of such events, should they occur.

Search Procedures 3. The operator is required to ensure that all aeroplanes carry a checklist of the procedures to be followed for that aeroplane type, when searching for concealed weapons, explosives or other dangerous devices.

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Security

Commander’s Responsibilities – Unlawful Interference 4. Following an act of unlawful interference on board an aeroplane the commander or, in his absence, the operator is required by JAR-OPS to submit, without delay, a report of such an act, to the designated local authority and the Authority in the State of the Operator.

Flight Crew Compartment Security 5. The flight crew compartment door, if installed, on aeroplanes operated for the transport of passengers is required by JAR-OPS to be capable of being locked from within the compartment, in order to prevent unauthorised access.

ICAO (Annex 17) Requirements Responsibilities of the Contracting State in which Unlawful Interference Occurs 6. Each contracting State is required to take adequate measures for the safety of passengers and crew of an aircraft that is being subjected to an act of unlawful interference until their journey can be continued. 7. Each Contracting State responsible for providing air traffic services for an aircraft which is the subject of an act of unlawful interference is required to collect all relevant information on the flight and communicate it to all other States responsible for ATS units concerned, including those at the known or presumed destination airport, so that timely contingency action can be taken.

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Security 8. Each Contracting State is required to provide such assistance to an aircraft which is subjected to unlawful seizure, including the provision of navigation aids, air traffic services and permission to land as may be necessitated by the circumstances. 9. A Contracting State in whose territory an aircraft which has been subjected to unlawful seizure lands is required, as far as is practicable, to ensure that it is detained on the ground unless its departure is necessitated by the overriding duty to protect human life. It must be recognised that consultation between the State where the aircraft has landed and the State of the Operator of the aircraft is an important consideration.

In Flight Procedures - Commander’s Responsibilities Notifying ATS Units 10. The commander of an aircraft which is being subjected to unlawful interference is required to try to notify the appropriate ATS unit of this fact, and of any significant circumstances associated with it and whether any deviation from the current flight plan is required. (This action is required so that ATS units can give priority to the aircraft and minimise conflict with other traffic).

Operation of SSR Transponder 11. Should an aircraft in flight be subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot-in-command is required, if able, to set the SSR transponder to Mode A 7500 (plus Mode C) to indicate this fact, unless circumstances warrant the use of the emergency code 7700. 12. If, after selecting Mode A 7500, ATC ask for confirmation of the code, the pilot is required, if able, to confirm it or to not reply at all. In the absence of a reply ATC will assume the code setting was intended.

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Security Deviation from Assigned Track or Route 13. When an aircraft is subjected to unlawful interference unless considerations on board dictate otherwise, the pilot-in-command should attempt to continue flying on the assigned track and at the assigned cruising level at least until able to notify an ATS unit or until within radar cover. 14. If circumstances dictate that the aircraft must depart from its assigned track or its assigned cruising level without being able to make radio contact with ATS, the pilot should whenever possible: (a)

attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency and other appropriate frequencies, unless considerations on board dictate otherwise. Other equipment such as on-board transponders, data links etc. should be used when circumstances permit; and

(b)

proceed in accordance with any special procedures for in-flight contingencies, where such procedures have been established and promulgated in Doc.7030 (Regional Supplementary Procedures); or,

(c)

if no applicable regional procedures have been established, proceed at a level which differs from the cruising levels normally used for IFR flight in the area by 300m (1000ft) if above FL290 or, by 150m (500ft) if below FL290.

Preventative Security Measures 15. Each Contracting State is required to establish measures to prevent weapons, explosives or any other dangerous device which may be used for unlawful interference from being introduced by any reasons on board an aircraft involved in international navigation.

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Security

Carriage of Weapons 16. Law enforcement officers and other authorised persons may be permitted to carry weapons on board an aircraft, whilst acting in the performance of their duties. ICAO Annex 17 recommends that Contracting States should ensure that the carriage of such weapons should be subject to special authorisation in accordance with the laws of the States involved. 17. Annex 17 also recommends that Contracting States should ensure that the carriage of weapons by other persons is allowed only when a duly qualified person has determined that such weapons are not loaded, and that they are stored in a place inacessable to any person during flight time. 18. Contracting States should ensure that the pilot-in-command is notified as to the number of armed persons and their seat location.

Sabotage 19. ICAO Annex 6 requires that an operator must establish a checklist of procedures to be followed in searching an aircraft for a bomb in a case of suspected sabotage 20. The checklist must be supported by guidance on the course of action to be followed should a bomb or suspicious object be found, as well as information on the least risk bomb location specific to the aeroplane.

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071 Operational Procedures

Emergency and Precautionary Landings

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Emergency and Precautionary Landings

Emergency and Precautionary Landings

11

Definitions 1. A precautionary landing is one that is planned in flight to overcome an unforeseen occurrence which does not immediately endanger the safety of the aircraft. For example, the sudden serious illness of a passenger or an unexpected shortage of fuel. Some such events, if not addressed at an early stage could, with the passage of time, become worse and eventually endanger the occupants and/or the aeroplane. The landing is therefore made as at an aerodrome which is suitable for the aeroplane as a precaution to prevent the situation worsening. 2. An emergency landing is one that is made as soon as possible to overcome an in-flightoccurrence that endangers the safety of the aeroplane. The landing, when possible, should be made at the nearest aerodrome. However, if it is a dire emergency the landing should be made as soon as possible either on land or water. 3. Although such an emergency landing will enable the crew to prepare for the landing, sometimes this is not possible because it occurs immediately after take-off or prior to landing. 4. Examples of the first type of emergency are a double engine failure or structural failure and those same incidents happening on take-off or landing would result in an immediate emergency landing.

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Emergency and Precautionary Landings 5. An emergency landing other than at an aerodrome used to be referred to as a ‘forced’ landing, in other words, there is no choice, the circumstances compel an immediate landing. These can be divided into unplanned and pre-planned landings. A landing whether planned or unplanned on to water is known as a ditching.

Unplanned Emergency Landings 6. This type of landing is the most critical case because it is planned without warning and there is not sufficient time to execute a procedure. The successful outcome of such an event depends on the competence and initiative of the crew. The captain will initiate the required action including the evacuation of the aircraft. The only warning given will be by the pilot-in-command on the aircraft public address (PA) system. The announcement will be ‘This is the Captain, this is an emergency, Brace, Brace’. After the aircraft has come to rest:

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(a)

On land the flight crew will give as much guidance as possible in the time available for the evacuation of the aeroplane. If the condition of the aeroplane is clearly catastrophic then the cabin crew must initiate the evacuation.

(b)

On water the situation must always be treated as catastrophic and the cabin crew must tell the passengers to put on life jackets and instruct them to inflate them only on exit from the aircraft. The cabin crew are responsible for the immediate evacuation of the aeroplane without instructions from the Flight Crew.

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Emergency and Precautionary Landings

Pre-Planned Emergency Landings 7. For this type of emergency landing there will be some time to plan a course of action and prepare for the landing. The time available may be relatively short and may preclude the execution of all the actions listed in the following procedures. (a)

(b)

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Actions before approach to land: (i)

Carry out the emergency drills;

(ii)

Transmit a Mayday message;

(iii)

Ask the senior flight attendant to come to the flight deck;

(iv)

Brief the flight attendant on the nature of the emergency and the time available to landing;

(v)

Brief the passengers on the PA and warn them on passing through each 10,000 feet during the descent;

(vi)

At 1000 feet the co-pilot calls ‘cabin crew take your seats for landing’.

Factors to be considered when selecting the area for an emergency landing are:

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Emergency and Precautionary Landings

(c)

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(i)

The area of ground should be relatively flat, free of trees and obstructions and in a non-mountainous area. If possible the area should be close to habitation and/or surface transport links. All of these requirements may not be possible particularly over desert and arctic area. It is therefore important to continue transmitting the aircraft’s position to the controlling authority as long as possible;

(ii)

If possible, land into wind to reduce the groundspeed on impact. The surface wind may be determined from any smoke, drifting sand or blowing snow. If this is not possible, use the INS or doppler wind at low altitude as a guide;

(iii)

Avoid landing into sun if it is at a low angle of elevation because the glare will restrict the visibility on approach to land. At night attempt to land towards the moon because it will illuminate the ground.

Actions on approach to land: (i)

At 1000 feet the co-pilot calls ‘Cabin Crew take your seats for landing’. Then at 200 feet, ‘Brace, Brace’ is called on the PA by the co-pilot;

(ii)

The co-pilot should call speed and height continuously to the captain on finals;

(iii)

The decision whether to lower the undercarriage or not will depend on the circumstances. It is the captains decision;

(iv)

Just prior to impact both pilot and co-pilot should brace themselves after turning off the HP and LP cocks.

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Emergency and Precautionary Landings (d)

Evacuation of the aircraft: (i)

After landing the Captain, or in his absence the next most senior crew member, will order an evacuation by PA calling ‘This is an emergency, Evacuate, Evacuate’ followed by the evacuation alarm;

(ii)

If hazardous conditions are known to exist near a particular exit additional information may be passed over the PA;

(iii)

If the landing has clearly been catastrophic the cabin crew should commence evacuation without waiting for an order.

Ditching 8.

The main differences between a pre-planned emergency landing and ditching are: (a)

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Factors to be considered when selecting an area to ditch the aircraft: (i)

Proximity of land. If possible land as close as possible to land;

(ii)

Proximity of shipping. Land as close to shipping as possible and make radio contact on an emergency frequency. This will facilitate rapid rescue;

(iii)

Estimate the swell and land along the line of the swell;

(iv)

Determine the wind direction from the spray and white caps. Approach into wind to reduce the groundspeed before touch-down;

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Emergency and Precautionary Landings (v) (b)

(c)

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Inform passengers of the location of their life jackets and advise them to put them on well before landing and not to inflate them before exiting the aircraft.

Evacuation of the aircraft: (i)

All ditchings must be treated as catastrophic;

(ii)

Due account must be made for the aircraft altitude in the water when advising the cabin crew which exits to utilise;

Actions after landing: (i)

Ensure all survivors are well clear of the aircraft (in dinghies after a ditching);

(ii)

Crew to leave the aircraft last with any survival equipment;

(iii)

Determine what injuries have been sustained if any and nominate crew members to treat them;

(iv)

Assemble ground location aids for immediate use. communication by radio of possible;

(v)

Check emergency equipment including rations. Institute immediate rationing;

(vi)

Captain to delegate duties;

(vii)

Captain to decide a plan of action with the rest of the crew.

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Establish two-way

071 Operational Procedures

Fuel Jettison Requirements Safety Procedures

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Fuel Jettison

12

Fuel Jettison

Requirements 1. JAR 25 specifies that a fuel jettisoning system must be installed on each aeroplane unless it has been shown that the aeroplane meets certain rate-of-climb requirements at a specified mass. (The specified mass is based upon the maximum take-off mass less the actual or computed mass of fuel necessary for a 15 minute flight comprising a take-off, go around and landing at the aerodrome of departure with the aeroplane in the appropriate configuration). 2. If a jettison system is installed it must be capable of jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes to reduce the aeroplane mass from the value indicated in paragraph 1 to a mass at which the specified rate of climb can be achieved. 3. A jettison system must be designed so as to prevent the jettisoning of fuel in the tanks used for take-off and landing below a specified level. (This level is that which provides for a climb from sea level to 10,000 ft and thereafter 45 minutes at a cruise speed for maximum range). This specified fuel may, however, be jettisoned using a separate auxiliary system if one is fitted. 4. Unless it has been shown that using flaps, slots and slats does not adversely affect fuel jettisoning, there must be a placard adjacent to the jettison control warning to crew members not to jettison fuel while such systems are in use.

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Fuel Jettison

Safety Procedures 5. States may specify minimum altitudes over land below which, jettisoning of fuel is not permitted except in emergency. Furthermore, Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) requires that nothing be dropped or sprayed from an aircraft in flight except under conditions prescribed by the appropriate authority and as indicated by relevant information, advice and/or clearance from the appropriate air traffic services unit. 6. Fuel jettison procedures are normally included in the aeroplane operations manual under abnormal and emergency procedures. A typical checklist is likely to contain appropriate safety checks, to be made before starting to jettison fuel. Such checks would include: (a)

advise ATC before jettisoning fuel;

(b)

minimum attitude eg, not below 6000 ft except in emergency;

(c)

avoid areas of precipitation (which can cause a build up of static), static or lightning discharge;

(d)

no transmissions on HF during jettisoning;

(e)

no smoking unless aircraft pressurised.

The checklist may, if appropriate, also advise against using flaps, slots or slats during jettisoning or of following a flight path in which the aeroplane could pass through the area of jettisoned fuel vapour. 7. The jettisoning procedure must be monitored closely to ensure that flow is even and fuel balance is maintained. Fuel quantity indicators should be checked continuously to monitor jettison pump operation.

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071 Operational Procedures

Transport of Dangerous Goods Applicability of Regulations Shipper’s Responsibilities Operator’s Responsibilities

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

13

Transport of Dangerous Goods

Definitions 1.

The following terms may be used in connection with the transport of dangerous goods:

Acceptance checklist. A document used to assist in carrying out a check on the external appearance of packages of dangerous goods and their associated documents to determine that all appropriate requirements are met.

Cargo aircraft.

Any aircraft, other than a passenger aircraft, which is carrying goods or

property.

Consignment.

One or more packages of dangerous goods accepted by an operator from one shipper at one time and at one address, receipted for in one lot and moving to one consignee at one destination address.

Dangerous Goods.

Articles or substances which are capable of posing significant risk to health, safety or property when transported by air.

Dangerous Goods accident.

An occurrence associated with and related to the transport of dangerous goods by air which results in fatal or serious injury to a person or major property damage.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Dangerous Goods incident. An occurrence, other than a dangerous goods accident, associated with and related to the transport of dangerous goods by air, not necessarily occurring on board an aircraft, which results in injury to a person, property damage, fire, breakage, spillage, leakage of fluid or radiation or other evidence that the integrity of the packaging has not been maintained. Any occurrence relating to the transport of dangerous goods which seriously jeopardises the aircraft or its occupants is also deemed to constitute a dangerous goods incident. Dangerous goods transport document. A document which is specified by the Technical Instructions. It is completed by the person who offers the dangerous goods for air transport (the shipper) and contains information about those goods. The document bears a signed declaration indicating that the dangerous goods are fully and accurately described and all appropriate procedures have been followed.

Exception.

A provision in Annex 18 which excluded a specific item of dangerous goods from the requirements normally applicable to that item.

Exemption.

An authorisation issued by an appropriate national authority providing relief from the provisions of Annex 18.

Flammable.

Note – the word flammable has the same meaning as inflammable in the English

language.

Flight crew member.

A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during flight time.

Incompatible.

Describing dangerous goods which, if mixed, would be liable to cause a dangerous evolution of heat or gas or produce a corrosive substance.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Overpack.

An enclosure used by a single shipper to contain one or more packages and to form one handling unit for convenience of handling and stowage.

Package.

The complete product of the packing operation consisting of the packaging and its contents prepared for transport.

Packaging.

Receptacles and any other components or materials necessary for the receptacle to perform its containment function and to ensure compliance with the packing requirements of the Annex.

Packing.

The art and operation by which articles or substances are enveloped in wrappings and/ or enclosed in packaging or otherwise secured.

Passenger aircraft.

An aircraft that carries any person other than a crew member, an operator’s employee in an official capacity, an authorised representative of an appropriate national authority or a person accompanying a consignment or other cargo.

Proper shipping name.

The name to be used to describe a particular article or substance in all shipping documents and notifications and, where appropriate, on packaging.

Serious injury.

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An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which:

(a)

Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days from the date the injury was received; or

(b)

Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or nose); or

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Transport of Dangerous Goods (c)

Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon damage; or

(d)

Involves injury to any internal organ; or

(e)

Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface; or

(f)

Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.

State of Origin.

The State in the territory of which the cargo was first loaded on an aircraft.

State of the Operator.

The State in which the operator has his principal place of business or, it he has no such place of business, his permanent residence. Technical Instructions. The latest effective edition of the Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc. 9284) approved by the Council of ICAO.

UN number.

The four-digit number assigned by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods to identify a substance or a particular group of substances.

Unit local device.

Any type of freight container, aircraft container, aircraft pallet with a net, or aircraft pallet with a net over an igloo.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

Applicability of Regulations General 2. The Standards and Recommended Practices of Annex 18 are applicable to all international operations of civil aircraft. In cases of extreme urgency or when other forms of transport are inappropriate or full compliance with the prescribed requirements is contrary to the public interest, the States concerned may grant exemptions from these provisions provided that in such cases every effort shall be made to achieve an over-all level of safety in transport which is equivalent to the level of safety provided by these provisions.

Dangerous Goods Technical Instructions 3. The regulations concerning the transport of dangerous goods on international flights is contained in the Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284), approved, issued and amended in accordance with the procedure established by the ICAO Council. Each Contracting State is required to take the necessary measures to achieve compliance with the provisions contained in this document.

Domestic Civil Aircraft Operations 4. In the interests of safety and of minimising interruptions to the international transport of dangerous goods. Contracting States should also take the necessary measures to achieve compliance with Annex 18 and the Technical Instructions for domestic civil aircraft operations.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Carriage Authorisation 5. An operator shall not, according to JAR-OPS, transport dangerous goods unless approved to do so by the Authority.

Exceptions to the Requirements 6. Articles and substances which would otherwise be classed as dangerous goods but which are required to be on board the aircraft in accordance with the pertinent airworthiness requirement and operating regulations, or for those specialised purposes identified in the Technical Instructions, are exempted except from the provisions of Annex 18. 7. Where articles and substances intended as replacements for those described in paragraph 6 are carried on an aircraft, they are to transported in accordance with the provisions of Annex 18 except as permitted in the Technical Instructions. 8. Articles and substances intended for the personal use of passengers and crew members shall be exempted from the provisions of this Annex to the extent specified in the Technical Instructions.

Notification of Variations from the Technical Instructions 9. Where a Contracting State adopts different provisions from those specified in the Technical Instructions, it shall notify ICAO promptly of such State variations for publication in the Technical Instructions.

Classification 10. The classification of an article or substance shall be in accordance with the provisions of the Technical Instructions.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

Limitation on the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air Dangerous Goods Permitted for Transport by Air 11. The transport of dangerous goods by air shall be forbidden except as established in Annex 18 and the detailed specifications and procedures provided in the Technical Instructions.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Dangerous Goods Forbidden for Transport by Air Unless Exempted 12. The dangerous goods described hereunder are forbidden on aircraft unless exempted by the States concerned under the provisions of paragraph 9 or, unless the provisions of the Technical Instructions indicate they may be transported under an approval issued by the State of Origin: (a)

articles and substances that are identified in the Technical Instructions as being forbidden for transport in normal circumstances; and

(b)

infected live animals.

Dangerous Goods Forbidden for Transport by Air Under Any Circumstances 13. Articles and substances that are specifically identified by name or by generic description in the Technical Instructions as being forbidden for transport by air under any circumstances shall not be carried on any aircraft.

Packaging of Dangerous Goods General Requirements 14. Dangerous goods must be packaged in accordance with the provisions of Annex 18 and as provided for in the Technical Instructions.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Packagings 15. Packagings used for the transport of dangerous goods by air must be of good quality and constructed and securely closed so as to prevent leakage which might be caused in normal conditions of transport, by changes in temperature, humidity or pressure, or by vibration. 16. Packagings must be suitable for the contents. Packagings in direct contact with dangerous goods shall be resistant to any chemical or other action of such goods. 17. Packagings must meet the material and construction specifications in the Technical Instructions. 18.

Packagings must be tested in accordance with the provisions of the Technical Instructions.

Labelling and Marking Labels 19. Unless otherwise provided for in the Technical Instructions, each package of dangerous goods shall be labelled with the appropriate labels and in accordance with the provisions set forth in the Instructions.

Markings 20. Unless otherwise provided for in the Technical Instructions, each package of dangerous goods shall be marked with the proper shipping name of its contents and, when assigned, the UN number and such other markings as may be specified in those Instruction.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Languages to be used for Markings 21. In addition to the languages required by the State of Origin and pending the development the adoption of a more suitable form of expression for universal use, English should be used for the markings related to dangerous goods.

Shipper’s Responsibilities Dangerous Goods Transport Document 22. Before a shipper offers any package or overpack of dangerous goods for transport by air, that person shall ensure that the dangerous goods are not forbidden for transport by air and are properly classified, packed, marked, labelled and accompanied by a properly executed dangerous goods transport document, as specified in Annex 18 and the Technical Instructions.

Languages to be used 23. In addition to the languages which may be required by the State of Origin and pending the development and adoption of a more suitable form of expression for universal use, English should be used for the dangerous goods transport document.

Operator’s Responsibilities Acceptance for Transport 24.

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An operator shall not accept dangerous goods for transport by air:

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Transport of Dangerous Goods (a)

unless the dangerous goods are accompanied by a completed dangerous goods transport document, except where the Technical Instructions indicate that such a document is not required; and

(b)

until the package, overpack or freight container containing the dangerous goods has been inspected in accordance with the acceptance procedures contained in the Technical Instructions.

Acceptance Checklist 25. An operator shall develop and use an acceptance checklist as an aid to compliance with the provisions of the previous paragraph.

Inspection for Damage or Leakage 26. Packages and overpacks containing dangerous goods and freight containers containing radioactive material shall be inspected for evidence of leakage or damage before loading on an aircraft or into a unit load device. Leaking or damaged packages, overpacks or freight containers shall not be loaded on an aircraft. If evidence of damage or leakage is found after loading on an aircraft, the area where the dangerous goods or unit load device were stowed on the aircraft shall be inspected for damage or contamination. 27. Any hazardous contamination found on an aircraft as a result of leakage or damage to dangerous goods shall be removed without delay. 28. An aircraft which has been contaminated by radioactive materials shall immediately be taken out of service and not returned to service until the radiation level at any accessible surface and the non-fixed contamination are not more than the values specified in the Technical Instructions.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

Location on the Aircraft 29. Dangerous goods shall not be carried in an aircraft cabin occupied by passengers or on the flight deck of an aircraft, except in circumstances permitted by the provisions of the Technical Instructions. 30. Packages containing dangerous goods which might react dangerously one with another shall not be stowed on an aircraft next to each other or in a position that would allow interaction between them in the event of a leakage. 31. When dangerous goods subject to the provisions contained herein are loaded in an aircraft, the operator shall protect the dangerous goods from being damaged, and shall secure such goods in the aircraft in such a manner that will prevent any movement in flight which would change the orientation of the packages.

Information to be Provided to Pilot-in-Command 32. An operator is required to ensure that the commander is provided with written information as specified in Technical Instructions.

Information to be Provided to Crew Members 33. An operator must ensure that information is provided in the Operations Manual to enable crew members to carry out their responsibilities in regard to dangerous goods including actions to be taken in the event of emergencies arising which involve dangerous goods.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

Approval to Transport Dangerous Goods 34. Permanent approval for the transport of dangerous goods will be reflected on the Air Operator Certificate. In other circumstances an approval may be issued separately. 35. Before the issue of an approval for the transport of dangerous goods, the operator should satisfy the Authority that adequate training has been given, that all relevant documents (eg. for ground handling, aeroplane handling, training) contain information and instructions on dangerous goods, and that there are procedures in place to ensure the safe handling of dangerous goods at all stages of air transport.

Dangerous Goods Permitted to be Carried on an Aeroplane 36. Dangerous goods required to be on board an aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs or for operating reasons are those which are for: (a)

the airworthiness of the aeroplane;

(b)

the safe operation of the aeroplane; or

(c)

the health of passengers or crew;

(d)

catering or cabin supplies;

(e)

for use in flight as a veterinary aid or as a humane killer for an animal.

Such dangerous goods include but are not limited to: (a)

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Batteries;

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Transport of Dangerous Goods (b)

Fire extinguishers;

(c)

First-aid kits;

(d)

Insecticides/Air fresheners;

(e)

Lifesaving appliances; and

(f)

Portable oxygen supplies.

37. Gas cylinders, drugs, medicines, other medical material (such as sterilising wipes) and wet cell or lithium batteries are dangerous goods which are normally provided for use in flight as medical aid for a patient. (Equipment containing wet cell batteries is kept, and when necessary secured, in an upright position to prevent spillage of the electrolyte). However, what is carried may depend on the needs of the patient. These dangerous goods are not those which are a part on the normal equipment of the aeroplane. Note. Proper provision must be made to stow and secure all the equipment during take-off and landing and at all other times when deemed necessary by the pilot-in-command in the interests of safety.

Dangerous Goods Carried by Passengers or Crew 38. The Technical Instructions exclude some dangerous goods from the requirements normally applicable to them when they are carried by passengers or crew members, subject to certain conditions. 39.

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The dangerous goods which each passenger or crew member can carry are:

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

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(a)

Alcoholic beverages not exceeding 70% alcohol by volume, when packed in receptacles of less than 5 litres:

(b)

Non-radioactive medicinal to toilet articles (including aerosols, hair sprays, perfumes, medicines containing alcohol); and, in checked baggage only, aerosols which are nonflammable, non-toxic and without subsidiary risk, when for sporting or home use. The net quantity of each single article should not exceed 0.5 litre or 0.5 kg and the total net quantity of all articles should not exceed 2 litres or 2 kg;

(c)

Safety matches or a lighter for the person’s own use and when carried by the person. However, ‘Strike anywhere’ matches, lighter containing unabsorbed liquid fuel (other than liquified gas), lighter fuel and lighter refills are not permitted;

(d)

A hydrocarbon gas-powered hair curler, providing the safety cover is securely fitted over the heating element. Gas refills are not permitted.

(e)

Small carbon dioxide gas cylinders worn for the operation of mechanical limbs and spare cylinders of similar size if required to ensure an adequate supply for the duration of the journey;

(f)

Radioisotopic cardiac pacemakers or other devices (including those powered by lithium batteries) implanted in a person, or radio-pharmaceuticals contained within the body of a person as a result of medical treatment;

(g)

A small medical or clinical thermometer containing mercury, for the person’s own use, when in its protective case;

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Transport of Dangerous Goods Information to Passengers - Operator’s Responsibility 40. Information to passengers must be promulgated in such manner that passengers are warned as to the types of dangerous goods that must not be carried on board an aeroplane. 41.

As a minimum, this information should consist of: (a)

Warning notices or placards sufficient in number and prominently displayed, at each of the places at an airport where tickets are issued and passengers checked in, in aeroplane boarding areas and at any other place where passengers are checked in; and

(b)

A warning with the passenger ticket. This may be printed on the ticket or on a ticket wallet or on a leaflet.

(c)

The information to passengers may include reference to those dangerous goods which may be carried.

Information to Other Persons 42. Information to persons offering cargo for transport by air should be promulgated in such a manner that those persons are warned as to the need to properly identify and declare dangerous goods. 43. As a minimum this information should consist of warning notices or placards sufficient in number and prominently displayed at any location where cargo is accepted. 44. Pictographs may be used as an alternative to providing written information or to supplement such information.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods

Information in the Event of an Aeroplane Incident or Accident Information Provided to Aerodrome Authorities by the Pilot-inCommand 45. If an in flight emergency occurs, the pilot-in-command should inform the appropriate air traffic services unit, for the information of aerodrome authorities, of any dangerous goods on board, including quantity and location on the aircraft.

Information Provided by the Operator 46. The operator of an aircraft carrying dangerous goods which is involved in an aircraft accident, shall, as soon as possible, inform the State in which the accident occurred of the dangerous goods carried, together with appropriate specified information and the quantity and location on board the aircraft of the dangerous goods.

Training 47. An operator is required by JAR-OPS to establish and maintain staff training programmes, as required by the Technical Instructions, which must be approved by the Authority. 48. However, where flight crew or other crew members, such as loadmasters, are responsible for checking the dangerous goods to be loaded on an aeroplane, their training should also be to the depth specified in JAR-OPS.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods 49. Training in Emergency Procedures. The training in emergency procedures should include as a minimum: (a)

(b)

For flight crew members: (i)

Actions in the event of emergencies in flight occurring in the passenger cabin or in the cargo compartment; and

(ii)

The notification to Air Traffic Services should an in-flight emergency occur .

For crew members other than flight crew members: (i)

Dealing with incidents arising from dangerous goods carried by passengers; or

(ii)

Dealing with damaged or leaking packages in flight.

Dangerous Goods Incident and Accident Reports 50. Contracting States are required by ICAO to establish procedures for investigating and recording accidents and incidents which occur in its territory, which involve dangerous goods originating in or destined for, another State. Such reports are to be made in accordance with the Technical Instructions. 51. Any type of dangerous goods incident or accident should be reported, irrespective of whether the dangerous goods are contained in cargo, mail, passengers’ baggage or crew baggage. 52. Initial reports may be made by any means, but in all cases a written report should be made as soon as possible.

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Transport of Dangerous Goods 53. The report should be as precise as possible and contain all data known at the time the report is made, for example:

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(a)

Date of the incident or accident;

(b)

Location of the incident or accident, the flight number and flight date, if applicable;

(c)

Description of the goods and the reference number of the air waybill, pouch, baggage tag, ticket, etc;

(d)

Other information as specified.

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071 Operational Procedures

Contaminated Runways Factors Affecting Braking Definitions Operational Aspects Braking Action Assessment Methods Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning)

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Contaminated Runways

14

Contaminated Runways

Factors Affecting Braking 1. A number of factors directly affect the braking capability of an aeroplane during the landing and in the event of an abandoned take-off.

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(a)

Runway surfaces. The nature and conditions of the runway surface determines in part, the amount of grip or friction achieved by a tyre. Smooth surfaces result in less friction and when even shallow depths of contamination are present, can result in significantly reduced braking capability. Increased depths of water, snow, slush or ice degrade braking capability on any runway surface.

(b)

Tyre condition. The tread and condition of the tyre must be designed not only to keep the maximum possible area in contact with the runway surface but also to permit the dispersal of water and therefore to delay the onset of aquaplaning. Aquaplaning is also likely to occur earlier than calculated when a tyre is under inflated.

(c)

External factors. Headwind assists braking; tailwind does not. Increase in altitude, and ambient temperature reduce braking capability.

(d)

Runway slope. A downsloping runway where aeroplane momentum is assisted by gravity results in reduced braking effectiveness.

(e)

Aircraft speed. Braking at higher speeds requires increased brake energy and increases the potential for overheating the braking system whilst reducing its effectiveness.

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Contaminated Runways 2. The operational aspects and considerations related to operating from contaminated runways are described in the following paragraph.

Definitions 3. A contaminated runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one on which more than 25% of the runway surface area (whether in isolated areas or not) within the required length and width being used is covered by any of the following: (a)

Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 ins) deep, or by slush, or loose snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 ins) of water;

(b)

Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression and will hold together or break into lumps if picked up (compacted snow) or;

(c)

Ice including wet ice.

Damp Runway 4. A damp runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one on which the surface is not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shiny appearance. For performance purposes, a damp runway, other than grass runway, may be considered to be dry.

Dry Runway 5. A dry runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes those paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement and maintained to retain “effectively dry” braking action when moisture is present.

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Contaminated Runways

Wet Runway 6. A wet runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one on which the surface is covered with water, or equivalent, less than 3 mm (0.125 ins) deep or when there is sufficient moisture on the surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water.

Contaminants 7. Dry Snow. Loose hard snow is usually in the form of dry pellets which can be blown, or if compacted by hand, will fall apart again upon release. For this contaminant to be present the temperature must be below -5°C (and not risen since the snow fell). Its specific gravity is up to but not including 0.35. The maximum permissible depth for take-off or landing is 60 m on any part of the runway, measured by ruler. 8. Wet Snow. Loose snow taking the form of large flakes which if compacted by hand will stick together to form a snowball (if forms a white covering on all surfaces which when stamped upon does not slush up). The temperature for this type of snow is between -5°C and -1°C, with a specific gravity of 0.35 up to but not including 0.5. For take-off and landing the maximum permissible depth is 15 mm. A rough guide to this depth is the same as the welt of a shoe. 9. Compacted Snow. Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass and resists further compression is compacted snow. It will hold together or break into lumps if picked up. This type of covering is normally caused by the transit of vehicles over the surface when snow is falling. Its specific gravity is 0.5 and over. 10. Slush. A mixture of water and snow which is displaced with a splatter when a heel-and-toe slapping motion is made on the ground. The temperature is at or around 0ºC. A maximum depth of 15 mm is permissible for take-off and landing. Specific gravity is 0.5 up to 0.8.

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Contaminated Runways 11. Water. Visible puddles, usually of rain, standing on the surface causing paved surfaces to glisten when the temperature is above 0ºC. On a natural surface it is assumed that more than 3 mm of water exists if under a firm foot pressure and water rises to the surface. 12. Mixtures. Mixtures of ice, snow and/or standing water may, especially when rain, sleet or snow is falling, produce a substance having an SG above 0.8. This substance is transparent at higher SG’s, and is easily distinguished from slush which is cloudy. 13. Ice. A frozen layer of surface moisture. The thickness of which varies and produces a poor coefficient of friction according to the condition of the surface.

Operational Aspects Effects of Contamination 14. The effect that contaminated surfaces have on the performance of an aircraft is different for each type because of weight, speed, tyre and undercarriage variations. If an aircraft is permitted to operate on contaminated surfaces, the Flight Manual will contain a statement to this effect giving any limitations and special handling techniques that may be necessary to ensure compliance with the appropriate regulations. 15. Most aerodrome authorities take action to minimise the effect of ice, snow and rain; but it is still necessary to measure the braking action on the surface. The most reliable and uniform method of providing this type of information is to measure that amount of friction on the surface. Not only the runways require testing, other surfaces such as holding bays, taxiways and aprons should be checked for satisfactory braking. A low friction value means that braking action is reduced and directional control on the surface degraded.

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Contaminated Runways

Friction Measurements 16. Various methods may be used to measure surface friction, which is considered to be the maximum value of friction afforded when a wheel is braked but is still rolling. The most suitable method of assessment is generally determined by operational considerations. The method used to measure surface friction and then to report it is standardised to enable pilots to correctly interpret the meaning of the value stated. The equipment used for this purpose provides continuous measurement of the maximum friction along the entire runway and the value reported is called the braking coefficient of friction.

Braking Coefficient of Friction 17. Operationally, a pilot needs to know how the aeroplane will perform on a contaminated surface compared with how it would perform on a dry hard surface. Braking action information may be passed by R/T in descriptive terms or as a coefficient of friction which is defined as the tangential force applied by a surface, expressed as a proportion of the normal dry surface force upon a loaded, smooth-tyred aeroplane. The relationship between the braking coefficient of friction and the aircraft’s groundspeed for a reference wet hard surface is derived in accordance with the method described in JAR 25.

Contaminated Surface Measurements 18. Before the airport operating authority declares a surface fit for use by aircraft, the depth of contaminant and the braking action have to be measured. The depth of snow or slush on the runway is measured with a standard depth gauge every 300 metres along the runway between 5 and 10 metres either side of the centre-line and clear of any ruts. The average reading of depth for each third of the runway is then promulgated. The depth of ice covering runways is not measured.

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Contaminated Runways 19. A continuous runway friction measuring trailer (Mu-meter) and a brake testing decelerometer (Tapley meter) carried in a light van or truck is used to measure the effect of ice, snow, slush and water on braking action. This method employs a runway friction measuring trailer (Mu-meter) towed by a vehicle at 40 mph. The equipment provides a continuous register of the mean coefficient of friction values either on a paper trace or by means of a digital read-out that is used in conjunction with a hand computer

Braking Action Assessment Methods 20. Improvement of Braking Action. To increase the friction value of aircraft manoeuvring areas affected by ice or snow, grit may have to be put on the surface if poor braking conditions persist. The specification of grit used is the best compromise between improving friction and causing least damage to aircraft. The risk to aircraft when using reverse thrust or pitch is high, and extreme caution is necessary particularly after a sudden thaw.

Reporting Braking Action to the Pilot 21. When the Mu-meter reading (friction reading) for any one third of the runway falls below 0.50 but not below 0.40, a single mean value for the whole runway will be passed by R/T to the pilot. This is preceded by the corresponding qualitative term and by a descriptive term of the conditions. Example: “Braking action medium 0.46. Heavy rain. Time of measurement 1030 “. 22. Should the value for any one-third fall below 0.40 then the values for each third will be given in order starting with the one nearest the threshold, preceded by the qualitative term appropriate to the whole runway and followed by a descriptive term of the conditions.

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Contaminated Runways Example: “Braking action poor 0.46 0.37 0.39. Standing water. Time of measurement 1530”.

Interpretation of Braking Action Assessments 23. For take-off, as for landing, the aerodrome authorities measure the runway surface coefficient of friction and estimate the braking action. The reported braking action passed to the pilot is that of a vehicle unaffected by any condition other than that of the surface. It is therefore the pilot who must use his judgement of the other factors affecting the aircraft, such as crosswind and aeroplane mass, to place the appropriate interpretation on the reported conditions. A broad guide of braking action assessments (which should nevertheless be used with discretion) is as follows:

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(a)

Good: Pilots can expect to take-off and/or land within the scheduled wet distances without undue directional control or braking difficulties caused by the runway conditions. Untreated ice does not come into this category but gritted ice could produce the friction required.

(b)

Medium: Aircraft are likely to use all of the wet scheduled distance, including the safety factor part of the distance. Directional control may be impaired. The achievement of satisfactory landing performance depends on the precise execution of the recommended flight technique.

(c)

Poor: The pilot must expect the aircraft to run at least the full “very wet” or aquaplaning distance, where this too is scheduled. There may be a significant deterioration in braking performance and in directional control. It is advisable to ensure that the landing distance specified in the flight Operations Manual for very wet conditions does not exceed the landing distance available.

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Contaminated Runways SNOWTAM 24. In winter, aerodromes participating in the SNOWTAM system are requested to make reports of runway conditions following significant changes but in any event at least every 24 hr. 25. The SNOWTAM report identifies for the aerodrome, ‘inter alia’, the runways affects, the extent and type of contamination and the friction coefficient or assessed braking action as a code number (the braking action code). An illustration of this assessment code is as follows:

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Contaminated Runways Measured or Calculated Coefficient

Estimated Braking Action

Braking Action Code

0.40 and above

Good

5

0.39 to 0.36

Medium/Good

4

0.35 to 0.30

Medium

3

0.29 to 0.26

Medium/Poor

2

0.25 and below

Poor

1

Readings Unreliable

-

9

Note. In METAR this information will be included as part of an 8 digit code group in the supplementary information. The last two digits representing either the friction reading (35 = 0.35 etc.) or the braking action code preceded by figure 9 (eg. 92 = braking action assessed as medium/ poor).

Reporting of Wet Runways 26. The presence of water on a runway will be reported to the pilot using the following description:

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(a)

Damp – the surface shows a change of colour due to moisture;

(b)

Wet – the surface is soaked but no significant patches of standing water are visible;

(c)

Water Patches – Significant patches of standing water are visible (ie. more than 25% of the runway surface areas to be used covered by water >3mm deep, whether in isolated areas or not);

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Contaminated Runways (d)

Flooded – extensive standing water is visible (ie. more than 50% of the assessed area covered by water >3 mm deep).

(Note (c) and (d) are considered to be contaminated and automatically imply a risk of aquaplaning).

Effects of Runway Contamination 27. Depths greater than 3 mm of water, slush or wet snow, or 10 mm of dry snow, are likely to have a significant effect on the performance of aeroplanes. The main effects are: (a)

additional drag – retardation effects on the wheels and spray impingement drag;

(b)

possibility of power loss or system malfunction due to spray ingestion or impingement;

(c)

reduced wheel-braking performance – the problems of aquaplaning;

(d)

directional control problems;

(e)

possibility of structural damage.

28. A water depth of less than 3 mm is normal during and after heavy rain and in such conditions, no corrections to take-off performance are necessary other than the allowance, where applicable, for the effect of a wet or slippery surface. However, on such a runway where the water depth is less than 3 mm and where the performance effect is insignificant, isolated patches of standing water or slush of depth in excess of 15 mm located in the latter part of the take-off run may still lead to ingestion and temporary power fluctuations which could impair safety.

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Contaminated Runways 29. A continuous depth of water greater than 3 mm is unlikely as a result of rain alone, but can occur if torrential rain combines with lack of runway camber/crossfall or a crosswind to reduce the rate of water drainage from the runway. In such conditions the water depth is unlikely to persist for more than about 15 minutes after the rain has ceased and take-off should be delayed accordingly.

Limitations for Take-Off - Contaminated Runways 30. When operations from contaminated runways are unavoidable the following procedures are recommended: (a)

Take-offs should not be attempted in depths of dry snow greater than 60 mm or depths of water, slush or wet snow greater than 15 mm. If the snow is very dry, the depth limit may be increased to 80 mm;

(b)

Ensure that all retardation and anti-skid devices are fully serviceable and check that tyres are in good condition;

Limitations on Landing 31. Attempts to land on heavily contaminated runways involve considerable risk and should be avoided whenever possible. If the destination aerodrome is subject to such conditions, departure should be delayed until conditions improve or an alternate used. It follows that advice in the Aeroplane Flight Manual or Operations Manual concerning landing weights and techniques on very slippery or heavily contaminated runways is only there to enable the Commander to make a decision, when airborne, as to his best course of action.

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Contaminated Runways 32. Depths of water or slush, exceeding approximately 3 mm, over a considerable proportion of the length of the runway, can have an adverse effect on landing performance. Under such conditions aquaplaning is likely to occur with its attendant problems of negligible wheel-braking and loss of directional control. Moreover, once aquaplaning is established it may, in certain circumstances, be maintained in much lower depths of water or slush. A landing should only be attempted in these conditions if there is an adequate distance margin over and above the normal Landing Distance Required and when the crosswind component is small. The effect of aquaplaning on the landing roll is comparable with that of landing on an icy surface and guidance is contained in some Flight Manuals on the effect on the basic landing distance of such very slippery conditions.

Contaminated Runway Calculations 33. Most modern aeroplanes are certificated using dry runway performance data. However, provision for operations on a contaminated or wet surface is provided for in JAR 25 AMJ 25X1591 and is required by JAR 25X1591. The method used by the manufactures to determine this data is similar to that used to determine dry runway data except V1 (Decision Speed) cannot be scheduled because of the indeterminate friction characteristics of the surface. Hence any information or data provided in the flight manual is of an advisory nature only.

JAR-OPS Requirements - Landing Wet Runway 34. An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that when weather reports and/or forecasts indicate that the runway at the aerodrome of intended landing at the estimated time of arrival may be wet, the landing distance available is at least 115% of the required landing distance.

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Contaminated Runways Contaminated Runway 35. An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that when weather reports and/or forecasts indicate that the runway at the estimated time of arrival may be contaminated, the landing distance available must be at least the value of the required wet minimum landing distance or 115% of the landing distance required calculated for a contaminated runway.

Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning) 36. The tyre friction required by an aeroplane to maintain directional control and effective braking is a finite quantity for each aircraft type. The amount of friction actually obtained can be adversely affected by any surface contaminant. Water is particularly dangerous because it can cause an almost total loss of tyre friction. This condition which is known as hydroplaning occurs when water underneath a tyre builds up an increasing amount of resistance to being displaced (by the tyre) and eventually forms a layer between the runway and the tyre. The result is negligible braking and difficulty in maintaining directional control. 37. The effects of aquaplaning on aircraft handling characteristics are similar to those experienced on an icy or very slippery surface. Some Aeroplane Flight Manuals contain information on handling characteristics and aircraft performance when such surface conditions exist. The guidance given should be used at all times when the contaminant depth is “significant”. Some degree of hydroplaning is possible at any time when the runway is contaminated by water or some other foreign substance.

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Contaminated Runways

Types of Hydroplaning 38. Two types of hydroplaning can occur, either individually or together, on wet or icy runways. They are known as DYNAMIC and VISCOUS, and they differ in their initial cause and total duration, but may occur together to give ‘combined’ hydroplaning.

Dynamic Hydroplaning 39.

For this phenomenon to occur, two essential conditions must be present: (a)

The surface must be flooded to a depth which exceeds the total depth of the runway texture plus the tyre tread. This is the critical depth and is normally 3 mm.

(b)

The second condition is that the aircraft must be travelling at or above the critical speed, which is the tyre speed at which the standing inertia of the water is such that the water is unable to escape from under the tyre. If both conditions are present, dynamic hydroplaning is likely to occur.

Viscous Hydroplaning 40. The only essential condition for viscous hydroplaning to occur is a smooth surface covered by a thin film of moisture. It happens at much lower groundspeeds than dynamic hydroplaning and is usually of very short duration. On normal landings at the touchdown point the aircraft tyres slip and skid momentarily until they spin up to their rotational speed. Usually the texture of the runway surface is coarse enough to break up the liquid film, but any deposits of rubber or oil prevent this dissipation taking place. The heat generated by the initial slippage of the tyre is enough to cause a thin layer of rubber to melt and adhere to the runway.

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Contaminated Runways

Factors Affecting Hydroplaning 41. It has been determined by research that the size of the tyre footprint directly affects the aircraft’s hydroplaning characteristics. If the tyre is correctly inflated, its footprint is unaffected by changes in AUW. But if the tyre is underinflated, the size of the footprint is increased irrespective of the AUW. An underinflated tyre is more likely to hydroplane than one that is correctly inflated, and it will do so at a lower groundspeed than that at which hydroplaning would normally occur. Aircraft tyres must therefore be in good condition, have adequate tread and be inflated at the correct pressure. If a choice of tyres exists, multi-rib tyres should be selected because they delay the onset of aquaplaning. 42. The airfield operating authorities, during the construction or repair of runways, can assist the pilot by ensuring the runways are porous or grooved to give better tyre traction and that there is adequate drainage to prevent build up of moisture. However, strong crosswinds can defeat good drainage on the windward side of the runway. Aircraft design can also assist by the incorporation of tandem wheel arrangements because they can travel through greater depths of contaminant with less difficulty than others. 43. Dynamic hydroplaning, after its onset, will continue whilst the two essential conditions are maintained. If either the groundspeed falls below the critical speed or the water depth reduces below the critical depth, this type of hydroplaning will not persist.

Calculation of Critical Speed 44. The speed at which braking efficiency begins to deteriorate is difficult to calculate because it is a gradual process, but the speed at which it becomes total can be determined. Tests carried out with an aircraft fitted with bald tyres, on a smooth, wet surface revealed that the speed at which aquaplaning occurred can be calculated from the following formula:

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Contaminated Runways (a)

For a non-rotating tyre ρ V P ( spin up ) in knots = 7.7 --σ

(b)

For a rotating tyre ρ V ( spin down ) in knots = 9 --P σ

V P = hydroplaning speed in knots

ρ = tyre pressure lb/in 2 σ==== specific gravity of the contaminant (Note. Tyre pressures can also be measured in kg/cm lb/in

2

2

or in ‘bar’ where 1 bar is equal to 14.7

2 or 1.034 kg/cm .

In simple terms, sub paragraph (b) can be summarised as the critical (start of hydroplaning) speed in knots equal to the square root of the tyre pressure multiplied by 9 . The speed calculated is groundspeed and therefore only in ISA conditions at mean sea level will the calculated speed equate to indicated airspeed (IAS). In any other conditions TAS will represent more accurately the calculated aquaplaning groundspeed. At a higher level airfield for example, a given value of TAS will be achieved at a lower IAS and therefore the calculated aquaplaning speed will be reached at a lower IAS.

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Contaminated Runways Note. The formula in sub paragraph (a) is applicable for a landing calculation whereas sub paragraph (b) is applicable for a take-off calculation. Example: Given a tyre pressure of 144lb/in 2 the critical hydroplaning speed is 108kt for take-off.

Precautions on Take-Off 45. On take-off, as the tyre commences to roll on a wet surface at slower speeds, water is able to escape to the sides of the tyre until the speed approaches the critical speed. At this point a wedge of water builds up in front of the tyre and lifts it clear of the surface. Therefore, to avoid the risk of hydroplaning, take-off should not be attempted unless the water depth is less than the critical value for the entire length of the take-off run required.

Precautions on Landing 46. For landing the non-rotating formula should be used to calculate the dynamic hydroplaning speed. If the depth of contaminant exceeds the critical depth, the landing should be delayed until it has drained below the critical depth. Caution is important in this situation. 47. Finally, aeroplane approach speed is also a factor. Every 1% increase in touchdown speed above that recommended for the aircraft mass increases the landing distance required by 2%.

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Contaminated Runways Combined Hydroplaning 48. The loss of tyre friction on wet or flooded runways is generally the result of combined effects of dynamic and viscous hydroplaning. If dynamic hydroplaning is predominant the area of the tyre under which the bulk of the water is trapped enlarges as the speed increases. If the contaminant is of less than critical depth, however, and there is no bulk of water present, the major part of the footprint is in contact with a thin film of moisture and viscous hydroplaning is the controlling element.

Reverted Rubber Skids 49. When a tyre is hydroplaning, although the friction available is insufficient to rotate the wheel it does generate sufficient heat, on high pressure tyres, to melt the rubber at the contact point and wear a flat spot on the tyre. The heat also converts water or ice on the runway in the path of the tyre into steam. The tyre therefore rides on a layer of steam. This is particularly dangerous not only because of the ineffectiveness of the brakes but also because of the loss of directional control when the wheels are in a locked condition. Avoidance of reverted rubber skids, as they are called, depends on the pilot using the anti-skid systems of the aircraft to their maximum advantage. 50. All these types of hydroplaning can occur in the same landing run if conditions are appropriate.

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