The music and musical instruments of southern India

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NOVELLO,

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THE MUSIC MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ^nutljcrn SlnMa anD ^\jc Otccan

C.

R.

Captain, Oxi-ordshire

DAY Light Infantry

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY A. J.

HIPKINS,

THE PLATES DRAWN

L0:N'B0C<

&

C\'EIV

11

Y

F.S.A.

WILLIAM dlHB.

YORK: 0\'OVELLO, EWER and

^'D-JO^'l

&

CH-4RLES BL-ACK, l.OfN'DOOi. MDCCCXCI.

i^

CO.

1

V

.

.

LONDON NOVELI.O,

EWER AND

PRINTERS.

CO.,

di:dicati:d hv permission

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS

The Duke

of

Connaiight and Strathearn K.G., K.T., K.P.

CONTENTS.

.......----.-.-..----•--

PAlit

ix

Introduction

Preface

CHAPTER

— How

xv

I.

cluuiijed in the course of years— Its decline under Mahomcdan rule—-Hindu encouraged in the South of India Connection with religionideas of music— Influence of religion upon music— Legends— Difficulty of deciphering the ancient treatises Most noticeable peculiarities differing from European music

music

Iiuliaii

—

How

i

— 12

Preservation of music in Southern India— Modern Karnatik system believed to be closely akin to the ancient— Sanskrit treatises— Definition of s'ruti— System of twenty-two— Formation of scales (grama)— Relation of major and minor modes— Deviation of intervals of system of twenty-two from those of just intonation -Comparison of ancient scale with European diatonicResults of recent observation— Svstem of twelve hinted at in Sanskrit— Murchanas— Raga— How differing from mode— tala or rhythm— Time, how estimated— Ancient varieties 13 of rlivthm Ancient notation

29

— How

—

.

CHAPTER

II.

....----

—

CHAPTER

III.

—

Modern theory— How differing from ancient Notation— .Arrangement how signified .Application of measure to music

—

CHAPTER Raga

-

-

-

of

gamut— Scales— Time, -

-

3"

-

IV.

— How defined — Notes essential to composition of^Vadi and Samvadi notes — Modem meaning of Murchana — Examples of Murchana applied — Ancient and modern methods of performance of raga— How differing — Alapa— Madhyamakala — Gamakas — Classification of ragas— Popular scales for — Allied to certain passions — Peculiarities — How apportioned to seasons and hours

—

•'

Kattika," or

list

of

..----

modern ragas

— 37

CHAPTER

3S

— 56

V.

— —

Taste of European and Oriental nations: how differing Reason for non-employment of harmony Method of singing Of Indian melodies Form Classification of— Rhythm Employment of mixed times Tonality often doubtful Resemblance of Indian music to that of other countries Examples of popular melodies Hindustani musical system how diftering from 57—9' Karnatik E.\amples of Hindustani melodies Scales employed in the Hindustani system

— —

—

—

—

—

—

—

:

—

CHAPTER

—

VI.

....--

Musical entertainments Music and the Drama^Influence of the latter upon songs of the country Of the Indian orchestra Religious music Temple music Employment of bells Street

—

music

— — —The Nahabet — Nautch music — Dancing

CHAPTER

—

—

— Decoration — Materials — How —

construction Eastern origin of in common use

susceptible

of

improvement

— Chief

many European instruments —^Descriptions

CHAPTER

—

Appendix

defects in of instruments gg

— 154

VIII.

Famous Indian musicians of the South Principal seats of music in Southern India of Indian music Sanskrit MSS. upon music

—

— 9S

VII.

...-.........-.......-----

Of instruments

gz

— Bibliography 155

— 16S

169—173

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Pi.ATK

I.

Plate

II.

Plate

III.

A BIN

PLAYER

109

SOUTHERN INDIAN VINA. SMALL SITAR SUR-S'RINGARA. LARGE SITAR

-

-

-

in 117

TAUS

123

SARANGI

125

Plate IV.

BIN-SITAR.

Plate V.

SARINDA.

Plate VI.

RABOB.

Plate VII.

TAMBURI. YEKTAR.

Plate VIII.

SNARAMANDALA

133

Plate IX.

KINNARI

135

Plate X.

MRIDANG. TABLA AND BAHYA

137

CHIKARA.

PERSIAN SITARA

Plate XIV.

DHOL KHANJERI. TAM TAM TALA. JALRA. BUDBUDIKA PUNGI. KURTAR

Plate XV.

PILLAGOVI.

Plate XVI.

MOSHUQ. S'ANKHU

Plate XVII.

TUTURI.

Plate

XL

Plate XII. Plate XIII.

NAGARA.

-

......

SARANGI

-

S'RINGA.

129

139 141

143

145

MUKAVINA. S'RUTI.

NAFARI.

....

127

NAGASARA. ALGOA

KURNA

...

147 151

-

153

INTRODUCTION.

WHETHER

music as an attribute of

we cannot

man

as old as speech or not,

is

for present consideration

sa)-;

it

sufficient that

is

common power

can be intensified into poetic expression with a affecting the

emotions, notwithstanding that there

a vast

is

both in

and unbridgable

distance between the precision of articulate language and the vague suggestion

and glamour of musical sound. described as musical, since

it

There

is

a quality in recited poetry not inaptly

has a special charm due to the choice and rhythm of

rhythmic euphony

is

cannot correctly be said to be comprehended

in

But

words, assisted by the personal note of the reciter. onlv allied to the musician's art, it,

owing

to the

we overlook

absence of defined musical intervals.

the

human

trace music as having

form of culture, or for the

it

moment

it

race, its history

him Harmony, although

we

shall find

melody

in the

point of view

slender, with the particular

Let us

be the absence of culture, under notice.

turn aside from the

for

From whatever

and development, we can nearly alwaj's

some connection, however

may even

this

modern European musician's standpoint,

of comparatively recent origin,

succession of notes

and

is

as

indispensable, and

their rhythmic

movement

possessing a beauty and exerting a charm which have endured for ages and

comprehend the whole

art

of Music in the older civilisations.

Babylonia, Persia, and Arabia

modern as

;

in

Asia Minor, Greece, and

well as ancient, for here simple

the exception of

the

Drone,

apparently

melody of

still

Indian

In

Egypt;

Rome — and

in India,

reigns supreme.

origin,

which

is

in

With literally

INTRODUCTION.

X

preserved in the Bagpipe and

modern harmonic music

Hurdy Gurdy, and

— conspicuous

is

a characteristic feature in our

as the Pedal point

—the

of any

traces

combination of musical intervals, out of Europe, are unimportant and need not be considered

comparison of our Western music, with

in a

harmonv, and that of the

harmony has no

Among

rest of the world,

elaborate system of

whether ancient or modern, where

place.

the heterogeneous populations of India

There

upon the history of melody.

that bears

its

old as the Vedic Sanskrit,

is

much

material

may

an Aryan strain probably as

and a Persian which has

in

these latter days, and

There are

especially in Northern India, considerably modified the true Hindu.

also echoes

remaining

we

sa}'

Indian music of to-day

in the

which prevails among the

indigenous music

an

of

;

hill

tribes,

but yet not so clearly heard that

we can

of an

identify here or there a refrain

may

although we

knowledge the octave,

it

is

is

unconsciously be very near

original

or

pre-historic music,

In the present state of our

it.

impossible to affirm that a pentatonic, or system of

five

notes in

of greater antiquity than a heptatonic or seven-note system

that a chromatic or half-tone scale preceded an enharmonic tones.

be found

All these varieties occur in our historic records,

and

composed of quarterif

we argue from

analogies of speech, or consider the measurement of vibrating strings, less plausible to decide for primitive

In every province, go where or turn which

modes,

as

is

may

rhythms, graces to mark

is

much

that

may be

for primitive

its

it,

having

its

is

no

wide ones.

authenticity, but

peculiar scales or

we mav

yet be far

In the native music of Africa, so far

traced to Asiatic sources.

oldest civilisation that offers us any substantial information

begins in the earliest historic

it

the

be found some melodic or rhythmic habit

origin, even as to locality.

known, there

The It

its

will,

possible to reckon as proper to

it is

its figures,

away from

we

narrow intervals than

or

;

monuments with

is

Egypt.

a graphic sign representing a

fingerboard instrument of the tamboura or guitar kind, which already marks a

summit

level

in

instrumental

construction and

are not likely to learn from civilisations

We

which may have preceded Egypt, as

from the non-existence of any form of graphic their secrets.

musical conception.

art

they cannot

now

divulge

INTRODUCTION. Another question that has arisen vocal music.

understand

There

are

many

in varied pitch

is

xi

that of the priority of instrumental or

difficulties

attending a vocal origin of what

The

and recurring rhythm hy melody.

poets'

we

music

already touched upon, depending upon very small vocal inflections, can no more

measured and retained than the notes of many song birds which yet give us

be

Very small musical

infinite pleasure.

intervals in traditional use

which delight

Indian and other Eastern people are clearly of instrumental origin, and to be

This tradition may be of

attributed generally to facilities afforded by strings.

very great antiquity, and such old forms of music that occur to us,

chants or Hebrew psalms,

are, in

The consideration

may

is

that of the

of the value of this interval

be Vedic

A

comparison, conceivably modern.

instance of a purelv instrumental small interval the s'ruti.

it

striking

Hindu musical

unit,

and of a combination

of s'rutis to form an octave scale will be found in Captain Day's lucid exposition,

and

is

as interesting as

of the s'ruti in the

The

it

is

important.

measurement

There can be no doubt about the origin

of a stretched string.

object of this introduction will be gained

ourselves to forget the glory and splendour of our

we, for a

if

while, allow

little

modern harmony,

favour of

in

those melodic systems which once satisfied the great nations of classical antiquity,

and is

still

content those hoary civilisations of the East which preserve so

really ancient in their present daily

Day shows

Captain

life.

much

that

us interesting

resemblances between the leading modes of old Greece and Asia Minor and certain favourite

modes

of the

Hindus.

There

is

no sure evidence of an intimate

musical connection between those countries and India, a few scattered references in classical writers

excepted

;

but the relationship of sister Aryan languages

have been paralleled by a relationship of musical types

may

sufficient to justify a

theory of descent instead of one of imitation.

The

greater freedom in musical intervals melodic systems allow must be

reckoned as compensating

in

some measure

for the

want

of those

harmonic

combinations of which our European music has such inexhaustible wealth.

we

lose in the possession of this rich estate

the use and enjoyment of a

more

is

that

we

pliant melody, free

What

are effectually barred from

from the

consonant chords, a melody which has a great privilege

fetters

in easily

imposed by

touching the

INTRODUCTION.

xii

Recent scale theories, claiming to have their foundation

emotions.

in natural

laws, are insufficient to account for the material which allows the pliahility of

Captain Day's guidance we find that

modern times

in

our

common

in

and

triads,

Under

and enharmonic systems are utterly irreconcilable.

chromatic

become

lor

upon three harmonic

diatonic scale, the structure of which rests

with

account

insufficient even to

But they are

Eastern melody.

India an ancient quarter-tone system has

a half-tone one

— substantially our equal temperament,

but permitting an expressive or ornamental use of smaller intervals than the

Whether

half-tone, according to the player's feeling or fancy.

tone system

this ideally half-

due to a natural transformation tending to simplicity

is

the rich Sanskrit reduced in

modern vernacular

dialects

— as we find

— or to an adaptation more

suitable for practical use than a fine-spun theory of ancient music teachers, must, like

nearlv

the questions that have here been propounded, remain open or be

all

regarded as beyond the possibility of answer. It

must not be overlooked that the Persian and Arab musicians have also

enharmonic systems, and the delight antiquity.

we admit moods.

these

may

be referred back to an older Babylonian,

such melodic freedom

felt in

We would its

if

may have been widespread

not, however, resign our

harmony

for this

great power to incite a poetic impression

What

Indian music offers to

their

mood

will

be found

freedom, although

when we in

remote

in a

are in certain

Captain Day's pages,

and, studied from this point of view, the information he offers cannot but be of the hisfhest value.

He shows

us the existence of a reallv intimate expressive melodic

music, capable of the greatest refinement of treatment, and altogether outside the experience of the Western musician.

What we

learn from such inquiries

the debated opinions of musical theorists, the cherished beliefs of those

themselves to the practice of the studies

—

all

have

to

art,

the deductions

European,

phenomena

national,

or

conventional,

to a philosophical as well as a

this century, is

who

that

devote

evolve from historic

be submitted to larger conceptions, based upon a recognition

of humanity as evolved from the teachings of ethnology.

merely

we

is

conceded

to language, but

We must

and submit

the

forget

what

whole of the

sympathetic consideration, such

has not yet found

is

its

way

A.

J.

as, in

to music.

HIPKINS.

PREFACE.

OF

late

years so

many works

of National music,

book the author

The

have appeared that

feels that

an ever-widening

while so

some apology

subject of Indian music, presenting, as

musical system so distinct from what offers

of importance, dealing with the subject

field for

many works upon

we

in

for the is

it

publication

necessary. does, ideas so fresh and a

Europe are accustomed

research and study.

of this

It is

to,

necessarily

curious to note that

the arts or industries of India have, in recent times,

appeared, the subject of Indian music has been generally thought devoid of

all

science and unworthy, therefore, of any serious consideration. Sir William Jones, at the end of the last century, endeavoured to dispel

ideas of this nature, and his learned essay

upon The Musical Modes of

the

Hindus has formed the basis of almost all Indian musical research. Some forty years later Captain Augustus Willard, who at that time commanded the troops in the service of H.H. the Nawab of Banda, published an interesting little Treatise upon the Music of Hindustan, a book which is now so scarce as to be Notwithstanding the

almost unobtainable.

real

interest

of both

these works

they are, unfortunately, of comparatively small practical use to the ordinarv

musical enquirer, unless, indeed, he

is

fortunate enough to possess a consider-

able previous knowledge of the subject.

The work which

is

now

published has been the result of

much study and

research during a term of foreign service while the author's regiment was in

And

hoped that the information here offered for the first time may prove of interest, and may assist in some small degree in supplying a want hitherto felt among musicians and students of National musical literature. To render the book of greater value, and to assist those who may make further India.

it

is

PREFACE.

xvi

research, a catalogue of various works dealing with the subject has been added,

together with a carefully prepared

list

of various Sanskrit authorities.

among

has been taken of the legendary origin of music

Modern India

as understood in

principles

employed have been described in notation.

in detail

;

Notice

the Aryans, and of

its

the peculiar scales and rhythms

;

and examples of various

airs are given

order to show the principles of form upon which the Indian

In

musicians construct their melodies an analysis of some of the examples has been attempted.

The

subject of

Temperament, concerning which so many

propounded, has been treated

The thanks

of.

theories have been

of the author are due to the late

Dr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., for his great kindness in working out experiments concerning the temperament of the Indian scale,

permission to publish them here

;

many and

special for

his

also for his exhaustive account of the S'ruti

vina, given in the Appendix.

The author Mr. A. this

takes this opportunity of acknowledging his thanks to his friend,

Hipkins, F.S.A., both for his great help and sympath}', without which

J.

work would never have been published

The author begs

Illustrations

much

British

valuable help and information.

all

The author

of is

them admirable representations

of Indian musical

indebted to the kindness of Miss Edith Hipkins for

her very beautiful drawings, which are reproduced in Plates

Many

Museum, and

have been confided to the hands of Mr. William Gibb, and

form seventeen plates, instruments.

also for his learned Introduction.

also to thank Mr. Cecil Bendall, of the

Professor T. \V. Rhys Davids, for

The

;

II., III.,

and IV.

thanks are due to H.H. the

late Maharajah of Travancore and to Maharajah of Mysore for their kindness in affording facilities for and to the Rajah enquiry, and for allowing access to valuable manuscripts Sir Sourendro Mohun Tagore for permission to quote from his various works. Acknowledgment is also due to Messrs. Balwant Trimback Sahasrabadhe, and T. M. Venkatasesha S'astri, of the Poona Gayana Samaj M. Narasimhayya, of and the London Mission High School, Bangalore Maula Bux of Baroda to many other native gentlemen too numerous, unfortunately, to mention by name.

H.H.

the

;

;

;

Army and Navy Club, April,

i8gi.

;

A (From

a

SiTAR Player,

Marathi Instruction Book.)

CHAPTER Indian music

— How

of

music

I.

—

Hindu Its decline under Mahomedan rule encouraged in the South of India Connection with religion Influence of religion upon music— Legends— Difficulty of deciphering the ancient treatises How differing from European music Most noticeable peculiarities.

ideas

chani^ed in the course of years

—

— How

—

—

AMONG want

the

many

arts

and industries of India gradually decaying from

of patronage,

but

which,

since

accession of the British

the

Government, have again been fostered and has hitherto found no place. To Europeans it is Almost every traveller in India of all Indian arts. that the music of the country consists of mere

encouraged, that of music certainly the least

known

comes away with the idea noise and nasal drawling

most repulsive kind, often accompanied by contortions and gestures Perhaps the traveller may have fancied that of the most ludicrous description. he has seen a nautch he has possibly been asked to some such entertainment more likely, he has possessed a or, at the house of a wealthy native treasure of a "boy," who has been able to make the necessary arrangements of the

—

;

with

the

" nautchnees "

for

a

performance

of

the

kind.

But

in

certainly

and dancing witnessed has been ot the commonest, and the performers of the most abandoned and depraved of and the traveller has therefore received a false impression, which may the citv two-thirds

of

such cases the

singing

—

impede the progress of a more correct appreciation ot the real value of Indian music. But it is hardly fair that an art so little really understood, even among the natives of India themselves, should be judged by such a criterion and then put aside as worthless because solitary individuals have been deceived by parties of outcast charlatans whose object is mere gain. For that Indian music abide through

life,

or

and a very intricate and difficult one too, can hardly be denied. But to appreciate it one must first put away all thought of European music, and then judge of it by an Indian standard, and impartially upon its own merits — of the is

an

art,

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

2

— the pecuhar rhythm of the music —the extraordinary scales used — the recitatives — the amount of imitation — the wonderful execution employing small intervals as grace. andmemory of the performer — and his

ingenuity of the performer

skill in

Then when we hear old" Slokes "and Ghuzals," songs written hundreds of years ago, sung with the same sweet dreamy cadences, the same wild melody, to the same soft beats of little hands, and the same soft tinkle of the silver cymbals, we shall perhaps begin to feel that music of this kind can be as welcome and •'

accustomed to it as the music of the West, with its exaggerated sonorousness, is to us and so our contempt will gradually give way to wonder, For this music, let us remember, daily and, upon acquaintance, possibly to love. gives pleasure to as many thousands as its more cultivated European sister gives

tasteful to ears

;

There is hardly any festivity in India in which some part is not assigned to music and for religious ceremonies its use is universal. Since the Vedic times it has been cultivated as an art. The hymns of the Rig and Yagur Vedas were set and sung to music ages ago. The Vedic chant, composed in the

to

hundreds.

—

simple Sanskrit spoken three thousand years

and handed down from

ago,

generation to generation for more than thirty centuries, has a thrilling effect upon a cultivated Hindu mind. The Vedic chant is to Hindus what plain

song

is

For

to us.

this ancient

sacred ceremonials, and

And

the place where

wedded

is

it is

heard, for

so holy, and the strain itself

cannot

fail

to

chant

is

—

to

like

language alike

it is

—

bound up with the sonorous and dignihed.

plain song

is

only heard in the temple,

so simple and devotional, that

is

all

considered

who hear

it

be impressed.^

Indian music, like

sister art in

its

changes before reaching

its

Europe, seems to have undergone

present stage.

many

In remote ages the art seems to

but have been highly cultivated, and musicians were held in great esteem perpetual strife between under the Mussalman dynasty, and owing to the almost ;

want of encouragement, fell almost information to be had concerning the

petty princes, music, like other arts, through into abeyance.

There

is,

therefore,

little

music of those times.

From

early

periods,

however,

many

learned

and

elaborate

treatises

show upon the art yet Since that even then music had passed through several stages of transition. the Sangita Parijata, which is believed to be one of the latest of these Sanskrit (mostly

in

MSS.)

remain.

The

later

of

these

An interesting explanation of these chants is given by Mr. A. C. Burncll. Ph.D., in his ".\rsheyabrahmana" [Mangalore, 1876], and reprinted in Tagore's " Hindu Music from \'arious Sources." This '

explanation will enable anyone to note the Sania Vedic chant, as printed in the Bibliothcca Indica edition, in ordinary notation.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

3

works, had been written bv Ahobala, two separate schools or systems of music

have arisen and are now known bv the names of Hindustani and Karnatik.

The Karnatik appears to the advent of the

Aryans

sprung from the same

now

changes, and are

Of Hindu music of

have been elaborated as a distinct system subsequent

to

to the

have since undergone independently considerable

origin,

totally distinct in

The two svstems, although

South of India.

from each other.

Southern India, since the

fall

Hindu Empire

and from

Tanjore has been the only school,

Vijayanagur,

of the

those

it

of

Unfortunately, Travancore and other places have doubtless been founded. what been done in former times in Tanjore had there is no record remaining of

;

but within the last few centuries the people there, as in Europe,

aroused to a great state of musical

ending with

of musicians,

and there had sprung up a school

activity,

Tiagyaraj,

There are

have been

destined

to

eftect

great

changes and

improvements Palace which show that various attempts have been made to improve in the art.

existing notation, such

Tanjore territory

to

as

is,

it

still

papers in the library of the Tanjore

of Indian

the British, at the close of the last centurv, there

time when arts and sciences were cultivated the noble

With the cession

music.

m

the

of the

came

a

under encouragement of and wealthy, music, so long neglected, once more sprang up with

vigour to strike out for in parallel instances

itself a

new path and

peace

;

to enjoy a fresh existence.

History

shows that such has always been the case when arts long The earlier music of the

neglected are revived and become rapidly popular.

Sanskrit period bears a close resemblance, as far as

we can judge,

to that of

going far to prove that music has been derived from the same Aryan source, which seems probable, and has been discussed freelv bv

the ancient Greeks,

different writers.

The most princes,

a

was during the period of native before the Mahomedan conquest and with the advent of the

flourishing age of Indian music

little

Mahomedans

;

its

decline

commenced

;

indeed,

it

is

wonderful that

it

survived

at all.

The Emperor Aurangzib

abolished the court musicians.

his translation of the " Ain-i-akbari,"

Khan Khan

as

to

in

show himself

the

to

front of the

^"Ain-i-akbari. or Institutes of the Vol. V.

H. Blochmann.

people,

Mr. Blochmann,

in

quotes a curious story from the historian

what occurred when

musicians brought a bier daily

-

this order was given. The court window where the Emperor used to

and

Emperor Akbar."

wailed

so

loud

Translated from

tlie

as

to

original

attract

Persian

by

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

4

He came

Auranffzib's attention.

to

the

window and asked what

it

meant.

melody was dead, and that they were taking him to the The Emperor replied, " Very well, make the grave deep, so that graveyard. neither voice nor echo may issue from it."

They

replied that

"

one

The more the

of

others are

now

prohibit the use of music as irreligious and profane, while

somewhat indulgent and permit

convinced of preferred

Englishmen

few

Puritans, even

Mussalman doctors," writes Captain Willard, who have studied the subject, " like the

severe of the

its

it

with certain restrictions.

A

few,

excellence, but dreading the censure of casuists, have prudently

Some have

silence.

considered

more reason, declare

others, perhaps with

as

it it

exhilarating the spirits, and

to be an incentive to

the bent of

the inclination, and, consequently, possessing the property of producing both

good and

evil.""

Opinions of the kind just quoted, held by the educated and influential, naturally enough have tended to lower the standing of a musician, and the art itself

has suffered

professors

who

in

Hence, though there are many Mahomedan

consequence.

are skilled executants, they are rarely

men

of

any

social position

or educational attainments, and their knowledge of the theory of their art

Of course Baroda, or Bhande

slight.

to

this there are

Ali of Indore,

exceptions

— men

might be mentioned who have studied much and

music, from a Hindu standpoint, ;

its

but

such as Maula Bux of

who love their art for its own sake. But such are few and far between. Mahomedan music, taken as a whole, has little to recommend itself even The ideas professed bv Hindus offer a curious contrast. present day. in life

is

is

associated with

all

that

is

origin, ascribed directly to Divine providence, causes

as surrounded by a halo of sanctity.

Almost

all

Still,

at the

For

bright and sweet it

to be regarded

the religious literature of the

The ancient writings on Hindu music are known as The Gita Govinda, the Indian Song of Songs,^ is music

Hindus breathes music. the Gandhiirva Veda. itself

from beginning to end.

It

is

imagine imagery more vivid, or which Krishna, with his fair Gopi

difficult to

to picture scenes more charming than those

in

companions, on the banks of the Yamna, played and sang those witching strains that, like those of

Orpheus, held

all

creation spellbound.

And

so music with

Hindus is a resource to which they always fly in joy or grief, for prayer or praise. But still the old idea that music as a profession is a degraded employment, fit only for the stroller or the dancing girl, to some extent lingers on, so strong is A

^

"

*

Sir

Treatise on the Music of Hindustan." Capt. N. Willaid. Calcutta, 1834. .Arnold's charming paraphrase of this beautiful poem should be read by of Oriental Music.

Edwin

all

earnest students

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. the

long

Mahomedans even now, though

liking

influence

the

caused

by

ordeal

of

5

Mahomedan

and enjoying music, often prefer

singers and instrumentalists rather than learn the art themselves

not difficult to find Hindus

who

And

conquest.

;

to

engage

indeed,

it is

do the same, and hold very similar prejudices.

Happily, in Southern India, ideas of this kind cannot be said to prevail generally; proofs to the contrary

men

are

may be found

and poets

of education

in

in the

many

living musicians

who

Music has almost without

their way.

interruption flourished there from very remote ages.^

This can be accounted

for

by the country having been more under Hindu rule than other parts of India, and having suffered perhaps less from internal commotions. From the study of Sanskrit, which has been maintained

amongst the musicians

of the courts of

Mysore, Tanjore, and Travancore, music has not been left, as in other parts, almost entirely in the hands of ignorant dancing girls and their attendants.

common

among

Hindus that the greatest musicians should This seems to have been the live like hermits, far removed from all people. practice of some of the ancients, and as similar legends are found in the mythologies of other nations, there is reason to believe they are based upon facts. The higher branches of the musical profession were formerly confined to Music being of either Brahmins (Bhagavatas) or to men of very high caste. Divine origin was regarded as sacred, and it was considered impious for any but It is

men

a

idea

the

of the sacred caste to wish to acquire any

was and

still

is

called the

fifth

Veda.

knowledge of

Hence

country would have excommunicated any of their

the ancient

its

principles.

It

Brahmins of the

number who would have

so far

presumed as to betray the sacred writings to any but the elect, whose mouths only were esteemed sufficiently holy to utter words so sacred. Indeed, it was the knowledge of which they were possessed that was the chief cause of the reverence and adoration paid to the Brahmins of old, and which gave them the power and influence they prized so much. It was thus that the ancient musicians sang

own compositions. In later years music became a under Mussalman rulers, and passed into the hands of

their

distinct trade, especially

the lower orders and the

unlearned, and to this cause operating through a long succession of years the differences between the

Hindustani and Karnatik systems must be

in a great

measure attributed. " Mahomedan historians of the period relate remarkiiif; upon this, says was invaded by Allah-ood-deen Togluk in a.d. 1294, and the conquest of Southern India completed by the Mogul General Mullikkafoor several years afterwards, the profession of music was found to be in a condition so far in advance of the North that singers, male and female, and their Brahmin " Proceedings, Royal Irish instructors, were taken with the royal armies and settled in the North." Academy." \'ol. IX., Part i. =

that

Colonel

when

Meadows Taylor,

:

the Deccan

—

B

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

6

bound up as it is with almost everything in India, naturally most powerful influence upon all the arts, and upon music especially. The earliest use of music was doubtless for religious purposes. Hindu music can hardly be said to have ever shaken itself free from being in some way Religion,

exercises a

or

connected with the religion of the country,

other

Almost

everywhere apparent.

all

is

at

times so figurative that in

can decipher or

mode

purport.

its real

the proper attributes (that)

many

cases no one but a finished scholar

More importance

— colour, caste, or wives —

-of

is

paid to such trifling details as

each deified melody type (raga)

than to the arrangements of notes which compose

practical directions for

its

are

The language

to the art contain constant references to mythological traditions.

used

which

traces of

the books, especially the most ancient, relating

performance.

Each

note, scale,

and to the raga, and measure is it

canonized, and long chapters are devoted to the description of the habitations,

Much valuable information many of them contain a good

wives, raiment, &c., of these demigods and nymphs.

can of course be gleaned from these books, but deal of what

though most interesting from Besides these Sanskrit works, there are few books

quite useless to the musician,

is

an antiquarian point of view.

upon the art existing. Most of the vernacular works upon music have been written by Pandits,

who have endeavoured to adapt works to their own ideas. Many

—

the

principles

of these

—taken

contained

in

the

ancient

books consist but of a string

random from Sanskrit works of all dates, and interlarded with comments rather worse than useless, unless it be to mystify the reader. The writers of such books rarely know anything of the modern practice of music. They still try to fetter it by hard and fast rules learnt from books. Rules of the sort, of course, were made at a time when music as an art was comparatively in its infancy, but were never intended to apply to modern Indian music. It would be just as absurd to of

quotations

often

contradictory

at

suppose that treatises on the music of the eighth and ninth centuries, where progressions by chords of to the elaborate

harmony

Other works really

in the

-Uj

were not only allowed but admired,'^ would apply

of to-day.

vernaculars have been written by practical musicians

do possess the knowledge they try to impart, but

mixing

it

with the absurdities of these so-called Pandits.

will not

The

who

do so without

fear of criticism

' Organiim was the name given to this rude harmony. An instrument called Organistrum, in use in the ninth century, enabled these chords to be played in succession. And the organ itself appears to have been so constructed, the origin in fact ot the modern mixture stops. See Gerbert, " De cantu et musica

—

sacra,'' St. Blaise, 1774.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. or ridicule

is

one cause of this

but

;

it

is

7

also due to the great dislike all native

musicians have to imparting instruction to any but a favoured few

;

indeed, they

This has,

rather prefer that the general public should continue in ignorance.

naturally enough, tended to hinder the growth of a popular taste for music until

Gayan Samaj of Poona doing much to encourage

quite within the past few years.

Societies, such as the

and Madras, have recently sprung up and are with the advance of general education there has been a growing feeling in favour of teaching singing in the schools, and in future years it is to be hoped that all such idle prejudices will have been rooted out completely, and popular music

;

that the study of the national music of the country will occupy, as

foremost place

in all

it

should, a

Indian schools.

At the present day, however,

it is

absolutely impossible for anyone to gather

an accurate knowledge of the principles of Hindu music without the aid of learned natives, a practical acquaintance with the capabilities of their instruments,

and without consulting the best living performers

— things that few persons have

opportunity or leisure to attempt.

Of the astonishing power which music not only over

Hindu legends, " " that

men and like

is

believed by the ancients to have had,

passions, but also over animals and inanimate things,

those of most ancient nations, are redolent.

have been assured by a credible eye-witness," says Sir William Jones, two wild antelopes used often to come to the woods to the place where a I

mere savage

ud Doulah, entertained himself with concerts, and that they listened to the strain with an appearance of pleasure till the monster, in whose soul there was no music, shot one of them to displav his archery beast, Siraj

me that he had frequently seen venomous and indignant snakes leave their holes upon hearing tunes flute, which he supposed gave them peculiar delight and thirdlv, an

secondly, a learned native of this country told the most

on

a

;

intelligent Persian,

write

when

it

down from

who

repeated his story again and again and permitted

his lips, told

me

to

me that he had more than once been present Mahomed, surnamed Bulbul, was playing to

a celebrated lutenist, Mirza

a large

company

in a

grove near Shiraz, that he distinctly saw the nightingales

trying to vie with the musician fluttering from

— sometimes

branch to branch, as

if

warbling on the

trees,

sometimes

they wished to approach the instrument

whence the melody proceeded, and at length dropping on the ground in a kind of timid ecstasy, from which they were soon raised, he assured me, by a change of the

'

mode.'"

-'On the Musical Modes of the Hindus."

— See

" Asiatic Researches."

Vol. III.

Calcutta,

179.;.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

8

South of India believe that powers such as these are associated with the performance of the melody types or ragas called Saranga Musicians

the

in

Some legends of the influence handed down and still believed by many,

and Kaliani. are

of the legends of

of certain ragas over nature, that are very curious, and remind us

Orpheus and Apollo.

Sir William Ouseley relates

how Mir Tansen,

a wonderful musician in the

time of the Emperor Akbar, sang one of the night ragas at mid-day.

powers of extended

his

in

music were such that

instantly

it

became

night,

The

and the darkness

a circle round the palace as far as the sound of his voice could

be heard.

The ragas Nagavarali and Punagatodi are believed to have the power to attract serpents and to make them leave their hiding places and come where they hear the music. There is a story of a certain Mysore prince who wished to test the truth of this, so, in company with one of the Court musicians, he ascended a neighbouring hill known as the abode of numerous poisonous snakes. The musicians then began to play their strains. From all sides the serpents came and formed a ring around the two, erecting their heads and swaying to and fro, fascinated by the music. As soon as the strains ceased they glided rapidly away without attempting to injure the players. " One Colonel Meadows Taylor relates a somewhat similar circumstance :

very large

cobra which frequented

was

my

garden at Ellichpur, and of which

was caught by some professional snake charmers in my own presence by means of the pungi.'^ It was played at first very softly

ever3'one

in

dread,

'

before the aloe bush underneath which the snake lived in a hole, and gradually the performer increased the tone and time of his playing, and, as the snake

showed

his head, he retreated gently

in a defiant

till

it

was

At that moment another

manner.

fairly outside

man

and erected

itself

stepped dexterouslv behind

and, while the snake's attention was absorbed by the player before, threw a heavy

blanket upon

it,

seizing

it

pinned down by a forked pincers

;

the snake

by the head under the jaws. stick,

and the fangs and teeth extracted by strong loose, completely cowed and exhausted.

was then turned

There was no doubt about the identitv of the had been shot off in an attempt to destrov it."^ It is

in

The head was then

reptile, for a portion

of

its

tail

considered extremely unlucky for anyone to impart or receive instruction

the Varali raga.

When

an unwelcome pupil presents himself, a master

native name for the snake-charmer's pipe. Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy." Vol. IX., Part

•

The

9

II

i.

will

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. therefore decline to teach

him anything

9

knowing that

else but this raga,

to be

way of ridding himself of the intruder. The Megharangini (or Megh-mallar, as it is elsewhere called), when played Stories of how skilful incessantly, was said to be productive of immediate rain. musicians have averted famine by drawing down rain with the strains of this

a sure

raija are

common

all

through the countrv.

power attributed to the raga Dipaka there are many legends. One states that long ago the sacred lamps in the shrine of some temple in Mysore, said to have been lighted ages ago by some Divine agency, had been

Of the

fiery

extinguished through the carelessness of the ministering priest, who neglected The soothsayers foretold some great disaster to to supply them with fresh oil. the surrounding country should they be rekindled by mortal hands.

musician, hearing of

this,

offered

A famous

his services to the authorities, and, at the

request of the Rajah, hastened to the temple.

down

Sitting

" in the " S'ri-Kovil

— the

most holy place of all— before the shrine, he played this raga, while the Presently priest made solemn supplication that success might attend his efforts. for a moment a faint glimmering was the darkness of the shrine was broken apparent, and the lamps became mysteriously lighted. Thus confidence was

—

restored to the country round and dire calamities averted.

Another favourite story

that the

is

He endeavoured on obedience. He therefore

a celebrated musician, to sing this raga. in

vain

— the

Emperor

insisted

Emperor Akbar ordered Nayuk Gopal, "

to excuse himself, but

requested permission

go home and bid farewell to his family and friends. It was winter when he Before he began to sing he placed returned, after an absence of six months. As soon as he himself in the waters of the Jumna till they reached his neck. to

—

had performed a strain or two the river gradually became hot at length began and the agonies of the unhappy musician were nearly insupportable. to boil Suspending for a moment the melody thus cruelly extorted, he sued for mercy

—

from the monarch, but sued

in

vain

— Akbar wished

power of the raga. Nayuk Gopal renewed the violence from his body, and though immersed was consumed to ashes." '"

fatal

to prove

song.

in the

more strongly the Flames burst with

waters of the

Jumna

he

The raga Gundakrj'a is so called from its having been first performed by the god Hanuman, who was called upon to decide a dispute between the Each was jealous of the other's celestial musicians Narada and Tumburu. 1°

".\n Essay on the Music of Hindustan," by Sir

the History, Antiquities, and Literature, &c., of Asia."

W. Ouseley.— See

"Oriental Collections, illustrating

London, 1797-1800.

Vol.

L C

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

10

They appealed

powers, and claimed to be most skilled. their differences

and award the palm

Hanuman to settle He heard them

to

to the best performer.

both and was unable to decide, so taking the vina himself, he sat down, and So ravishing was the resting the instrument against the rock, began to play. strain that the very rock

melted into tears, and the vina, dropping from the

hands of the god, sank into the lake thus formed. The music ceasing, the rock once more assumed its natural form. Then the god, turning to the two who " The palm is his who plays this strain." Each essayed stood by amazed, said the feat, but failed. Hanuman then decided that the skill of both was equal, and :

This raga, then played

thus settled their differences amicably.

was

called

'•

for the first time,

Gundakrj'a," or " that which melts rocks."

became exceedingly proud of his musical abilities, and used to boast of his skill continually. The demigod Rama, hearing of this, devised There a plan to humble the god, and accomplished it in the following manner

Hanuman

after this

:

lived in a forest near

Ayodhya (Rama's

devoted himself to music Septasvaras,

or

seven

all

his

notes,

life

to

capital) a certain Rishi or bard,

—

who had

with such success that he had caused the

become embodied

Hanuman

the

in

form of

seven

upon a hunting To this forest Rama took daughters. excursion, and halting within hearing of the Rishi's dwelling, whose existence was unknown to the other, asked for some music. Hanuman accordingly took Constant practice and selfup his vina and began to accompany himself. as

if

made him careless, and it chanced that as the seven nymphs passed on their way to draw water for their father's house he sang a note falsely. Xo sooner had the nymph to whom this note belonged heard it than she swooned and died. Her sisters made piteous lamentations, and ran to tell their The Rishi came, and seeing Hanuman engrossed in his art and still father. confidence had

singing, at once guessed the cause of his daughter's death.

After listening for

same note sung constantly out of tune. Then going up to the god he upbraided his want of care, and taking the vina from him played the raga truly, when the dead nymph revived and merrily joined her sisters. The raga Kadara is seldom heard, there being a superstition that trouble of a while he heard the

various kinds always follows in the footsteps of those It

is

said that those

who

Many have

the rest of the day.

attributed to

this

to

sing this strain.

play the raga Ahiri shall go without food for

essayed to do

so,

but have for some unaccount-

story— there was a musician Years ago— such is discover whether or not there was any truth in the power the

able reason always failed.

who was determined

who

raga.

After packing

instrument and set out upon his travels.

some food

in

a basket, he took his

Very soon he came

to a large tank, with

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. and shady

a cool

,£jrove

of

bamboos by

its

side

;

ii

there he thought he would rest

Accordingly he hung up his basket on one of the overhanging bamboos and began to sing. When he had sung for some hours he becan to feel hungrv, and so looked about for a place to cook his mid-dav meal during the heat of the day.

but to his great chagrin he found that as the sun rose higher the

which

his basket

his difficulty did

was hung had bent upwards out of his reach. not however satisfy him, as he thought it due to Continuing his journey,

rather than to Divine interference.

bamboo upon

This solution of

own

his

in the

neglect

evening he

arrived at a large town, the Rajah of which had built a " Chattram," or rest house,

accommodation of all poor travellers. The musician was hospitably received there, and food was laid before him. The Rani herself used to serve the guests with ghi, or clarified butter, before they commenced to eat. As she served At last have I the musician he was unable to restrain his glee, and exclaimed, " Rani happened to of the name him, the Unfortunately for overcome thee, Ahiri He was be Ahiri, and she naturally fancied that he intended some impertinence. for the free

''

!

As he was led to execution he request was complied with, and he

promptly arrested and condemned to be impaled. implored the Rajah to grant him a hearing; his told the

whole storv.

The Rajah then commanded

that he should be set at liberty,

and dismissed him with a present, bidding him at the same time refrain from tempting the gods farther, as it had already so nearly cost him his life. Manv other such legends may be found in the works of poets and writers upon religious subjects, and others have been handed down orally by musicians and would well merit

collection.

ancient theory of Indian music has been comparatively

The

except by learned Pandits,

but the

modern custom.

many This

little

studied,

really good performers being ignorant of anything

is

probably because

many

of the ancient treatises

Brahmins skilled in sacred lore And now the improvements and alterations could decipher their meaning. introduced from time to time by musicians of the day have come to be looked upon as authentic, a fact that in some degree tends to account for the differences that apparently exist between the ancient and modern systems. The theoretical part of Hindu music when compared to that of Europe is The naturally very simple, as it treats entirely of simple melody and measure. most noticeable points are the extraordinary importance which the Hindus, that remain were purposely worded so that only

like

all

the ancient nations, have from the

position irregular

harmonv.

of the natural scales ;

;

the

first

peculiar

the noisy methods of beating time

The

onlv harmonv,

if

it

;

attached to mode

— the

trans-

rhythmical measures, frequently

and the almost

can be called

so,

is

entire absence of

a continuation as a

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX IXDIA.

12

pedal of the tonic or dominant, as was done still

found

common.

in old

The

Scotch or Irish bagpipe music.

in

The

down

"pastorales," and which

use of

is

kinds of grace

all

is

what are called certain progressions of melody ragas are curious, and should be noticed lawful. Whether while the ancient Greeks made others are being forbidden, any employment of raga is not known, but it seems extremely probable, since rules laid

for the

composition of pieces

in

;

they attributed the greater part of their science of music to India," and that most

Eastern nations

Roman

still

emplo}' either raga or

music was brought

its

equiyalent.^-

by Greek musicians and their pupils, and Greek modes were introduced by them. The early ecclesiastical modes to perfection

Many

appear to haye been deriyed from those of the Greeks.

of the older

contrapuntal rules as to the employment of interyals had their origin imperfect scales in

which the ecclesiastical modes were composed.

in

All

the this

goes far to show the possibility of the elaborate counterpoint of the present day

haying had

its

prototype in the old Sanskrit raga system.

Of the two systems practised in Southern India at the present time, the Hindustani is somewhat akin to that of Northern India and Bengal. It is practised mostly by Mussalman musicians, while the Karnatik is confined more to those of the Southern races. The latter, which may be called the national music of the South, is far more scientific and refined than the Hindustani, and its

professors are, as a rule,

men

of

much

better education

without influence upon their music, and seems apparent

in

;

a fact that is not all

their melodies,

but particularly in the renderings they give of them.

" Strabo X.

iii.

—

'•

'-The Greek practice of Melopceia appears very similar to tliat of raf;a. I'idc Mr. Chappell's History of Music." London, 1874. See also Plutarch, T^ipi MovaiKi'n. Cap. xviii., xix.

CHAPTKR

II.

Preservation of music in Southern India— Modern Karnatik system believed to be closely akin to the ancient— Sanskrit treatises— Definition of s'ruti— System of twenty-two— Formation of scales (grama)— Relation of major and minor modes— Deviation of intervals of system Comparison of ancient scale with European of twenty-two from those of just intonation

—

—

—

diatonic— Results of recent observation System of twelve hinted at in Sanskrit Murchanas Raga How differing from mode Tala or rhythm— Time, how estimated Ancient varieties Ancient notation. of rhythm

—

—

—

—

—

THE

theory, modes, and notation in present use throughout the whole of India are derived from that taught originally by the earlier Sanskrit

but owing to the South of India having been less disturbed by internal commotions, and having been more subject to Hindu rule than either

musicians

the

Deccan

;

or Northern provinces, the science of music

maintained and cultivated long after the original

art

would seem

had been

to

have been

lost in the

North.

more usually called, Karnatik,

Hence Southern Indian music, or, as it is bears, as far as we can judge, a very close resemblance to what the Sanskrit must have been, and in many cases we can clearly trace the development and refinements introduced from time to time upon the original ragas. One of the principal Sanskrit works upon the theory of music is the Sangita Ratnakera, or "Ocean of IMusic," written by Sarnga Deva at a very early date, This book, with the exception of Bharata S'astra, considered to be the oldest reliable musical work extant,

probably about a.d. 200. noticed hereafter,

and

is

quoted

in

is

many subsequent

treatises.

The Sangita Damodara

known and very ancient work. Later than this we have the Sangita Narayana, by Nariiyanadeva,

is

also

a well

the

Damodara There 1

seems

is

are

which

frequently quoted. also

the

Raganava,^ or "Sea

Passions";

of

This work, together with the Sabha Vinoda and Raga Darpaiia. no copy known at present.

to be

in

is

quoted

b}-

the

Sangita

Mir^a Khan, but there

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHER X INDIA.

,4

Ratnavali; the Sabha Vinoda,- or "Delight of AssembHes"; and the Sangita Darpana, or " Mirror of Music," written by Damodara Misra all works of

—

more or less value in the elucidation of the music of the ancients. The Raga Vivodha, or " Doctrine of Musical Modes," by

Soma

Somanath, or

one of the most valuable of the ancient treatises that have been handed down to us. This book was evidently written at a much later date than Raj,

is

the Ratnakera, which

it

quotes from several times

The

;

but

is

it

doubtless a very

and fourth chapters explain the doctrine their division and succession, the variation of scales by of musical sounds temperament, and the enumeration of modes. The second chapter contains a minute description of different vinas, with rules for playing upon them.^ The ancient composition.

first,

third,

—

last

chapter contains strains noted in

The whole work

letters.

is

singularly clear

from mythological references.

The Persian wrote a work

Mirza Khan, under the patronage of Aazim Shah, which contains a chapter upon music, which was extracted, with the assistance of Pandits, from

waiter,

entitled " Tohfuht-ul-Hind,"

the information for

Mirza Khan describes four principal systems of music and of Callanath. of Hanuman, or Pavan of Bharata

various Sanskrit works.

those of Isvara

viz.,

All four are

;

;

mentioned also

The main The

;

in the

Raga Vivodha. most of these ancient works are very similar. the names and the constitution of the different

principles contained in

differences consist mostly in

modes and ragas. Written at a is

still

later date

than any of the former, to judge by

all

appearances,

the Sangita Parijata,^ or " Flower of Music," by the Pandit Ahobala.

The system Ratnakera,

and of

in

Parijata differs from that of the

of music described in the

that

less intervals

it

admits of greater intervals than a tone or four

than a semitone or two

forming numerous enharmonic scales.

s'rutis,

s'rutis,

being, therefore, capable of

All the notes, except the first

are occasionally shifted above or below, and the fourth

is

and

never omitted

fifth,

in the

scale.''

This work contains the key to the present Karnatik system, and many of the ragas contained in it are practically the same as those now in use in Southern India. " This work is mentioned by Sir William Jones. As far as I have been able to ascertain, there is at present no known copy in existence, unless, indeed, this work is identical with one called Sangita Vinoda, a copy of which is in the librarj- of H.H. the Maharajah of Bikanir. '

Sir

W.

Jones.

According to the Mahabharata, Parijata is the name of the celestial tree in Indraloka. See Preface to edition of Sangita Parijata, edited by Kalivara Vedantabagisa. Calcutta, 1S79. 35. also the list of modern Karnatik scales given upon pages 32 '

''

—

See

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN

INDIA.

15

The ancients divided their octave into twenty-two intervals, called s'rutis. The names of these s'rutis are differently given by the various authors, but the following

present day,

list,

is

1.

Tivra

2.

Kumadvati

3.

8.

Aland Chandovati Dayavati Ranjani Raktika Rudri

g.

Krodha

taken from the Sangita Ratnakera,

5.

6. 7.

The it

is

:

—

1 1

Vajrika Prasarini

12.

Priti

13.

Majani

Rishaba

14.

Kshiti

or Ri.

15. 16.

Rakta Sandipa

17.

Alapi

10.

Shadja or Sa.

-

4.

known

best

]

)

I

Gandhara

or

Ma.

Panchama

The

Madanti

ig.

Rohini

20.

Ramya

21.

Vugra

22.

Kshobini

Dhaivata or

Dha. Nishada

I

or Ni."

or

thus vaguely given by the Sangita Ratnavali

{i.e.,

is a s'ruti

18.

Pa.

exact definition of what constituted a s'ruti

two kinds"

the one which, at the

or Ga.

smallest intervals of sound, and

it

Madhyama

is

as

shown above);

because

scales

are

it is

is

:

is difficult

— "A

s'ruti

perceivable by the ear

;

to determine, but is it

formed by the is

also "every distinct audible sound

of twentyis

a s'ruti

;

to be heard by the ear."

formed from the

s'rutis,

four

s'rutis

being

allotted

to

a major tone, three to a minor (which would appear to have been of a pitch

somewhat

flatter

than

the

tone

and sharper than the

however, exist as to whether the intervals of the

and two

s'rutis

semitone

;

doubts,

were equal or not),

to a semitone.

arranged in gramas, or scales, three in number Madhyama-grama, and Gandhara-grama. viz., Shadja-grama, The literal meaning of grama signifies "a stopping place" or "village." Hence the word came to be used for scale, since the s'rutis are arranged in a scale as mankind in villages. The Shadja-grama consists of two tetrachords similar to each other, and

The

s'rutis are differently

separated by a major tone

— nearly our diatonic major scale.

The Madhyama-grama is formed from major tone, between Pa and Dha, and of

the preceding by a transposition of the

a minor tone between

Dha and Ni

precisely our diatonic major scale.

'

" In the

latter placing

modern usage is diametrical!}- opposite to the classical one the which they respectivel}' belong, while the former gives their position determine when or by whom the alteration was effected. The arrangement

arrangement of the

them before the note

after the notes.

It is difficult to

s'rutis,

:

to

of the frets of the vina and other stringed instruments accords with the modern acceptation of the principle. According to the rule laid down in the classical treatises, the disposition of the notes is reversed i.e., stringed) instruments, and out of this reversed arrangement, in the case of Daravi (lit., wooden

perhaps, the modern theory about the arrangement of the position of the s'rutis has been worked." Musical Scales of the Hindus." S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 1884.

— " The

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

i6

Hence

the two

gramas stand

Sa

in the following relation

Ma

Ga

Ri

Dha

Pa

Sa

Ni

Shadja-grama 3

I

All

4

3l4

I

|2

2

I

3l4

3

I|2

Madhyama-grama Sa

The third grama laid

down, and

if it

Ga

Ri is

called the

Ma

Gandhara-grama

ever existed in practice

Dha

Pa

its

Its

construction

Sa

Ni is

not clearly

use has long been discontinued.

According to the Damodara its construction is only known in Indraloka, the mythical heaven of the god Indra, thus dispensing with the difficulty conveniently. The Sangita Parijata mentions that it merely differs from the other gramas in that the note Ni will have four s'rutis, and that Sa will consequently have only three."

The Sangita Darpana the

Gandhara-grama from the Madhyama-grama. Upon this Mr. Paterson" makes the following remarks

:

from Rishaba and becomes of three— /.t'., by rendering the note the interval between Ri and Ga is reduced a semitone, and that between Ga and Ma

Gandiiara takes one

ist.

Ga

points out three changes in the scales in forming

flat,

becomes a minor

s'ruti

tone.

Gandhara. I am at a loss to know how this can take and would propose to substitute Dha, the sixth note, instead of Gandhara. The three s'rutis of Panchama make the interval between the fifth and sixth; by losing one, it is reduced to a semitone but it cannot lose this one to Gandhara, which is the third note. There are but two methods of reducing this interval to a semitone one by raising But here the interval between the fourth and the fifth note, the other by rendering the sixth flat. or, in It must in this case be done by making Dha, the sixth note, flat fifth remains unaltered. the language of Hindu music, by giving one of Panchama's s'rutis to Dhaivata. Here Nishada is rendered one s'ruti flat. 3rd. Suddhasvara gives one s'ruti to Nishada. Suddhasvara is not the name of a note, but is explained to me to be a term applied to a note It may, therefore, in this case be applied to Dhaivata; possessing its full complement of s'rutis. for although it may give one s'ruti to Nishada, yet it gains one from Panchama, and still retains four complete s'rutis. If these conjectures are admitted, and we compare it with the Madhyamagrama, to which these changes evidently refer, it will stand thus and.

place.

I

Panchama

loses one s'ruti to

rather suspect an error in the

te.xt,

;

—

;

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

17

this division of the octave meant nothing more than what I from the following table, in which the intervals between each appear supposed may have before note and the note above it are taken from Mr. Malcolm's series of the octave in the two modes (as given by Mr. Chambers under the article " Scale "). This I have done in order to compare these intervals with the s'ruti of the Hindus, and to show the differences

That the Hindus probably by

843238^^ Malcolm's Series of the Octave.

9

4

5

3

5

'5

2

Major mode, or Madhyama-grama.

H nr

n

•-I

n 3 n n a-

ft

n 3

853255^ 9643892 Malcolm's Series of the Octave.

Minor mode, or Gandhara-grama.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

i8

•07 or very nearly ^ of a comma^'^ sharp,

comma He

and the major third "045 or nearly

},

of a

flat.

also gives the following table in order to

show the deviation

intervals of the scale from those of just intonation:

SYSTEM OF TWENTY-TWO.

Interval.

of the other

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. upon the

" Musical Scales of the Hindus,"

treatises, the

measurements being those of

from data supplied by the ancient

a string go inches long

PRIMITIVE SANSKRIT SHADJAGRAMA. 90 inches.

20

19

:

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN

20

comparative differences a

Rajah Sir

the

figures are in

He

says

:

—

the

in

parts, according

into

string

S.

chromatic scales

INDIA. formed

cents— that

is

to say, the

hundredth parts of an equal semitone.

number of degrees (s'rutis) and the calculation of their value on both plans, old and new, names of the nineteen Indian notes, assuming that the pitch varies inversely- as the length of string, as shown by the position of F and the octave, and that any errors thus arising have been I

give the

with the the

hy the di\ision of

both the ancient directions and to what M. Tagore states '° to be the modern Bengali use. The to

corrected by ear.

INDIAN CHROMATIC SCALES. Degrees

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. and semitones, are founded upon the knowledge and practice of harmony. The Indian scale intervals ought to be understood as they are explained by namely, as a tone,'*^ a i^-tone, and a J-tone, composed of 4, 3, native writers and 2 s'rutis respectively. With this conception of intervals, and it must

—

be borne

mind the ^-tone

in

is

still

approved of

an

secure

to

13, the

approximately perfect

fourth

with

fifth

with

The

error in the fourth of g equal s'rutis of a 22 division

^-comma,

melody scarcely noticeable, but the error

in

it

was

and a

s'rutis,

g octave by 22 was the only one available.

of the

division

For as

becomes impossible.

the octave into 24 equal quarter-tones essential

East, a division of

the

in

division could not have been easily tolerated.

The

in

no more than

is

a

21

or in

thus being a

s'rutis

a 23 little

54x1 cents instead of 50, the Indian near to those of our just intonation scales,

wider than exactly equal quarter-tones,

gramas

most intervals come

in

but this resemblance

however,

not

be

and

theoretical,

is

accidental,

that

forgotten

has

long

accuratelv this old

is

of

is

different.

probably

superseded

by

must,

It

equal

s'rutis

another

and

measurements of a string

will

was more

not represent

Hindu conception.

The comparison intonation

scale

been

since

practical system, and that equal

as the foundation

this

of the

as follows.

The

decimals (or the late Mr. A. 3-82

22

s'ruti

scale with

figures are equal

J. Ellis's cents).

the European one

of just

semitones to two places of

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN

22

I

INDIA.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. The

"

according to the is

arranged

s'rutis are

23

in their different svaras, or intervals of the

Of what these murchanas

murchanas."

really

scale,

consisted

very doubtful.

William Jones states that the murchanas, of which there are seven in each grama, appear to be no more than "seven pieces of diapason multiplied by Sir

compass

three, according to the difference of pitch in the

This view seems

to be that

whose pen fragments of a

of the three octaves."

taken by Kohala, an ancient musician, from

treatise in Sanskrit are

still

remaining.'^

Mr. Paterson, on the other hand, conjectures that they are the intervals ol

each grama, and arranges them

Shadja-grama

Madhvama-grama

Ga

,,

znd) 3rd

,,

Ma

,,

4th

Pa

,,

Dha

,,

,,

Sa

to

,,

,,

,,

Ri

,,

,,

Sa

,,

Ni Sa Sa

ist

-

ist

,,

,,

3rd

,,

4th)

^nd Tetrachord.

,,

,,

,,

Ga

„

,,

Ma

4th

,,

„

,,

,,

„

„ ,,

....Sa to

,,

Pa 5th Dha Greater Ni Sa Ri

7th

,,

Ga Minor

,,

,,

Ma

,,

,,

„

„ Ni

,,

,,

Sa

third

4th

Pa 5th Dha Minor

,,

sixth

Octave 2nd

,,

,,

—

)

2nd\

Octave 2nd Greater third

....Sa

:

Tetrachord.

Ri

,,

Gandhara-grama

in the following classification

sixth

7th''

8th

what are called ragas. Sir W. Jones employs the term raga as synonymous with mode. Mode and raga are, however, perfectly distinct from each other Mode

The seven

intervals of each scale are arranged in

—

1* The Sangita Darpana gives a totally different meaning to nuirchana, describing the murchanas as the permutations produced by a method somewhat like change ringing; the number of murchanas being the continued product of the number of notes employed. Hence, from a grama of seven tones we " by get 5,040 different murchanas. The method of producing these permutations is called " Kundameru

native musicians.

"

Whether major

or

minor

is

not stated by Mr. Paterson.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERy INDIA.

24

being termed

and not raga or

t/uit,

ragini.

Now

determining

that consists in

the relative intervals between several sounds, which constitute an octave with

respect

A

each other.

to

employing the whole or

In no

names

is

more

its

most

is

it

In almost

in

another chapter.

find that the ragas agree either as to their

modes

the

;

cases,

they were performed.

or scales of these different ragas are not

therefore only a matter of conjecture as to

these works a

all

of the rags and raginis has been adopted.

The

— sometimes

following classification I-

— Bhairava (2.)

Vangali

ni, sa,

ga,

dha,

how

similar classification

six principal

ragas personified

of raginis (personified as the

— appended to — that of Hanuman'-*:

is

....Ma, pa,

....(i.)

number

and sometimes

five

Dha,

Madhyamadi Bhairavi

somewhat

There are

as demigods, each of which has a certain

wives of the ragas)

composition

its

;

explained

two Sanskrit works do we

given, and, in

in

number of the intervals of the that, and with a own in fact, a melody type formed upon a mode.

fully

or their notation

formed from these,

is

less

peculiar melodic style of

This, however,

raga

six

it.

ma, dha.

ni, sa, ri, ga,

ma.

Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma. (i.) Ascending.) Dha, ni, sa, ga, ma, pa. (2.) Descending. Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa, Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma.

)

|

)

ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Syinda\i Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa,| Sa, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. ^Malavakusika Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Todi Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma. Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Kambavati Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, nia, dha. Gauri Sa, ga, ma, dha, ni, sa. Gunakeri Dha, ni, sa, ga, ma, pa, ni.j Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa. Kakobha Dha, ni, sa, ri, na, ma, pa, dha. Hindola Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa, ni, pa, ma, ga, V'elavcli Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha. Ramakeri Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.) Sa, ni, dha, ma, ga, ri, sa. Deshaks'ya Ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ga. Palamangeri ....Pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa. Varati

II.

III.

—

Sa,

ri,

ga,

)

sa.

" See " Sangita Sara Sangraha," a collection of various Sanskrit authorities, edited by Calcutta, 1875.

S.

M. Tagore.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, sa.[ ga, ma, dha, dha. Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Ni, sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, ni. Ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, ni. Ri, ga, ma, dha, ni, sa, ri. Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha. Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Ni, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri. Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Ni, sa, ga, ma, dha, ni. Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Sa, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Dha, ni, sa, ma, pa, dha.

Lalita

Sa,

ri,

Dha,

IV.

— Dipaka Kadara

Kanada Deshi

Kaumodi V.

—

Natika S'ri-Raga

Vasantha Mahiva Mahiva-s'ri

Dunasri Asaveri \'I.

25

(^a,

ni, sa,

j

1

Ma, dha, Dha, ni, Dha, ni,

— Megharaga Gauri Deshakari Bhupali

Sa,

Sa, Sa,

Gaurjeri

Ri,

Dakha

Sa,

ni, sa, ri,

sa,

ri,

ga,

ga, ma.)

ma, pa, dha.

ga, ma, dha. ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.) ga, ma, pa, ni, sa. ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri. ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, sa. ri,

ri,

ga,

I

that thirty-six "

The Sangita Narayana shows

modes

"

or ragas are

in

These modes are essay on the musical modes of the Hindus,

general use, and the rest very rarely applied to practice.

shown by and

will

Sir

William Jones

be found in

many

in his

respects similar to those described in the

Darpana, and shown above.

Thirtv-si.K

Raga Vivodha, and been described by the same

modes from

from the work of Mirza Khan, have also

thirty-six

Sangita

the

eminent scholar, and need not, therefore, be reproduced here.

The rhythm

of the early music

seems

to

have been very complicated, and

" the most exact directions as to the value of notes and the division into " talas

or rhythmical periods are given.

These, again, vary

in different authors.

For example, in order to estimate the relative time value of successive notes, the sage Anginayya gives the following poetical directions :

Take one hundred petals of the lotus flower, place them then one upon the other and when pierced with a needle, the time in which the point passes through a single petal is called ;

one second eight such seconds are called one lava eight lavas one koshta eight koshtiis one nimisha eight nimishas one kala two anudruthas one drutha four kalas one anudrutha two druthas one lagu two lagus one guru three lagus one plutha four lagus one kakupatha. ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

G

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHEKy INDIA.

26

Of

these,

later

on

in his

work, he employs the following, calling drutha

and this he takes as the limit. Hence we can deduce the following table

a half matra,

Written

:

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. No.

27

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

28

There

exist, as will

be explained later on,

seventy-two modes or scales,

all

at

present in Karnatik music

formed from seven of the twelve semitones

in

upon a tonic of equal pitch. If we are to understand that the ragas described by Sir W. Jones were simply such scales or modes, the only way in which it is possible to reconcile the theory to the present system is to imagine that for ascending the scale they employed a perfect fourth (or, as a Karnatik musician would say, for Arohana Suddha-madhyama), and for the octave differently disposed

descending the augmented fourth (Prati-madhyama), or possibly the reverse,

like

the Chinese practice at the present day.

From

the earliest time the ragas

certain hours of the day

or night,

would deviate from custom so

The ragas the

are,

modern custom

The

seem to have been appointed to be sung at and no musician, unless specially ordered,

far as to sing a

raga out of

appointed season.

in the different

however, differently distributed differs

its

widely from the directions of the Sanskrit.

notation given in

all

the ancient treatises

is

very similar to that at

present in use, letters only being employed to express the notes. ?i

works, and

facsimile of the most ancient form of notation,

is

The

following,

from the work of Soma, and

has been thus rendered into the European notation by Sir William Jones,

remarks

who

:

major mode-^of A, or Sa, which, from its gaiety and brilliancy, but the sentiment, often under pain even in a well expresses the general hilarity of the song no longer attainable, would require in our pleasures delights, from the remembrance of season of music a change to the minor mode and the air might be disposed of in the form of a rondo ending with the second line, or even with the third, where the sense is equally full, if it should be thought proper to express by another modulation that imitative melody which the poet has manifestly attempted the measure is very rapid, and the air should be gay or even quick in exact proportion I

have noted Soma's

air in the

;

;

:

to

it

:

^^ It is rathfr difficult to understand why Sir William Jones employs this key instead of that of C, which seems to have been the most natural that would have suggested itself.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

29

Translation of the above.-

^^^^^^

* *

y~r"

i

-^

^—

^-

^1

*fe

ii

^ This translation must, of course, be more or less hypothetical and as it is so entirely different in character and style to all modern Indian music, and airs heard now in India which are said to be very ancient, its correctness appears to be very doubtful. A comparison with the examples quoted later will ;

show how u idely

it

differs.

CHAPTER Modern

theorj-

— How

— Notation — Arrangement of gamut — Scales — Time, — Application of measure to music.

difTering from ancient

how

THE

III.

signified

modern theory of Indian music

differs

widely from that described in

the ancient Sanskrit treatises, having, as has been said, passed throuiijh

many changes The pecuhar no longer semitones

in

is liinitcd to

mentioned, and,

the course of time before assuming

its

present form.

division of the octave into twenty-two parts or s'rutis exists

practice,

The ragas

in

in

and the employment of

s'rutis

or intervals

less

than

grace.

present use in most respects differ from those previously

whole system has undergone a complete change and between the ancient and modern music there exists a

in fact, the

gradual refinement, until

difference as clearly marked and perceivable, to even the most casual observer, as between the modern Anglican chant and the ancient Gregorian tones. The notes employed in Indian music are expressed by the following

when sounded, svaras). These characters necessary, should more notes be required to complete

characters' (termed,

are repeated as

often as

a passage.

is

stave, as in the

one

European system,

line onlv.

Name

is

No

necessary, the characters being written in

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. These seven notes correspond

to those of the

unless the intervals are modified to those of

The Hindu From these

octave, like the European,

will

is

European diatonic major

scale,

special scale.

divided into twelve semitones.-

twelve semitones, seventy-two scales or modes, each consisting

of seven notes, are formed

As

some

upon a tonic

the intervals of every scale or

of the

mode

same

pitch.

are signified by the above letters,

it

be seen that there exists no method by which accidentals can be noted.

The

following table shows the arrangement of the twelve semitones under

their respective significations.

The note Pa (Sj), as will be seen, is The keynote Sa {Xj) may be of any of the performer.

Relation.

invariably the pitch as

may

fifth

of the scale.

best suit the requirements

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

32

From is

the above table

it

may

be easily understood that although every scale

to the syllables " Sa, Ri, Ga,

sung

Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni," the

intervals implied

by these syllables vary in the different scales. For instance, Ri may be employed to denote either D?, Di^, or assuming, of course, that Sa corresponds with C. case may be ;

names head.

of the notes vary

DJf,

as the

When

the

has been noticed in the column under each respective

it

These names should be

prefixed

to

those of the notes, as Suddha-

gandhara, Antara-gandhara.

The

upon these

scales formed

intervals are seventy-two in

number, and are

divided into two divisions of thirty-six in each. Those of the first division are styled " Suddha-madhyama," from the fact that in their construction they

employ that

note, or the perfect fourth, throughout.

of the second, for a similar reason, are styled "

Prati-madhyama," and Those employ the augmented or tritone fourth. In theoretical works the scales are the construction of each chacram, as classified in sets or " chacrams " of six ;

will

be noticed, being very similar.

The

following

is

a

of all the

list

scales,^ with their

numbers, arranged by "chacrams" or sets of in

substituted for the Indian

reference

six precisely as given in treatises

the vernacular, the only difference being that :

names and

European notation has been

— Suddha-Madhyama.

Karnakangi.

No.

i cJ

Ganamurti.

b?or

No.

No.

bJ

t=F H

IZ3Z

2

b

W

-

i^=M -o-

No.

No.

bi

4.

rJ

O-

^§

6.

HsgEg^^j

rJ

—

]v j

=bS=^?o-

Tanarupi.

d

2.

=^^=^

Vanaspati.

5.

i'bt

No.

I

3.

^^ Manavati.

Rhatnangi.

i.

.1

^m

like ours by a sharp third." From many experiments I am led to beHeve that a wrong idea as to I played over all the temperament of the Indian scale as practically employed has hitherto been held. the various scales shown later upon a pianoforte tuned to equal temperament— in the presence of several well-known Hindustani and Karnatik musicians, all of whom assured me that they corresponded e.xactly to Upon comparing the two instruments this was found to be the case as far as could be those of the vina.

ascend

—

—

—

—

Native airs are played by the private band of H.H. the Maharajah of Mysore; and as far as mdody is concerned they are acknowledged to be perfectly in tune, according to Indian ideas, by all. Native airs are also played by the band of H.H. the Gacckwar of Baroda, the chief musician at whose court " Professor" Maula Bu.x a man of considerable attainments, took pains to explain to me that the tempering of the modern Indian scales differed in no whit from the European. In fact, in practice, as among the ancient Greeks, the old enharmonic genus would seem to have given

judged by the ear alone— in every instance.

—

—

place to the chromatic. * The scales here shown are those of the Karnatik system. Those used in the Hindustani system are They will be found upon page 91. fewer in number and are differently named

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. No.

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THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. Syamalangi.

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No. 62.

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No.

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let

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Hindu music usually three octaves

In

?

Nettimatti.

63.

Matsy^ikaliani.

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±^

35

only, termed

Sthayis, are

taken

into consideration.

Instruments such as the vina, kc, have, however, a compass of nearl}- four octaves.

In order to sii^nify the octave in which a note

dots are usually placed above or below

There

no

is

to be plaved, a dot or

each musician or writer upon music apparently advocates some method of his own. Music is not, as with us, divided by bars of equal duration. Divisions styled

it.

is

Gitalu are in use, and are signified thus

|

definite rule for this;

or

—

;

they can be placed

anywhere, at the composer's discretion, and denote parts or phrases so to speak.

They

are frequently

marked thus

of a part, or the conclusion of a strain.

||

or

=, when they denote

the repetition

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX INDIA.

3*5

The

sign of

lotus flower

the

G?)

is

used by some writers for the same

purpose.

Time, bv which

is

imphed the

relative values of a succession of notes,

be expressed with anv degree of accuracy without

arrangement of signs as to be almost fully in

the Sanskrit works, but from this reason

value of the note

is

it

so complicated an

indeed

The method

unintelligible.

cannot

is

described

The

has fallen into disuse.

invariably taught orally by a master, and the ear

is

thereby

cultivated to a very high degree.

The

following signs (or their equivalents

however, made use of

in

order to convey

are to be of long or short duration

Dirgha

:

This

if

the character

— approximately

is

only

Devanagari)

—whether

are,

notes

:^

sign, used in conjunction with the

musical characters,

signifies that they represent " long notes"

Votu

The

:

This sign

in the

" short notes

"—

termed Talas, of which there are seven, "jatis," or kinds; so that there are in use no

different degrees of time are

each being sub-divided into less

same way represents

five

than thirty-five distinct measures.

By

the

understood duration

annexed table the various talas and their respective at

made

a glance, the figures signifying the in a bar.

Name

Name of

Tala.

number

J

of Jati.

jatis will

be

of beats of equal

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

37

Talas can be denoted by the following signatures u denotint I unit of time. Anudrutha

Drutha

The

jati of

-7

o

Lagu Guru

6

8

Plutha

3

12

Kakupatha

-(-

i6

4

I

the tala

is

Should

usually appended to the signature in words,

nothing be appended, then the Chaturushra

generally understood.

is

In order to employ these signs they should be substituted for the figures

thus ion will denote the Chaturushra

in the table:

when

written

in

European notation, there

jati of

often

is

Hence,

Druvatala.

constant rotation

a

cor-

responding to the tala of bars of different time signatures.

Each

tala

can be played

in

any order

i.e.,

4244 can be played 2444,

4424, or 4442.

The

application

kinds, viz.

:

of the

talas

an

to

air

is

called

Graha, and

is

of four

—

(i.)

Sama" — When of the

(2.)

(3.)

the

first

beat of the tala

falls

upon the

first

note

air.

—

Anagata When the air commences which therefore falls upon a rest. Atiyita

— When the

after the first beat of the tala

tala continues after the air

is

finished, the last

beat therefore falling upon a rest. (4.)

Vichama

— Comprises

three, such

anv irregularity not included

upon the

as the beat of a tala falling

in

first

the above

note of a

bar tied to the last note of the bar preceding, &c.

The Chaturushra Aditala, and

is

a very

jati

common

is

also

known by

the

name

of

time for javadis, and other love songs.

There being practically no harmony system, are not employed.

Tala

of Triputa

in

The kevnote

is

Hindu music,

clefs,

as in the

European

always Sa, and, as already stated,

is

taken of any pitch to suit the requirements of the performer or the nature of the instrument. '

This term

is

also used to signify the strong accent.

CHAPTER — How

IV.

— Notes essential to composition of — \'adi and Samvadi notes — Modern — Examples of Murchana applied — Ancient and modern methods of performance of raga — How differing — Alapa — Madhyamakala — Gamakas — Classification of ragas — Popular scales for — Allied to certain passions — Peculiarities — How apportioned to of modern ragas. seasons and hours — " Kattika," or

Ka Dr C

.

.

SCALE OF GAIAKAPRYA. C Di? E F G Bbb Ab Bbb C C D> F E Db E F G Ab Bbb C

Kaiakanti

.

Kalgarda

C Bbb Ab F E D? C C Bbb G Ab Bbb A? G F E D? C

SCALE OF VAKULABHARNA. Vasantha-Mukari Kamala-Manohari

.

C E Db E F G Bb Ab Bb C C E F G Bb C .

C B7 A? G F D!' C C Bb Ab G F E C

SCALE OF KYRAVANL Kiranavaii

C D F G Ab B C

Sangivani Kaliana-Vasantha

Eb F G Ab B C C F Eb F G Ab B C C D Eb F Ab B Ab F G Ab B C C Eb

Madavi f

.

D

.

Sarasa-vahini

CDEbDFGAbBC

Nepala

C D F Eb F G B C

.

.

.

C C C C C C

Ab G F E? D C Ab G F Eb D C Ab G F E? U C G E? D C Ab G F Et' D C B Ab G F D C

B B B B

SCALE OF SARASANGL Sarasanana

C B Ab F E D C C B A? G F E C C B Ab F E D C

C D E F Ab B C C E FG B C C D E G Ab B C

.

Rama-Manohari

.

Bhogalila

SCALE OF YAGAPRYA. C D| R F G Ab C

Kalahamsa

C Bbb Ab

G F E D# C

SCALE OF GANGAIABHUSANL C B Ab G F E D# C

C D| E F G B C

Anandalila

SCALE OF SHOLINL C E

Trishuli

FG

C B A G F DJ C

B C

f

SCALE OF JALAVARALL Kohkila-P.incliami

Kusunia-Kangini Varali

.

.

Bhopala-Pantliami Vijaya-kohkila

Note.

C D7 Ebb G Ab B C C Db F$ G Ab B C c Ebb Db Ebb Ff G Ab b c C V>^ D? Ebb G F# A7 C c \V Eb? FtG Ab c

— Ragas marked

|

have two readings,

tlie

C C C C C

B B B G B

Ab G Ff Eb? D? C Ab B G F$ E?? D? C A? G F* E?? Db C A? F$ E?? D? C Ab G F$ E?? Db C

other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

53

SCALE OF NAVANITA. Name

C Di? C D?

Nabomani Deviamani

Descending Mode.

Ascending Mode.

of Raga.

Ff G C Fi G A G B7 C

Et'b Di' K'^"

C B? A G F$ E:>'? dp C C B? A G F| EP? D? C

SCALE OF PAVANL C D7 Eff F# G A G B C

Chandrajoli

C B G A G F# Ebb Db C

SCALE OF REGONPRYA.

G A| B G Db

Ghandarva Ghomatti

B C Db Ebb

E?b Db C

F|:

G A# B

B G .

F# G A* B C B G G Ft EP? Db C B C

SCALE OF BHAVAPKYA. C Eb Db Eb F$ G C

Kalamurti

C Bf Ab

G F#

Eb Db C

SCALE OF SABHAPANTOVARALL Panto-Varali .

Saddaks'eri

C D7 E? Ft G Ab B C C D? E? G B Ab C C D? E? Ft G B C C Eb D? E? F;: G A- B C C Db E? Ft G A? C C Db E? D7 Ft G Ab B C £• D ? E P G Ab C C Ei? G B C C Db It Ft B Ab Ft G a:' B C G Ft G A? G C C D-i .

Rudra-mangen Bhaulamuki .

Deviakanthala

Kamarangini Govirdani

.

Naga-Panchami Garudavirdani Latamati

C C C C C C C C C C

B Ab G Ft Ab Ft Eb B A7 G Ft E? D? C B Ab G Ft E? Db C B Ab Ft E? Db C B B B B B B

D!^

C

Ab G Ft E7 D7 C Ab Ft E? Db Eb C Ab B Fi E? Db C Ab G Ft E.7 Db C

G Ft Db C Ab G Ft Ab Ft

Ei?

Db C

SCALE OF SUVARANANGL Rati

.

Vrushabha-vahini

Mamachsheri Ratnamati

C C C C

D.-- E? Ft G A B C d: Ff G a B C D? E7 Ft G B C E7 Ft G Ft A B C

E?

.

.

C C C C

B A G Ft Eb D"" C H A Ft E? Db C B A G Ft E." F? D-' C A G Ft G Eb DP C

SCALE OF KAMAVIRDANL Ramakrva Dipaka Devagiri t Vilambini Rudragandari

Vipramandara Svatambodi .

Pankaruham Viagranandanam Manmatalata Pushpalalita

.

Kumudaprabha Note.

C C C C C C C C C C C C

— Ragas marked

D7 E Fit G Ab B C E Ft G A!^ G C D? Ft G AC C Ft E Ft G B Ab B C D? E Ft B C B? Ft G A? B C Db E Ft G C Ft E Ft G B Ab B C D7 E G Ab C B C Db E Ft G A7 B C E Ft Ab B C Db E Ab B C .

.

f

C C C C C C C C C C C C

Ab G Ft Db Ft E Db Ab B C E G Fi E D? Ab G Fi E D"* C Ab B GFt E C G Ft Db C Ab G Ft E D? C B AP G Ft E D: C B G Ft E Db C B Ab B Ab G Ft E D7 Ab G Ft E Db C B C Ab G Ft D? C G Ft E B C

B B B B B

have two readings, the other readings are given

at the

end of

this chapter.

O

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN LXDIA.

54

SCALE OF GAMANAS'RYA. Name

of Raga.

Gamakakrya

Ascending Mode.

C C C C C C C

.

Purvi-Kaliani

Partiravam

.

Jeya-Mohannaf S'ri-Lalita

Darpa-Mangeri Maivra-Vasantha

D? li F# G B C D? D? E F| G A B C E F| G A C D? E D? F| G B A G C E Dt» E F|: G B C D? E Ff G A B C .

EFfGABGABGC

Descending Mode.

C C C C C C

B G Fit E D> C B A G F| E D7 C B A B G A G F;i E Ff E Db Ff C B A G Ff E D? C B A G F* E D? C B A G Ff E C

CBGABAGFitD> F#EDl>EC

SCALE OF S'RIMHANDKA. Siimala Simanthini

.

Madhava-Manohari Suddha-raga f Mara-jej'antham

C El7 D Eb F|; G Ab B Ab C C D E> F| G A? B C C Eh D E7 F| G B A^ B C C D E> Ff G B C C D Ff G Ab B C .

.

.

CD

C B Ab G FS Eb C G Ff Eb D C D C C B Ab Ff Eb Fit E7 D C C B G Ff E-- C C B Ab G FS E'"- D C

SCALE OF HEMOVASANTHA. Sinharavam

.

Ciiandi'arckha

Sankaravam

.

Yeshaprta Sinhadvani Chackoradvani .

C D Ff G Bb C C D Et? Ff G A C C E7 D Eb F| G A B7 C C D F$ G B? C C D C Eb Ff G A B.7 C C D Eb Ff G A B? C .

.

C C C C C C

SCALE OF DHURMOVATL Rangini

C D

Dumyaraga

C C

Arunajualita

D D

Ei?

Ff A C

Eb Ff Eb f1

GAC ABC

Bb G Ff D Eb D C Bb A Ft Eb D C Bb G Ff Eb D C Bb A G Ff Eb D C B? A G Ff E7 C Bb Ft Eb D C

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

55

55

THE MUSIC or SOUTH ERX LXDTt

CHAPTER

V.

—

Taste of European and Oriental nations how differing Reason for non-employment of harmony Method of singing Of Indian melodies P'orm Classification of Rhythm Employment of mixed times Tonality often doubtful — Resemblance of Indian music to that of other Examples of popular melodies Hindustani musical system how differing from countries Examples of Hindustani melodies Scales employed in the Hindustani system. Karnatik :

—

— —

THE

— —

—

wide divergence of taste

—

—

—

:

—

in the

matter of music between European

and Asiatic nations has doubtless arisen from the fact that while ^Vestern nations gradually discarded the employment of mode, and

clothed little

the melody with harmony, the Eastern nations in this respect

or no progress

and melody types Speaking of

and now,

;

(or ragas) is this,

in

still

India, the

employment

of authentic

made modes

jealously adhered to.

Willard remarks

:

"

To

expect an endless variety in the

melody of Hindustan would be an injudicious hope, as their authentic melodv is limited to a certain number, said to have been composed by professors universally acknowledged to have possessed not only real merit, but also the original genius of composition, beyond the precincts of whose authority it would be criminal

What

to trespass.

adapted them

more reputed of the moderns have done is that they have own purposes, and found others bv the combination of two

the

to their

Thus far they are licensed, but they dare not proceed a step Whatever merit an entire modern composition might possess, should it have no resemblance to the established melody of the country, it would be looked upon as spurious. It is implicitly believed that it is impossible to add to the number of these one single melodv of equal merit, so tenacious are the or

more

of them.

farther.

natives of Hindustan of the ancient practices."^

A

Treatise on the Music of Hindustan."

Capt. N. A. Willard.

Calcutta, 1S34.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

58

This continued employment of mode, combined with the almost entire absence of harmony, has prevented Indian music from reaching anv higher pitch of development, such as has been attained elsewhere.

It

stands to reason

monotony which causes Indian music to be little appreciated by, to, European ears. Since the early periods of Indian history, music would seem to have been cultivated more as a science than an art. More attention seems to have been also that this

the chief cause of the

is

if

not repellent

paid to elaborate and tedious artistic

Hence arose technical

skill

than to simple and natural melody.

marred the

—

melody the must be attributed to the art falling into the hands of illiterate virtuosi. Their influence, which caused music to suffer both in purity of style and simplicity, is being felt less and less. The great aim of all music " Rakti," or the power of affecting the heart now asserts itself more and more, and is slowly but surely bringing about a return very

life

of

all

rules that

real music.

To

pristine sweetness of

a great extent this

—

—

to the early type of sweet, simple

melody.

good or classical music of India is heard b}' Europeans. What is usually played to them consists, as Colonel Meadows Taylor very trulv remarks, of modern ditties, sung by ill-instructed, screaming, dancing women, at crowded native durbars, marriages, and other ceremonials. And when this is the case, it does not cause much surprise to hear native music often described as abominable, and devoid of all melody. But music of great intrinsic beauty nevertheless exists, and only requires to be heard by an unprejudiced ear to be appreciated. Throughout India music and poetry go hand in hand. Their influence may be seen and felt in almost every phase of native life, from the Music has there been palace of the rajah to the humble dwelling of the ryot. Very

little

of the

developed to a degree far greater than has been generally recognised in Europe. It

is

there

felt to

be a

means

of passionate expression, such as

is

apparently

unknown amongst nations farther East. And indeed the very soul of all Indian music may be said to be raga which in its literal sense means that which creates passion. And that this has been fully appreciated in Europe would seem to be

—

evident, for a musical

reviewer writing in the

A thenccii in, and

contrasting the

music of India with that of Japan and Siam, recently wrote " In the Indian Peninsula we are really in another world. We exchange a music in which :

and dry executive skill prevail for one vibrating with sentiment and passion, and that combines a refined execution with the highly nervous noise

organization that player {been heard, at a

—a

lillle

makes the

kind of vina),

poetic

artist.

who was

exhibition called

'

to be

Such a one was heard, but

we

India in London,' in iS86.

a Jeypore been

was not much To go from one

fear

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

59

of the clever Siamese ranat players of the Inventions Exhibition the year before

man, was

to this

to quit the

atmosphere of a desert

The Hindu chromatic

and flower scents.

scale,

for

one redolent of sweet

air

from which the numerous

modes and melody types are selected, does not appear to differ from our own. As there is no harmony, slight differences may pass without notice. Very much of Hindu music impresses the European as being in the minor scale but deflections in the stringed instruments, and possible accommodations in the ;

And

wind, introduce an enharmonic elaboration that defies notation.'"'"

here

it

might be interesting to quote the opinion of a learned native gentleman } " Manv of the Hindus themselves," he writes, " labour under a false impression concerning the

employment

the

natives,

between Indian

and

tones

and semitones.

The opinions held by or harmonium are

of

upon the

played

pieces

that

European music, even as

difterence

piano

discordant, can be easily accounted for thus

so

many

to

them

they are simply confused

:

to

—

— being

melody when they hear five or six notes The chief difference seems to me to be that the Hindus played in chords. prefer melodj' simply, while to European ears melody is preferred when clothed, as it were, with harmony of some sort." unaccustomed

to anything but simple

Comparatively few Indian

airs

have found their way to Europe.

Those few

that have been published are mostly from either Bengal or Northern India, so that there or the

is

South

but small resemblance in them to the national music of the Deccan ;

marked difference between the music of the various even the most casual observer is evident.

for there is a

parts of India, which to

The

following examples of

storehouse

—

help to those

Many

will,

it is

hoped, aid

who may

of these

simplicity adds

songs— though

care to

melodies

in filling the

make in

a mere handful from so vast a

vacancy, and thereby afford some

further research.

themselves are extremely beautiful, and their

an additional charm that no words can express

— the

airs

of

and feelings of the people to whom they belong. Some are pathetic and melodious music that exactly reproduces the feelings inspired bv the words others are gay and bright true accompaniments to the daily pursuits and occupations of life and in manv different country districts are but a reflex of the character

—

;

— of

;

them may be found

a vein of repose, slightly tinged with melancholy, that

offers a curious contrast to either of the

^

The

Ill-own, ^

Athencsum, Jan. York.

4,

i8go.

New

T. M. Venkatas'esha S'astri.

Review of

former

;

indeed, so

" Musical Instruments

and

their

much

varietv

Homes."

mav

be

M. E. and \V. A.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

6o f'dund that

is

it

unnecessarv to notice

in detail

merits that must he evident to the

musical reader.

But that

vet,

though the melodies themselves are so

we hear them

sung

well

ruin the effect of the music

;

;

beautiful,

it

much

nine cases out often

;

much

grace as possible, they try to disguise

in fact,

as possible by embellishments of their own, and so in

words of a

is

quite impossible to follow either the air or the

is

onlv anxious to exhibit what he fondlv imagines to be his

it

sone, since the sinsrer

but seldom

appear to have an idea that the

adds to the beauty of their songs or not

the real melody as

is

indeed, singers of the ordinary type often entirely for native singers

highest form of their art consists in introducing as

whether

it

skill.

Native

singers

rarely

practise,

for

they think

that

practice, to

even

a

moderate extent, ruins their voices. The treatment of the voice, too, is quite different to what experience in Europe has proved to obtain the best results. The voices of Indian singers are almost always weak and deficient in

— one

volume tone

made to give way when much too young,

system of training, by which a

to incessant small inflections.

is

singing

harsh and

A

result doubtless of their

so

that

their

full

clear

Girls, too, are taught

voices either break or

become

shrill.

singer rarely stands while he sings, and instead of using his proper range

which he can rarely control, and his endeavours to make himself heard generally cause him to make the most ludicrous grimaces. Singers of this kind it is who bring Indian music into

of voice, he prefers a

disrepute, and cause

But

still

most unnatural

it

to be regarded with

there arc singers in

when they sing

their

falsetto,

own songs

contempt by European audiences.

India whose voices

in their

are wonderfully sweet, and

simple form, no hearer can doubt that, like

other national music, that of India possesses a

charm

peculiarly

its

ov/n.

styles of Indian compositions, consisting as they

do entirely

oi

melodv, do not present to the casual observer differences as clearly

marked as

in

The various

those of European music. cally,

and

Almost

all

in their

Nevertheless these melodies are classified systemati-

construction are subject to certain definite rules of composition.

consist of a burden or refrain called Pallevi, a kind of answer to this

refrain styled Anupallevi,

and stanzas

(called

Charanam)

of

which there

is

usually

These parts are in the several compositions arranged in different wavs, and bv this means the style of composition is determined. Rhythm is usually very marked, but differs largely from that of most European

an uneven number.

music from the

Between

fiict

that the times are iVequently irregular.

vocal and instrumental music the difference

is slight,

the vina, the

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. only instrument of any

instrument,

The

being considered to be but an imitation

lart^e capability,

or reproduction of the

human

voice

and

;

if

an

raga,

(ii.)

be accompanied by that

different exercises, compositions, &c., are usually classified

under the

:

Saralas

Kruthis

Gentuversis

Kirthanas

Alankaras

Vernams

Gitas

S'ankavernams

Prabhandas

Pathams

Thanas

Javadis

Ragamalika

Svarajotas

and

air

usually only played in unison with the voice.

it is

following heads

A

6i

when performed by

itself,

—

contains two movements

(i.)

Alapa

Madhyamakala.

Pallevi, a kind of fantasia

upon some theme abounding

in imitation,

and

with a well-defined rhythm.

The rhythm

existing throughout

worth careful notice

The

other nations. is

and

;

it is

similarity

all

the different styles of composition

is

compare it with that employed by of that of the Turks and other Eastern nations interesting to

remarkable.

As in European music each period is complete marked by the talas, which divide the different periods sections, as the

The

periods

that they

may

case

differ

may

be, following

only from those

consist,

if

each other

in

itself,

into regular or irregular

and regular order. European music in

in definite

commonly found in number of sections

necessary, of an uneven

the tala itself often being irregular, owing to the

Hence when Indian music

is

written

being clearly

in

employment

ordinary notation

of

or measures,

mixed times.

there

will

be a

regular rotation corresponding to the tala, of bars each of which may have a different time signature. A reference to the list of talas upon page 36 will explain this more readily than any words can. These periods or phrases are often extended

up

to

the

by the addition

commencing note

small cadence or

at the

of the

codetta which

commencement phrase,

may be

of a few notes leading

or by being terminated with

either a

repetition

or

a

imitation of

what has gone before, or may lead up to the next phrase. The rhythm of the Pallevi and Anupallevi is usually a great deal more marked and regular than that of the stanzas, where the phrasing is frequently irregular, the periods being interwoven by means of, as it were, abbreviaturas, or extended by the prolongation and " rekhu," a species of turn or transient shake upon a

Q

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

62

note in the middle of a roulade with which

Hindu music abounds.

all

This

especially the case in the performance of raga as a solo, which in certain cases

is is

absolutely timeless.

Hence the great

difficulty of

The

ordinary notation.

expressing such music correctly by means of

peculiarity of the scales or

modes employed

in

Hindu

difficulty in determining the real tonality of many of the melodies, the Hindu Sa, taken by native musicians as the " Khuruj " or keynote

music often raises a ot their scale,

not necessarily corresponding to what

is

the real tonic of the scale.

Indian music has been compared to that of Scotland, but the resemblance can

be traced principally to the frequent employment by both nations of a somewhat similar

scale

of five

intervals, the

fourth

and

possibly also from the fact that a similar motive first

is

seventh

and where the

being omitted

often found in both,

;

note has one-fourth of the duration of the second, as

^^

any country, we cannot help being struck which special scales are employed, special graces worked in, all

In reviewing the national music of

with the wa}- in

more or less varying in the music of different nations. In the music of India, owing to the multitude of scales or modes which it employs, a resemblance here and there can be traced to the music of nearly every country. The chief characteristic, for instance, of Hungarian music is that it usually employs a scale with two superfluous seconds, or the harmonic minor with a sharp fourth.

This scale

in

is

every respect similar to the Indian scale called

much employed and called Siibhapanamong the list of scales upon pages 32-35.

S'rinhandra, and nearly similar to one

which

tovarali, both of

Many Hungarv

be found

of the graces and embellishments employed in the gipsy music in

are to be found in Indian melodies.

Mr. Carl seventh

will

in

Engel' has drawn attention to the employment of the minor

both

emploved both

in

Servian,

VVallachian, and

Arabic and Indian music.

impressive effect of which

it

is

Scotch

Some

music.

This interval

is

idea of the plaintive and

productive can be gained from the song, " Seki

yenaka thake," given upon page 80. Mr. J. A. Kappey, in his collection of " Songs of Eastern Europe,'"' draws attention to the characteristics of Turkish songs, and to the fact that they employ a scale having a minor third with an augmented fourth, and a minor si.xth '

^

" All Introduction to the Study of National Music." Carl Engel. London, 1866. "Songs of Itastcni l'".iH(jpc." Edited by J. .\. Kappey. Lundoii, 18S1.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

A

comparison of the examples he gives with songs of be of great interest and the similarity of both melody and rhythm

with a major seventh. India will

;

One

is striking.

be from India be

63

noticed

of the songs quoted

appears to be written

it

;

that

—a in

song of sorrow by Nihad Bey

much

the

employs a mixed time of

it

same form, and

and

%

precisely the

\,

— might

it is

also to

Indian

Triputa Tala, already noticed. In a previous chapter attention has already been drawn to the resemblance that Indian music bears to that of Greece,

and

by a careful study of modern Greek national

this is

In a

airs.

more fully borne out work not long published,

still

by M. Bourgault-Ducoudray,'' the construction of the peculiar scales found throughout the East have been made the subject of most careful research, and the use of what the author terms the " chromatique oriental" is especially This scale

Mayamalavagaula, and to M. Bourgault-Ducoudray's work to students of Eastern music is especially interesting, and the careful analysis that is given of each air renders the work most valuable. The Indian songs between and resemblance the examples of melodies from the Levant is so striking that, in many cases, it is difficult to believe that their noticed.

its

no other than the Indian

is

frequent use attention has been drawn elsewhere.

origin

not identical.

is

Mr. Engel

the black keys (Douze grandes Etudes, No.

may

beautiful effect that

number

of intervals

employs other

Chopin,

calls attention to the fact that

;

has given some idea of the be produced by a melody which employs a limited 5),

only in this case he notices that as the accompaniment

intervals, the pentatonic effect of the

In Indian music, too, a frequent use

already remarked.

Again,

constant occurrence,

in

is

made

in

nature

the

occasional

districts of

The '

common songs, many parts of India,

the

following

somewhat marred.

Spanish national music, embellishments are of descending the diatonic scale the same ;

employment

^ in

is

especially in

;

indeed, a further resemblance of

endings of the following

iSEg=g=^=il

XT'

which

whole

of the pentatonic scale, as has been

predilection can be observed in Indian melodies

can be traced

one of his studies for

in

such

as are heard in the jungles and country

are not unfrequent.

observations

Trente Melodies Populaires de Grece

by

Captain

et d'Orient."

Willard

are

short and to

L. A. Bourgault-Ducoiidray.

Paris, 1876.

the

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

64 point,

and seem

melodies 1.

2.

apply

to

equally well

Southern as to Northern

to

Indian

:

The melodies are short, lengthened by repetitions and variations. They all partake of the nature of what by us is called a Rondo, being invariably concluded with the

first strain,

the piece

and sometimes with the

first

bar, or at least with the first note of that bar. 3.

4.

A bar

measure or a certain number of measures are frequently repeated with slight variations, almost ad libitum. There is as much liberty allowed with respect to pauses, which may be or a

lengthened at pleasure, providing the time be not disturbed.

The times employed curiously enough, is

upon the

(although in

is

Indian music are peculiar

mixed

occurrence,

frequent

in

times

of the rarest

;

largely

are

but there

is

;

simple times are of most

employed

;

true

triple

time,

a time, the accentuation of which

and second beat, which may be said to be a kind of triple time reality a mixed time of % and C), and is much used for love songs.

first

The tempo

in

which the various melodies are sung

from being exact

sometimes changes

middle of a song.

The

and the employment of

a

into

peculiarities in the

is

sometimes

recitative

or

irregular,

ad libitum

working out of the motives are

rests of short duration

is

in the

striking,

noticeable.

The endings are often not definite, the last few bars leading up to commencement the reason for this is probably that it is usual to repeat melodies, and when the performer wishes to end, he generally leads up to note upon which he wishes to conclude, and prolongs it in this manner ;

m 3 Indeed,

it

different

seems more natural

forms of

a return to the

Da

and

the

the the

^^F^ g?

to regard all

endings of Indian melodies rather as

capo than as real closes, the object in most cases being

commencement

who have endeavoured

of the song.

The

fact so often noticed

by those

to collect Indian airs, that almost every interval of the

The words most of these songs, particularly those sung by the common people, such as lavanies and javadis and svarajotas, are generally a long ballad, so that a definite

scale can be found used as a close, can possibly be thus accounted for.

of

ending

is

not required after each stanza.

Many

singers indeed, as a variety,

improvise their words, so that after each stanza closes on intervals of are found.

But when the

all

kinds

reached, the performer frequently leads

real ending is what he regards as the key-note of the Indian scale. Judged from a European point of view, it appears that closes on the intervals of

up

to the key-note, or

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHEKX the third and tonic chord

;

fifth

should be regarded more as

//i^//

INDIA.

closes

6S

upon the

intervals of the

those on the second and seventh as upon intervals of the dominant

chord; whilst those on the sixth or minor third betray the relative minor; sometimes the third

may

be looked upon as the

fifth to

This view can of

the relative minor.

course be equally well applied to the national airs of any country, but

it

appears

to be specially applicable to those of India.

Some

of the melodies in their conclusion imply a modulation into the relative

Examples

minor, showing thereby a trace of the old pentatonic scale.

found

among

the following melodies of endings with the

seventh, the second, and fourth are rarely

if

(like

fifth,

ever employed.

An example

will nevertheless

the

si.xth,

Closes on the

those of the Servians) with the third.

Khyal upon page 88. In the examples following an endeavour has been made

the

will be

be found

to point out

in the

some

of

the chief peculiarities and characteristics of the different ragas in which the

melodies are composed.

The

taught to pupils are called Saralas, they are always in the

first e.xercises

Mayamalavagaula

scale of

;

called Gentu-versis,

similar exercises

repeated notes, are next taught, after which Alankaras learnt, several in

The

each

tala.

simplest melodies are called Gita, and are of two kinds

The

and Ganaraga-gita. it is

number and

first-named are four in

the god Pillari or Ganesha.

and

The Sangita

— Pillarigita

are

hymns

to

Parijata mentions four Pillarigitas,

believed that these are the four that are

an example of one of these ancient Pillarigitas

still

in

use.

The

following

is

:

(

Raga Malahari. Tala Rupacca.

Andante.

=^=^

containing

— exercises upon time — are

^S

-^»»*-i

^TJt

^-^^

T'^ir:'*

r7r

2*

Ganaraga-gitas are very similar to the above.

Somewhat longer, and Skilful

similar

are divided

to

gitas

into

are

Prabhandas, only that they are usually

two or three parts by breaks called Khandam.

performers are fond of playing such pieces

in

order to

exhibit

their

proficiency to an audience.

Thanas

are studies for the vina, teaching special styles

with in the performance of the various ragas.

They

and

difficulties

met

are particularlv intended as

K

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

66

an introduction to the

difficult

movement called Madhyamakala of

are in no particular talas, the time heing taught orally, and

measure

Great attention

to the performer's discretion.

accentuation and grace

;

the tempo

is

usually very rapid

is

Thanas

a raga. left

in

a great

bestowed upon proper

—

Raga Nata. I

^4-i-t^-gJ-^|/^'

1%^

V^

"^

^^=1

4ii Raga

^

t^^

C

1-MI f?

^f^-«-

b

^^

/F

^

h—H

L»»^

g^ ^

Arabi.

S g^#-^ ^ ^

rr-

»

Raga Gaula.

^l-^J-^i-l-^Q

i—y

s S^

^S ri -*— *-r-

5=^4.a^^ a^&^=^

^

1

r

I

most popular ballads of Southern India are called Svarajotas, and are sung by almost everyone. The words are usually odes to some deity or popular hero of the country. A song of this kind commences with a kind of following in quick succession is the anupallevi, a kind of refrain termed pallevi short stanza, the words of which are an addition to a comment upon those of the The stanzas, which may be After this the pallevi is again repeated. pallevi.

Some

of the

;

dissimilar both in metre

and melody, follow

in order,

each concluded by a repetition

There is an almost entire absence of superfluous grace in these songs, and their marked rhythm renders their execution within the attainment of nearly all. The following examples of these melodies are interesting, and display the of the refrain.

fluent

and decisive nature so characteristic oi them

all

advantage Raga

Allegyo modcrato. Pallevi.

to the greatest

Fine.

Anupallevi.

Tala

Bilahdri. .\di.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

^ rig

'

?E^3JEP^S

::f:^

1^3=

^;=t^-ta^ ^^g^^g

^

^::w-

^£

^£3=

pasg

=t=t=^

——

=

As an example

of a

1-

1

1

melody confined

in several different keys. it

entirely to the pentatonic scale

interesting.

is

and

evident,

is

and with

The apparent want

of a

E

it

The Hindus, however, regard it Mesolydian mode, and therefore make G the dominant

therefore in

pertaining rather to the

^^^^^'Jl^l?^!^

might be harmonised equally well Some musicians would doubtless treat it as in a minor

distinctly indicated key-note

and harmonise

p P • P-

^^

:i^3^

an undefined conclusion the following

key,

=f= -*—m-

minor.

—

as of

— the tonic.

the natural scale

This melodv

is

also worthy of note as

it

is

considered to be one of the oldest

son

I

$ ^—

g_^

l

ji,^

.

^^ ^ ^^

J?S

|j"3?

J"^a^ffl,^=j^^^:T^^

I

:?2=z

^^ .TTJ^^^^J^^^aj-^^^gfe^ P^^^i ^

The

Sacred songs, called Kruthis, are very popular.

hymns

are very old,

Kruthis are, as

hundreds of years. consist

of

airs of

some

of these

and have been handed down by successive generations

characteristics of which are

They

E

a

made

pallevi,

a

rule,

in

the

as prominent as

and

anupallevi,

is

more

for

ragas, the

difficult

consistent with the melody.

one

stanza.

Some

few

have

number is never exceeded. The pallevi is sung at the commencement, then the anupallevi, after which the pallevi is repeated with

three stanzas, and this

a slight variation

the option of the

at

concluding with the pallevi again. vtoto,

and the whole

is

and as much grace as

sung

is

in a

singer,

The

toiipo

by the stanza, and

followed

rather of an Andante

is

wished.

These hymns were revived by the Rajah Sarabhoji

of Tanjore,

greatly improved in style by the celebrated musician Tiagyaraj

who composed

a large

number which

are

still

As

and were

of that place,

popular.

Other famous composers of kruthis have been Siama

Subbaraya

con

dreamy way, with a great deal of expression,

S'astri, Diksitalu,

and

S'astri.

will be noticed

from the following example, kruthis have a curious mixture

of pathos and hilarity, and the words are always in accordance with the emotions

expressed

by the music.

The

peculiarly

plaintive

effect

imparted to these

melodies by the employment of grace embracing intervals less than semitones,

and

its

to these

special

hymns

charm so

shown upon the vina

readily

— no notation can be found '

Andante. Pallevi.

«

— the

usual

companion

capable of expressing

Upacharam Chesavaru.

'

J

.\nupallevi.

^

Riga

Bhairavi.

(Tala Rupacca.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN

72

INDIA.

Stanza.

1st time.

2tid time.

1 1

agq^pS^PpMF^^^J^^^^-^-^^^g^ The

this

scale of

melody

" Nata-Bhairavi,"

is

which,

as

can be seen,

corresponds exactly to the ancient Hypodorian mode. The peculiarities of the raga Bhairavi, in which it is composed, admit of E being taken either as

Hence

or b at will.

h

this

melody, although partaking partly of the nature

of a minor key, should be regarded as founded

upon the dominant of the major

harmonised to preserve its character, WTitten in one flat only, and harmonised with the triad of the dominant as the principal chord. The vibrato upon Bb is characteristic of the raga, and is never omitted. key

;

and, therefore,

if

The composer of The composition

this

melody was Tiagyaraj.

of the next

melody

is

attributed to Kolashekara, a former

Maharajah of Travancore, which, perhaps, accounts

in

some way

for its

wide

popularity.

One insertion

great peculiarity of the compositions of the Maharajah of

what

are called " Svaraksheras " in them.

is

the copious

To make my meaning

clear— the Hindu gamut, as has been stated, is signified by the syllables " Sa, The composer has adroitly introduced these syllables ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni." at the very place where the notes signified by them occur in the song, without This is the more difficult to do when interferine: with the sense of the words. we remember that in Hindu music the notes must follow each other in a particular

order,

according to

composer's fancy.

the

raga,

and

not

exactly

according to the

In the following piece the words are " 5rtrasa vSrtmamukha

Sa and Ma are introduced at the very points where the notes C (Sa) and F (Ma) stand in the song. The Hindus regard, in this song, C and not F as the key-note, though the latter is clearly the real tonic, and there is apparently no difference in the tonality of this and the para nava7«rt," &c.

The

syllables

The melody " Smarana Sukam," in which they allow the tonic to be F. other two melodies, also from Travancore, are compositions of Kolashekara Maharajah SARA5A SaMAMUKHA. " Moilftlttu. I'.iUevi.

^--^^iEijEga^;i:3^:

Kamachi. fRSu'a Kama (Tala Adi.

«**,

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

73

Anupallevi.

p^SJ-JJ^^

i^ n,

m

r-

i\

r;

i

J'^G^

J

Stanzas.

pr

f.

^

^r p±^2n

^a

'''^^\^^=^^^nu ;'J^

i:i

\

r>/JU^^^

P-^-^rf\f r J

r.jviir

I

^

jJlJ.l^tz^

JJ

f.-^^^^Sl

r.r

Melopy from Travanxore.

Pallevi.

Bilahari.

pztUj:; N ^ -*i-^-^^ ^i^

i

m

i

^

Anupallevi.

tefe*

e£

f

i^

g-

^

Stanzas.

i

i

Raga

fefe

^

^fe^

m

j^=^ -

±g

r

^

m

^'^i^

Melody from Travanxore. Raga Mohanna.

Anupallevi.

Pallevi.

hShH^^^SmiMir^l rj-

1

r

rrlrrr -j^ LI

i

Stanzas.

rtf^r r ii=i=i^

'

^S Pallevi.

,

^^^=3:

^^-gj^

Cfe^

^ ^^

^Gfrg

^^^;^

^ Modi'ynto.

r I

[,ri

Q£

fe Smarana Sukam vo Ramanam.'

^

^5=1^^^

3:^|:^-.l

J

Jl/^^^^

Raga Garudadvani. ITala Eka.

j

^

^

ffi

THE MUSIC OF SOUTJHERX INDIA.

74 Anupallevi

^

^

"^ »

.^:^«-

An example

^m

^ ^

-r-r

itfc

5iit

melody

of an irregular

The two

shown below.

is

first

periods

and seven bars respectively. This frequently occurs in Indian probably produced simply by rests having in course of time been

consist of nine

music, and

lapping

;

or by a bar

so that a symmetrical period

;

number That

is

lengthened or disregarded

either

The

of bars.

this

has been

fully

effect

is

produced

imitated,

transformed into one of an uneven original,

is

recognised by musicians in

many examples might be quoted from

repeated, or over-

and often very pleasing. Europe is well known, and

the works of classical composers to prove

that this has been largely appreciated as an important element of variety

Nanna Gan.na Talli.

Andante.

Raga Manohari. Tala Eka.

Pallevi

^^

f^T^rrj^^ Anupallevi.

sf

$

I

Stanza. J?

*

*

\

^

,

w

^m

^=,

^^

The two melodies gaula. The intervals

fs-

r

^^

^

^

^-

^^

following are of the

zj\ both

all

it

is

remembered that

in

r

:

it

\

^

'Ja

^* ^^

jMavamalavaand so manv harmonical

the scale called

scale are so peculiar

combinations can be formed from them that

when

?=^

well deserves attention, especiallv

this is a scale largely

used by the Hindus, and that

elementary exercises taught to pupils are invariably upon this scale, instead

as would be supposed, the diatonic major, which natural.

is

of.

by us commonly regarded as

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

75

These melodies are again irregular in construction the ragas in which they composed, though much alike, differ, in that the third is not admitted as a ;

are

raga Purvi of the

shown air—

is

first

A

ascending mode of the second example.

real note in the

D

" glisse " from

in the

G

to

characteristic of the

and seventh bars

in the sixth

Trii.oka mata.

'

Pa'levi.

iE

.^. ^—•.^. —^—;hih-

^^

^

^^

Anupallevi.

1=

i

i^=1=

» F m

*

»'

I

i

m

££

SC=s:

I

^

I

ZMUK.

* ^

^ r

=S^

^=^=

rj ^ ^^^i^l' ^g-

Sian/a

'•

(Raga NadirAmakrya.

Nagadhera.

I

:^tt=6

f

zt=a:

»

=P=5:

^^=^ I

p*=

n ^

m

Very similar

J

pallevi, anupallevi,

«

2nd

Kirthanas.

^^

^

consist, like the former, of a

the most part popular

for

simple, and the words, addressed to

some

-*—

^ —————

time.

grace essential to their performance.

The

1 1—1= -• • •

The ragas

in

ones, and there

is

and stanzas, the tala being regular throughout.

which they are composed are little

*==*=

r-r-mrr^e^t'-i

I

to kruthis are

si

^

— — ——

g^^-i^^^^Lj \^\^'^

Taia Rupacca.

The music

deity, plain

of kirthanas

and easy

to be

is

verv

remembered.

following are examples of popular kirthanas Bala nanna chala brovava.'

Allegretto. Pallevi.

S^^

:=3=

is^

£

Raga Kambudi. Tala Adi.

^ =Ua:

^ ^

•

y =iJ= iii:

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

76

^

Stanzas.

•* I

^^

?3 £=t

i .

i

r

1st time.

"^^

mT^^nr^ E^ ^^a is<

-^-^

^^^^^ r-i^-i^ i

•

•-!*

tst

i/mc

^ 2«rf ( fr ltcj-

*:^ iSp^^C£

i"^

^^sg;i^^a±^r

~-:X=-

:'T

t^ p-rn^-g

poco accel.

r—x^^xir-fjrr^m

r-

f^—^^^^^^^^^^s^

•

U^^ fJ-U^ ^i

5=*=

~^=r^Cju^ i

^

(without words.)

±3:

$

•

r

i&

S

:Ie£

1

s

*-i—?-

^^

f

^^^^^^fe^g^^^ilg^g#^^

^

f4^^^?

Stanzas ad

Pallevi (at end of each stanza).

lib.

i.

P

ff^T-&1f^^g± agggF#^F^^^£=gE^r=Fr^fe^^^^

^

Q=c=ra:

i

feg

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^

g^F=f=g=

&^

E£feSEE3E ^. ^^ " ^^^^Eg fU^^N^a^ ^=SE #Xp^^-g UJ L^= ^^ ^^^^^^ -^1-

:^=^

^

-

1.J

^

^

S'anka-vernams are somewhat similar to vernams, only that the tempo is less rapid. They are usually very elaborate in style, and abound with graces of all

They

are commonly sung at Nautches and are intended to give full scope " bhavas " the gestures and sentiments conveyed by the dancer as she to convey kinds.

—

sways

to

and

fro to the

music.

Javadis are songs of a light and pleasing nature, such as love songs, cradle

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. They

songs/ &c.

much sung by both Nautch They are in domestic life.

are

of the higher classes

79

especially

women,

kinds— ordinary

ballads

and

girls

of two

all,

and songs of a more or less indelicate nature, sung during the performance of a peculiar dance called Karwar. Javadis consist usually of a pallevi, anupallevi, and and are chiefly in popular The tempo is in accordance with the words, and not too slow, the ragas. Consequently, many of these songs bear a favourite measure being Rupacca.

manner

stanzas, sung in the usual

as described before,

resemblance to a waltz, only that they are taken

at a slightly

The words of javadis are often very beautiful and Krishna and Radha are always popular. Musicians as ;

more

naked form, and with sung to the same air.

in their

stanza

is

less grace

than

is

slower pace.

those upon the loves of a rule sing these songs

Each

their usual custom.

These songs are of comparatively recent introduction, being first sung by the Kanarese musicians of the Court of Surapuri, a petty state near the celebrated Humpe ruins. The popularity of songs of this kind increased rapidly, and they are now to be heard throughout almost the whole of Southern India, where they

Tappa

take the place of the

Among

of Hindustan.

the following examples the air " Anthalona Telavari"

is

perhaps the

upon the first and accompanied by this is much noticed when second beat of each bar instruments, such as the small tinkling cymbals and drums, which mark the time strongly. This song seems to be known throughout Southern India the most popular— the accompanying rhythm of the

tala falls it

;

is

—

version varies slightly in different places, but, on the whole, the air

is

much

the

same everywhere.

The

air " S'ri

Saratha "

is

very popular both in Mysore and Tanjore

modulation into the relative minor

is

noticeable

as

it

shows traces

;

the

of

a

pentatonic scale Andante.

'

YlVANA PIRDIDU."

Pallevi.

s=«=

^

=*

*

I I

gs

p ^E^ »

^

^

•

Stanzas.

r

•

Kayalaga

''^'ir

dAvana.''

f • f

f

Raga Biag.

I

Tala Adi.

SI *IW=W=W

^

.tiu

^^^^^s^ Raga

Janjuti.

Tala Rupacca.

'

Simple cradle songs, called " Palna," are very common, and answer to the lullaby songs of Europe,

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN

8o

INDIA.

" AnTIIALONA TKLAVARl."

(Raga S'ank4rabharna. jTala Rupacca.

Pallevi.

m

^^m

hi^^ ^^'•T"XZE

Anupallevi.

^E

-P—•-

m^

f^^-

::?«=*=

Stanzas.

#

3==f^

^ m W

r-^

p-

^TV"^ -t^

l=i:

ggsfe|£^g^^^fe^^^g^:

s

" Jenaka

n tempo.

rail.

v—

^

3-TN

~j>~^~

-^

a

^p^*^n

Vaneanatha."

Raga

f

Janjuti.

(Tala Rupacca.

^is=sg3

|fe

P

•

*

Q

|-»

ii:

-F-t-

:f=4:

S

:=t

^J^F

—

-*

^^-#1

m-

^ niQ e —I— a—r—m-

-F ^1

*,,-«-*— Pi3^

^

?=-=p=r-&

tt

pg^^^S^j^^M^j^^P^ '

fc

^ o

i^-

n (Tala Eka.

m^ *

•

(Raga Kapi.

SeKI YENAKA THAKft." 1st time.

1 J J

^~z^-^

^

Si

c

p-

I> f>

^

\\

2nd

time.

i^^^m^^m

^

t=f--=[-

T*^-*

Anupallevi.

,

g

>i^

*'

.^-

Pallevi.

L.

'

^

•-

Ez

iJzzzfirrC •zizifc

^

J

*

atlit

'

=i=^

-:sr-*-

o

• -

Stanzas.

^-T^ «

Ti

^

^=

-li

^ t i

2S^ f—

»,

Se^

^

•

^pi

4

ll

4-^—1=

-

Fine.

=*=^

g^ig=B3=5

-d

^

4-

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. '

f\\

m

i^

S^

^'^^

* m

^^

Lji.

Ra^a Kamachi. Tala Rupacca.

Saratha."

u-

^'t

r

S'ri

8i

-iS^

ggss

^i^ac

=i=^

S2

*—*-

«= :J^^

Very similar to javadis are songs called Pathams they are exclusively songs, and are sung largely both in the native drama and by Nautch girls. music is very much varied, and the performers frequently leave the air improvise cadences and embellishments, rejoining the melody at will. ;

tempo

slower than that of javadis, and

is

the singer wishes to put into the words

;

is

love

The and

The

varied according to the expression

the tala

is

generally irregular, a mixed

and C is the commonest. The most popular composer of pathams was Kshattrya, whose songs are

time of

I

and contain some of the most beautiful and poetical sentiments that can be found but, like all Oriental love poetry, they employ imagery too largely sung,

;

luxuriant for exact translation '

jRaga S'ankarabharna.

Valla tella vara."

^

jTSla Druva.

Moderato.

^ -P-u

\r~i a" * It

^'\

:m f)

r' ' r .

f^^f'^

.'

1st time.

3C=S3t

g

2nd

time.

' r *

>

^^S ^^

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN

82

tsj—

^^

U UT '^

^^

—

-.=-

U-

iit

P—#^ L-

-P

r«=M: !

i

INDIA.

^^

I

p

•

,» L^

^

^"^

\

p

>-

I

'l>

-sii—

I

/

1^

ig ^-^^.^^

:C5f

In the above melody the characteristics of the raga S'ankfirabharna are well

The

shown.

B

is

tied

glide to the upper

C

never omitted

is

of this air should be noticed

peculiarity

the string

;

is

hvice

slightly

at the

:

deflected

this

in

sign \

it

Another

raga.

will

be seen that

and shaken upon the

as to sharpen the note to a degree less than a semitone, with

fret,

so

a trembling

effect.

This song

known

Mysore country. The pace is moderately is sung in a soft, dreamy manner, that, coupled with the gestures of the singer and the tinkling of the accompanying is

very well

in the

quick but not hurried, and the melody

cymbals,

Here

is

peculiarly fascinating, especially

is

when heard

for the first time.

another example of these songs

Andante.

^231

iOi^^

^^

=t=^ \

«

m

-*

•

(

Raga Mukari.

t

Taia Triputa.

L

i

s

^E

"^m

»

^

~¥:

jac

Bg;

&

3=tb.

EH fe^

1

Religious hymns, called Yallapathams and Tathvams, are largely sung bv the lower orders. in

the raga

They

are very lugubrious and monotonous, and are invariably

Yedukula-Kambogi

The former

are

funeral

dirges,

the

latter

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. The

sung at religious gatherings. Yallapatham shows the nature of these songs

allegorical chants

83

following example of a

(Raga Yedukula-Kambcgi. {ITala Adi.

Antlante.

The

familiar to everyone

women

who has heard

nursing their children

The

the march.

;

airs are usually very

Some have There

a kind of chorus, each

Kama

At the time of the parties

;

;

be the

or sepoys on

The words, if not impromptu, some warrior or " burra Sahib."

monotonous. praise

man

of in

turn singing an improvised verse.

no employment of raga.

is

lavanies

in

will

the coolies sing as they do their work

the bullock drivers; dhooly bearers

a sort of historv or ballad

are

country are called Lavanis, and

folk-songs of the

ordinary

called

— one

Saval

are

called Turai

honour of the Indian god of love, special The words of these are sung by two

festival in

sung.

and the other Kalki

— intended

to represent the

god

Questions of a metaphorical nature are sung by one party and answered by the other. These were formerly sung extempore,

Krishna and

his mistress

but their performance

entertainment

is

is

Radha.

now

This species of

usually rehearsed beforehand.

also practised in Northern India under the

name

of Kabi.

The two following are examples of popular lavanies — Allfgro vioderato, n

No.

I.

1

^^ No.

:^:i^

~r » * 0^

2.

^E? BE^ -fs—

^

V

I

I^T^'""^

tr

A

composition called Raga-malika, or " garland of ragas,"

is

occasionally

song that modulates into many different raga-malika consists of a pallevi or refrain, and stanzas. The pallevi

heard.

As

ragas.

A

is

^^^ ^

IT-^tf^

=^

the

name

employed only

at

implies,

it

is

a

the beginning and

at

the conclusion.

The stanzas

are

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

84

Each stanza employs a different raga, the name must be mentioned in the words, in order that the audience be able of which The tala remains the same to follow and appreciate the performer's skill. usually uneven in number.

throughout.

Somewhat

similar to the above

is

a Pallevi.

This word

signifies literally

"a creeping plant," and hence the name is given to a kind of fantasia upon some theme worked out in accordance with certain rules, and containing a large amount of grace and imitation. As this kind of composition is extremely popular it well merits some attention. A stanza or sentence of some poetical nature is sung to any air that the performer may improvise, and in anv raga and tala. This opening melodv is taken as the theme of the pallevi, and is varied, imitated, and answered subsequently according to the skill and inclination of the performer. Occasionally of counter theme is introduced, and a skilful musician will keep the a kind two parts distinct. If this is done the counter theme is, as a rule, introduced upon a fourth or sixth lower. But it is not intended to imply that there is any employment of counterpoint as understood in Europe for though in certain cases these two parts may be actually going at the same time, yet the native musician is guided by no contrapuntal laws, but by his ear, and the rules of rdga, ;

entirely.

Much

greater license

is

given as to raga in a pallevi than in any

other composition.

There are usually three movements

viz.,

an adagio, a moderato, and an

allegro or scherzo.

The

or tala that avatar, pallevi

movement commences with the subject being given out in any raga may be called for. The space of time occupied by this is termed an

first

and constitutes the chief rhythmical division or period into which the is divided. Each succeeding avatar, though consisting of several

short phrases, either linked together or separated by rests,

must be

of equal

Each avatar differs essentially from those preceding, employed, commences invariably with the first syllable or word

length to the original.

and

if

the voice

is

of the original theme.

The second movement

follows with

or without

The measure remains the same, but the duration The third, or concluding movement, follows the tempo is much increased. In this it is usual

of the ;

a short pause between.

movement

is less.

the only difference being that for the

performer to modulate

into different ragas (called for at the time by the audience), taking care that the

special characteristics of each shall be in the original raga.

This movement

made is

clear; each avatar

is,

however, ended

brought to a close by a repetition of the

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. original

theme

which a few bars

in the original tempo, after

way

given ad libitum by

85

same raga

in the

are

of a Finale.

In the performance of a pallevi no harsh or discordant instruments are

For marking a rhythmical accompaniment the hands are employed, Occasionally another performer hums or sometimes a Mridang or Gatha. softly a kind of accompaniment to syllables (ta, di, ti, ka, &c., as if sol-fahing) employed.

intended to represent the beats of a drum

Songs of salutation or of or

The

Saurelshtra.

konnagolu, or talavinyasa.

Mangala, are sung

called

hail,

following

is

one of the most

chief peculiarity in songs of this kind

upon

this is called

Melodies of this kind are usually

performances.

all

;

tied notes at the

is

commencement

evident here

—

at

the conclusion

ragas Surati

in either the

common Mangalas.

The

the beats of the tala falling

of a bar

Paramana Suttu battu padara."

Raga Saurashtra.

I

Tala Adi.

A dngio.

^^^

:S=^ ::?«; Hindustani music described, and which

but

latter,

many is,

its

them

of

in is

some respects

called

m

>

-»-»-

differs

Karnatik.

professors are not often

from

the

of

much

system previously

much

has been

It

men

l^^Tl

iis5

i^

copied from the

education

;

and though

are skilled executants, their knowledge of the theory of their art

In Hindustani music more attention

as a general rule, but small.

is

paid to

the minute distinction between the various ragas than to the actual melody

To

melodic form the same importance

Hindustani and

Karnatik ragas

not attached.

is

The nomenclature

of

musicians everywhere quote the

but

differs,

itself.

They

Sangita Ratnakera as their principal authority.

also say that, apart from

Arabian and Persian innovations, the difference between the S3'stems of music prevalent in the North and South of India the former that of

Hanuman

is

is

accounted for

b}-

the fact that in

preferred, while the Southern music

is

a relic of

the earliest system of Narada. In

Hindustani

described are

The

in

is

previously

melodies,

the

elaborate

not used, but merel_y twelve

common

talas,

music

or

use,

though under

measures, employed

described in place

of

upon page what has

;

arrangement of scales

all

different in

previously

of which, however, are found,

names,

in

and

the Karnatik system.

Hindustani music are similar to those

36.

been

As regards the form styled

" pallevi,"

of

Hindustani

" anupallevi," and Y

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

86

" charanam,"

stanzas,

or

pallevi is styled asthayi

differences

songs

their

all

—the

anupallevi antara

consist

— and

of

the

distinct

The As the

parts.

charanam ahhog.

between the two systems consist mainly of technical points, which

would be of

slight interest to the reader, the following observations will, perhaps,

be suflicient.

The Dhrupad — perhaps

the most admired of

all

Hindustani songs

— is

a

heroic song, with a slow and dignified style, and sung almost exclusively bv men. i.e., asthayi, antara, and abhog. Great scope is given upon the actual theme, and the time cadence is very complex. Other songs are called Tilanas and Sarigams (or svaragramas), and are in particular talas they contain onlv two parts. Ghuzals songs of the same nature as Kshattrya's pathams of the Karnatik are very popular; they consist of only asthayi and antara. Of a similar form to ghuzals are Tappa, resembling the Karnatik javadis, and consisting of two parts. There are also Thungri, Dadra, Hari; Gurbah, sung at the Dassera festival; and Palna, or cradle songs. Songs called Khyals, somewhat like the Karnatik kruthis, which display a great deal of grace, and have a slow time cadence, were introduced by Sultan Shirki of Jounpur; they consist of two Many Hindustani lavanis are very pretty, though most parts only.

It

to

consists of three parts

variations

;

—

—

melancholy.

The tuning

of instruments

used by Hindustani musicians

employed by Karnatik professors, admitted upon the open strings is

less confined

;

accompaniments to Hindustani

songs are preferred to

accompaniments, and music played

much liked. Karnatik. They have

thus

Karnatik

is

in the

better voices,

as

singers,

itself is less

pleasing,

ordinary

Karnatik

the

Karnatik style upon instruments tuned

has

been

and take more pains said before, appear

hurtful to their voices,

young, before the voice

is

to to

and from attempting

is

have

to sing

an

giving

it

idea

when

too

formed, they are apt to ruin their singing entirely

much admired

softness of the language

do

cultivate them.

while Hindustani singers practise much, and sing in a more manly style

Hindustani music

always

is

Hindustani musicians practise singing more than

is

that practice

from that

the modulation therefore of these instruments

hence frequently, though the melody

;

differs

that the interval of the fourth

in

itself,

in

A

it

careful study of the

;

hence

Southern India, chiefly as a variety

and the ease with which

an additional charm.

;

— the

lends itself to singing,

Hindustani melodies

given below will amply repay the time given up, and their great beauty and inherent passion can hardly

The

fail to

enchant one.

following examples, gathered principally from the Deccan, Guzerat, and

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXD! A.

87

The names of

Rajasthan, display some of the chief characteristics of these melodies.

names

of their respective ragas have, in

into

some

ragas being different from

Hindustani

different

ragas.

Such

cases, been omitted, the

Karnatik.

technicalities

are

Examples, however, may be found below. Guzerat, and It

is

not

Several

general

of nuich

The ghuzal given

in

all

Hindustani and Karnatik, make great use of a Ghuzal.

—

^^

.

^M^

Efe *-

M

is

^

^m

-±^

In

Andantf

much

All singers, both

S^7^^r-\

=^

d.

in

slide akin to the portamento.

Allegretto. .

interest.

popular

cases in performance, the airs are

varied by grace, and rarely are sung in their naked form.

.

is

sung quickly, but with great expression and varying tempo.

should be remembered that,

i >

them modulate

of

=5;=

Raga S'ankara.

niosso

Lavani.

Andante 4j

# »

M

z^

i

^^Tr —*-

^

qaot

^

d»-

TT— =aL

^^a^^i^gzf.

^-i4J^

^^r ^^

^^.^^^E^^^

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

88

Thungri.

A ndanle.

^

-to

^—1^~

fc^^"—

* jj

•

* y

^P^^^fF^g

I

/oco accct

-

pFF^s^g f-

i»

gg a

fO

Ifl

a tempo.

Khyal.

S

^

^*

4==?:

^

Raga Kedara.

S^

»

'

»

:p=r

^^H-X^^

-Tt-

£).C.

^

i

;i^

a

Patham. Andante

fiij

niosso.

J'j?.j

^^m

i

j7:i.^-g^3jg

J.71

J

j

^

•

s ±cz

EIj-JJIbB^

^

Fine.

J^LJ^J^

Thungri. CoH

f^-

R4gas

cspress

n ;;-j-uJr=r^rrT 221

=P5F

:^= d • J

^

l=t^

-at-*-

Pilu

m ^ atirf:

>l^tib

J^

^"J

41.

and Dcsh.

A

\-

r=^

J

I

'J-^

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

T=r '

i

f

;

i

f

r^

m

J r?=^ I

i

^m

=*=«:

P

S£

* ^ —

- r->

I

^ ^ •

=

a^

Tirm-

=^^P^

i

89

-1

^ ^m

^

E^=t^

atzit

Riga Kalian.

Khyal. Cos

esprcss.

^iJJ

j'i. U.J.J

I

^s? —

r-

*-=

tfazjzrh-^^^M3J-^--M=5 ^

J

j' l

*

g''

»^

;'b7^

J

F

:«=

* s

g^JN

—

rnrij ;jr7^4^L^N /fi"^

1

^.

espress.

m

rn->r

?s

^'• m* 0S I

#f r

^-

Ragas Kafi and Desh.

Dadra. CoH

nr

f.

r

,r

I

'r

r

u-u'

u

•

-^^^l^---M

^'^

^t

r^f^f^n^TTTr

l

I

"r-

1

^

^

I

":

;

i

iiJ^^.^^J / j.j i

Wm Raga Gauri

Lavani. Allegretto.

l^lf^ ^^l^g^^^tJ^a^f^^

^

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